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Review of Renal Basics
Major Anatomical Features Kidney: Glomeruli
of Urinary Tract Tubules
Interstitium
Vasculature
Calyces
Collecting System Ureters
Bladder
Urethra
Calyces
Major Functions of the Glomerular filtration
Kidney Excretion
o Metabolic by‐products, drugs, toxins
Electrolyte and acid‐base homeostasis
Blood pressure regulation
Volume homeostasis
Endocrine regulation
o Erythropoietin, vitamin D, renin
How do we know a patient History
has a “kidney problem” Physical Exam
Laboratory Evaluation
o Serum electrolytes
o Serum BUN, creatinine
o Urinalysis
Imaging
o Ultrasound
o CT scan
Kidney Biopsy
Ways to categorize kidney
dysfunction Site of lesion Glomeruli
Tubules
Interstitium
Vasculature
Nature of Factors Immunologic
Metabolic
Infiltrative
Infectious
Hemodynamic
Genetic
Chronicity Acute
Chronic
Kidney Dysfunction ‐ Acute Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
Chronicity o Abrupt decrease in kidney function
Chronic Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
o Evidence of kidney dysfunction/pathology >3 months
End Stage End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)
o Last stage of CKD
Need for chronic renal replacement therapy
Stages of Chronic Kidney Chronic kidney disease is defined as either kidney damage or GFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 for >3 months.
Disease Kidney damage is defined as pathologic abnormalities or markers of damage, including abnormalities in blood or urine tests or
imaging studies
Stage Description GFR (mL/min/1.73 m2)
1 Kidney damage with normal or increased GFR >90
2 Kidney damage with mild decrease GFR 60‐89
3 Moderate decrease GFR 30‐59
4 Severe decrease GFR 15‐29
5 Kidney failure <15 (or dialysis)
Approach to the Patient Renal disease
with Renal Disease Determine chronicity
Assess level and rate of change of renal function
Categorize disorder into specific renal syndromes
o Prerenal
o Intrinsic renal
Acute tubular necrosis
Glomerular
Chronic glomerulonephritis
Nephrotic syndrome
Acute glomerulonephritis
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
Asymptomatic hematuria and/or proteinuria
Vascular
Tubulointerstitial
o Postrenal
Features of Renal Too much or too little urine production
Dysfunction Azotemia, uremia
Proteinuria, hematuria, stone formation
Abnormal urinary sediment
Electrolyte and/or acid‐base imbalance
Hypertension, abnormal volume state
Anemia, metabolic bone disease
Fever, eosinophilia, rash, pain
Toxicity from decreased renal clearance of drugs, endogenous substances (e.g. insulin)
Too Much or Too Little Normal Urine Output
Urine o 1500ml/24 hour
Oligura
o <500cc/24 hours
Anuria
o Absence of urine output
Polyuria
o >3000ml/24 hours
Azotemia and Uremia Azotemia: elevation in renal indices
o BUN, technically
o Usually reflects decrease in GFR
Uremia: when azotemia gives rise to clinical manifestations and biochemical abnormalities
o Clinical Syndrome
Fatigue, anorexia, nausea, mental status changes, itching
Serositis (pericarditis, pleural effusions)
Platelet dysfunction
Proteinuria Normal Urinary Protein
o Total protein: < 150mg/24 hours
o Albumin: < 30mg/24 hours
Nephrotic Range Proteinuria
o “Nephrosis”: > 3 – 3.5gm/24 hours
Quantitation of Proteinuria
o 24hr urinary collection
o Random urine protein/creatinine ratio
Hematuria Gross vs. Microscopic (≥ 2 RBC/hpf)
Glomerular vs. Nonglomerular
Upper vs. Lower Urinary Tract
Imposters
o Free Hemoglobin
o Myoglobin
o Menstrual contamination
Nephrolithiasis Formation of stones in the collecting system
Manifests clinically as renal colic and hematuria
Abnormal Urinary Hematuria
Sediment Dysmorphic RBC’s
Pyuria
Casts
o RBC casts
Glomerulonephritis
o WBC casts
Pyelonephritis
o Tubular casts
Types of Renal Tubular Epithelial casts (muddy brown casts)
Casts o Acute tubular necrosis
Fatty casts
o Lipiduria, usually seen in nephrotic syndrome
Granular casts
o Chronic kidney disease
o Nonspecific finding otherwise
Hyaline casts
o Do not imply over “pathology”
o Dehydration, exercise, diuretic therapy
Waxy casts
o Advanced kidney disease
Electrolyte/Acid‐Base Common imbalances in renal disease
Imbalance o Hyper/hyponatremia
o Hyper/hypochloremia
o Hyperkalemia
o Hyperphosphatemia
o Hypocalcemia
o Anion gap metabolic acidosis
o Non anion gap metabolic acidosis
Hypertension, abnormal Causes of Hypertension
volume state o Primary or “Essential” hypertension
o Secondary causes
o Anatomic/vascular causes
Endocrinopathies
Renal diseases, volume overloaded states
Pregnancy related diseases
Medications
Anemia, metabolic bone Renal Hormone Regulation
disease o Erythropoietin: regulates HGB/HCT concentration
o Vitamin D: regulates calcium absorption, maintains normal levels of calcium and phosphorus
o Advanced kidney disease:
Chronic erythropoietin deficiency
Anemia of chronic disease, typically normocytic
Iron transport/storage dysregulation also contributes
Chronic hyperphosphatemia, decreased renal activation of vitamin D3 (1,25‐OH form)
Hyperparathyroidism, renal osteodystrophy
Fever, eosinophilia, rash, Nonspecific symptoms/signs
pain Seen in many forms of renal dysfunction
o Urinary tract infection
o Nephrolithiasis
o Renal infarction
o Papillary necrosis
o Acute interstitial nephritis
o Renal cell carcinoma
o Vasculitis (SLE, Wegener’s, e.g.)
o Cholesterol atheroembolic disease
Toxicity from decreased Drug Toxicity from Renal Dysfunction
renal clearance of drugs, o Often unanticipated by clinicians when managing AKI/CKD
endogenous substances o May be presenting feature of AKI/CKD
(e.g. insulin) o Can happen with endogenous substances as well
Insulin: prolonged renal clearance, resultant hypoglycemia
o Management
Drug dosage adjustment
Glomerular Disease Diseases of the glomerulus can present as one of five clinical syndromes:
o Acute glomerulonephritis
o Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
o Chronic glomerulonephritis
o Nephrotic syndrome
o Asymptomatic urinary abnormalities
Glomerulonephritis A number of disorders lead to glomerular injury that presents with some combination of
o Hematuria
o Proteinuria
o reduced GFR
o hypertension.
What is “Nephritic Diseases that cause active inflammation of the glomerulus associated with
Syndrome”? o Hematuria (red cells and red cell casts)
o Azotemia
o Hypertension
o Oliguria
o Sub‐nephrotic range proteinuria
What is “Nephrotic Diseases that cause massive leakage of protein across the glomerular basement membranes
Syndrome”? Criteria
o >3.5gm protein/24 hours
o Hypoalbuminemia
o Edema
o Hyperlipidemia
o Fat bodies in the urine/fatty casts
Acute Tubular Necrosis Acute tubular injury
o Damage to tubular epithelial cells
Prerenal Decrease effective arterial flow
Postrenal Urine flow is obstructed
o Ureters, bladder, urethra
Renal Equations How to Measure/Estimate GFR
o Creatine Clearance from 24 hour urine collection
GFR = [U(Cr) * V] / P(Cr)
o Cockcroft‐Gault Formula
GFR = [(140‐Age) * Weight(kg) * 0.85(if Female)] / [72 * Serum Creatine (mg/dL)]
o Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Equation
eGFR = 186 * (Serum Creatinine)^(‐1.154) * (Age)^(‐0.203) * 1.212(if Black) * 0.742(if Female)
Amount of Sodium or Urea Excreated
o Fractional Excretion of Sodium (FeNa)
FeNa = [UNa/PNa] / [UCr/PCr] * 100%
o Fractional Excretion of Urea (FeUrea)
FeUrea = [UUrea/PUrea] / [UCr/PCr] * 100%
o NOTE: can help in determining cause of acute kidney injury
FeNa < 1% or >2% is helpful, but between 1‐2% is indeterminate
FeUrea <35% or >35% is helpful
o Diseases associated with Fractional Excretion of Sodium
Prerenal azotemia
Reduction in the amount of glomerular filtrate entering each nephron increases the retention of salt and water, resulting in
a lower fractional excretion of sodium (FeNa)
Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN)
Nephrons excrete a large fraction of their filtered sodium and water, resulting in a higher FeNa
Urinalysis Urinalysis (Chemstrip Analysis)
o Color: Yellow
o Clarity: Clear
o Glucose: Negative
o Bilirubin: Negative
o Ketones: Negative
o Specific Gravity: 1.003 – 1.030
o Blood: Negative
o pH: 5.0 – 8.0
o Protein: Negative
o Urobilinogen: 0.2 – 1.0
o Nitrite: Negative
o Leukocyte Esterase: Negative
Urinalysis (Microscopic Analysis)
o RBC: 0 – 2 /hpf
o WBC: 0 – 5 /hpf
o Casts: Negative
o Crystals: Negative
Histology for Pathology
Urinary Histology 1
Name origins: Kidney in Latin means “Renes” and in Greek means “Nephros”
Identify elements of the Structure of the Kidney
gross and microscopic o The kidneys are located in the retroperitoneum between the 12th Thoracic vertebra to
structure of the kidney and the 3rd Lumbar vertebra
analyze the relationship o Mass = 115‐170 g (M>F)
between them The male kidney is heavier than the female kidney
Dimensions = 11‐12 x 5‐7.5 x 2.5‐3 cm
o Kidneys – paired, bean shaped
o Ureters – paired
o urinary bladder
o Urethra, male versus female
Function of the Kidney:
o Filter blood & reabsorb nutrients
o Control water, ion, and salt balance of the body
o Maintain acid‐base balance of the blood (ex. pH)
o Excrete metabolic wastes (ex. urea and uric acid), toxins, drug components
o Secrete hormones (ex. renin, erythropoietin)
o Produce calcitriol
Which is the active form of vitamin D and associated with the absorption of dietary calcium into the blood
Identify developmental Kidney development through a series of successive phases:
stages of kidney and their o pronephros most immature
position o mesonephros
o metanephros persists as the definitive adult kidney
Kidney Embryologic Development
o 3 stages: pronephros, mesonephros, metanephros
cranial to caudal direction followed by “ascend”
Pronephros:
The pronephros forms early in development, at 22 days post‐coitum (DPC) in
the cervical region of the embryo.
Mesonephros:
develops by the formation of mesonephric tubules from the intermediate mesoderm, it is the principal excretory organ
during early embryonic life (4—8 weeks).
It gradually degenerates, although parts of its duct system become associated with the male reproductive organs.
Metanephros:
arises caudal to the mesonephros at five weeks of development; it is the permanent and functional kidney in higher
vertebrates.
It is derived from the intermediate mesoderm.
The ureteric bud arises as a diverticulum from the Wollfian duct, close
to the entrance to the cloaca and grows towards and inside the
metanephric mesenchyme.
mesonephric duct comes in contact with cloaca, grows cranially as
ureteric bud
ureteric bud & metanephros reciprocally induce growth, forming
kidney
the kidney “ascends” during this process, the kidney takes new arterial supply from the aorta, new venous drainage
into the vena cava
o developmental abnormalities are relatively common
important in pediatric nephrology
On gross kidney identify: Kidney structure: bean shaped
cortex, medulla, papillae o Capsule – on the outer surface
at apex of medullary o Cortex (outer)
minor calyces, major Cortex
calyces, renal pelvis Renal columns also known as septa of Bertin which forms cortical tissue on either side of the
medullary pyramids
o Medulla (inner)
Medulla divided into several conical pyramids is a papillae
The papillae leads to the minor calyces
Minor calyces then lead into 2‐3 major calyces
Major calyces lead to the expanded upper end of the ureter, renal pelvis (latin: pelvis=basin)
o Hilum
pelvis, ureter, renal artery, vein
Describe the renal blood Kidney blood supply:
supply: renal artery, arcuate o Kidneys are small organs 0.5% of total body weight but receives 25% of the cardiac output
arteries, interlobular o Blood Flow
arteries, differences Start with the renal artery which then divides into the anterior and posterior divisions
between cortical and The anterior or posterior division then lead to the segmental arteries
medullary blood supply, The segmental arteries then lead to the interlobar arteries.
define arterioles (afferent Where the interlobar arteries then extend into either side of medullary pyramid
and efferent), peritubular At the border of the cortex and the medulla, the interlobar arteries curve to form Arcuate
capillary plexus arteries.
Arcuate artery then enters the renal cortex to from the Interlobular artery.
The Interlobular artery forms branches called Arteriole, which are at a right angle to the
Interlobular artery
The Afferent Arteriole enters the Bowman’s Capsule at the vascular pole to form the Glomerular
tuft and then exits as Efferent Arteriole.
Following the exit from the glomeruli, the Efferent arterioles in the cortex form peritubular
capillary plexus
In contrast, efferent arterioles that are exiting glomeruli that are near the medulla called
juxtamedullary, take a deep dive into the medulla to form the straight vessels called Vasa Recta
The Vasa Recta supply blood to the tubules and specifically to the Loop of Henle
Correlation with pathology:
o The is more blood delivered to the cortex than to the medulla
Cortex = 90% of blood supply
Medulla = 10% of blood supply
medulla is relatively a‐vascular and is VERY susceptible to changes in the supply of blood low oxygenation
o tubular capillary beds are derived from the efferent arterioles
which are susceptible to acute tubular necrosis (injury) or papillary necrosis
Arterioles:
o Afferent arterioles arise from interlobular vessels and supply
the glomeruli
o Efferent arterioles arise from glomerular capillaries
Glomerulus:
o Glomerulus in paraffin section: Bowman’s capsule (Bc) +
glomerular tuft*
The round structure is Bowman’s capsule (green circle)
Inside Bowman’s capsule is the glomerular tuft
Outside you can see the tubules (yellow circle)
Urinary Histology 2
The kidney: glomerulus
o Glomeruli are rounded structures labeled as G
o Tubules
o are located in between the glomeruli and are small round or oval structures labeled as T
Higher magnification:
o Glomeruli labeled as G
o Tubules can be seen in the cross section (TC) or in the longitudinal section (TL)
o Vessel (V) shows a medium sized artery
o Interstitum (I) is the area in between the tubules and in the normal kidney the interstitum
is inconspicuous (not clearly visible)
Zooming into the glomerulous
o Where the glomerular tuft (black outline) is surrounded by Bowman's Capsule
Glomerulus – Overview Afferent arterioles arise from interlobular vessels
o Then enters the bowman's capsule forming the glomerular
tuft
Efferent arterioles arise from glomerular capillaries
Glomerulus – Structure The entire glomerular tuft is supported by mesangial cells lying
between the capillaries.
Basement membrane–like “mesangial matrix” forms a meshwork in
which the “mesangial cells” are embedded.
o Mesangial cells have three functions:
Contractile:
To regulate blood flow and filtration
Similar to vascular smooth muscle cells
Provides structural support to the vessels
Capable of proliferation generating both matrix and collagen
Phagocytic:
o Endothelium:
There is a thin layer of fenestrated endothelial cells
Where the fenestra is not covered by a membrane
o Basement membrane:
Separates the glomerular compartments
Endo‐capillary: containing mesangial and endothelium cells
Extra‐capillary: located in the urinary space and contains two lays of epithelial cells
visceral (aka “podocytes” or foot processes) – anchored on glomerular basement membrane
parietal – line Bowman’s capsule
Pathology of Glomeruli To understand the pathology of the glomeruli and the prototypic diseases, we have to go beyond
the detail of light microscopic H&E slides to electron microscopy
o Electron microscopy are normally black and white
o Capillaries (labeled C)
o In between the capillaries is the Mesangial area with Mesangial cells (labeled MC)
o Red Box: Shows the foot processes
Area of the red box zoomed
o Electron microscopy of the glomerular capillary wall (aka glomerular filtration
barrier):
fenestrated endothelium without diaphragms
glomerular basement membrane –
lamina rara interna – outter layer next to the Endothelium
lamina densa – middle layer
lamina rara externa – outer layer next to the foot processes
visceral epithelial cells (podocytes) with foot processes
in between each foot process called the filtration slits with thin slit diaphragm
Note: other capillaries in the kidney are fenestrated with diaphragms
Glomerular filtration Glomerular basement membrane: = combined basal lamina of glomerular
barrier: Glomerular endothelium & podocytes
basement membrane o Lamina rara externa & Lamina rara interna = heparan sulphate (‐)
o Lamina densa: collagen type IV, laminin (size)
Characterized as:
o High permeability to water & small solutes
o Impermeability to proteins
Filtration barrier Factors
o size barrier:
<70,000 MW and <10 nm in diameter proteins pass easily
o charge dependent restriction:
where the Lamina rara externa & Lamina rara interna are negatively charged
Excluding negatively charged molecules such as albumin
Glomerular function:
o Provides the first stage in the filtering process of the blood carried out by the
nephron in its formation of urine
Pathology:
o Proteinuria – loss of protein
Which could be due to loss of charge or injury to the slit membrane
o Hematuria – bleeding through the glomerular filtration barrier
Which could be due to a loss of integrity or “structural” damage to the GBM
Immunofluorescence: many kidney diseases are immune‐complex or antibody/abnormal protein deposition mediated
Immunofluorescence used to detect such deposits
o IgG, IgA, IgM
o Kappa and lambda light chains (polyclonal versus light chain restriction)
o C3, C1q – complement involved in immune complex formation
o Fibrinogen – necrosis, coagulation
o Albumin – filtration injury with protein loss
Frozen sections: better sensitivity and specificity than paraffin sections IHC
Nephron: Nephron: functional & structural unit
o Function = formation of urine
o Structure:
glomerulus
proximal tubule
loop of Henle
distal tubule
collecting duct system
Glomeruli produce 125 ml of filtrate/minute
o Where 124 ml is reabsorbed by the tubules
o Resulting in approximately 1.5 L of urine/day
Histology:
o Cortex contains:
Glomerulus, proximal, distal tubules
o Medulla contains:
Loop of Henle and collecting duct
Cortex Image
o Proximal Tubules contain pink eosinophilic cytoplasm with a narrow lumen
o Distal Tubules contain cuboidal epithelium with a wider lumen
Medulla Image
o Showing tubules in cross sections associated with the Loop of Henle and Collecting ducts
o No glomeruli
o No proximal tubules
o No distal tubules
o Zoomed in Image
Proximal convoluted tubule prominent brush border (*) which is facing the tubular lumen
(PCT) o increases the luminal surface area of the cells facilitating absorption
The proximity of the distal Macula densa of the distal tubule:
tubule and the glomerulus o Is a dense accumulation of cells along the border of the distal tubule
that is adjacent to the cells within afferent arteriole
The cells within this region of the afferent arteriole are called
Juxtaglomerular cells
Which are modified smooth muscle cells
Juxtaglomerular apparatus: specialized structure formed by the distal convoluted tubule and the glomerular afferent arteriole
located near the vascular pole of the glomerulus
main function:
o to regulate blood pressure and the filtration rate of the glomerulus
where regulation of the glomerular filtration rate depends on the tubular luminal concentration of
sodium and chloride associated with the “tubuloglomerular feedback”
Urinary Histology 3
Ureter Main function of the ureter is to provide a conduit to drain
urine at low pressures from the kidney to the bladder
o Urine flows down to the bladder when a person is
standing, sitting, and laying down
Histology cross section of the ureter
o Labels:
L‐lumen
E‐epithelium also called urothelium
M‐muscularis
Surrounded by adipose tissue
Urinary Bladder
o Inside of the bladder are ridges called rugae
At the base of the bladder:
There is an area that is smooth and triangular in shape
called the Trigone
At the base of the Trigone: There are orifices for the
ureters to allow urine to enter the bladder
At the tip of the Trigone: There is the opening of the
Urethra passing through the urogenital diaphragm
Cross section of the urinary bladder wall
o From the Top
Lumen
Transitional layer of epithelium
Lamina propria – loose connective tissue
Muscular layer – Detrusor muscle
Adventitia with fat cells
Serosa or peritoneum layers is covering the upper
portion and sides of the urinary bladder
Histology Section
o From the Top
Lumen
Lamina propria boundary is the line the arrow is pointing
to
Urothelium The urothelium (aka transitional epithelium):
o Which covers the:
renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, parts of urethra
o composed of 3‐5 cell layers, which can contract and expand
The term transitional epithelium does not imply that this
epithelium is in actual transition from one type to another,
but rather refers to the appearance of the cells changes as the
organs with which they are associated become distended
versus not distended:
o cuboidal when bladder is not distended or relaxed
o flat when bladder is distended
Umbrella cells cover the top of the urothelium and become very stretched out when the bladder is distended
The urothelium (aka Accommodate the fluctuation in volume
transitional epithelium): protect against the caustic effects of urine – by providing a powerful barrier to
urine
Umbrella cells:
o apical exocytosis of specialized fusiform vesicles (aka discoid vesicles)
during distension of the bladder provides additional fragments (reserve) of
cell membrane, which are incorporated into the cell membranes, allowing
them to stretch in a full bladder
o the apical plasma membrane of umbrella cells, facing the urine, is covered with rigid‐looking plaques, which, together with
tight junctions, form a specialized membrane compartment that represents one of the tightest and most impermeable barriers
in the body
Urothelial carcinoma: bladder, pelvis, ureter, urethra
Female versus Male Urethra Male urethra is connected with the reproductive system
Both female and male urethra are composed of epithelium
o Transitional epithelium near bladder
o Squamous epithelium near external orifice
o Mucus urethral glands
Pathology:
o Urine cytology is a test to look for abnormal cells in your urine.
is used along with other tests and procedures to diagnose urinary tract cancers.
