CE141 - Midterms The main physical features of the tree stem grain; radial, or cross the growth rings;
n; radial, or cross the growth rings; and
Wood, Plastics and Composites
WOODS
Wood - used extensively for buildings,
bridges, utility poles, floors, roofs, trusses,
and piles. Because of its availability,
relatively low cost, ease of use, and
durability, wood continues to be an
important civil engineering material.
Structure Of Wood
Wood has a distinct structure that affects its
use as a construction material.
Civil and construction engineers need to
understand the way the tree grows and the
anisotropic nature of wood in order to
properly design and construct wood
structures.
1. Growth Rings
The concentric layers in the stem of
exogenous trees are called growth rings or
annual rings.
The wood produced in one growing season
constitutes a single growth ring. Each
annual ring is composed of earlywood,
produced by rapid growth during the spring,
and latewood from summer growth.
Latewood consists of dense, dark, and thick-
walled cells producing a stronger structure
than earlywood.
include the bark, cambium, wood, and
pith.
The bark is the exterior covering of the tree
and has an outer and an inner layer. The
outer layer is dead and corky and has great
variability in thickness, dependent on the
species and age of the tree. The inner bark
layer is the growth layer for bark but is not
part of the wood section of the tree.
The cambium is a thin layer of cells situated
between the wood and the bark, and is the
location of all wood growth.
The wood section of the tree is composed
of sapwood and heartwood.
Heartwood is often darker colored and
occurs at the center of the cross section and
is surrounded by sapwood. Sapwood
functions as a storehouse for starches and
as a pipeline to transport sap.
Sapwood is not durable when exposed to
conditions that promote decay. Heartwood
is not a living part of the tree. It is
composed of cells that have been physically
and chemically altered by mineral deposits.
The heartwood provides structural strength
for the tree.
2. Anisotropic Nature of Woods
Wood is an anisotropic material that has
different and unique properties in each
direction. The three axis orientations in
wood are longitudinal, or parallel to the
tangential, or tangent to the growth rings.
The anisotropic nature of wood affects
physical and mechanical properties such as
shrinkage, stiffness, and strength.
Wood Production
Wood is harvested from forests as logs.
They are transported to saw mills, where
they are cut into dimensional shapes to
produce a variety of products for
engineering applications.
1. Dimension lumber is wood from 2 in. to 5
in. thick, sawn on all four sides. The rough-
sawn lumber is surfaced to produce smooth
surfaces. Dimension lumber is typically used
for studs, sill and top plates, joists, beams,
rafters, trusses, and decking.
2. Heavy timber is wood sawn on all four
sides; common shapes include and larger.
Heavy timber includes Beams and Stringers
(subjected to bending) and Posts and
Timbers (used as posts or columns). As with
the case of dimension lumber, these sizes
specify rough-sawn dimensions in inches.
Heavy timbers are used for heavy frame
construction, landscaping, railroad ties, and
marine construction.
3. Round stock consists of posts and poles
used for building poles, marine piling, and
utility poles.
4. Engineered wood consists of products
manufactured by bonding together wood
strands, veneers, lumber, and other forms
of wood fiber to produce a larger and
integral composite unit. These products are
engineered and tested to have specific
mechanical responses to loads.
Structural engineered wood products
include the following:
-structural panels including plywood,
oriented strand board, and composite
panels
-structural glued laminated timber (glulam)
-structural composite lumber
-composite structural members
Physical Properties
1. Specific Gravity & Density
- Specific gravity of wood depends on cell
size, cell wall thickness, and number and
types of cells. The substance composing the
cell walls of wood has a specific gravity of
1.5. Because of this consistency, specific
gravity is an excellent index for the amount
of substance a dry piece of wood actually
contains.
2. Thermal Properties
- Thermal conductivity, specific heat,
thermal diffusivity, and coefficient of
thermal expansion are the four significant
thermal properties
Thermal Conductivity - is a measure of the
rate at which heat flows through a material.
The thermal conductivity of wood depends
on several items including (1) grain
orientation, (2) moisture content, (3)
specific gravity, (4) extractive content, and
(5) structural irregularities such as knots.
Specific Heat - is the ratio of the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of
the material one degree to that required to
raise the temperature of an equal mass of
water one degree. An increase in
temperature increases the energy
absorption of wood and results in an
increase in the specific heat.