Glossary capsule a structure enclosing an organ, usually composed of dense
connective tissue
cortex the outer portion of an organ, distinguished from its inner,
medullary portion
septum/septa a wall, dividing a cavity or structure into smaller ones
calyx; plural noun: calyces a cuplike cavity or structure
minor lesser, small
major greater
hilus or hilum a depression or pit at that part of an organ where the vessels
and nerves enter
medulla the inner portion of an organ, usually in the center
Afferent, from afferre [Latin] = to bring toward
Efferent, from efferre [Latin] to bring out
juxta [Latin] close to
vasa recta [Latin] straight vessels
Renal Pathology: Introduction to Glomerular Diseases
Kidney Diseases
Valves Kidney Diseases –Bird’s Eye View:
Each year in the US >100,000 people are diagnosed with end stage renal disease.
CDC estimates that >10% of adultsin the US (>20 million people) may have chronic kidney disease of varying levels and
seriousness
Causes of kidney failure:
o Prerenal
o Intrarenal
o Postrenal
Glomerular disease fit into a much bigger category of intra renal diseases and are actually much less common than diabetes and
hypertension. However, their evaluation via biopsy plays a major role in the selection of therapies.
New cases of kidney failure Glomerular disease fit into a much bigger category of intra renal diseases and are actually much less
by primary cause common than diabetes and hypertension Other,
19.70%
However, their evaluation by biopsy plays a major role in the selection of therapies
Diabetes,
GN, 7.90% 44%
HTN,
28.40%
Glomerular Histology
Review Glomerular tuft = network of capillaries
o endothelium
o mesangium: cells & matrix
o basement membrane
o visceral epithelium (aka “podocytes”)
Bowman’s capsule: basement membrane + parietal epithelium
Cellular function/response:
o phagocytosis, control of blood flow/intracapillary pressure: mesangial
o proliferation: mesangial, endothelial, parietal epithelial; NOT podocytes
Glomerular filtration barrier:
o loss of structural integrity (hematuria)
o loss of selective filtering (proteinuria)
Light microscopy: H&E stain
Electron microscopy: black
& white
Pathogenesis of glomerular diseases: immune complex versus other
Pathogenesis of glomerular Two major categories:
diseases o Immune mechanism‐mediated glomerular injury
Circulating immune complexes deposition
In situ binding of antibodies with immune complex or without immune complex formations
Anti‐glomerular basement membrane antibody
Antibody against antigen on podocytes
Abnormal activation of complement
o Other mechanisms
No immune complexes and no antibodies detectable by current methods
Nephron loss
Genetics
Monogenic diseases
Polygenic diseases – “risk alleles”
To study glomerular Immuno stains: type of antibody, etc Frozen section immunofluorescence
diseases caused by immune
mechanisms
Electron microscopy: precise localization, etc
Immunofluorescence Granular: Mesangium + basement membrane, basement
patterns membrane alone
Linear: along basement membrane
Circulating immune‐ Complexes may be formed with:
complex‐mediated diseases: o endogeneous antigens (systemic lupus erythematosus)
o exogeneous antigens (post‐infectious glomerulonephritis)
o unknown antigens
Pathology of circulating Phase I: formation of antigen‐antibody complexes
immune complexes
Phase II: deposition of circulating immune complexes in the
glomerulus initiates complement and Fc receptor mediated
leukocyte activation
Phase III: inflammatory reaction & tissue injury at the site of
deposition antibody has no specificity to glomerular
components !!!
Complement activation & recruitment of leukocytes =
major pathway of antibody‐initiated glomerular injury
Formation of immune The outcome of immune complex formation depends on several factors including factors impacting the
complexes does NOT o pathophysiology of immune complexes (size)
ALWAYS lead to disease o duration of antigen exposure
o host response
o localization of immune complexes in the glomerulus
Localization of immune Size:
complexes in the o large in subendothelial, small in subepithelial
glomerulus: o glomerular hemodynamics,
o mesangial phagocytic function
Molecular charge:
o highly cationic in subepithelial
o highly anionic in subendothelial
o neutral charge in mesangium glomerular filtration
barrier has negative charge
Glomerular filtration The basement membrane can be divided into two filtration zones: proximal zone and
barrier: proximal versus the distal zone
distal zones The proximal zone is exposed to the contents in blood including:
o Antigen
o Antibody
o Complement
o Neutrophil
o Macrophages
o Where the proximal zone is surveyed by immune process but the distal zone is not
Immune Complex Deposition in the Sub‐endothelial space:
o Complexes deposited in the proximal zone of the glomerular basement membrane (sub‐
/endothelial space):
o elicit inflammatory reaction and proliferation in the glomerulus
o Causing infiltration of leukocytes and structural injury of the filtration barrier with hematuria
The complexing of the antigen and antibody in the distal zone (sub‐/epithelial space) of the
glomerular basement membrane:
o are non‐inflammatory
o Because the inflammatory cells that are circulating in the blood do not see the complexing of
the antigen
o affecting the podocytes (epithelial cells)
o Causing the foot processes to become aphased with alteration of the filtration barrier (slite
membrane)
o resulting in proteinuria
Immune complexing in the complexing of the antigen and antibody in the sub‐epithelial space is unique because the binding occurs on the urinary side
distal zone of the of the glomerular basement membrane
glomerular filtration: the subsequent activation of complement and cytokine factors is modified (reduced) because the site of the deposit is remote
from the activators that are normally present in the circulation (“non‐inflammatory”)
affect podocytes (epithelial cells) with alteration of the filtration barrier resulting in proteinuria
Circulating and in‐situ immune complex mediated disease: postinfectious and membranous glomerulonephritis
Circulating Immune Serum sickness model
complexes ‐ experimental Antigen‐antibody complexes form in the circulation: disease
occurs when complexes are formed with antigen in slight
excess (complexes escape phagocytosis and deposit in
tissues/surface of blood vessels)
Deposited antibody (IgG) can be seen in the kidney biopsy
(green fluorescent granules)
Circulating Immune Example of human disease = postinfectious glomerulonephritis:
complexes ‐ human disease o infection is followed by development of antibodies
o immune complexes are formed in the circulation
o immune complexes are deposited in the proximal zone of the glomerular capillary wall
o inflammatory reaction with leukocytic infiltration, mesangial & endothelial proliferation and structural damage (“Swiss
cheese”) at the site of immune complex deposition antibody has no specificity to glomerular components
Glomerulus is affected by circulating immune complexes
where the tuft is hypercellular with proliferation of
epithelial and mesangial cells
o there is also presence of tri‐lobed nuclei which are PMN
(polymorphonuclear leukocytes)
Glomerulus with antibody (IgG) seen as granular fluorescent
deposits on immuno stain
Clinical syndrome: hallmark of the NEPHRITIC SYNDROME and also mild
hematuria proteinuria, edema, renal failure, hypertension (HTN).
What can be the outcome of the inflammatory response?
Degradation of immune complexes by neutrophils,
monocytes/macrophages and mesangial cells leads to
healing phase with complete resolution in most patients, in
particular in children
In‐situ immune complex Reaction of antibody with an antigen on basal surface of epithelial cells with in‐situ formation of immune complexes (seen as
formation: electron dense deposits – red star) under epithelial cells (sub‐epithelial) leads to loss of slit diaphragms and effacement
(“fusion”) of the epithelial cell foot processes resulting in increased permeability with PROTEINURIA
Electron microscopy – normal
Electron microscopy ‐ disease: subepithelial electron dense
deposits
Immunoglobulin IgG (antibody) deposits are seen as small
granules along glomerular capillary wall (white arrow) on
immuno stain. Stain for complement is also positive
What is the clinical picture? Sub‐epithelial immune complexes = distal zone:
o no inflammatory response, no “Swiss cheese” injury
o effacement of foot processes and loss of slit diaphragms leads to increased permeability
“gauze‐like” or fine mesh effect → PROTEINURIA
since larger particles are retained – NO hematuria
Clinical: proteinuria (hallmark of NEPHROTIC syndrome:
heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, edema, ….)
Human disease: membranous nephropathy
Membranous nephropathy RATS injected with antigen (proximal tubular brush border) antibodies develop against proximal tubular
– experimental model brush border which CROSS‐REACT with basal surface of epithelial cells leading to formation of sub‐
(Heymann nephritis) epithelial immune complex deposits
Q: what happens in humans?
Pathogenesis of several families with neonatal nephrotic syndrome and membranous nephropathy
membranous nephropathy: mothers had mutations in neutral endopeptidase (NEP) normal podocyte antigen
from rats to humans women who genetically lack NEP develop antibodies during pregnancy when
exposed to NEP (blue dots) expressed by placental cells and by fetal cells entering
the mother’s blood
From about the 18th week of gestation, maternal antibodies of the IgG class are actively transported across the placenta to the
fetus, where they bind (in‐situ) to the NEP antigen expressed on podocytes
These observations validated the in situ paradigm in human membranous nephropathy subsequent proteomic studies identified
phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) and thrombospondin type‐1 domain containing 7A (THSD7A) as target antigens in 80% of
patients with primary membranous nephropathy the remaining 20% still?
Humans: membranous autoimmune process with antibodies reacting with intrinsic renal antigens or planted antigens: nucleosomal complexes
nephropathy (systemic lupus erythematosus) viral, bacterial products, drugs…
The podocyte is at the center of the pathogenesis of membranous nephropathy either by
o providing a source of endogenous antigens or by
o creating an environment favorable to deposition and accumulation of immune complexes containing exogenous (non‐
podocyte) antigens
The podocyte is also a victim of complement activation and antibody activity, and hence there is a subsequent podocyte
effacement with proteinuria
As our understanding of membranous nephropathy evolves, it is apparent that this nephropathy does not fit well into the
classification scheme of hypersensitivity diseases i.e. it shows some overlap between type II and type III
Different mechanisms of glomerular injury are not mutually exclusive and in humans
o where >1 mechanism may contribute to injury
post‐infectious infection elicits antibody response (immunoglobulin G, IgG)
glomerulonephritis immune complexes form in circulation (antigen + IgG + complement)
deposition of immune complexes in the capillary wall elicits inflammatory reaction leading to structural damage (“Swiss cheese”)
with hematuria and proliferation
however, immune complexes are also formed in‐situ
leading to formation of big sub‐epithelial deposits
“humps” (white arrow) which are unique to postinfectious
glomerulonephritis and therefore diagnostically useful
o The humps contain SpeB (streptococcal exotoxin B) and
streptococcal glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which reaches the sub‐
epithelial aspect of the glomerular basement
membrane owing to its cationic charge – here the antigen is not intrinsic but “planted antigen”
What have we learned from this?
o experimental models are not perfect but offer some
insight
o in disease >1 mechanism is likely to be responsible..
o various classifications have a limited “fit”
In fact, it is not clear if in postinfectious glomerulonephritis
immune complexes are formed mainly in the circulation or
in situ by binding of antibodies to bacterial antigens
“planted” in the glomerular basement membrane
Anti‐ glomerular basement membrane‐mediated glomerulonephritis, crescent
Antibody‐mediated antibodies bound to tissue antigens activate the
glomerular injury (type II complement by the “classical” pathway
hypersensitivity) products of complement activation recruit neutrophils
and monocytes triggering inflammation in tissues
leukocytes may also be activated by engagement of Fc
receptors, which recognize bound antibodies
antibodies against antigens IgG (antibody) seen as a linear stain along the entire length of the glomerular basement
within glomerular membrane
basement membrane
antibodies bind diffusely along the glomerular basement membrane:
o linear stain for IgG (antibody) = damage along the entire length
o severe damage to the GBM with multiple areas of necrosis ‐ “sieve‐like” effect with
big holes big leaking large number of RBCs with GROSS hematuria
Human disease: anti‐glomerular basement membrane antibody disease
How to stop hematuria ? Glomerular crescent = “glomerular stopper”
GLOMERULAR CRESCENT o stops bleeding in cases with severe damage to glomerular capillary
wall (of various etiologies), but in this process also compresses the
glomerular tuft, reduces filtration and leads to → rapidly progressing
renal failure
Anti‐glomerular basement Experimental evidence – nephrotoxic serum (Masugi) nephrits in rats: inject anti‐rat
membrane antibody‐ kidney antibodies (prepared in rabbits) linear IgG deposition
induced glomerulonephritis Human antigen = noncollagenous domain (NC1) of the α3 chain of collagen type IV
(normally encrypted and does not elicit antibody response)
Cross‐reactivity with pulmonary alveolar basement membrane = Goodpasture
syndrome (gross hematuria + pulmonary hemorrhage)
Abnormal activation of complement‐mediated glomerulonephritis
Glomerular diseases caused Unregulated/excessive activation of the alternative complement pathway leading to complement‐mediated injury –
by complement activation transformation from low‐grade physiologic activity (“tick‐over”) to unrestrained hyperactivity
in the absence of antibody: Triggers: excessive complement activation after minor vascular injuries
o acquired autoantibodies against complement components
o inherited abnormalities of complement regulatory proteins
Human diseases
o Glomerular:
dense deposit disease/C3 glomerulonephritis
o Systemic (with significant renal manifestations):
thrombotic microangiopathies
Complement system Components (numbered C1‐C9) present in plasma in inactive forms; each activated by proteolysis to acquire own proteolytic
activity, thus setting up enzymatic cascade.
3 initiating pathways:
o Classical
trigger: Ab+Ag
adaptive immunity
o Alternative, begins @ C3
constitutively active
innate immunity
o MBL (mannose‐binding Lectin)
trigger: lectin to mannose of bacteria innate immunity
both classical & lectin pathways begin with engagement of early complement components C1/C2, MASP (Mannose‐binding
lectin‐Associated Serine Protease), very similar to C1 molecules of the classical complement pathway
Alternative Complement C3 convertase activity must be
pathway tightly controlled
o in order to prevent excessive
activation of complement
Alternative pathway
o low‐grade physiologic activity
(“tick‐over”)
C3NeF(C3 nephritic factor)
o an autoantibody against C3
convertase, binds to C3 convertase & prevents its degradation (stabilizes it) causing sustained complement activation
H factor
o mutations in gene encoding factor H
o autoantibodies to factor H
o factor H deficiency
Other mechanisms: podocyte injury – minimal change and focal and segmental glomerular sclerosis
Other mechanisms of NOT able to detect immune complexes/antibodies by current techniques (immunstains, electron microscopy)
glomerular injury: less well known
Podocyte injury non circulating “permeability factor” not as yet identified – recurrence in transplants
immune complex/antibody viruses
mediated: drugs
“podocytopathies” adaptation to elevated glomerular capillary pressures & flow rates (glomerular hypertension)
genetic defects
experimental models of podocyte injury: toxins (puromycin)
Pathology of podocyte podocyte foot process effacement and loss of slit diaphragms can be reversible
injury or not reversible
Irreversible podocyte injury leads to podocyte detachment and loss
mature podocytes have limited capacity to replicate, hence podocyte depletion
leads to scarring (sclerosis)
loss of slit diaphragms/foot process effacement is most highly associated with
proteinuria
clinically: heavy proteinuria with NEPHROTIC SYNDROME
reversible nephrotic syndrome: minimal change disease
irreversible nephrotic syndrome: FSGS [Focal and Segmental Glomerular Sclerosis]
Podocyte injury as seen by NO immune complexes that we can see
electron microscopy NO inflammatory response
Reversible disease = minimal change disease
Irreversible disease = focal and segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS)
BOTH diseases begin with podocyte effacement with loss of slit diaphragms
Normal: podocyte foot processes and slit diaphragms
preserved
Podocyte foot processes effacement with loss of slit
diaphragms & PROTEINURIA
Minimal change disease and FSGS: one disease at opposite ends of a spectrum OR two
different diseases?
Nephron loss Once renal disease, glomerular or otherwise, destroys sufficient nephrons to reduce the glomerular filtration rate to 30‐50% of
normal, progression to end stage renal disease proceeds at varying rates via scarring, called glomerulosclerosis
Adaptive changes in response to the loss of nephrons at this stage are ultimately maladaptive and exacerbate progressive
sclerosis
Genetics and glomerular diseases: Alport syndrome and congenital nephrotic syndrome, “risk alleles”
Genetic defects: monogenic germline mutations in genes encoding:
o slit diaphragm proteins with nephrotic syndrome
o type IV collagen with hematuria (Alport syndrome)
NPHS1 encoding nephrin, NPHS2 encoding podocin rare
hereditary forms of the nephrotic syndrome
Normal
Alport syndrome – hematuria
Genetic variants in the APOL1 risk variants have large effects on several different types of kidney disease
APOL1 gene account for a previously thought to be distinct entities, often previously labelled as
large fraction of the high “hypertensive nephropathy in African Americans”
rates of nondiabetic kidney These variants, found only in individuals with recent African ancestry, (<10,000
disease in African years) confer enhanced innate immunity against African trypanosomes. These
Americans alleles are nearly absent in populations of European and Asian ancestry
APOL1 risk variants arose approximately 4,000 years ago in Africa and rose quickly
to high frequency. In Nigeria, approximately 46% of chromosomes contain either
the G1 or G2 allele. The ancestors of modern Europeans left Africa many millennia before the origin of these risk alleles, so the
risk alleles are not found in Europeans. Today, approximately 36% of all African Americans carry the G1 or G2 alleles
APOL1 Nephropathy People who have at least 1 copy of either the G1 or G2 APOL1 variant (allele) are resistant to infection by trypanosomes
(protozoa), but people who have 2 copies of either variant are at an increased risk of developing a non‐diabetic kidney disease
Sickle cell trait confers protection against malaria caused by Plasmodium
falciparum (a protozoan)
The presence of the alleles is not enough to have the phenotype
o These are risk alleles rather than a single‐gene disorders and additional “hits”
are necessary, which may be genetic, environmental, or both
o Development of preventive measures for those at risk
Lessons learned:
o genetic differences substantially influence an individual’s lifetime risk for kidney disease
o evolution of genes related to host defense against pathogens may limit kidney longevity
o expanding our understanding of renal development and function
o the design of novel therapeutics for kidney disease as well as preventive measures for those at risk
The variants have proven to be useful for genetic screening in African Americans and in the selection of kidney donors
IgA nephropathy geographic and racial differences in IgA nephropathy prevalence have long been recognized until
recently it was still debated to what degree these were due to differences in disease diagnosis
(e.g., due to diverse local biopsy practices) rather than biology
it is now clear that a substantial portion of disease risk is conferred genetically. Recent series of
genome‐wide association studies [GWAS] have identified several susceptibility loci
the genetic loci identified thus far comprise genes associated with innate and adaptive immunity,
and the complement system
the complement locus involve genes encoding proteins which regulate the alternative
complement pathway
IMAGE: World‐wide genetic risk for immunoglobulin A nephropathy. Genome‐wide association studies indicate different
worldwide risks for IgA nephropathy
Summary and Vocabulary
NEPHRITIC SYNDROME ‐ circulating immune complexes – postinfectious glomerulonephritis (serum sickness model)
HEMATURIA anti‐glomerular basement membrane antibody mediated ‐ anti‐glomerular basement membrane disease (nephrotoxic serum
[Masugi] nephritis)
NEPHROTIC SYNDROME – in‐situ immune complex formation – membranous glomerulonephritis (Heymann nephritis model)
PROTEINURIA podocyte injury non‐immune complex mediated
reversible = minimal change disease
irreversible = focal and segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS)
Genetics monogenic diseases
polygenic and “risk alleles”
Different pathways of glomerular injury are not mutually exclusive and in humans more than one may contribute to injury
Host factors, which are usually also not static and include genetic diversity, are critical to determine who does and who does not
develop nephritis
Thus, the disease is a dynamic process, more akin to a movie rather than a snap‐shot
Vocabulary Glomerular diseases usually have the “glomerulo” prefix
o see postinfectious glomerulonephritis
Glomerulonephritis is used preferentially in reference to glomerular diseases with an inflammatory/proliferative response
Glomerular pathologies, without an inflammatory response may be referred to as “nephropathy”or “glomerulopathy”
o see membranous nephropathy (glomerulopathy)
Nephrosis is meant to indicate a non‐inflammatory nephropathy, which is associated with nephrotic syndrome
“nephritis” can also be attached/used in connection with other kidney diseases, such as “pyelonephritis”
nephros [Greek] = kidney, nephrologist = MD specializing in medical kidney diseases
ren [Latin] = kidney, renal pathology
urologist takes care of “surgical ”kidney diseases such as tumors, reflux, etc.