Thermal diffusivity - a measure of the rate
at which a material absorbs heat from its
surroundings. The thermal diffusivity for
wood is much smaller than that of other
common building materials.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion - a
measure of dimensional changes caused by
a temperature variance. Thermal expansion
coefficients for completely dry wood are
positive in all directions.
Elastic Properties
Air-dry wood is a good electrical insulator.
As the moisture content of the wood
increases, the resistivity decreases by a
factor of three for each 1% change in
moisture content. However, when wood
reaches the fiber saturation point, it takes
on the resistivity of water alone.
Mechanical Properties
Typical mechanical properties of interest to
civil and construction engineers include
modulus of elasticity, strength properties,
creep, and damping capacity.
Modulus of Elasticity
- It is the slope of the linear portion of the
representative stress–strain curve of the
wood. The stress–strain relation of wood
varies within and between species and is
affected by variation in moisture content
and specific gravity.
Strength Properties
- This vary to a large extent, depending on
the orientation of grain relative to the
direction of force. Common strength
properties for wood include modulus of
rupture in bending, compressive strength
parallel and perpendicular to the grain,
tensile strength parallel to the grain, and
shear strength parallel to the grain.
Load Duration
- Wood can support higher loads of short
duration than sustained loads. Under
sustained loads, wood continues to deform.
If the maximum stress levels are exceeded,
the structure can deform prematurely.
- Generally, a load duration of 10 years is
used for design.
Damping Capacity
- Damping is the phenomenon in which the
amplitude of vibration in a material
decreases with time.
- Reduction in amplitude is due to internal
friction within the material and resistance
of the support system. Moisture content
and temperature largely govern the internal
friction in wood.
PLASTICS
Polymers are produced by combining a
large number of small molecular units
(monomers) by the chemical process known
as polymerization to form a long - chain
molecules.
Two Main Types:
Thermoplastics
When the material is heated, the
intermolecular forces are weakened and the
polymer becomes soft and flexible; at high
temperatures it becomes a viscous melt.
When it is allowed to cool again it solidifies
Thermosetting
The principal thermosetting polymers which
are used in composites in construction are
polyesters, epoxels, and phenolics.
Either originally soft or liquid, or they soften
once upon heating; but upon further
heating, they harden permanently.
General Properties of Plastics Molding and Fabricating Methods for
Plastics
-Some Plastics show no yield point, because
they fail before a yield point can be - Thermosetting materials are commonly
reached. formed by placing molding powder or
-Others have a moderately high elastic molded preform in heated dies and
range, followed by a highly plastic range. compressing under heat and pressure into
the final infusible shape.
-Still others are highly extensible and are - Thermoplastics are commonly formed by
employed at stresses far beyond the yield
injection molding, that is, by forcing soft,
point.
hot plastic into a cold die, where it hardens
-Plastics are sensitive to temperature and to by cooling.
the rate and time of application of load. Thermosetting Plastics
Fillers and Plasticizers  Phenol Formaldehyde
Fillers are commonly added to  Epoxy and Polyester Casting Resins
thermosetting plastics, to alter their basic  Polyester Molding Materials
characteristics.  Melamine Formaldehyde
-Wood Flour converts a hard, brittle resin,  Cellulose Acetate Butyrate
difficult to handle, into a cheaper more  Silicones
easily molded material for general  Cellulose Nitrate
purposes.  Polyurethane
-Asbestos fibers provide better heat  Urea Formaldehyde
resistance
Thermoplastic Resins
-Mica gives better electrical properties
-Fibrous materials (chopped fibers, chopped  Acrylics
 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
fabric, and chopped tire cords) increase the
(ABS)
strength and impact properties.
 Polyethylene
Plasticizers are added to thermoplastics to  Polypropylene
transform hard and rigid materials into a  Polycarbonate
variety of forms having varying degrees of  Polytetrafluorethylene
softness, flexibility, rigidi materials into a  Polyvinylfluoride
variety of forms having varying degrees of  Polyvinyl Formal and Polyvinyl
softness, flexibility, and strength. Butyral
  Vinyl Chloride Polymers and
Copolymers
 Vinylidene Chloride
 Nylon
 Polystyrene
COMPOSITES
- It is the need for materials with properties
not found in conventional materials,
combined with advance technology, has
resulted in combining two or more
materials to form what are called
composite materials.