ūrīna [Latin]
Sclerosis:
o Glomerular sclerosis: increased collagenous extracellular matrix that is expanding the mesangium, and subsequently
obliterating the capillary lumen, or forming adhesions with the Bowman’s capsule
Vascular sclerosis:
o Hyaline arteriolosclerosis: hyaline (proteinaceous) deposits with thickening of the wall and narrowing of the lumen of small
arteries, i.e. “arterioles”
Hyaline from Greek: crystal, glass. A hyaline substance appears glassy and pink in H&E stain
Arteriosclerosis: “hardening of the arteries”, wall thickening and loss of elasticity
Nephrosclerosis: “hardening” of the kidney due to vascular disease
H&E stain (hematoxylin & eosin stain) = routine pathology stain cytoplasm is pink (staining with eosin) and nuclei are dark blue
(staining with hematoxylin)
Renal Physiology Review
Measurement of Renal There are 4 types of structures in the kidney
Function o Glomeruli
o Tubules
o Interstitium
o Blood vessels
Renal function usually means glomerular function (glomerular filtration) or tubular function (urinary excretion)
Glomerular filtration The glomeruli filter the plasma, allowing passage of solutes according to size and charge.
Normally, only small amounts of albumin and other larger proteins (globulins) are filtered, and
then most of filtered proteins are reabsorbed and catabolized by renal tubules.
Therefore, large amounts of albumin in the urine suggest glomerular disease.
Calculating glomerular Net filtration pressure = Hydrostatic Pressure (blood pressure) – Capillary osmotic
filtration pressure pressure – Hydrostatic pressure (Bowman’s capsule)
o Hydrostatic Pressure (Glomerular capillary) = PGC
o Net Filtration Pressure = PGC – PI – Pfluid
o = 55 – 30 – 15 = 10 mmHg
Glomerular dynamics GFR = Kf [(PGC – Pfluid) – PI]
o Kf = ultrafiltration coefficient
o PGC = Hydrostatic Pressure (blood pressure)
o Pfluid = Hydrostatic pressure (Bowman’s capsule)
o PI = Capillary osmotic pressure
o In the absence of urinary obstruction, Pfluid is fairly constant.
where an increase in PGC or decrease in PI will increase GFR
Or a decrease in PGC or increase in PI will decrease GFR
Renal plasma flow Renal plasma flow (RPF) can be estimated using para‐
aminohippuric acid (PAH) clearance since nearly 100% of
PAH entering the renal circulation is excreted
o RPF = CPAH (Clearance of PAH)
Conversion of RPF to Renal Blood Flow (RBF)
o RBF = RPF/(1‐Hct)
where Hct = Hematocrit
Filtration fraction Filtration fraction (FF) = GFR/RPF
Normally
o GFR is ~ 120 mL/min
o RPF is ~ 600mL/min
o therefore FF ~ 120/600 = 20%
A decrease in RPF will stimulate the intrarenal renin‐angiotensin (RAS) system
o resulting in constriction of the efferent arteriole (EE)
increasing back pressure on the glomerular capillary and maintaining PGC, thus preserving GFR
FF is thus increased.
An increase in RPF will increase PGC and thus increase GFR FF remains unchanged
Effects of Drugs At the Afferent arteriole:
Normally Prostaglandins will preferentially dilate the afferent arteriole
o Which increase in RPF
Causes an increase in GFR
So that FF remains constant
NSAIDS will inhibit Prostaglandins
o Cause a decrease in GFR
Dihydropyridines (Calcium Channel Blocker)
o dilate the afferent arteriole
Causing an increase in GFR
At the Efferent arteriole:
Normally Angiotensin II will preferentially constricts the efferent arteriole
o Causing a decrease in RFP
Resulting in an increase in GFR
So that FF increases
RAAS Inhibitor (ACE Inhibitors or Angiotensin receptor Inhibitor) will inhibit Angiotensin II
o Causing a decrease in GFR
Glomerular Filtration fraction (FF) = GFR/RPF
Hemodynamics
Systemic hypertension would increase glomerular capillary
pressure in absence of autoregulation
o Filtration fraction (FF) = GFR/RPF
o In order to keep the FF constant, GFR would have to increase
o High blood pressure will increase the flowrate in the afferent
which will cause the GFR to increase
BUT Renal autoregulation prevents transmission of systemic
blood pressure to glomerular capillaries
o When the blood pressure goes up, this leads to a
autoregulation affect to prevent an increase in the renal
plasma flow
o Autoregulation prevents the transmission of the high blood
pressure to limit the injury that could occur to the glomerular
capillary
Intrarenal RAS
o In the afferent arteriole, the juxtaglomerular apparatus makes
Renin due to decreased blood flow
o Renin converts angiotensinogen to Angiotensin 1
o Angiotensin 1 is converted to Angiotensin 2 by ACE in the lungs
o Angiotensin 2 will then constrict the efferent arteriol
Effect of lowering BP (or blood volume) on renal circulation and
intrarenal RAS
o If the blood pressure decreases causes a decrease in RPF
and GFR which will be detected by the juxtaglomerular
apparatus to secrete Renin Lead to angiotensin 2 to
constrict the efferent arteriole to increase GFR
Inhibition of RAS dilates efferent arterioles and lowers
glomerular capillary pressure
o By blocking ACE causes a decrease in Angiotensin II
causes the efferent arteriole to relax (dilate) leads to a
decrease in GFR
Inhibition of RAS normalizes glomerular capillary pressure in the
presence of hypertension
o Kidney disease will inhibit the RAS
o By blocking ACE with a patient who has high blood pressure
causes a decrease in Angiotensin II causes the efferent
arteriole to relax (dilate) leads to a normal GFR
o Because High blood pressure causes an increase in GFR
Dihydropyridine calcium antagonists abolish renal
autoregulation and prevent normalization of glomerular capillary
pressure
o Normally when the blood pressure goes up, this leads to a
autoregulation affect to prevent an increase in the renal
plasma flow
o But Dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker will inhibit
autoregulation and cause the GFR to increase
Increasing plasma protein concentration causes an increase in oncotic pressure which is causing fluid to flow back into the
glomerular capillary
Effect GFR RPF FF = GFR/RPF
Afferent arteriole constriction Decrease Decrease No change
Efferent arteriole constriction Increase Decrease Increase
Increase plasma protein concentration Decrease No change Decrease
Decrease plasma protein concentration Increase No change Increase
Constriction of Ureter Decrease No change Decrease
Angiotensin 2 Vasoconstriction both afferent and efferent arterioles —> Therefore increases the FF
o But has a greater effect on the efferent arterioles
As a consequence:
o RFP decreases
o GFR increases
o PPC decreases
o PGC increases
o FF increases
o Oncotic capillary pressure increases
During a Stress Response Increase in sympathetic input and high levels of Ang 2
As a consequence
o Vasoconstriction both afferent and efferent arterioles
o Because both constrict, there is a large drop in RPF and only a small drop in GFR
o Net effect is an increase in FF
Sympathetic Nervous Causes vasoconstriction of the afferent and efferent arterioles
System o Has a greater effect on afferent arterioles
Which causes a decrease in GFR and a decrease in RPF resulting in an increase in FF
Causes an increase in oncotic pressure
Resulting in an increase in proximal tubule reabsorption of fluid and solutes
As a consequence:
o RPF decreases
o GFR decreases
o PPC decreases
o PGC decreases
o FF increases
o Oncotic capillary pressure increases
Increase in renin secretion by the JG cells in the afferent arterioles
Beta blockers decrease renin secretion by blocking beta‐1 receptors in the kidney
o Decrease afterload on the heart by decreasing renin secretion
Because angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction the peripheral arterioles which increases afterload
Renin Release Decrease flow in the afferent arterioles will stimulate the release of Renin
o EX – hemorrhage, dehydration, CHF, renal artery stenosis
Increase in sympathetic drive to the JG cells
Low luminal NaCl concentration at the macula densa
Clinical Correlate: ACE Used for diabetic nephropathy
Inhibitors and ARBs o Leads to reduction in glomerular capillary pressure
o Vasodilator efferent arterioles
o Decreases GFR
o Reduces damage and fibrosis of glomeruli —> delays the need for dialysis
Treat hyperfiltration pressures caused by hyaline arteriolosclerosis of the efferent arterioles
Guidelines for ACE Inhibitors and ARBs
o Give to patients with nephrotic syndrome and stable chronic renal failure
o Avoid in patients with severely compromised GFR (risk of hyperkalemia) and with Acute Renal Failure
o May cause a type 4 renal tubular acidosis due to blocking aldosterone
Leading to helper kale is
o Switch from ACE Inhibitor to ARB in cases with drug‐induced cough or angioedema
o Both are contraindicated in bilateral renal artery stenosis
Which causes a rapid Decreases GFR
Measurement of glomerular Inulin clearance:
filtration rate (GFR) o Inulin is a 5000 kD polysaccharide from the Jerusalem artichoke
o It is freely filtered by the glomeruli and neither reabsorbed nor secreted and thus inulin clearance can be used to measure
GFR.
o Although inulin clearance is the “gold standard”, in clinical practice, GFR is generally measured by creatinine clearance
Measured creatinine clearance:
o When a substance is cleared from the blood by glomerular filtration, the excretion rate of the substance (assuming no
secretion or reabsorption by the tubules) will equal the volume of plasma that is totally cleared of the substance. Therefore:
o Plasma concentration x Clearance = Urine concentration x Urinary flow rate, or:
o Clearance = (Urine concentration x Urinary flow rate)/ Plasma concentration [(UV/P)]
Creatinine clearance Creatinine excretion depends on creatinine generation by muscle as a byproduct of creatine metabolism.
In the steady state creatinine production = creatinine excretion
Creatinine is freely filtered and not reabsorbed by the kidney (there is minimal secretion which can generally be ignored)
o Clearance = (Urine concentration x Urinary flow rate)/ Plasma concentration [(UV/P)]
For example:
o If a patient excretes 1.0 L of urine in 24 hours (1440 min), and the plasma and urine creatinine concentrations are 1.0 mg/dL
and 144 mg/dL, respectively
o the creatinine clearance = (144 mg/dL x 1000 mL/1440 min) / 1.0 mg/dL = 100 mL/min
Estimation of creatinine Inverse creatinine
clearance Since creatinine clearance (CCr) is inversely proportional to plasma creatinine (Cr), i.e. CCr ~ 1/Cr
o a rough approximation of renal function can be obtained in this manner.
For example
o if CCr is 100 mL/min when Cr is 1.0 mg/dL, then CCr would be 50 mL/min when Cr is 2
mg/dL, 25 mL/min when Cr is 4 mg/dL, and 12.5 mg/dL when Cr is 8.
Inverse relationship between creatinine clearance and plasma creatinine
Estimation of creatinine Cockroft‐Gault equation
clearance (2) o Creatinine clearance (mL/min) = [(140‐age) x body wt (kg) / 72 x plasma Cr] x 0.85 (if female)
Still used to estimate GFR in special populations (e.g., spinal cord injured patients). In addition, the FDA still uses this equation
when evaluating drug dosing.
Estimation of glomerular Creatinine‐based formulae:
filtration rate (eGFR) o Note: all of these formulae require a steady‐state (stable) level of plasma creatinine and cannot be used in patients whose
renal function is rapidly changing
MDRD formulae:
o The most commonly used 4‐variable formula utilize serum creatinine, age, gender, and race.
MDRD formula: eGFR (mL/min/1.73m2) = 186 x SCr‐1.154 x Age‐0.203 x [0.742 if female] x [1.21 if black]
CKD‐EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) equation:
o CKD‐EPI formula: eGFR (mL/min/1.73m2) = 141 x min(SCr/k,1)a x max(SCr/k,1)‐1.209 x 0.993Age x [1.018 if female] x [1.159 if
black]
Chronic Kidney Disease In CKD
(CKD) o GFR will generally decline linearly with time at a rate dependent on the type and severity
of kidney disease
o the typical linear decline in GFR will be evident when GFR is plotted vs. time (see following
Figure)
Tubular Function With CKD
o loss of nephrons
leads to loss of tubular as well as glomerular function
However, it is possible to have isolated defects in tubular function in the face of normal or near‐normal GFR
Fractional excretion Fractional excretion of a substance is the amount of that substance that is excreted into the urine relative to the amount of
that substance that is filtered by the kidney.
o It thus depends on both glomerular and tubular function.
Fractional excretion = Amount excreted / Amount filtered
Note: Since fractional excretion is generally expressed as a percent and not a fraction, it can be defined simply as the percent of
the filtered substance that is excreted into the urine.
Fractional excretion of Filteres load = GFR * Px
sodium (FENa) Excretion rate = V * Ux
FENa = (Na excreted)/(Na filtered)
o FENa = (UNa x V)/ (PNa x GFR)
Substituting creatinine clearance (UCr x V/PCr) for GFR results in:
o FENa = (UNa x V) / (PNa x (UCr x V/PCr) )
Simplifying
o FENa = (PCr * UNa) / (UCr * PNa) x 100%
What is the FENa in healthy Most healthy people on standard American diets have a FENa of ≈ 1%. Let us see why.
people? o A typical American diet contains about 6 grams of sodium daily.
o Since 1 mmol of sodium = 23 mg, this is 261 mmol.
In the steady state, what is ingested must be excreted (mostly in the urine, with small amounts in stool and sweat).
How much sodium is excreted?
o Let us assume that 250 mmol/day of sodium appears in the urine.
How much sodium is filtered?
o Plasma sodium x GFR, i.e., 140 mmol/L x 180 L/day = 25200 mmol/day.
Fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) = (250 mmol/25200 mmol) x 100 ≈ 1%
Patient 1 A 50‐year‐old man with moderately severe CKD (estimated GFR by creatinine‐based formula of 25 mL/min/1.73m2) is seen in
clinic. His physical examination is normal and he has no peripheral edema.
What is the expected FENa?
o Greater than 1%
How much sodium is excreted?
Still 250 mmol/day (unless the patient has restricted dietary sodium intake)
How much sodium is filtered?
In this instance, if the GFR is 25% of normal, i.e. 45 L/day rather than 180 L/day, the amount of sodium filtered will be 45
L/day x 140 mmol/L = 6300 mmol/day.
Fractional excretion of sodium = (250 mmol/63000 mmol) x 100 ≈ 4%
Important Points
o FENa should increase as GFR decreases.
o A “normal” FENa in someone with severe CKD means that either the patient is not ingesting sodium or there is a stimulus
(such as decreased renal blood flow) for the kidney to reabsorb sodium.
Acute Renal Failure CKD ‐‐ generally a linear decline in GFR with time.
Acute renal failure ‐‐ linear increase in plasma creatinine concentration (“delta creatinine”).
o Do NOT use eGFR to assess renal function.
Slowing of “delta creatinine” indicates renal function is improving.
o Continued improvement in kidney function will lead to fall in plasma creatinine
concentration (a negative “delta creatinine”).
The arrow indicates an acute renal insult (such as ischemia or acute toxic exposure).
Triangles depict serum creatinine concentration which continues to rise until creatinine
excretion again equals creatinine generation and then falls as excretion exceeds generation.
Glomerular and Peritubular A decrease in renal plasma flow (RPF) stimulates the intrarenal renin‐angiotensin system (RAS), leading to
Capillaries constriction of the efferent arteriole.
o This serves to maintain hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillaries (PGC) and GFR, increasing filtration
fraction (GFR/RPF).
o A resulting decrease in PPC and increase in πPC leads to increased reabsorption of solute and water by the
tubules.
In this diagram PGC is the same as PH in the previous diagram.
A decrease in RPF causes the efferent arteriole to constrict to increase GFR
But at the same time, the efferent plasma flow has decreased causes a decrease in the efferent pressure causes an
increase in oncotic pressure results in an increase in the reabsorption of solute and water by the tubules
This is why in peritubular reabsorbs salt and water due to renal failure
Causes of Acute Renal Acute renal failure (ARF) is now referred to by the acronym “AKI” which can mean “acute kidney injury” or “acute kidney
Failure impairment”
Differential diagnosis of AKI Pre‐renal:
o Pre‐renal (decreased renal o Decrease in effective circulating volume Decreases GFR
blood flow) o Example: Heart Failure
o Intra‐renal (kidney injury) Intra‐renal:
Tubular (most common) o Immune complex deposition in glomerulus Decrease in GFR
Glomerular (acute o Example:
glomerulonephritis) Glomerulonephritis: acute inflammation of the kidney, typically caused by an
Interstitial (acute interstitial immune response
nephritis) Proteinuria: the presence of abnormal quantities of protein in the urine, which
Vascular (acute may indicate damage to the kidneys
vasculopathy/vasculitis) (least Post‐renal:
common) o Obstruction of the ureter (kidney stone)
o Post‐renal (urinary obstruction) Increase in Bowman’s Space hydrostatic pressure Causes a decrease in GFR
o Example:
Hydronephrosis: refers to distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces,
usually caused by obstruction of the free flow of urine from the kidney
Urinary indices FENa
FEurea (fractional excretion of urea)
Urine specific gravity and osmolality
Urinalysis
Differential Diagnosis of AKI Pre‐Renal Renal Post‐Renal
Urine Sodium <20 mmol/L >20 mmol/L Variable
Fractional excretion of <1% >1% Variable
Sodium (FeNa)
Fractional excretion of Urea <35% >35% Variable
(FeUrea)
Urine specific gravity >1.015 ~1.010 Variable
Urine Osmolality >350 mmol/kg <350 mmol/kg Variable
Urinalysis Hyaline casts Granular casts; may have Hyaline casts: may have
hematuria, proteinuria, and hematuria, pyuria
or pyuria depending on
etiology
Pre‐renal = decrease renal blood flow (decrease in RPF)
o Urine sodium < 20 mmol/L
Because there will be an increase in the reabsorption of sodium and water
o FeUa < 35%
Urea is reabsorbed by the tubules
In pre‐renal failure, there is an increase in the reabsorption of urea causes the FeUa to decrease
o Specific gravity > 1.015
Because the tubules are able to concentrate urine which causes the specific gravity to increase
Renal = kidney injury
o Because in tubular injury, the tubules are not functioning properly and not reabsorbing sodium which causes the fraction of
sodium to increase
o Specific gravity to be normal
because the kidney is not able to concentrate or dilute
Patient 1 A 22‐year‐old medical student is taking renal physiology, and as part of the course, he submits a plasma sample and a 24‐hour
urine for determination of creatinine clearance. His plasma creatinine is 1.0 mg/dL and his 24‐hour urine contains 1440 mg of
24 hrs = 1440 min creatinine in a volume of 1.0 L.
1 dL = 100 mL What is his creatinine clearance?
o His creatinine clearance (CCr) can be determined by the formula:
o Clearance = (Urine concentration x Urinary flow rate)/ Plasma concentration [(UV/P)]
o CCr = (1440 mg/L x 1.0 L / 1440 min) / 1.0 mg/dL
o = 1 mg/min / 0.01 mg/mL
o = 100 mL/min
Ten years later, he is a nephrology attending, and decides to recheck his plasma creatinine. He is dismayed to find that it is now
2.0 mg/dL. He repeats the test several times over the next several days and gets the same result each time (indicating he has
CKD).
What is his 24‐hour urine creatinine now?
o Answer = 1440 mg
o It is the same as it was 10 years earlier, providing he did not lose or gain muscle mass in the interim. Since plasma creatinine
is stable, he is in a steady state and thus excreting all of the creatinine produced.
What is his creatinine clearance now?
o Answer = 50 mL/min
o CCr = (1440 mg/L x 1.0 L / 1440 min) / 2.0 mg/dL = 1 mg/min / 0.02 mg/mL = 50 mL/min
Patient 2 A 65‐year‐old nephrologist undergoes coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) after which he develops AKI. His plasma
creatinine was 1.0 mg/dLpre‐operatively. On the first post‐operative day his plasma creatinine is 2.0 mg/dL. On the second post‐
operative day it is 2.8 mg/dL, and on the third post‐operative day it is 3.2 mg/dL. He is non‐oliguric (making normal urine) and
not fluid overloaded and has no electrolyte abnormalities.
GFR = 1/PCr
o 1.0 mg/dL delta = 0
o 2.0 mg/dL delta = 1
o 2.8 mg/dL delta = 0.8
o 3.2 mg/dL delta = 0.4
Since the delta is getting smaller then his kidneys are improving even though his creatinine is increasing
Is his renal function worsening or improving on post‐operative day 3?
o Answer = Improving because the rate is slowing
Do you predict that he will need dialysis?
o Answer = No because his renal function is expected to continue to improve providing there are no additional renal insults. His
plasma creatinine will probably peak at about 3.5 mg/dL and then begin to decline.
Tubular Physiology Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) ‐‐ bulk solute and water reabsorption
Loop of Henle ‐‐ reabsorbs electrolytes (primarily sodium, potassium, and chloride).
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct (CD) ‐‐ fine tune sodium excretion and regulate potassium and
acid‐base balance.
In the absence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), the thick ascending limb (TAL) of the loop of Henle, the DCT, and
the CD are impermeable to water, which allows formation of dilute urine.
ADH increases water permeability in the CD, allowing urine concentration.
Proximal convoluted tubule Contains brush border
(PCT) Reabsorbs all glucose and amino acids and most bicarbonate, sodium, chloride, phosphate,
potassium, water, and uric acid.
Isotonic absorption Generates and secretes ammonia which enables the kidney to secrete more
protons
PTH inhibits sodium/phosphate cotransport
o Which causes phosphate excretion
Angiotensin 2 stimulates sodium/proton exchange
o Which causes an increase in sodium, water and bicarbonate reabsorption (permitting contraction alkalosis
65‐80% of Sodium is reabsorbed
Drugs
o Acetazolamide inhibits the carbonic anhydrase causes an increase of bicarbonate in the lumen
Loop of Henle – thin Thin descending loop of Henle
descending limb (TDL) and Passively reabsorbs water via medullary hypertonicity due to impermeable to sodium
thick ascending limb (TAL) Concentrating segment makes urine hypertonic
Thick ascending loop of Henle
Reabsorbs sodium, potassium, and chloride
Indirectly induces paracellular reabsorption of magnesium and calcium through positive lumen
potential generated by potassium back leak
Impermeable to water
Makes urine less concentrates as it ascends
10‐20% of sodium is reabsorbed
Drugs
o Loop diuretics block the sodium‐potassium‐chloride transporter
Distal convoluted tubule Reabsorbs sodium, chloride
(DCT) Makes urine fully dilute hypotonic
PTH increases the calcium/sodium exchange
o Which causes calcium reabsorption
5‐10% of sodium is reabsorbed
Drugs
o Thiazide diuretics inhibit the sodium‐chloride co‐transporter
collecting duct (CD) Collecting tubule contains two types of cells:
o Principal cells and Intercalated cells
In the Principal cells:
o Chloride is reabsorbed paracellularly
o Sodium transporter (Epithelial Sodium Channel = ENAC) which can be inhibited by Amiloride and
Triamterene which are potassium sparing drugs
o Aldosterone stimulates the recruitment of sodium channels (ENAC) to increase sodium reabsorption
into the cell
But by bringing sodium into the cell, Aldosterone causes potassium to be loss in the urine
o ADH will activate V2 receptors on the basolateral side of the cells to stimulate the insertion of aquaporins on the urine side of
the cell to facilitate the reabsorption of water
There are two types of intercalated cells: alpha and beta
o In alpha‐intercalated cells:
protons are secreted into the urine to facilitate the reabsorption of bicarbonate into the blood
o In beta‐intercalated cells:
protons are reabsorbed into the blood to facilitate the secretion of bicarbonate into the urine
Tubular Pathophysiology PCT dysfunction leads to a characteristic disorder called Fanconi syndrome.
o Associated with an increase excretion of nearly all amino acids, glucose, bicarbonate, and phosphate.
May result in metabolic acidosis Proximal renal tubular acidosis
o Causes include:
Hereditary defects – Wilson disease, tyrosinemia, glycogen storage disease, cystinosis
Ischemia
Multiple myeloma
Nephrotoxins/drugs – ifosfamide, cisplatin, tenofovir, expired tetracyclines
Lead poisoning
TAL dysfunction leads to Bartter’s syndrome,
o Affects sodium/potassium/chloride cotransporter
o Results in hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis with hypercalciuria
o Presents similarly to chronic loop diuretic use (e.g. furosemide (Lasix)).
o Autosomal recessive
DCT dysfunction results in Gitelman’ssyndrome,
o Reabsorptive defect of NaCl which leads to hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, metabolic alkalosis, hypocalciuria
o Similar to using life‐long thiazide diuretics
o Autosomal recessive
o Less severe than Bartter syndrome
CT dysfunction results in Liddle syndrome
o Gain of function mutation causes an increase in the sodium reabsorption in the collecting tubules
o Results in hypertension, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, decreased aldosterone
o Presents like hyperaldosteronism, but aldosterone is nearly undetectable
o Autosomal dominant
o Treatment: Amiloride
Syndrome of Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess Cortisol tries to be the SAME as Aldosterone
o Hereditary deficiency of 11‐beta‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, which normally converts cortisol to cortisone in cells
containing mineralocorticoid receptors.
o Excess cortisol in these cells from enzyme deficiency
Causes and increase in mineralocorticoid receptor activity
Resulting in hypertension, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis
o Low serum aldosterone levels
o Can acquire disorder from glycyrrhetinic acid (present in licorice) which blocks activity of 11‐beta‐hydroxysteroid
dehydrogenase
o Treatment: Corticosteroids
Exogenous corticosteroids decrease endogenous cortisol production which causes a decrease in mineralocorticoid receptor
activation
Solute Glucose Phosphate Bicarbonate Potassium Uric acid Amino Acids Low MW
Proteins
Disorder Glycosuria Phosphaturia Metabolic acidosis (proximal renal Hypokalemia Hypouricemia Aminoaciduria Tubular
Hypophospha‐ tubular acidosis) proteinuria
temia
RAAS Liver produces Angiotensinogen
Kidneys produce Renin due to stimulation by
o Decrease in blood pressure (JG cells)
o Decrease in Sodium delivery (macula densa cells)
o Increase in sympathetic tone (beta‐1 receptors)
Renin converts Angiotensinogen to Angiotensin 1
Angiotensin 1 travels to the lungs where ACE converts Angiotensin 1 to Angiotensin 2
o ACE also breaks down Bradykinin
Angiotensin 2 then acts on..
o Acts at angiotensin 2 receptors type 1 (AT1) on vascular smooth muscle
Causes vasoconstriction
Results in increase in blood pressure
o Constricts efferent arterioles of the glomerulus
Causes an increase in filter fraction to preserve renal function (GFR) in low‐volume states (i.e. when RBF is decreased)
o Stimulates the release of Aldosterone from the adrenal gland
Causes an increase in sodium channel and sodium/potassium pump insertion in principal cells
Enhances potassium and proton excretion by way of principal cells potassium channels and by alpha‐intercalated cell proton
ATPases
Creates favorable sodium gradient for sodium and water reabsorption
o Stimulates the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary
Increases aquaporin insertion in principal cells
Causes water reabsorption
o Increase PCT sodium/proton activity
Causes sodium, bicarbonate, and water reabsorption (can permit contraction alkalosis)
o Stimulates the hypothalamus
Causes the thirst response
Erythropoietin Released by interstitial cells in peritubular capillary bed in response to hypoxia
Stimulates RBC proliferation in bone marrow
Often given as a supplement in chronic kidney disease
1,25‐(OH)2D3 Within PCT cells, PTH stimulates 1alpha‐hydroxylase to convert 25‐OHD3 (inactive vitamin D) to 1,25‐(OH)2D3 (active vitamin D)
Prostaglandins Paracrine secretion vasodilators (PGI2 and PGE2) the afferent arterioles to increase RBF
o NSAIDs block renal‐protective prostaglandin synthesis
Causes constriction of afferent arteriole and decreases GFR
Results in acute renal failure
Dopamine Secreted by PCT cells to promote natriuresis (excretion of sodium in the urine)
At low doses
o Dopamine dilates the interlobular arteries, afferent arterioles, and efferent arterioles
Which causes an increase in RBF with little or no change in GFR
At high doses
o Acts as a vasoconstrictor
Site of action of hormones Angiotensin 2 (AT2)
acting on kidney o Synthesized in response to decrease in blood pressure.
o Causes efferent arteriole constriction increase in GFR and an increase in FF but with
compensatory sodium reabsorption in the proximal and distal nephron.
o Net effect: preservation of renal function (increased FF) in low‐volume states with
simultaneous sodium reabsorption (both proximal and distal) to maintain circulating
volume
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
o Secreted in response to…
decrease in plasma calcium concentration
increase in plasma phosphate concentration
decrease in plasma 1,25‐(OH)2D3
o Causes an increase calcium concentration reabsorption in the DCT, a decrease in phosphate reabsorption in the PCT, and an
increase in 1,25‐(OH)2D3 production
The increase in 1,25‐(OH)2D3 production causes an increase in calcium and phosphate absorption from the gut
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
o Secreted in response to an increase in atrial pressure
Causes an increase in GFR and an increase in sodium filtration with NO COMPENSATORY SODIUM REABSORPTION in the
distal nephron
Net effect: sodium loss and volume loss
Aldosterone
o Secreted in response to decrease blood volume (via AT2) and an increase in the plasma potassium concentration
Causes an increase sodium reabsorption, an increase in potassium secretion, and an increase in proton secretion
ADH (Vasopressin)
o Secreted in response to an increase in plasma osmolarity and a decrease in blood volume
o ADH binds to receptors on principal cells, causing an increase in the number of aquaporins and thus an increase in water
reabsorption
Patient 3 A 70‐year‐old woman is admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with abdominal pain and sepsis. Examination reveals
hypotension (BP 90/50 mmHg), obtundation, and cool extremities. The serum creatinine is 3.0 mg/dL which one month
previously was 1.0 mg/dL. The urinalysis reveals a specific gravity of 1.010 (same as plasma = not diluting or concentrating the
urine) and is negative for blood and protein. On microscopic exam, there are many granular but no cellular casts. The FENa is
4% and the FEurea is 50%.
What is the most likely diagnosis?
o Acute tubular injury
o This patient has sepsis with evidence of acute tubular injury (specific gravity 1.010, many granular casts in the urine) and the
FENa and Feurea are elevated.
If this was Pre‐Renal Injury?
o concentrated urine (specific gravity > 1.015)
o hyaline casts
o low FENa and low Feurea would be expected.
o No Hematuria and No proteinuria would be expected in glomerulonephritis
o No pyuria would be expected in interstitial nephritis.
Urinalysis
Urinalysis (UA) The UA is to Nephrology what the electrocardiogram (EKG) is to Cardiology!
There are three portions of a complete UA
o Appearance of the urine
o Dipstick evaluation
o Microscopic examination
A negative dipstick usually obviates the need for a microscopic examination.
pH The normal urine pH range is 4.5 to 8 (usually 5–7).
o On a typical U.S. diet, the urine is usually acidic (pH 5‐6) is healthy individuals.
urine pH < 5 in the presence of metabolic acidosis
urine pH > 5.3 in the presence of metabolic acidosis raises the possibility of distal renal tubular acidosis (RTA).
very high urine pH (> 8) suggests the presence of urea‐splitting organisms (e.g., Proteus), in which case production of
ammonia (NH3) will raise the urine pH
Specific gravity Specific gravity: weight of urine relative to distilled water;
o reflects the number and size (weight) of solute particles in urine
The normal range of urine specific gravity is 1.001 (very dilute) to 1.030 (very concentrated).
o Since the specific gravity of plasma is normally 1.010
a urine specific gravity of ~1.010 indicates that the urine is neither concentrated nor dilute (isosthenuria).
In a patient with an acute decline in renal function:
o specific gravity >1.020
suggests normal ability to concentrate urine
thus prerenal failure (decreased renal blood flow)
o specific gravity of about 1.010
suggests loss of tubular function
Thus acute tubular necrosis/acute kidney injury (AKI).
In a hyponatremic patient:
o With an inappropriately high specific gravity (>1.010) suggests antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion
In a hypernatremic patient:
o With an inappropriately low specific gravity (<1.010) suggests diabetes insipidus (central or nephrogenic)
Protein The dipstick for protein detects primarily albumin.
Normal urine usually has no protein by dipstick, but occasionally very concentrated urine will be trace or even 1+ positive for
protein in healthy individuals.
If dipstick proteinuria is detected, it should be quantitated by a random urine albumin‐to‐creatinine ratio (UACR) and/or urine
protein‐to‐creatinine ratio (UPCR).
Simultaneous measurement of both UACR and UPCR is a good screening test for the presence of paraproteinuria, as in
myeloma, in which case there will be a much more marked increase in urine total protein relative to urine albumin.
Blood A positive test indicates heme is present, which can be due to
o red blood cells (RBCs)
o myoglobinuria – heme pigment
o hemoglobinuria – heme pigment
Microscopic hematuria is hematuria in the absence of a visual change in color of the urine.
o As few as 2 to 3 RBCs/high‐power field (hpf) may make the dipstick positive.
Glucose Normal urine does not contain glucose
o because of the reabsorption of filtered glucose by the proximal tubule.
Glycosuria with elevated blood glucose indicates diabetes mellitus.
Glycosuria with normal blood glucose indicates renal glycosuria
o which may be isolated or associated with other evidence of proximal tubular dysfunction (phosphaturia, aminoaciduria,
bicarbonaturia) (Fanconi syndrome).
Ketones Normally, there are no ketones in the urine.
o Ketoacidosis the body fails to adequately regulate ketone production
causing a severe accumulation of keto acids
which causes the blood pH to substantially decreased
Ketonuria without ketoacidosis suggests starvation
o low carbohydrate (such as Atkins) diet
o (rarely) isopropyl alcohol ingestion
Ketonuria with ketoacidosis suggests diabetic or alcoholic ketoacidosis.
o Note that in some patients with ketoacidosis, the dipstick may be negative due to the reduction of acetoacetate to beta‐
hydroxybutyrate (the latter is not detected by the dipstick).
Bilirubin Normally, there is no bilirubin in the urine.
If present, this suggests hepatobiliary disease
o failure to conjugate and/or excrete bilirubin into the gut
Urobilinogen Bilirubin is secreted in bile into the gut
o where it is metabolized by microorganisms into urobilinogen.
Urobilinogen is then absorbed and partially excreted into the urine.
In the presence of liver disease
o urobilinogen can accumulate in plasma and appear in the urine.
Elevated Bilirubin in the blood and urine without urobilinogen in the urine suggests biliary obstruction.
Leukocyte esterase This is an enzyme found in white blood cells (WBCs) and indicates the presence of pyuria,
o Pyuria is the presence of pus or WBC in the urine
This can be due to either urinary tract infection (UTI) or inflammation (such as interstitial nephritis).
Nitrite Enterobacteria convert urinary nitrate to nitrite
o therefore a positive nitrite test suggests UTI.
Note that not all organisms make nitrite, so UTI may be present with a negative nitrite.
Microscopic Exam This is necessary if the dipstick is positive
Sample contains
o Calcium oxalate (hypocitraturia) – crystal is shaped like an envelope or dumbbell
o Cystine (low pH) – crystal is shaped hexagonal
Under polarized light, the sample contains
o Uric acid (low pH) – crystal shape is rhomboid or rosettes
Sample contains:
o Ammonium magnesium phosphate or struvite (high pH) – coffin lid
RBC casts due to…
o Glomerulonephritis
o Malignant hypertension
WBC casts due to…
o Tubulointerstitial inflammation
o Acute pyelonephritis
o Transplant rejection
Granular (Muddy Brown) casts due to…
o Acute tubular necrosis
Patient 1 A 70‐year‐old man with a long history of tobacco use presents to the ER with weakness. Physical examination reveals mild
supine hypertension without orthostatic changes. There is an epigastric bruit. There is no edema. The serum creatinine is 3.0
mg/dL which one month previously was 1.0 mg/dL.
The UA reveals:
Color ‐ yellow Urobilinogen ‐ negative
pH ‐ 5.5 Leukocyte esterase ‐ negative
Specific gravity ‐ 1.025 (high) Nitrite ‐ negative
Protein ‐ negative WBC ‐ 2/hpf (normal)
Blood ‐ negative RBC ‐ 3/hpf (upper end of normal)
Glucose ‐ negative Bacteria ‐ negative
Ketones ‐ negative Many hyaline casts – nonspecific and can be a normal finding often seen in concentrated urine samples
Bilirubin ‐ negative Few granular casts
What is the most likely diagnosis?
o Renovascular disease
The most likely diagnosis in this elderly male smoker with an epigastric bruit and acute azotemia is bilateral renal artery
stenosis (D).
Acute glomerulonephritis is excluded by the absence of proteinuria and hematuria and interstitial nephritis by the absence
of significant pyuria.
Acute tubular injury would lead to isosthenuria (specific gravity same as plasma, i.e., 1.010), whereas this patient has
concentrated urine, as is expected in any form of pre‐renal failure, including bilateral renal artery stenosis.
The patient underwent renal angiography which revealed total occlusion of the right renal artery and 95% stenosis of the
left renal artery.
Angioplasty and stenting of the left renal artery resulted in improvement of renal function.
Patient 2 A 22‐year‐old medical student who was previously healthy sees a physician because of symptoms of an upper respiratory
infection (rhinorrhea, sneezing) and red urine. Physical examination is normal. The serum creatinine is 3.0 mg/dL which one
month previously was 1.0 mg/dL.
The UA reveals:
Color ‐ red Urobilinogen ‐ negative
pH ‐ 5.5 Leukocyte esterase ‐ negative
Specific gravity ‐ 1.020 (high) Nitrite ‐ negative
Protein ‐ 3+ WBC ‐ 2/hpf
Blood ‐ 3+ RBC ‐ >100/hpf (high)
Glucose ‐ negative Bacteria ‐ negative
Ketones ‐ negative Few hyaline casts
Bilirubin ‐ negative Many granular casts
Mod RBC casts
What is the most likely diagnosis?
o Acute glomerulonephritis
The most likely diagnosis in this medical student with proteinuria and hematuria and RBC casts in the urine is acute
glomerulonephritis (GN).
In acute GN the urine specific gravity is usually elevated and there is often edema due to renal sodium retention.
This is because glomerular inflammation leads to decreased glomerular blood flow
resulting in decreased post‐glomerular perfusion and stimulation of sodium and water reabsorption by the kidneys.
Interstitial nephritis is characterized by pyuria and WBC casts.
Acute tubular injury would be expected to cause isosthenuria and pigmented (“muddy brown”) granular casts and not
hematuria.
A renal biopsy confirmed the expected diagnosis of Immunoglobulin A (IgA) nephritis.
This is the most common cause of glomerulonephritis in the U.S.