- Strength, stiffness, specific weight,
fracture resistance, corrosion resistance,
wear resistance, attractiveness, fatigue life,
temperature susceptibility, thermal
insulation, thermal conductivity, and
acoustical insulation can all be improved by
composite materials.
Classification of Composites:
1. Macroscopic
It is used in many engineering applications
due to its large property, how the load is
carried and how the properties of the
composites components are improved vary
from one composites to another.
Common macroscopic used by civil
engineers are Plain Portland Cement, Steel-
reinforced Concrete, Asphalt Concrete, and
Engineering wood such as glued laminated
timber and structural stand board
Types of Macroscopic Composites
Plain Portland Cement Concrete is a
composite material consisting of cement
paste and aggregate particles with different
physical and mechanical properties.
Reinforced Portland Cement Concrete
Steel-reinforced concrete can be viewed as
a composite material, consisting of plain
concrete and steel rebars. Since concrete
has a very low tensile strength, which is
typically ignored in designing concrete
structures, steel rebars are usually placed in
areas within the structure that are
subjected to tension.
Asphalt Concrete used in pavements is
another composite material. It consists of
two materials with distinct properties.
Asphalt concrete consists of approximately
95% aggregate and 5% asphalt binder, by
weight.
Engineered Wood is manufactured by
bonding together wood strands, veneers, or
lumber with different grain orientations to
produce large and integral units. Since
engineered wood consists of components of
the same material, it does not qualify as a
composite according to our definition.
2. Microscopic
Many microscopic composite materials
consist of two constituent phases: a
continuous phase, or matrix, and the
dispersed phase or reinforcing phase, which
is surrounded by the matrix.
It has two basic classes: Fiber-Reinforced
and Particle-Reinforced which is based on
the shape of the dispersed phase.
Fiber-reinforced Composites include fibers
dispersed in a matrix such as metal or
polymer. Fibers have a very high strength-
to-diameter ratio, with near crystal-size
diameters.
Particle-reinforced Composites consist of
particles dispersed in a matrix phase. The
strengthening mechanism of particle-
reinforced composites varies with the size
of the reinforcing particles.
LECTURE 2 - METALS
HISTORY OF METAL
Used as early as 8000 B.C.
• Early civilizations mainly used metal for
weapons, tools, and body armor
• Metal has been used for construction
material ranging from simple fasteners to
main structural members
2 TYPES OF METALS
1. Ferrous- metals containing a large
percentage of iron. They have small
amounts of other metals or elements
added, to give the required properties
• Cast iron
• Wrought iron
• Mild steel
• Carbon steel
• Stainless steel
2.Non-Ferrous- metals which do NOT
contain iron. Which are often used in
industrial applications such as gutters,
roofing, pipes, and electrical
• Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys
• Lead
• Zinc
• Tin
• Titanium
• Copper
• Brass
• Bronze
• Blanking- in sheet metal work, the cutting
out of a piece of metal (using a press)
Bracket - A structural support projecting
from a support member.
• Fading- Refers to finish paint on panels
becoming less vibrant of color.
• Casting- an article formed by
solidification of molten metal in a mold
• Fabrication - The manufacturing process
in a plant to convert raw material into
finished metal building system components
• Cold-rolled- metal rolled at room
temperature, below the softening point,
usually harder, smoother, and more
accurately dimensioned that hot-rolled
material.
• Bearing - A steel plate that is set on top of
masonry support on which beam can rest.
• Embossing- creating a raised surface
(design) on metal by die pressure or by
stamping or hammering on the reverse
surface
• Extrusion – forcing a molten metal
through a die by pressure
• Forging- heating and hammering or
pressing metal into a desired shape
MATERIALS USED TO MAKE IRON
• COKE- SUBSTANCE MADE BY HEATING
COAL UNTIL IT BECOMES A PURE CARBON
• IRON ORE -RICH IN IRON DIOXIDES
• SINTER - ROASTED WITH COKE AND LIME
TO REMOVE AMOUNT OF IMPURITIES IN
ORE.
• LIMESTONE- USED AS A FLUX
• FLUX – A MATERIAL ADDED TO REACT
CHEMICALLY WITH IMPURITIES AND
REMOVE THEM FROM MOLTEN METAL
• PIG IRON- INITIAL MOLDED PRODUCT
FROM A BLAST-FURNACE; WEAK & BRITTLE,
BUT VERY HARD
Types of Iron
Cast iron (and gray cast iron)- a hard
relatively brittle of alloy and carbon
- Lack ductility and therefore should not be
hammered or beaten.