The history of a URI accompanied by gross hematuria is characteristic of this disorder.
Patient 3 A 60‐year‐old man presents to the ER with fatigue. He saw a physician for urinary frequency and urgency one week ago and was
told he has a urine infection and was given an antibiotic (he does not remember the name). Examination reveals hypertension
(BP 160/100 mmHg), a generalized skin rash, and 1+ lower extremity edema. The serum creatinine is 3.0 mg/dL which one
month previously was 1.0 mg/dL.
The UA shows:
Color ‐ yellow Urobilinogen ‐ negative
pH ‐ 5.5 Leukocyte esterase – positive Pyuria
Specific gravity ‐ 1.010 Isosthenuria Nitrite ‐ negative
Protein ‐ 1+ WBC ‐ 50/hpf
Blood ‐ negative RBC ‐ 3/hpf
Glucose ‐ negative Bacteria ‐ negative
Ketones ‐ negative Few hyaline casts
Bilirubin ‐ negative Many granular casts
Occasional WBC casts
What is the most likely diagnosis?
o Acute interstitial nephritis
The most likely diagnosis in this middle‐aged man with pyuria and mild proteinuria, hypertension, acute azotemia, and
recent antibiotic exposure is acute interstitial nephritis (AIN)
In AIN, the urine specific gravity often about 1.010
indicating inability to concentrate or dilute urine (isosthenuria).
Acute tubular injury is also characterized by isosthenuria but pyuria would not be expected in this case.
Renal biopsy confirmed the diagnosis.
Patient 4 A 70‐year‐old woman is admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with abdominal pain and sepsis. Examination reveals
hypotension (BP 90/50 mmHg), obtundation, and cool extremities. The serum creatinine is 3.0 mg/dL which one month
previously was 1.0 mg/dL.
The UA shows:
Color ‐ yellow Urobilinogen ‐ negative
pH ‐ 5.5 Leukocyte esterase ‐ negative
Specific gravity ‐ 1.010 isosthenuria, thus renal failure Nitrite ‐ negative
Protein ‐ trace WBC ‐ 2/hpf
Blood ‐ negative RBC ‐ 3/hpf
Glucose ‐ negative Bacteria ‐ negative
Ketones ‐ negative Few hyaline casts
Bilirubin ‐ negative Many pigmented granular casts
No cellular casts
What is the most likely diagnosis?
o Acute tubular injury
The most likely diagnosis in this elderly woman with sepsis and isosthenuria with pigmented (“muddy brown”) granular
casts in the urine is acute tubular injury (formerly called acute tubular necrosis, or “ATN”).
There is no hematuria or pyuria to suggest GN or AIN, respectively.
Pre‐renal failure due to hypotension could be entertained, but one would in that case expect the urine to be concentrated
(specific gravity > 1.010) and contain hyaline and not pigmented granular casts.
The patient was diagnosed with acute cholecystitis and bacteremia.
She responded well to antibiotics with eventual improvement of her renal function.
Nephritic Syndrome
Nephritic Syndrome = glomerular injury is primarily due to neutrophils
Primarily nephritic types of glomerular diseases
o Postinfectious Glomerulonephritis
o IgA Nephropathy (Berger Disease)
o Hereditary nephritis
o Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (Type 1, 2, 3)
Clinical and laboratory findings
Sign/Symptom Description
Hypertension Due to salt retention
Periorbital edema Due to salt retention
Oliguria Approximately 400 mL urine/day
Due to decrease GFR from inflamed glomeruli
Tubular function is intact
Hematuria Dysmorphic RBCs are present with irregular membranes
Glomeruli becomes inflamed from Immune Complex deposition causing damage to RBC membranes
Neutrophils Present in the urine sediment
Particularly in Immune Complex types of nephritic glomerulonephritis
RBC casts Key finding
Occasionally, WBC casts are also present
Proteinuria >150 mg/day but <3.5 gm/day
Azotemia BUN/Cr ratio >15
Tubular function is intact in acute glomerulonephritis
Postinfectious Glomerulonephritis
(Acute Proliferative/ Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis/ Serum Sickness)
Clinical Typical Preentation:
o Children: (6‐10 years old)
Presents as acute nephritic syndrome including
Hematuria
Edema
Hypertension – associated with headache
renal failure (95% recovery).
o Adults: (rare)
Presents as acute nephritic syndrome is less common
slow progression to chronic glomerulonephritis with 15‐50% of adults developing end stage kidney disease.
Pathogenesis
o develops 1‐4 weeks after recovery from infection…
a prior pharyngeal infection by streptococci (or other bacteria or even viruses)
following impetigo.
o Group A beta‐hemolytic streptococcal infection (GABHS, nephritogenic, M protein virulence factor )
Diagnosis:
o tea‐color (smoky or coca‐cola‐like) urine
o hematuria with RBC casts
o mild proteinuria.
o ASO (Anti‐streptolysin O) may be elevated
o Complement (C3) is typically low.
o Humps: (in‐situ) ab binds bacterial antigens planted in the glomerular basement membrane.
o Cationic nephritogenic antigens (SpeB: streptococcal exotoxin B, streptococcal GAPDH) traverse anionic glomerular basement membrane to
subepithelial location.
Prognosis:
o children total recovery with resolution of pathology in >95%
o adults slow progression to chronic glomerulonephritis
o 15‐50% of adults develop end stage kidney disease
o a small subset of children and adults may develop very severe acute illness with gross hematuria and rapidly progressive renal failure
Treatment:
o supportive
Mechanism glomerulonephritis follows prior infection
immune complexes form in the circulation (antigen + IgG antibody)
deposition of immune complexes in the capillary wall
o activates complement
which attracts neutrophils
which mediate damage with endocapillary proliferation and structural damage (“swiss cheese”) with hematuria
immune complexes are also formed in‐situ
o leading to formation of big subepithelial deposits “humps” (white arrow)
which are unique to postinfectious glomerulonephritis and therefore diagnostically useful
It is not clear if immune complexes are formed mainly in the circulation or in situ by binding of antibodies to bacterial antigens “planted” in the
glomerular basement membrane
Microscopy Light Normal – glomerular capillaries patent
Diffuse endocapillary proliferation no longer see the capillary lumen
leukocytic infiltration
Capillaries obliterated by endocapillary proliferation & influx of PMNs (3‐lobed nuclei)
Fluorescence Granular “lumpy bumpy” IgG and C3 in GBM and mesangium; Granular IgA in some cases.
Electron Primarily subepithelial humps; subendothelial electron dense deposits in early disease stages.
An 8‐year‐old boy presents with headaches, dizziness, and malaise. He was seen for a severe sore throat 2 weeks ago. Physical
examination reveals facial edema. The blood pressure is 180/110 mm Hg (Hypertension). A 24‐hour urine collection demonstrates
oliguria, and urinalysis shows hematuria. What test(s) may be helpful in the differential diagnosis in this child?
A. ASO (antistreptolysin O antibody)
B. Complement level
C. both
D. neither
IgA Nephropathy (Berger Disease)
“IgA nephropathy” refers to disease with deposits of IgA limited to kidney.
Clinical Typical Presentation:
o Affects children and young adults (mostly males)
o Recurrent gross hematuria within 1‐2 days of a nonspecific upper respiratory tract infection;
Alternatively, after GI or UTIs.
“painless hematuria following infection” = suggestive of IgA nephropathy
Epidemiology:
o IgA nephropathy = most common glomerular disease worldwide
o children and young adults
Pathogenesis
o mucosal infection leads to production of IgA & formation of IgA containing immune complexes which deposit in the mesangium
o activation of the complement via alternative pathway
o abnormalities in clearance of IgA (liver disease – decreased hepatobiliary clearance, secondary IgA nephropathy)
o genetic or acquired abnormality of immune regulation (celiac disease)
Pathology:
o mesangial proliferation of variable intensity
o IgA‐containing immune complexes in the mesangium = diagnostic
o electron dense deposits by electron microscopy
Diagnosis:
o hematuria, mild proteinuria
o complement levels are replenished by the liver and usually not decreased
Prognosis:
o variable, dependent on glomerular pathology
o many relatively indolent/prolonged, ultimately leads to renal failure
o rare patients with clinical course of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (discussed later)
o Systemic IgA vasculitis in children– Henoch‐Schӧnlein purpura (HSP) – excellent prognosis
Treatment:
o Supportive
Mechanism The multi‐hit pathogenesis model of IgA nephropathy
o Hit 1 = increased production of galactose‐deficient IgA1 (after respiratory/gastrointestinal exposure to viruses, bacteria,
food products)
o Hit 2 = formation of autoantibodies that recognize galactose‐deficient IgA1
o Hit 3 = subsequent formation of pathogenic immune complexes
o Hit 4 = deposition of immune complexes in the mesangium, activation of mesangial cells, induction of glomerular injury
complement activation via alternative pathway
Microscopy Light Focal mesangial (between the capillaries) proliferative glomerulonephritis; mesangial widening
Fluorescence IgA ± IgG, IgM, and C3 in mesangium
Electron Mesangial and para‐mesangial dense deposits
A 32‐year‐old man complains of recurrent hematuria since his youth. The hematuria typically occurs following upper
respiratory tract infections. Vital signs are normal. Urinalysis shows hematuria and mild proteinuria. Laboratory
studies disclose normal levels of BUN and creatinine (NL=0.7‐1.5). Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Alport syndrome
B. IgA nephropathy
C. Hereditary nephritis
D. pneumonia
E. Postinfectious glomerulonephritis
Henoch‐Schönlein Purpura (HPS)
(IgA Nephropathy plus systemic IgA deposition)
Clinical Typical Presentation:
o Abdominal distention/pain
o GI bleeding
o Arthralgia
o Palpable purpura on legs and buttocks
Epidemiology:
o Systemic childhood disorder (3‐8 yo)
o Onset follows Upper respiratory infection
o Associated with IgA nephropathy Hematuria
Pathogenesis
o IgA nephropathy has a predilection for young adults while HSP is more predominant among children
Pathology:
o The main findings are increased cells and Ig deposition in the mesangium, white blood cells, and the
development of crescents.
o The changes are indistinguishable from those observed in IgA nephropathy.
Diagnosis:
o Blood tests show:
elevated creatinine and urea levels with kidney involvement
raised IgA levels
raised CRP or ESR
Prognosis:
o Good in most patients with recovery occurring 94% of children and 89% of adults
o In adults, kidney involvement progresses to end stage renal disease
Treatment:
o Supportive
Mechanism Deposits of IgA may be also systemic and involve kidneys with hematuria as well as skin with purpuric skin lesions, gastrointestinal tract with
bleeding and abdominal pain and arthralgia.
Microscopy Light hypersensitivity vasculitis, and immunofluorescence demonstrates IgA and C3 (a protein of the complement system) in the
blood vessel wall
Fluorescence IgA deposits are found in the walls of small superficial capillaries (yellow arrows).
Electron
Alport Syndrome
(Principle example of Hereditary Nephritis)
Clinical Typical Presentation:
o Case example:
A 20 year old male was found to have hematuria via pre‐employment testing; scr (serum creatinine): 2.5 MG/DL [n=0.7‐1.5]; Family history:
several members of his family, mostly males, with chronic renal failure by age 50 years; affected individuals with hearing problems, various
eye disorders, including lens dislocation.
o Characterized by
hereditary nephritis (isolated hematuria without infection)
hearing loss
ocular abnormalities (early cataracts)
Epidemiology:
o age 5‐20 years at presentation
o 20‐50 years with overt renal failure
Pathogenesis
o X‐linked inheritance most commonly
Caused by a defect in type 4 collagen
due to a mutation in the COL4A5 gene coding for the alpha‐3, alpha‐4, and alpha‐5 chains of type 4 collagen
o (+) family history
Male patients – full spectrum
Females – carriers, rare with disease (X‐chromosome inactivation)
Pathology:
o paraffin sections: normal, non‐diagnostic
o NO immune complexes
o electron microscopy diagnostic
Diagnosis:
o hematuria
o genetic testing
Prognosis:
o overt renal failure between 20‐50 years of age
Treatment:
o supportive, transplantation, counseling, family testing
Mechanism Gross or microscopic hematuria begins in childhood. Hearing loss (leading to sensorineural deafness) and various ocular abnormalities of the lens
and cornea can occur. Alport is a progressive disease that ultimately results in renal failure.
Microscopy Light
Fluorescence Negative
Electron Alternating thickening and thinning of basement membrane with splitting of the lamina densa, causing a basket weave
appearance
“basket weave”
A 20 year old male was found to have hematuria via pre‐employment testing. Also his scr (serum creatinine) was
elevated at 2.5 MG/DL [n=0.7‐1.5]. He has been otherwise healthy. Several members of his family, mostly males, were
diagnosed with chronic renal failure by age 50 years. Which best applies to this patient:
A. recommend repeated testing at age of 50
B. eye testing may be needed, no hearing testing needed
C. only hearing testing needed
D. he has IgA nephropathy
E. eye and hearing testing may be needed
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) Type I (Goodpasture Syndrome)
(Linear – anti‐basement membrane antibody)
Clinical Typical Presentation:
o Case Example
Young male (college student); hemoptysis; blood in urine, gross; drop in urinary output
History: smoker; working in a car garage during summer; other industrial exposure
UA: abundant red blood cells with casts; sCr elevated to 5.0 MG/DL [n=0.7‐1.5]
Chest X‐ray bilateral pulmonary opacities
Characterized by:
o hemoptysis and pulmonary hemorrhage *pulmonary involvement)
o gross hematuria
o Oliguria ‐ drop in urinary output (acute renal failure)
o NO sinusitis
Epidemiology:
o young MEN (20‐40 yo)
o rare, 12% of crescentic glomerulonephritis
Pathogenesis
o Type 2 Hypersensitivity Reaction Goodpasture Syndrome
o anti‐glomerular basement membrane antibodies
o exposure: viruses, smoking, solvents (paints, dyes), drugs
o genetic predisposition to autoimmunity
Pathology:
o Crescents
o Linear stain for IgG by immunofluorescence, not seen by electron microscopy
o in glomeruli/pulmonary alveoli
Diagnosis:
o anti‐glomerular basement membrane antibodies in serum levels may be low in rapid binding on the kidney
Prognosis is Poor:
o renal failure
o pulmonary failure
Treatment:
o Plasmapheresis, (removal of pathogenic antibodies from the circulation)
Mechanism Goodpasture Disease/Syndrome: Antibody cross‐reactivity with pulmonary alveolar basement membrane
o Linear IgG deposits along glomerular and alveolar basement membranes to a novel antigen (non‐collagenous protein NC1)
NC1 is normally hidden and does not elicit an antibody response
o Clinically: RPGN with hematuria + pulmonary hemorrhage (hemoptysis) = pulmonary‐renal syndrome
Microscopy Light Hypercellularity proliferation, crescents, and fibrin deposition in glomeruli
Fluorescence Smooth and linear pattern of IgG and C3 along the glomerular basement membrane
Electron There are no deposits, but there is glomerular basement membrane disruption
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) type II
(Granular – immune complex deposition)
Clinical Typical Presentation:
o Characterized by:
gross hematuria
drop in urinary output (acute renal failure)
Epidemiology:
o rare ‐1% of postinfectious,
o small subset of IgA,
o systemic lupus erythematosus [SLE]
o older children, young adults (10‐40 yo)
Pathogenesis
o severe immune complex formation with necrosis and
o breaks in glomerular basement membrane
Pathology:
o Crescents with immune complexes: as compared to other forms of glomerulonephritis that are not complicated by crescents
IgG+C3 granular deposits containing immune complexes also seen in Postinfectious Glomerulonephritis and Lupus Nephritis
IgA+C3 deposits containing immune complexes in the mesangium also seen in IgA Nephropathy
o electron dense deposits by electron microscopy
Diagnosis:
o depending on etiology could be:
postinfectious, IgA nephropathy, diffuse proliferative lupus
Prognosis:
o chronic renal failure
Treatment:
o Immunosuppression
Mechanism except for the severity and the presence crescents, the other diagnostic pathology remains the same as in the corresponding forms of
glomerulonephritis not complicated by crescents (the prototype):
o granular deposits containing immune complexes of IgG + Complement in postinfectious glomerulonephritis and lupus nephritis
o IgA + Complement immune complexes in IgA nephropathy
Microscopy Light
Fluorescence Shows granular pattern
Electron Shows discrete deposits
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) type III
(Negative IF – pauci‐immune)
Clinical Typical Presentation:
o Characterized by:
drop in urinary output (acute renal failure)
gross hematuria
hemoptysis (cough with blood tinged sputum)
shortness of breath
recurrent “sinusitis”
Palpable purpura associated with vasculitis
Epidemiology:
o Older patients
Pathogenesis
o antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies (ANCA)
Pathology:
o Crescents
o NO immune complex deposits
o NO anti‐glomerular basement membrane autoantibodies
Diagnosis:
o ANCA: antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies
Prognosis:
o renal failure
o pulmonary
Treatment:
o immunosuppression
Mechanism ANCA = autoantibody
o heterogeneous group of autoantibodies
o formation induced by drug, cross reactive microbial antigen, other…
o react with neutrophil antigens causing premature degranulation/activation, release of lytic enzymes leading to vascular damage
o present in serum
o do not form circulating immune complexes
o ANCA = antibody‐mediated disease (type II hypersensitivity) direct cause of pauci‐immune crescentic glomerulonephritis/systemic vasculitis
o highly sensitive diagnostic marker of pauci‐immune glomerulonephritis/systemic vasculitis
RPGN type III may be a component of systemic vasculitis such as:
o microscopic polyangiitis
o Granulomatosis with polyangiitis [GPA] (aka pulmonary angiitis and granulomatosis, Wegener granulomatosis)
C‐ANCA (PR3‐ANCA)
Vasculitis may involve upper respiratory tract (Ear/nose/throat), Lung and Kidney (ELK) synchronously or in turns.
o Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis [EGPA] (aka allergic granulomatosis and angiitis, Churg‐Strauss
syndrome)
P‐ANCA (MPO‐ANCA)
allergic granulomatosis and angiitis:
small vessel vasculitis associated with peripheral eosinophila
eosinophilia associated symptoms (asthma, allergic rhinitis, lung infiltrates)
Immunofluorescence on neutrophils:
o cytoplasmic (c‐ANCA) or
o perinuclear (p‐ANCA) pattern
o c‐ANCA antigen: proteinase 3 (PR3)
o p‐ANCA antigen: myeloperoxidase (MPO)
o Currently ELISA assay; see vasculitis lecture…
Microscopy Light crescents (in response to glomerular capillaries vasculitis)
Fluorescence Negative (“pauci immune”)
Electron Negative (“pauci immune)
A 35‐year‐old man with a history of smoking presents with hematuria and bloody sputum. Over the next 2 days, he develops oliguria
and renal failure, after which he is placed on dialysis. A renal biopsy is stained with antihuman IgG, and the results are shown.
Which of the following best described the pattern of direct immunofluorescence observed on this photomicrograph?
A. Discontinuous and mesangial
B. Finely granular along the perimesangial reflections
C. Linear along the glomerular basement membrane
D. Mesangial
E. Peripheral granular humps
A 68‐year‐old man complains of nasal obstruction, bloody nose, cough and bloody sputum. A chest x‐ray displays cavitated lesions
and multiple nodules within both lung fields. Urinalysis reveals 3+ hematuria and red blood cells casts. Laboratory studies show
anemia and elevated serum levels of C‐ANCA (antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody). Peripheral eosinophils are not increased. A
renal biopsy exhibits focal glomerular necrosis with crescents. What is the appropriate diagnosis?
A. eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg‐Strauss syndrome)
B. Goodpasture syndrome
C. Hypersensitivity vasculitis
D. postinfectious glomerulonephritis
E. granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener granulomatosis)
A 30‐year‐old man with a history of smoking suddenly develops oliguria, hematuria and hemoptysis. Serologic studies reveal
antibodies to the glomerular basement membrane. Which of the following pathologic changes is visible by light microscopy in this
biopsy specimen?
A. Crescents in the urinary space
B. Leukocytic infiltrates in the glomeruli
C. Mesangial cell proliferation
D. Thickening of the glomerular basement membrane
E. Thrombi in glomerular capillaries
A 16‐year‐old boy comes to the physician with a 1‐year history of intermittent, painless hematuria without dysuria on increased
frequency of micturition. He says he has also had several respiratory infections and adds that the hematuria increased within
several days of the infections. Which of the following is most likely?
A. Increased antistreptolysin O titer
B. mutation in basement membrane protein gene
C. IgA mesangial deposits
D. Proteinuria exceeding 3.5 gm/24 h
E. subepithelial humps deposits
Nephrotic Syndrome
Nephrotic Syndrome = glomerular injury due to cytokines and NOT neutrophils
o Cytokines damage podocytes, causing them to fuse together
o Cytokines destroy the negative charge of the glomerular basement membrane
Primarily nephrotic types of glomerular diseases
o Membranous nephropathy
o Minimal Change Disease
o Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)
Clinical and laboratory findings
Sign/Symptom Description
Proteinuria >3.5 gm in 24 hrs key finding
Hypoalbuminemia Albumin level < 3 gm/dL
Generalized pitting edema and ascites due to hypoalbuminemia cause a decrease in plasma oncotic pressure
o Pitting edema in Nephritic Syndrome
due to sodium retention causing an increase in plasma hydrostatic pressure
o Increased risk for developing spontaneous peritonitis (inflammation of the peritoneum)
due to Streptococcus pneumoniae or Escherichia coli
Hypertension due to sodium retention
Hypercoagulable state due to the loss of Antithrombin 3 potential for renal vein thrombosis
Hypercholesterolemia Hypoalbuminemia increases synthesis of cholesterol leading to Hyperlipidemia and Lipiduria (lipid droplets in urine)
Hypogammaglobulinemia Due to the loss of gamma‐globulins in the urine
Fatty casts With maltese crosses and oval fat bodies key finding of nephrotic syndrome
The nephrotic syndrome is characterized by severe A. A combination of small pore size and negatively charged pore‐forming molecules
proteinuria, decreased serum albumin level, and edema. prevents albumin filtration
This result from damage to one or more components of the B. A combination of small pore size and positively charged pore‐forming molecules
glomerular capillary wall. In particular, the glomerular prevents albumin filtration
basement membrane is essential for maintaining serum C. Albumin is freely filtered across the basement membrane but is readily reabsorbed
oncotic pressure. In nonpathologic states, which of the along the nephron
following properties of the glomerular basement membrane D. The positive charge of proteoglycans in the basement membrane repels albumin
prevent albumin from being freely filtered into the urine? E. The small size of the glomerular basement membrane pores excludes albumin
molecules
Membranous Glomerulonephritis
(Membranous Nephropathy)
Clinical Typical Presentation: Example Case:
o Male, young (20‐40 yo); deep vein thrombosis (after air trip, pulmonary embolus due to loss of antithrombin 3);
edema, eye puffiness, shortness of breath, “tight shoes”; Urine “foamy”; UA: proteinuria 3.5‐12 gm/24hrs;
Cholesterol 320 MG/DL; Serum creatinine: 1.5 mg/DL [n=0.7‐1.5]; Clinical diagnosis = nephrotic syndrome
Characterized by:
o edema, in elderly can masquerade as cardiac failure (puffy eyes)
o thrombosis – due to loss of anti‐thrombin III
o increased risk of infections
o associated with primary diseases versus secondary diseases as in 10% SLE patients
o Proteinuria (non‐selective) – with urinary loss of globulins and albumin
Epidemiology: young/middle age adults between 30 and 60 years of age
30% adults, second most common cause nephrotic syndrome (children 5%)
85% autoimmune (“idiopathic”), 15% secondary
Pathogenesis Characterized by the presence of subepithelial granular deposits (in situ immune complex formation)
85% of cases is caused by autoimmune cross‐react with renal antigen (intrinsic or planted), SLE
Secondary membranous nephropathy occurs to other disorders, including:
o Cancer:
carcinomas (lung, colon, melanoma), leukemia, non‐Hodgkin’s lymphoma
o infections:
malaria, hepatitis B, syphilis, schistosomiasis
o Autoimmune conditions:
Systemic lupus erythematous
o Toxins
Inorganic salts:
gold, mercury
Drugs:
Penicillamine, Captopril, Nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory agents
Pathology: no inflammation (due to subepithelial deposits), no proliferation, capillary wall thickening glomerulus looks
normal
IF = gG + Complement (C3) granular deposits
EM = subepithelial electron dense deposits
Effacement loss of foot processes
Diagnosis: nephrotic syndrome (hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia and lipiduria)
secondary hyperlipidemia, increase total cholesterol, increase low density lipoproteins (LDL) cholesterol,
accelerated atherogenesis
NO complement drop ‐ chronic, relatively slowly progressing
antibody testing for PLA2R, THSD7A (for idiopathic membranous)
Prognosis: One third of patients have spontaneous remission
One third progress to require dialysis
One third continue to have proteinuria, without progression of renal failure
Treatment: difficult, immunosuppressive drugs (Prednisone) DOES NOT RESPOND TO STEROIDS (USUALLY)
non‐specific anti‐proteinuric
secondary: treatment of the underlying disease
recurrence after transplantation
Mechanism Membranous nephropathy: review
o The experimental model of membranous nephropathy was described by Heymann in 1959 in rats (see recorded session “introduction to
glomerular diseases”). However, it was not until recently that this model could be validated in humans…
several families with neonatal membranous nephropathy
mutations in neutral endopeptidase (NEP, podocyte antigen) in mothers with normal fetus
with pregnancy, mother formed antibodies to NEP which circulated across placenta to the NEP antigen of the fetus and led to the in‐situ
formation of sub‐epithelial immune complexes in the glomeruli of the fetus, and clinically with nephrotic syndrome in the newborn.
these observations validated the in situ paradigm in human membranous nephropathy
in “idiopathic” cases of human membranous nephropathy – proteomic analysis of the target antigen identified it as phospholipase A2 receptor
(PLA2R)
another target: thrombospondin type‐1 domain containing 7A (THSD7A)
PLA2R and THSD7A in 80%
20% ?
Microscopy Light “spike and dome” or “holey”on silver stain
o immune complex deposits = silver negative
o basement membrane = silver positive (black)
NO inflammation, no proliferation, diffuse thickening of
the basement membrane”
Fluorescence granular deposits of IgG and C3 along basement
membrane
Electron subepithelial deposits
A 50‐year‐old man with a history of large bowel obstruction is diagnosed with colon cancer A. A spike‐and‐dome pattern of deposition on silver stain
and undergoes resection of his colon. He returns to his physician for his regular checkup B. proliferative glomerulonephritis
and complains that in the past 3 weeks he has not been feeling well and has noticed C. hump‐like subepithelial deposits on light microscopy
significant swelling of his legs. On physical examination, the physician notes 2+ pitting D. Nonlinear mesangial staining with IgA
edema and a blood pressure of 155/94 mm Hg. Urinalysis shows 4+ protein with no RBCs or immunofluorescence
casts. The patient has otherwise been healthy. Which of the following would most likely be E. “Splitting” of the lamina densa
present on a kidney biopsy from this patient?
A 44‐year‐old Caucasian man complains of swelling of his legs and puffiness around his A. anti‐glomerular basement membrane
eyes. His abdomen has become protuberant and he feels shorts of breath. Physical glomerulonephritis (linear along basement membrane)
examination reveals generalized edema and ascites. Total serum protein is 5.2 g/dl B. IgA nephropathy (granular in mesangium)
(reference = 5.5‐8.0 g/dl), and albumin is 1.9 g/dl (reference = 3.5‐5.5 g/dl). Serum C. hereditary nephritis (IF = negative, EM = basket weave)
cholesterol is elevated at 530 mg/dL. There are 5 g of protein in a 24‐hour urine collection. D. Membranous glomerulopathy (granular)
The urinary sediment contains many hyaline casts but no RBCs or inflammatory cells. A E. postinfectious glomerulonephritis
renal biopsy stained by direct immunofluorescence for IgG is shown. Which of the
following is the most likely diagnosis?
Minimal Change Disease
(Lipoid nephrosis, Nll Disease)
Clinical Typical Presentation: Example Case:
o 3 yo boy with periorbital and generalized edema; UA: proteinuria, 2.5 gm/24 hr; Clinical diagnosis:
nephrotic syndrome
Characterized by:
o edema (periorbital, generalized)
Epidemiology: children 1‐7 yo, most common cause of nephrotic syndrome
o no biopsy if uncomplicated clinical course, presumed minimal change disease
o 95% of nephrotic syndrome in children 1‐4 years is Minimal Change Disease very prevalent
o 75% of nephrotic syndrome in children 7‐8 years is Minimal Change Disease
adults only 10% do need a kidney biopsy
Pathogenesis reversible podocyte injury
proteinuria has been attributed to
o circulating (T cell derived) cytokines that cause podocyte damage and effacement of foot processes
o depression of immunity (viral infections, Hodgkin disease)
o NSAIDs (non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs)
Pathology: normal glomeruli in paraffin sections
no immune complex deposits
foot processes effacement by electron microscopy
Diagnosis: nephrotic syndrome – protein loss is selective (smaller plasma proteins albumin)
Prognosis: Very good for children
o several episodes of nephrotic syndrome (relapses), normal renal function (!)
o resolution @ puberty
Treatment: RESPONDS TO STEROIDS
Mechanism Minimal change disease – REVERSIBLE podocyte injury
o Podocyte injury:
podocyte foot processes effacement, loss of slit diaphragm, reversal upon treatment
no‐immune complex deposition, “non‐inflammatory”
o Clinical: NEPHROTIC syndrome
o Relapses, but NO KIDNEY FAILURE
Microscopy Light no inflammation/no cellular proliferation
no immune complex deposits
Uniform and diffuse effacement (fusion) of the epithelial
cell foot processes (red arrows)
Fluorescence Negative
Electron effacement (fusion) of the epithelial cell foot processes
(red arrows)
Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)
Clinical Typical Example Case
Presentation: o 10 yo boy with nephrotic syndrome; 5 year history of relapsing (recurrent) nephrotic syndrome, initially responding to
steroids (similar to Minimal Change), subsequently became steroid‐dependent and steroid‐resistant; rising serum
creatinine (shows progression of sclerosis); clinical diagnosis: nephrotic syndrome, clinically recurrent with renal failure
Characterized by:
o nephrotic syndrome
o higher incidence of hematuria
o reduced GFR [glomerular filtration rate]
o hypertension
o proteinuria (non‐selective)
Epidemiology: adults 35%, most frequent diagnosis in human kidney biopsy
children 10%, older children
African American, Hispanic patients more affected
Etiology:
o Primary – Idiopathic
o Secondary to one of the following conditions
associated with loss of renal tissue’ superimposed on other glomerular diseases (IgAN)
Sickle cell anemia
IV drug use (heroin)
AIDS
morbid obesity
Pathogenesis irreversible injury to podocytes
Pathology: initially only rare glomeruli involved (i.e. focal)
With progression lesions occur in some tufts while sparing others
Affected glomeruli exhibit
o increased mesangial matrix
o obliterated capillary lumina
o deposition of hyaline masses (hyalinosis)
o lipid droplets
Diagnosis: nephrotic syndrome
genetic testing
Prognosis: progression to renal failure, at least 50% end stage kidney disease within 10 years
Treatment: initially may be steroid‐responsive (mimicking minimal change disease)
progressively steroid dependent/resistant DOES NOT RESPOND TO STEROIDS
progressing to end stage kidney disease
recurrence in transplants
Mechanism FSGS: disease progression
o initially only rare glomeruli involved (i.e. focal)
o preferentially juxta‐medullary glomeruli involved (sampling!)
o with disease progression more glomeruli become sclerosed
o segmental sclerosis gradually becomes more advanced & progressing to global sclerosis
o secondary tubular atrophy, interstitial fibrosis, end stage kidney
FSGS is a common phenotype with a diverse etiology
o 3 most common forms are:
Primary FSGS: “idiopathic” or may be due to a circulating factor cytokine
Adaptive FSGS: The adaptive response to nephron is loss associated with…
o (1) obesity, renal ablation, reflux nephropathy; (2) hypertension, body‐building; (3) low birth weight/premature birth; (4) sickle cell disease; (5) scarring of previously
active lesions
APOL1 FSGS: APOL1 FSGS “risk alleles”‐ genetic risk alleles in apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1) in African Americans; 70% of idiopathic FSGS cases in AA relate to APOL1
o 3 less common forms are:
FSGS (high‐penetrance): High‐penetrance mutations in genes encoding slit diaphragm proteins, other
Medication‐associated FSGS: IFN, bisphosphonates, anthracycline, heroin
Viral FSGS: HIV, parvovirus B19
APOL1 FSGS
o Genetic variants in the APOL1 gene account for a large fraction of the high rates of nondiabetic kidney disease in African Americans
APOL1 risk variants have large effects on several different types of kidney disease previously thought to be distinct entities: FSGS, HIV‐
associated nephropathy, severe lupus nephritis, sickle cell nephropathy and unspecified CKD (Chronic Kidney Disease), often previously
labelled as “hypertensive nephropathy in African Americans”
These variants, found only in individuals with recent African ancestry, (<10,000 years) confer enhanced innate immunity against African
trypanosomes.
Where these alleles are nearly absent in populations of European and Asian ancestry
The presence of the alleles is not enough to have the phenotype risk alleles rather than a single‐gene disorder and additional “hits” are
necessary, which may be due genetic, environmental, or both
o APOL1 Nephropathy
People who have at least 1 copy of either the G1 or G2 APOL1 variant (allele) are resistant to
infection by trypanosomes (protozoa), but people who have 2 copies of either variant are at an
increased risk of developing a non‐diabetic kidney disease
Genotype may be G1/G1, G2/G2, or the compound heterozygous state of G1/G2
Microscopy Light increased collagenous extracellular matrix that is expanding the mesangium, and subsequently obliterating the capillary
lumen, or forming adhesions with the Bowman’s capsule
Segmental Sclerosis and halinization of the glomeruli
Global Sclerosis
Fluorescence Often negative, but may be positive for nonspecific focal deposits of IgM, C3, or C1 in the areas of hyalinosis
Electron Effacement of foot processes similar to minimal change disease
Highly Selective Proteinuria
C(IgG)*C(Albumin) or C(IgG)*C(Transferin) is < 0.1
Indicates proteinuria is primarily due to defective charge selectivity with intact size selectivity
Characteristic of childhood minimal change disease
Non‐Selective Proteinuria
C(IgG)*C(Albumin) or C(IgG)*C(Transferin) is > 0.2
Indicates a significant component of abnormal size selectivity
Mixed sized and charge selectivity defect with non‐selective proteinuria is usual with most diseases causing glomerular
proteinuria other than minimal change disease
A 30‐year‐old man with a history of drug A. Acute glomerulonephritis
Normal Glomeruli
addiction presents with a 6‐month history B. Amyloidosis
of progressive swelling in his ankles and C. Crescentic glomerulonephritis
abdomen. Urinalysis shows heavy D. Diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis
proteinuria (>4g /24 hours) but no evidence E. Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis
of inflammatory cells or RBCs . Laboratory
studies reveal hyperlipidemia and
hypoalbuminemia. Serum creatinine level is
normal. The blood test for ANCA is negative. The patient responds well to
treatment with corticosteroids, but edema and proteinuria recur the following
year. The steroid treatment is repeated with the same results. Upon the third
recurrence of edema and proteinuria, the patient becomes steroid resistant. A
renal biopsy is shown. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis for
this patient’s glomerulopathy?
Nephrotic Syndrome with Hematuria
Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN)
(formally called MPGN Type I)
Clinical Typical Presentation: Characterized by:
o Some patients present with:
Hematuria or Proteinuria in the non‐nephrotic range
Combined nephrotic‐nephritic presentation
Epidemiology: older children 10%
adults 10%
Pathogenesis Primary immune complex formation with in situ immune complex formation
Occurs in association with
o hepatitis B and C antigenemia
o systemic lupus erythematosus
o infected atrioventricular shunts
o extrarenal infections with persistent or episodic antigenemia
Pathology: lobular tufts
thick glomerular basement with double contour
IgG + complement
Diagnosis: low complement C3 due to significant immune complex formation
Prognosis: progression to renal failure
Treatment: treatment of underlying disease
Mechanism
Microscopy Light Thick glomerular basement membrane “double contour”
or “tram track” on silver stain or PAS
Fluorescence Granular as a result of immune complex deposition of C3 with IgG, C1q, or C4
Nephrotic presentation of SLE
Electron electron dense deposits, subendothelial and mesangial
o mesangial cells are extending/growing into the
capillary wall chasing the electron dense deposits due
to it’s phagocytic properties
Dense‐Deposit Disease (DDD)
(formally called MPGN Type II or C3 Glomerulonephritis)
Clinical Typical Characterized by:
Presentation: o nephrotic syndrome with hematuria
Epidemiology: Rare
older children
Pathogenesis sustained activation of complement via alternative pathway (non‐antibody mediated), no antigen‐antibody formation
despite strong associations between C3 dysregulation and DDD, the evidence in humans is predominantly
circumstantial and it is still not clear how the complement abnormality induces the glomerular changes
Pathology: Excessive complement activation – C3 nephritic factor (IgG antibody that stabilizes C3 convertase
o causes persistent complement activation
resulting in a decrease in C3 levels
NO immunoglobulin by immunofluorescence
dense deposits within lamina densa by electron microscopy
Diagnosis: complement serum C3 levels
molecular studies
Prognosis: poor, progression to renal failure
recurs more frequently in renal transplants
Treatment: new therapies controlling complement activation:
o Eculizumab, humanized monoclonal antibody functioning as a terminal complement inhibitor
Mechanism Note: in patients who show C3 only by immunofluorescence but NO dense deposits by electron microscopy – “C3 glomerulopathy”
Microscopy Light
Fluorescence Granular and linear pattern of C3
NO Immunoglobulins
Electron dense deposits in lamina densa (red triangle) and the subendothelial space of the GBM transformed into irregular, “ribbon
like”, extremely electron‐dense structure
Systemic Diseases
Diabetic Nepropathy
Clinical Typical Presentation: Characterized by:
o proteinuria,
o progressive decline in GFR (glomerular filtration rate)
o hypertension
Epidemiology: Diabetic nephropathy is the most common cause for ESRD (End Stage Renal Disease) in the USA
Pathogenesis Nonenzymatic glycosylation of the GBM and tubular basement membrane
o Which increases vessel and tubular cell basement membrane permeability to proteins
o Produces hyaline arteriolosclerosis and involves the efferent arterioles before the afferent arterioles
Pathology: Diabetic glomerulosclerosis = progressive thickening of glomerular basement membrane and increase in
mesangial matrix eventually forming KW (Kimmelstiel‐Wilson) nodules
Pathologic‐based staging of DKD:
o Class I = glomerular basement membrane thickening
o Class II = > 25% expansion of the mesangial space, class III = nodular sclerosis, class IV = global sclerosis
Diabetic glomerulosclerosis underlies the clinical syndrome of diabetic nephropathy:
o Proteinuria
o Progressive decline in GFR
o Hypertension
overt nephropathy correlates with retinopathy
o Kidney biopsy NOT done if course typical (only after > 5 years since onset of
diabetes)
o Presents with cotton wool spots, flame hemorrhages
similar lesions are also caused by
alpha‐toxin of Clostridium novyi
dot‐blot hemorrhages
Diagnosis: Microalbuminuria – first sign of diabetic glomerulopathy
o Albumin levels = 1.5 to 8 mg/dL
o Usually begins 5 to 10 years after poor glycemic control
Prognosis: Diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetes can be more difficult to predict because the onset of diabetes is not
usually well established. Without intervention, 20‐40 percent of patients with type 2 diabetes/microalbuminuria,
will evolve to macroalbuminuria
Treatment: ACE inhibitor
thickening of the basement membrane is due to non‐enzymatic glycosylation of the vascular basement
afferent arteriole efferent arteriole
Mechanism DIABETES
membrane nonenzymatic glycosylation of vascular
basement membrane
o resulting in hyaline arteriosclerosis of the efferent arterioles > efferent arteriole afferent afferent
which increases GFR leading to mesangial expansion high glomerular filtration pressure
hyperfiltration
microalbuminuria
nephrotic syndrome
o
Nodular masses (Kimmelstiel‐Wilson) develop in the mesangial matrix
o Nodules due to increased type 4 collagen synthesis and trapped proteins
o
Fluorescence Nonspecific
Electron The lamina dense shows thickening of the basement membrane Shows fusion of podocytes
Systemic Amyloidosis
Clinical Typical Presentation: o Characterized by: multisystem
o nephrotic syndrome, cardiac, peripheral nerve
o beware of external signs ‐ relatively rare but can be very helpful:
macroglossia
periorbital purpura
submandibular swelling
shoulder pad
nail lesions
Epidemiology: rare, underdiagnosed
Pathogenesis Underlying mechanism is protein folding disorders ‐ beta pleated sheet
But what leads to the disease can be variable
o plasma cell dyscrasia AL light chain derived
o underlying chronic inflammation AA amyloidosis
o genetic predisposition mutation in the amyloidotic protein
o other/unknown…
Pathology: kidney involvement in 70%, ‐ cardiac, peripheral nerves
Diagnosis: tissue diagnosis: biopsy of an affected organ or a “surrogate” site
Prognosis: amyloid type and stage dependent, delay in diagnosis
Treatment: amyloid protein type dependent
aggressive chemotherapy with stem cell rescue
treatment of underlying inflammation,
liver transplantation, pharmacologic clinical trials
Mechanism AL – amyloid Light chain (derived from immunoglobulin light chain)
o Clonal proliferation of plasma cells synthesizing abnormal immunoglobulin
plasma cell dyscrasia (small clone, low tumor burden [“small dangerous clones”]) aka “primary”, ca 85% of AL
multiple myeloma (overt plasma cell malignancy) 5‐15%
derived from immunoglobulin lambda or kappa light chain
2/3 lamda > 1/3 kappa
Normal is 1/3 lambda and 2/3 kappa
intrinsic properties of the light chain
Microscopy Light Routine stain: extracellular “amorphous” deposits, not‐
specific for amyloid
Need Congo red stain with green birefringence under
polarized light [“apple green” birefringence] due to
amyloid deposition in the mesangium
Amyloid can be detected in subcutaneous fat
o Fat biopsy typically from periumbilical abdomen for
diagnosis and screening of patients at risk (i.e. known
plasma cell dyscrasia)
Fluorescence
Electron Amyloid is fibrillary (appears as fibers) only by electron
microscopy
Amyloidosis is a consequence of the deposition of abnormally folded protein, which acquires a beta‐pleated sheet conformation.