- Relatively corrosion resistant. Contains 2-4
% carbon and 1-3% of silicon - Used for
gratings, stair components, manhole covers,
some piping
Wrought iron
- Tough form of iron suitable for forging.
- Contains < 1% carbon
- Used for railings, grilles, fences, screens,
and various ornamental work
STEEL
• A malleable alloy containing less than 2%
carbon and 1% manganese and small
amounts of silica.
• Main methods for making steel - Basic
oxygen furnace process - Electric arc
furnace process
Metal Ingots
Ingot- molded square or rectangular blocks
of cast metal
Ingots are further squeezed between rollers
to produce:
1. Bloom- a rectangular solid of steel
formed from an ingot as an intermediate
step in creating rolled steel structural
shapes (over 36” square)
2. Billet- a large cylinder or rectangular solid
of metal (smaller then 36” square)
3. Slab – if the width is 2x the thickness or
more
DESIGNATIONS OF ROLLED STEEL SHAPES
• W – wide flange
• S – beams
• C – channel
• L – angles (may be equal or unequal legs)
• WT or ST – structural tees
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
Four main types of steel
- Stainless Steel - to be considered stainless
a steel must contain 11.5 % chromium .
- There are basic series of stainless steel:
200, 300, 400, & 500 series
-Available in many finishes ranging from
matte to highly reflective (mirror)
- Alloy Steel
Steel that has an additive of other alloy
elements such as Manganese, silicon, nickel,
titanium, copper, chromium, And aluminum.
Beneficial due to economical cost, availability,
ease of Processing, and mechanical properties.
- Carbon Steel
Carbon steels are a series of alloys of
carbon and iron containing up to about 1%
carbon and up to 1.65% Mn, with elements
added in specific quantities for
deoxidization and residual quantities of
other elements.
Types of Carbon Steel: LOW CARBON STEEL,
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL, HIGH CARBON
STEEL
- Tool Steel
A variety of high-hardness, abrasion
resistant steels. Specific tool applications
are dies (stamping or extrusion), cutting,
moldmaking, or impact applications like
hammers (personal or industrial). It is also a
common material used to make knives
Steel Construction:
3 basic types:
- Wall bearing - Skeleton framing - Long-
span
Steel Fasteners:
3 Main fasteners:
- Rivets – Bolts – Welds
Welding
A PROCESS OF JOINING METALS BY
APPLYING HEAT AND PRESSURE, WITH OR
WITHOUT FILLER MATERIAL, TO PRODUCE
AN ACTUAL UNION THROUGH FUSION.
• THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS OF
WELDING USED IN SPECIFIC SITUATIONS
(SHIELDED METAL ARC IS THE MOST
COMMON IN STEEL WORK).
• WELDING SYMBOLS AND BASIC JOINTS
ARE STANDARDIZED BY AWS (AMERICAN
WELDING SOCIETY)
Aluminium
Highly resistant to weather and corrosive
environments
Adequate high strength to weight ratio
Aluminum can be economically extruded to
many shapes (mouldings, edgings, window
mullions)It is very malleable, quite ductile,
non-corrosive, and strong in proportion to
its weight.
Lead
A soft malleable heavy metal, with a density
that exceeds the most common materials
Reliable in terms of materials due to low
melting point.
High Ductility
Highly Resistant to Corrosion
Zinc
Is brittle and low in strength
Major use is in galvanizing (dipping hot iron
or steel in molten zinc)
May also be used for roofing, flashing, and
hardware
Copper
A soft, malleable, ductile metal with high
thermal and electrical conductivity and
good resistance to corrosion due to the
protective patina that forms on its surfaces.
Commonly used in the construction industry
to form pipes and tubing for potable water
distribution and heating and cooling
systems
It is relatively light compared to lead, and
requires little maintenance.
Bronze
Originally a copper-tin alloy, but now
aluminum or silicon added to copper
Now may be “phosphor bronze”,
“aluminum bronze” or “silicon bronze”
Widely used for casting delicate mold
impressions (Cathedral doors)
Brass
Copper with zinc to form an alloy
Used for doors, windows, railings, trim,
grilles and for finish hardware
Nickel, Chromium, and Monel
Chromium and nickel are used primarily as
alloying elements, however, both can take a
bright polish and do not tarnish in air,
making them ideal for use in plating.
Monel, a nickel-copper alloy, is mostly used
to make fasteners and anchors, and has
excellent corrosion resistance.
Clad Metals
COMBINES THE BEST QUALITIES OF 2 OR
MORE DIFFERENT MATERIALS
THE INTENT IS TO CREATE A
METALLURGICAL BOND BETWEEN LAYERS
OF MATERIALS
Structural Steel Construction:
• Structural steel members are erected, braced,
and secured together to create a structural
framework.
• In beam and column construction, beams and
girders support floor and roof loads and
distribute the loads to the vertical columns.
• In long span construction, long distances are
spanned with built-up structural steel girders
and trusses.
• In wall bearing construction, horizontal steel
beams and joists are supported by other
construction materials such as masonry.
• Pre-engineered metal buildings consist of
prefabricated structural steel members
including beams, columns, girts, and trusses.
• A variety of steel shapes are commonly used
in structural steel construction.
• Standard abbreviations and designations are
included on erection plans to indicate
structural steel members.
• A wide variety of structural steel shapes are
joined together to form a truss. Common steel
truss designs include the bowstring, flat, Howe,
Pratt, scissors, and Warren.
• STEEL MEMBERS MAY BE CUT TO LENGTH
USING AN OXYACETYLENE CUTTING TORCH.
• Metal floor decking, manufactured in a
variety of designs and dimensions, is attached
to the top of open web steel joists to create a
floor platform.
• Metal decking may be used as bridge deck
forms.The decking remains in place after the
shores and falsework are removed.
Metal Testing
2 Categories:
1. Non-destructive
2. Destructive
Hardness Testing
• Most common form of non-destructive test
• Used to determine hardness of metal
TWO TYPES OF TESTING MACHINES
● Measure depth of penetration made by a
penetrator under known load Example:
Rockwell, Brinell, and Vickers hardness
testers
● Measure height of rebound of small mass
dropped from known height Example:
scleroscope
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER
• Indicates hardness value by depth that
penetrator advances into metal under
known pressure
• 120º conical diamond penetrator (brale
• 1/16 or 1/8 in. steel ball used for soft
materials
• Designed by various letters and numbers
• Scales indicated by letters (A, B, C, D)
BRINELL HARDNESS TESTER
• Operated by pressing 10-mm hardened
steel ball under load of 3000 kg into surface
of specimen and measuring diameter of
impression with microscope -Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN) determined by
dividing load in kilograms applied to
penetrator by area of the impression (in
square mm)
• Standard load of 500 kg used for
nonferrous metals (Impression larger so
BHN lower)
SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS TESTER
• Operated on principle that small,
diamondtipped hammer, when dropped
from fixed height, will rebound higher from
hard surface than from softer one. - Height
of rebound converted to hardness reading
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
● Metal properties relationships - Tensile
strength of metal increases as hardness
increases, and ductility decreases as
hardness increases
● Tensile strength determined on tensile
testing machine
- Maximum amount of pull material can
withstand
- Also indicates elastic limit, yield point and
percentage of area reduction and
percentage of elongation of material
TENSILE TESTING (METRIC)
• Graduated in kilograms per square
centimeter - Cross-sectional area in square
centimeters - Extensometers graduated in
millimetres
• Calculations same as for inch calculations
• For conversion to Pascals use formula: 1
kg/cm2 = 980.6 Pa.
IMPACT TESTS
• Measures toughness of metal or ability to
withstand sudden shock or impact
• Two tests: Charpy impact test or Izod test
- 10-mm-square specimen - Swinging
pendulum of fixed mass raised to standard
height - Pendulum released, swings through
arc and strikes specimen in pendulum's
path
CHARPY TEST
• Specimen mounted in fixture and
supported at both ends with V or notch
placed on side opposite direction of
pendulum's swing
• Pendulum released, knife edge strikes
sample • Difference in height of pendulum
atbeginning and end indicates amount of
energy used to fracture specimen
IZOD TEST
• Similar in principle to Charpy test
• One end of work gripped in clamp with
notched side toward direction of
pendulum's swing
• Amount of energy required to break
specimen on scale