Although many (>32) different proteins have been shown to form deposits of amyloid, all deposits of amyloid share the same
staining pattern, with an affinity to Congo red dye and a fibrillar ultrastructural appearance.
Among the various amyloidoses, some are localized while other may be either systemic or systemic and/or localized. While only a
few amyloidosis types are seen in the majority of patients, some amyloidoses are rare or exceedingly rare. In medicine, the most
important are those which are treatable versus not‐treatable; hereditary amyloidoses also require genetic counselling.
The most common amyloidoses include: AL (amyloid light chain), AA (amyloid A protein) and AB (amyloid Beta protein). The latter,
associated with Alzheimer’s disease is an example of a localized amyloidosis limited to the central nervous system. It will be
discussed in some detail during the neuropathology lectures.
Among the various amyloid types, 85% of patients develop amyloidosis as a result of the deposition of monoclonal immunoglobulin
light chains (AL); AL is associated with an underlying clonal proliferation of plasma cells. These plasma cells produce an abnormal
immunoglobulin light chain, which circulates in the blood and can form deposits in various organs, typically the kidney, the heart,
and peripheral nerves.
AA amyloidosis, also referred to as a reactive systemic amyloidosis, is derived from SAA protein (serum amyloid A protein). This
disease is secondary to an associated, long‐standing, inflammatory condition leading to a sustained elevation of SAA levels. In the
US, and other developed countries, such diseases include: rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn diseases);
heroin abusers may also be affected. Deposits of amyloid are systemic but target primarily the kidneys, liver and spleen.
AA amyloidosis is a serious complication in a subset of patients affected by autoinflammatory diseases that are secondary to
mutations in genes (MEFV gene) encoding proteins (pyrin) that are involved in the regulation of innate immunity. The best know
example of these diseases is Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF). Presents with episodic fever, arthritis, pleuritic, peritonitis. Usually
occurs in people of Mediterranean origin: Sephardic Jews, Armenians, Arabs, Greeks, Turks, and Italians. Treatment = Colchicine for
prevention of attacks of fever
Hereditary amyloidoses are individually rare but collectively contribute almost 10% of systemic amyloidoses. In these diseases, the
amyloid protein itself is affected by a mutation. The most prevalent is Amyloidosis Derived from Transthyretin (ATTR). Interestingly,
even a normal transthyretin (wild type), is prone to undergo fibrillogenesis in older individuals, mainly males. ATTR affects primarily
the heart and peripheral nerves.
Amyloid derived from Leukocyte Chemotactic factor 2 (ALect2) has recently emerged as a systemic amyloidosis with predominantly
renal involvement, affecting predominantly Mexican Americans. Currently, no treatment is available for this disease and it is
important to avoid its misdiagnosis as AL.
Hemodialysis‐associated amyloidosis: long term hemodialysis; derived from beta2‐macroglobulin (not effectively removed by
dialysis); periarthritis, carpal tunnel syndrome, tenosynovitis; incidence decreased with newer dialysis membranes; Treatment is
with kidney transplantation
Localized amyloidosis: forming nodules in the lung, larynx, skin, urinary bladder, mostly AL
Endocrine amyloid
Diagnosis of amyloidosis is based on pathologic examination of tissue. In routinely stained sections, more advanced deposits appear
amorphous, “hyaline‐like”, and Congo red stain is required for diagnosis. While the kidney is frequently involved, fat biopsy may be
used for screening patients.
Differential diagnosis of proteinuria/nephrotic syndrome in adults:
Focal and Segmental Glomerular Sclerosis/Minimal Change Disease
Membranous nephropathy
Diabetes
Amyloidosis
Other types of amyloidosis include:
Cardiac amyloidosis – heart failure, arrhythmia
Polyneuropathy – sensory and autonomic disturbances
Amyloid deposits are unevenly distributed in tissues
Correct identification of the amyloid protein type is critical since treatments are based on the protein type.
For patients with light chain amyloidosis treatment strategies involve aggressive chemotherapy with bone marrow
transplant.
Patients with AA amyloidosis are treated with various anti‐inflammatory drugs.
Patients with hereditary amyloidoses have been treated with liver transplantation as a form of a “surgical gene therapy”.
However, recently, pharmacologic treatments have emerged and are currently available in clinical trials.
Lupus Nephritis
(Systemic Lupus Erythematous [SLE])
Clinical Typical Presentation: Characterized by:
o Multisystem – can cause wide variety of patterns of damage to kidney
o hematuria
o nephritic syndrome
o a nephrotic syndrome
o hypertension
o renal failure
Epidemiology: primarily young women
Pathogenesis autoimmune: anti DNA, erythrocytes, platelets
genetic predisposition: familial, HLA association, other genes
environmental triggers
Pathology: kidney involvement in 60‐70% by light microscopy
different patterns (class I‐V)
o Class 4 is most common associated with MPGN which causes the nephritic syndrome
o 10% of patients develop lupus membranous nephropathy (Class 5) with nephrotic syndrome
abundant immune complex deposits
Diagnosis: Kidney biopsy
autoantibodies: ANA’s, anti‐Sm, anti‐ dsDNA
Prognosis: kidney involvement significant
Treatment: variable level of immunosuppression largely dependent on activity of kidney involvement
Mechanism
Microscopy
Light Wire loop – thickening of the basement membrane
This disease will be covered more extensively later and will involve separate lectures as well as small groups. Here the discussion is
limited to the basics of pathologic evaluation.
1. Typical presentation:
a. very diverse, multisystem but renal involvement with edema is common
2. Epidemiology:
a. primarily young women
3. Etiology/pathogenesis:
a. immune DNS‐anti DNA complexes
4. Pathology:
a. kidney involvement is seen in 60‐70% of patients by light microscopy and involves different patterns (class I – V)
most of which are associated with abundant immune complexes and a variable proliferative activity.
5. Laboratory tests
a. involve testing for various autoantibodies including ANAs, anti‐Sm, anti‐dsDNA, etc
6. Prognosis
a. is largely dependent on the severity of kidney involvement and the response to treatment
7. Treatments
a. involve variable levels of immunosuppression, largely dependent on the activity of kidney involvement. Kidney
biopsy is, therefore, frequently performed to assess the activity and the potential for reversibility of renal
involvement and, thereby, to guide the intensity of treatment
Vascular Diseases
Thrombotic Microangiopathies (TMA)
(Umbrella term for clinical syndromes with thrombosis, thrombocytopenia, or microangiopathic hemolytic anemia)
Typical Presentation: Characterized by:
o Typical HUS:
Sudden onset after gastrointestinal or flulike prodromal episode including:
Bleeding manifestations (hematemesis and melena)
Diarrhea
Severe oliguria
Hematuria
Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MAHA)
Atypical HUS:
No diarrhea
o HUS and TTP have some clinical overlapping features
Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia
Thrombocytopenia
o TTP has a dominant involvement of the central nervous system where the kidneys are less commonly involved
Epidemiology: Children
Adults
Pathogenesis endothelial injury with platelet activation & aggregation
o Primary TMA:
typical hemolytic‐uremic syndrome (HUS)
75% of cases follow intestinal infection with
o Shiga toxin E. coli (O157:H7) due to ingestion of infected ground meat
o Shigella dysenteriae type 1 due to the Shiga toxin carried by neutrophils in the circulation
Renal glomerular endothelial cells are toxin targets due to expression of the membrane toxin receptor leading to
o increased adhesion of leukocytes
o increased endothelin production and loss of endothelial nitric oxide favoring vasoconstriction
o endothelial damage presence of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
Resulting cell death leads to
o Thrombosis in the glomerular capillaries, afferent arterioles, and interlobular arteries
o Vasoconstriction resulting in the characteristic thrombotic microangiopathy
Clinical studies:
o recent diarrhea, melena (blood in stool)
o renal failure,
o thrombocytopenia,
o schistocytes (fragmented red blood cells) in peripheral blood smears
atypical HUS (aHUS) = complement mediated TMA
Unregulated/excessive activation of the alternative complement pathway leading to complement‐mediated injury:
transformation from low‐grade physiologic activity (“tick‐over”) to unrestrained hyperactivity
Triggers: excessive complement activation after minor vascular injuries
o acquired autoantibodies against complement components
o inherited abnormalities of complement regulatory proteins
Human diseases: glomerular = dense deposit disease/C3 glomerulonephritis
Systemic: aHUS
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)
platelet aggregation due to von Willebrand factor‐cleaving protease (ADAMTS13) deficiency leading to formation of
unusually large von Willebrand factor multimers leading to excessive thrombosis
o absence/decrease of ADAMTS13, the von Willebrand factor cleaving metalloprotease
o acquired due to autoimmune antibody to ADAMTS13, or
o hereditary
o massive platelet thrombi
o Secondary TMA:
Drug‐induced TMA [DITMA]
2 mechanisms
o immune‐mediated reactions and
o dose‐ or duration‐related toxic reactions
Typical History:
o Patient on chemotherapy, who suddenly develops renal failure +/‐ mental status changes (confusion)
Malignant Hypertension and TMA
arteries and arterioles with fibrinoid necrosis narrowing the lumen
microangiopathic hemolytic anemia due to mechanical injury (shearing)
renal function and MAHA usually recover with management of blood pressure
Pathology: widespread thrombosis in small vessels with fibrin thrombi predominantly involving glomeruli
similar morphology despite differences in pathogenesis
Diagnosis: thrombocytopenia
schistocytes (fragmented red blood cells) in peripheral blood smears
ADAMTS13 (TTP)
Prognosis: Serious
Treatment: supportive
underlying disease
Eculizumab antibodies against complement (C5) in atypical HUS
plasma exchange to replace ADAMTS13
Light Fibrin thrombi in glomeruli and small vessels; endothelial
injury
Schistocytes n peripheral blood smears
Diseases of blood vessels: several diseases, including benign nephrosclerosis, malignant hypertension, atherosclerosis, renal
artery stenosis, thromboembolic diseases and vasculitides are covered by separate lectures. In this lecture I will discuss
thrombotic microangiopathies.
Thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) is an umbrella term for various clinical syndromes with:
‐ thrombosis (widespread platelet‐rich thrombi) in the microcirculation
‐ thrombocytopenia (consumption of platelets)
‐ microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (narrowing of blood vessels by thrombi)
Thus the clinical picture consists of:
‐ microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MAHA)
‐ thrombocytopenia
‐ renal failure
Typical clinical presentation of TMA:
‐ microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, renal failure (some) various clinical syndromes with
clinical overlap (HUS, TTP) diarrhea in typical HUS [hemolytic uremic syndrome) no diarrhea in atypical HUS, TTP
(thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura)
Epidemiology:
‐ children, adults
Etiology/pathogenesis: endothelial injury with platelet activation and aggregation
‐ primary TMA:
• typical hemolytic‐uremic syndrome (HUS), 75% of cases, infection with E. coli producing Shiga toxin E. coli
(STEC‐ HUS) atypical HUS (aHUS)‐ uncontrolled complement activation thrombotic thrombocytopenic
purpura (TTP), platelet aggregation due to von Willebrand factor‐cleaving protease (ADAMTS13)
deficiency leading to formation of unusually large von Willebrand factor multimers
‐ secondary TMA:
• drug toxicities (chemotherapy)
• malignant hypertension, scleroderma
• antiphospholipid antibodies (SLE), pregnancy, contraceptives…
Pathology:
‐ widespread thrombosis in small vessels and injury to endothelial cells; similar morphology despite differences in
pathogenesis
Laboratory tests:
‐ thrombocytopenia
‐ schistocytes (fragmented red blood cells) in peripheral blood smears
‐ ADAMTS13 (TTP)
Prognosis:
‐ serious
Treatment:
‐ supportive,
‐ underlying disease,
‐ eculizumab antibodies against complement (C5) in atypical HUS
‐ plasma exchange in TTP to replace ADAMTS13
Questions
A 7 yo boy developed malaise followed by bloody diarrhea. He was previously healthy with a good appetite and he really enjoyed
his hamburger, which his father bought him from a street stand…His mother noticed that his urine turned red and was also
diminished in volume…His kidney biopsy will show:
A. subepithelial hump‐like deposits
B. IgA deposits in glomeruli
C. Crescents in >50% of glomeruli
D. IgA deposits in glomeruli and skin capillaries
E. Thrombi in glomerular capillaries
Clinical studies will most likely show:
A. renal failure,
B. thrombocytopenia,
C. schistocytes (fragmented red blood cells) in peripheral blood smears
D. all of the above (a‐c)
E. crescents in the glomeruli
A 6‐year‐old boy presented with upper respiratory tract infection. After two days, he developed an erythematous, nonpruritic rash
that progressed proximally from both feet to thighs and upper extremities and subsequently abdominal pain associated with
melena. On physical examination, there was pharyngeal erythema, and nontender, nonblanching purpuric rash involving both upper
and lower extremities with a mild pedal edema.
Laboratory tests showed
mild leukocytosis (WBC: 10,900/microL)
macroscopic hematuria on urinalysis
Hb: 13.5 g/dL [N: 11.5‐15.0]
Hct: 41.2%; [N:35.0‐45.0]
serum Creatinine: 0.9 mg/dL[N: 0.5‐1.0mg/dL]
stool for occult blood: positive
His kidney biopsy is likely to show:
A. Thrombi in glomeruli
B. Basket weave on electron microscopy
C. Postinfecttious glomerulonephritis with “humps”
D. Thrombi in glomeruli associated with positivity for IgA
E. Mesangial IgA deposits
Diseases Affecting Tubules and Interstitium
Tubulointerstitial Nephritis (TIN)
Tubulo‐interstitial nephritis refers to a group of inflammatory diseases of the kidneys that primarily involve the interstitium AND tubules.
o The glomeruli may be spared altogether or affected only late in the course
Two types of Tubulo‐interstitial nephritis
o Infectious, the most common diseases of the kidney caused by bacterial infection where the renal pelvis is prominently
involved – where the more descriptive term pyelonephritis (of the pelvis) is used.
o Interstitial nephritis is used for TIN that are Non‐infectious (nonbacterial) in origin including
Drug and toxin‐induced (second most common)
tubular injury resulting
Metabolic disorders – hypokalemia, urate, oxalate
Initially only the tubules are affected associated with acute uric acid nephropathy and light chain cast nephropathy, where
with progression of the disease there is also involvement of the interstitium
Physical injury – irradiation
Viral infections – polyomavirus nephritis
Immune reactions
Neoplasms – multiple myeloma
Acute Pyelonephritis
Overview Acute pyelonephritis, a common suppurative inflammation of the kidney and the renal pelvis caused by bacterial infection.
o An important manifestation of urinary tract infection (UTI)
which can involves
Lower urinary tract cystitis, prostatitis, urethritis
Upper urinary tract pyelonephritis
or both
o The majority of cases of pyelonephritis are associated with infection of the lower urinary tract.
Which may remain localized without extending to involving the kidney.
Which makes UTIs an extremely common clinical problem.
Pathogenesis The principal causative organism are the enteric gram‐negative rods
o Escherichia coli (the most common)
o Other important organisms that are associated with recurrent infections include:
Proteus, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, and Pseudomonas;
o Rare organisms include:
Staphylococci and Streptococcus faecalis
Route of Progression: Bacteria reach the kidney from the:
o lower urinary tract ascending infection
this is the most important and most common route bacteria reach the kidney
o bloodstream hematogenous infection
Pyelonephritis may result from seeding of the kidneys by bacteria in the course of septicemia or infective endocarditis
Bacteria can adhere to mucosal surfaces Followed by colonization of the distal urethra (introitus
in females) OR use fimbriae to attach to the surface urothelial cells
Organisms then reach the bladder through colony growth and by moving against the flow of urine
o Which may occur during urethral instrumentation including catheterization and cystoscopy
In the absence of instrumentation, UTIs most commonly affect females
due to the close proximity of the female urethra to the rectum favoring the colonization by
enteric bacteria
o Infections can also be caused by:
Outflow obstruction or Bladder dysfunction causes the natural defense mechanisms of the
bladder to be overwhelmed and allows for developing a UTI
Stasis – allows the bacteria to be introduced into the bladder and multiply without being
flushed out or destroyed by the bladder wall (bladder mucosa has antimicrobial properties)
Bacteria can then ascend along the ureters to infect the renal pelvis and parenchyma
o UTIs are frequent with urinary tract obstruction, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and uterine
prolapse
Diabetics are also at an increased risk for UTIs
o due to the increased susceptibility to infection and neurogenic bladder dysfunction
Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) Define = associated with incompetence of the vesicoureteral orifice
o Which is an important cause of ascending infections
The reflux allows bacteria to ascend the ureter into the pelvis
Etiology:
o Present in 20‐40% of young children with a UTI
Congenital defect that results in incompetence of the ureterovesical valve
o Acquired in patients with a flaccid bladder due to spinal cord injury or with neurogenic bladder dysfunction secondary to
diabetes
Pathogenesis:
o VUR results in residual urine within the urinary tract after voiding favoring bacterial growth
o Intrarenal Reflux occurs when infected bladder urine can be propelled up to the renal pelvis and into the renal parenchyma
through open ducts at the tips of the papillae
Morphology Gross Features:
o One or both kidneys can be involved
o The affected kidney may be normal in size or enlarged
o Characterized by:
Discrete, yellowish, raised abscesses which are grossly apparent on the renal surface
Acute Pyelonephritis is In the early stages, pus formation (patchy interstitial
characterized by suppurative inflammation) is limited to the interstitial tissue
liquefactive necrosis with o but later abscesses rupture into tubules.
abscess formation within Where large masses of intratubular neutrophils (PMN),
the renal parenchyma giving rise to the characteristic white cell casts found in
the urine.
Typically, the glomeruli are not affected. NO BIOPSY
NEEDED!
When obstruction is prominent, the pus may not drain and
then fills the renal pelvis, calyces, and ureter, producing
pyonephrosis.
Papillary Necrosis is a With three predisposing conditions:
second form of o Diabetes, UTI, Analgesic abuse, sickle cell anemia,
pyelonephritis where obstruction, and tuberculosis
necrosis affects the renal This lesion consists of a combination of ischemic and
papillae suppurative necrosis of the tips of the renal pyramids (renal
papillae).
The pathognomonic gross feature of papillary necrosis is
sharply defined gray‐white to yellow necrosis of the apical
two thirds of the pyramids.
One papilla or several or all papillae may be affected.
Microscopically, the papillary tips show characteristic
coagulative necrosis, with surrounding neutrophilic infiltrate
Acute or Chronic Cystitis – In long‐standing cases associated with obstruction,
inflammation of the o the bladder may be grossly hypertrophic with trabeculation
bladder of its walls
o The bladder may be thinned and markedly distended from
retention of urine.
Polyomavirus nephritis – Polyoma virus (arrows) nephropathy
viral pyelonephritis Occurs in renal transplants (5%)
Can mimics rejection (blue arrows)
Diagnosis: immuno stain, brown nuclei
Electron microscopy – inclusions
o Dilation or contraction of tubules, with atrophy of the lining epithelium.
Many of the dilated tubules contain pink to blue, glassy‐appearing PAS‐positive casts, known as colloid casts
Which suggest the appearance of thyroid tissue called thyroidization
Often, neutrophils are seen within tubules.
o Chronic inflammatory cell infiltration and fibrosis involving the calyceal mucosa and wall
o Arteriolosclerosis caused by the frequently associated hypertension
o Glomerulosclerosis that usually develops as a secondary process caused by nephron loss (a maladaptation discussed earlier).
Clinical Many patients with chronic pyelonephritis seek medical attention relatively late in the course of the disease due to the
o gradual onset of renal insufficiency
o signs of kidney disease are noticed on routine laboratory tests.
o With the development of hypertension.
The radiologic image is characteristic:
o The affected kidney is asymmetrically contracted, with some degree of blunting and deformity of the calyceal system
(caliectasis).
o If the disease is bilateral and progressive, tubular dysfunction occurs with loss of concentrating ability, manifested by
polyuria and nocturia.
Some patients ultimately develop secondary glomerulosclerosis, associated with proteinuria
o eventually, these injuries all contribute to progressive chronic kidney disease.
Drug‐Induced Interstitial Nephritis
Non‐Infectious Acute drug‐induced tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN) occurs as an adverse reaction to any of an increasing number of drugs.
Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Acute drug‐induced TIN is associated most frequently with
o synthetic penicillins (methicillin, ampicillin)
o synthetic antibiotics (rifampin)
o diuretics (thiazides)
o nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory agents
o numerous other drugs (phenindione, cimetidine).
Pathogenesis Many features of the disease suggest an immune mechanism.
Clinical evidence of hypersensitivity includes
o latent period
o eosinophilia and rash
o the idiosyncratic nature of the drug reaction (i.e., the lack of dose dependency)
o recurrence of hypersensitivity after re‐exposure to the same drug or others that are similar in structure.
Serum IgE levels are increased type I hypersensitivity
Presence of positive skin tests to drugs a T cell–mediated (type IV) hypersensitivity reaction.
The most likely sequence of pathogenic events is as follows:
o The drugs act as haptens that, during secretion by tubules, covalently bind to some cytoplasmic or extracellular component of
tubular cells and become immunogenic.
o The resultant tubulointerstitial injury is then caused by IgE‐ and cell mediated immune reactions to tubular cells or their
basement membranes.
Morphology The abnormalities in acute drug‐induced nephritis are in the interstitium
o which shows pronounced edema and infiltration by mononuclear cells, principally lymphocytes and
macrophages
o Eosinophils and neutrophils may be present, often in large numbers.
With some drugs (e.g., methicillin, thiazides, rifampin), interstitial non‐necrotizing granulomas with
giant cells may be seen.
The glomeruli are normal except in some cases caused by nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory agents, in
which the hypersensitivity reaction also leads to podocyte foot process effacement and the nephrotic
syndrome.
Clinical The disease begins about 15 days (range, 2 to 40 days) after exposure to the drug
characterized by
o fever
o eosinophilia (which may be transient or in the urine)
o a rash (in about 25% of persons)
o renal abnormalities/failure
Urinary findings include
o Hematuria
o minimal or no proteinuria
o leukocyturia (sometimes including eosinophils)
o Acute renal failure – associated with an elevated serum creatinine with oliguria develops in about 50% of cases, particularly in
older patients.
Clinical recognition of drug‐induced kidney injury is imperative
o because withdrawal of the offending drug is followed by recovery
Typical Presentation A 29 yo man has developed a fever and skin rash over the past 3 days
Five days later he had increasing malaise and sought medical attention.
PE: maculopapular erythematous rash on his trunk was nearly faded away.
Vitals:
o Temp = 37.1 °C
o BP = 135/85 mm Hg
o Serum creatinine: 2.8 mg/dL
o UA: 2+ proteinuria, 1+ hematuria, glucose (‐), ketones (‐), nitrite (‐)
o Urine sediment showed RBCs and WBCs, some of which were eosinophils…
Hx:
o recent treatment with antibiotic (ampicillin) for a sore throat…
Clinical diagnosis:
o suspect acute drug‐induced interstitial nephritis
o Immune mechanism: Latent period, eosinophilia & rash
o Idiosyncratic nature of the drug reaction (i.e. the lack of dose dependency)
o Recurrence of hypersensitivity after re‐exposure to the same/similar drug
Over the Counter NSAIDS:
Medications Acute hemodynamic (inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis)
Acute hypersensitivity interstitial nephritis
Clinical: renal failure + nephrotic syndrome where renal failure is due to interstitial nephritis
Pathology:
o interstitial nephritis
o minimal change disease‐like
Chinese herb nephropathy:
Aristolochic acid = potent nephrotoxin
o rapidly progressive interstitial fibrosis and end‐stage renal disease [ESRD]
o Presentation of ESRD is a young women using a Chinese herb as part of a slimming regimen
Metabolic‐Induced Interstitial Nephritis
Urate acute, predominantly tubular component, chronic – also interstitial
Acute uric acid nephropathy:
o leukemia/lymphoma on chemotherapy (tumor lysis syndrome)
Chronic urate (gouty) nephropathy
o tophi: urate crystals + inflammatory reaction
Frozen section – polarized light
Nephrolithiasis ‐ stones
*Outline of urate crystal
Oxalate Acute oxalate nephropathy
o primary (hereditary) hyperoxaluria
o ethylene glycol (antifreeze) intoxication (acute)
o enteric hyperoxaluria
o exposure to the anesthetic agent methoxyflurane
o pyridoxine (vitamin B6) deficiency
o excessive ingestion of vitamin C, diet rich in oxalic acid (rhubarb, cocoa, parsley, nuts)
Chronic oxalate nephropathy may occur after bariatric surgery (slimming surgery causing malabsorption)
o Associated with primary hyperoxaluria
calcium oxalate crystals: translucent crystals of different
shapes, predominantly intraluminal, under polarized light
strongly birefringent , fan‐like, sheaf‐like, or irregular shapes
Hypercalcemia Causes bone resorption
Neoplasm ‐Induced Interstitial Nephritis
Multiple Myeloma Uric acid (therapy)
Hypercalcemia – bone resorption
Light chain casts: monoclonal
o Free light chains produced by malignant plasma cells are circulating in blood and filtered into urine,
subsequently precipitate in distal tubules as intratubular light chain casts which causes RENAL FAILURE!!!
A 32 yo computer programmer presents with generalized edema and unintentional A. His biopsy will show crescents
weight gain. In general he has been healthy. Only recently he complained of a lower B. His biopsy will look normal by light microscopy
back pain during a period requiring long hours at the computer… However, the pain was C. His biopsy will show subepithelial deposits
relieved with some over the counter meds. His urinalysis shows 3+ protein, his serum D. He most likely has interstitial nephritis and minimal
creatinine is 5.0 MG/DL [n=0.7‐1.5]. You are suspecting that … change disease
E. e. He has postinfectious glomerulonephritis
A 26 yo female is discovered to have elevated serum creatinine level. She has been A. You suspect cancer as a cause of her renal failure
healthy, well nourished. In fact she has been trying to shed some weight but with no B. You ask her about all her prescription medications
great success… C. She probably has reflux nephropathy
D. She has acute pyelonephritis
E. You ask her about her about herbal preparations
Acute Tubular Injury (ATI)
Clinical Typical Characterized by:
Presentation: o Oliguria with elevation of BUN and Creatinine
o Metabolic acidosis
o Hyperkalemia
o UA: Dirty brown granular casts and epithelial
casts
Two Major Types of ATI
o Ischemic Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN):
Most common cause of ATI
Due to a decrease blood flow caused by
severe hemorrhage
severe renal vasoconstriction
hypotension
dehydration
shock
acute pancreatitis
o Nephrotoxic Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN):
Large number of causes including:
Drugs – Polymyxin, methicillin, gentamicin, sulfonamides
Radiographic contrast dye agents
Heavy metals – mercury, lead, and gold
Organic solvents – carbon tetrachloride, Chloroform, Methyl alcohol
Ethylene glycol – antifreeze poisoning causes calcium oxalate crystals
to precipitate in the tubules (seen on polarized light)
o Ethylene glycol is a colorless, odorless, sweet liquid, found in
antifreeze. It may be drunk accidentally or purposefully. When
broken down by the body to glycolic and oxalic acid. Calcium
oxalate crystals may be seen in the urine acidosis or an increased
osmol gap in the blood
Mushroom poisoning
Phenol
Pesticides
Myoglobin
Epidemiology: most common cause of acute renal failure
Pathogenesis ischemic tubular injury and toxic injury
o necrosis of segments of the tubules (typically proximal tubules)
o FOCAL
o proteinaceous casts in distal tubules
o interstitial edema
o disturbances in blood flow (intra‐renal vasoconstriction)
o reduced GFR (glomerular filtration rate)
o diminished delivery of oxygen/nutrients to tubular epithelial cells
Pathology: tubular necrosis, exfoliation…regeneration
Normal tubules (left) versus ischemic tubules
(right)
Diagnosis: renal failure
diagnosis is usually based on clinical grounds
Prognosis: reversible
Excellent prognosis if the patient survives the underling disease and if the patient had no preexisting
kidney disease
Treatment: Supportive
ATI Typical Presentation A 20 yo college student was involved in a motorcycle accident with acute loss of blood upon arrival of paramedics, his BP was
low and after stabilization of acute bleeding he was transported to a hospital, where he received a transfusion of 3 units of
packed RBCs. Over the next week his serum creatinine increased to 4 mg/dL and his urinary output decreased
Clinical diagnosis:
o acute kidney injury (AKI) due to acute tubular injury (ATI), primarily ischemic
o He underwent hemodialysis for the next 2 weeks and subsequently developed marked polyuria with urinary output close to 3
L/day.
o His renal function gradually returned to normal.
Combined Acute Tubular Injury (ATI)
ATI Combined Combined (Ischemic and Nephrotoxic)
o mismatched blood transfusion
o hemolytic crises (hemoglobinuria)
o skeletal muscle injury (myoglobinuria)
o intratubular casts, crystals
o frequently also interstitial component as well
ATI Combined Typical College student involved in a motorcycle accident severe blunt trauma to the abdomen and extremities oliguria and dark brown
Presentation urine over 3 days…Urine dipstick analysis positive for blood. Urine microscopic urinalysis negative for RBCs. BUN increased to 38
mg/dL…
Clinical diagnosis:
o acute tubular injury (ATI) toxic and ischemic
o dialysis for the next 3 weeks improvement
o Urinary output >3 L/24 hrs for 1 week before BUN normalized
Explanation:
o This patient sustained muscle crash injury that resulted in myoglobinemia and myoglobinuria.
o The large amount of excreted myoglobin was toxic to tubules and this patient developed acute tubular injury (ATI)
o With supportive care, the tubular epithelium can regenerate, and renal function can be restored.
o During the recovery phase there is polyuria because the glomerular filtrate cannot be adequately reabsorbed by the damaged
tubular epithelium
Urolithiasis (Urinary Tract Obstruction)
Renal Calculi Occurs in up to 6% of the population
Men are affected more often than women
Stone Composition Most stones (75%) are calcium oxalate stones
Magnesium ammonium phosphate (struvite) stones
o associated with infection by urea‐splitting bacteria (Proteus)
o often form large staghorn calculi
o
Uric acid stones are seen in gout, leukemia, acidic urine
Cystine stones are uncommon
Pathology Most stones are unilateral stones that are formed in the calyx, pelvis, and urinary bladder
Clinical features Calcium stones are radiopaque and can be seen on x‐ray
Renal colic may occur if small stones pass into the ureters
Stones may cause:
o Hematuria
o Urinary obstruction
o Predispose to infection
Treatment of Stones Is with lithotripsy or endoscopic removal
Content Precipitates with Frequency Age Radiology Shape Causes Treatment
Calcium Calcium oxalate = Type 1: Adults and Opaque Envelope or dumbbell Hypocitraturia often associated with a decrease in Thiazides, citrate, low‐
hypocitraturia 80% children urine pH sodium diet
Can result from ethylene glycol ingestion, vitamin C
abuse, hypocitraturia, Malabsorption (Crohn’s)
Presentation of Renal Calculi
Population Increase incidence in males >40 yo
Signs and Symptoms Nausea and vomiting; Pain radiates to flank area; Sudden onset of severe flank
pain that radiates to the back; the pain maybe intermittent depending on stone
movement
Risk Factors Infection; Urinary stasis; Immobility; Hypercalcemia; increased uric acid;
increased urinary oxalate level
Diagnosis: Urinalysis (10–15 red blood cells per high power field); cystoscopy; X‐ray; stone
analysis; Blood test (calcium, oxalate, uric acid)
A retired dentist developed a sudden onset of a severe flank pain radiating to A. Nephrolithiasis
the back with nausea and vomiting. Urinalysis showed 10–15 red blood cells B. Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
per high power field. He denied any history of alcohol or recreational drug use. C. Acute tubular injury
His past medical history includes type 2 diabetes and hypertension. What D. Acute pyelonephritis
should be considered in the differential diagnosis?
Patient described in a previous case passed spontaneously a stone. What A. Send stone to pathology for chemical analysis
would be the best choice? B. Send stone to pathology for photographic analysis
C. Most likely atheromatous stone
D. Give back stone to patient for safe keeping
E. Discard the stone if patient is not interested in keeping it
Acute Kidney Injury
Technical Definition: AKI The KDIGO guidelines define AKI as follows:
o Increase in serum creatinine by ≥0.3 mg/dL within 48 hours
OR
o Increase in serum creatinine to ≥1.5 times baseline, which occurred within the prior seven days
OR
o Urine volume <0.5 mL/kg/hour for six hours
The diagnostic criteria should only be applied after volume status has been optimized.
Urinary tract obstruction needs to be excluded if urine volume is used as a sole criteria.
Staging System of AKI Based on Rifle Criteria
Stage Creatinine Urine Output
1. Risk Increase in serum creatinine 1.5‐1.9 times baseline OR >0.3 mg/dL Reduction in urine output to <0.5
mL/kg/hr for 6‐12 hours
2. Injury Increase in serum creatinine 2.0‐2.9 times baseline Reduction in urine output to <0.5
mL/kg/hr for >12 hours
3. Increase in serum creatinine 3.0 times baseline OR >4.0 mg/dL Reduction in urine output to <0.3
Failure The initiation of renal replacement therapy mL/kg/hour for >24 hours
In patients < 18 years old with a decrease in the estimated Anuria for >12 hours
glomerular filtration rate to <35 mL/min/1.73 m^2
Causes of AKI Prerenal
Due to decrease in RBF (Hypotension)
o Which causes a decrease in GFR
This allows sodium, water, and BUN are retained by the kidney in an attempt to conserve volume
Which increases the BUN/creatinine ratio (BUN is reabsorbed where creatinine is not) and decreases the FeNa
Intrarenal
Due to acute tubular necrosis or ischemia/toxins
Less commonly due to Acute Glomerulonephritis (associated with Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis, Hemolytic Uremic
Syndrome) or Acute Interstitial Nephritis
In Acute Tubular Necrosis, patchy necrosis
o Causes debris to obstruct the tubule and fluid to backflow across the necrotic tubule
Causing a decrease in GFR
o Urine has epithelial/granular casts
o BUN reabsorption is impaired
Which causes a decrease in the BUN/creatinine ratio and an increase in FeNa
Postrenal
Due to an outflow obstruction (stones, BPH, neoplasia, congenital anomalies).
Develops only with bilateral obstruction
Prerenal Intrarenal Postrenal
Urine Osmolality (mOsm/kg) >500 <350 <350
Urine Sodium (mEq/L) <20 >40 >40
FeNa <1% >2% <1% (mild); >2% (severe)
Serum BUN/Cr >20 <15 Varies
Prerenal Causes Absolute decrease in Effective Circulating Volume (ECV)
o Due to volume depletion or hemorrhage
Relative decrease in Effective Circulating Volume
o Due to heart failure or Cirrhosis
Impaired renal autoregulation with low Effective Circulating Volume
o NSAIDS or ACE inhibitors or ARB
Vasoconstriction/Occlusion
o Hypercalcemia, Calcineurin inhibitors, or Renal artery stenosis
Normal Renal The kidneys are very effective in autoregulating blood flow.
Autoregulation o Primarily due to changes in the resistance of the afferent arterioles associated with 2 mechanisms
Myogenic response:
The intrinsic property of smooth muscle to contract when stretched
Tubuloglomerular Feedback:
Increased Mean Arterial Pressure leads to an increase in RBF and an increase in GFR
High delivery of sodium ions to the macula densa Cause the secretion of Adenosine and ATP Causes vasoconstriction
of the afferent arterioles Which leads to a decrease in renal blood flow and a decrease in GFR
Low delivery of sodium ions to the macula densa Causes the arterioles to dilate Causes an increase in renal blood
flow and increase in GFR
Renal Homeostasis Arteriolar Resistance
Effect GFR RBF/RPF
Afferent arteriole constriction Decrease Decrease
Efferent arteriole constriction Increase Decrease
Afferent arteriole dilates Increase Increase
Efferent arteriole dilates Decrease Increase
Increase plasma protein concentration Decrease No Change
Decrease plasma protein concentration Increase No Change
Constriction of the Ureter Decrease No Change
Dehydration Decrease Big Decrease
Effects of Prostaglandins Prostaglandins mediate vasodilation of the afferent arterioles
and Renin/Angiotensin o Which modulates the vasoconstriction from the sympathetic nervous system
Renin/Angiotensin mediates vasoconstriction of the efferent arterioles
Low Effective Circulating NSAIDs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins and interferes with the protective effects that opposes vasoconstriction from the
Volume sympathetic nervous system
o Leads to a decrease in RPF and in GFR which could cause renal failure
ACE Inhibitors and ARBs are used for diabetic nephropathy because they lead to a reduction in glomerular capillary pressure and
reduced damage/fibrosis of the glomuli
o Leads to vasodilation of the efferent arterioles Causes a decrease in glomerular capillary pressure and a decrease in GFR
Causes an increase in RPF due to the decrease in resistance to flow
Prerenal Azotemia Appropriate physiological response to renal hypo‐perfusion.
o Acute renal “success”, not failure.
Can complicate any clinical scenario with decreased effective circulating volume (true or relative).
Generally, reversible with treating the underlying etiology.
If unable to correct in a timely manner, can progress to ischemic ATN.
Prerenal azotemic and ischemic ATN thought to cause up to 75% of AKI in the hospitalized setting.
Post‐renal Failure Upper Urinary Tract Obstruction:
o Causes: Kidney stones, retroperitoneal fibrosis,
o Extrinsic tumor compression of the ureters bilaterally
o Bilateral obstruction with superimposed infection is a medical emergency.
Lower Urinary Tract Obstruction:
o Most common in‐hospital cause of obstruction.
o Pain meds are common culprits.
o Enlarged prostate most common cause in general.
Diagnosis:
o History: decreased urine output (not always reliable)
o Physical exam: suprapubic fullness
o Ultrasound: hydronephrosis (upper urinary tract obstruction) or enlarged bladder (lower urinary tract obstruction)
o Bladder scan to check for post‐void residual
Treatment:
o Relieve the obstruction
o Need to monitor for post‐obstructive diuresis
o Urine output may be > 5‐6 liters
o Need to monitor for hypernatremia
Intrinsic Renal Failure
Intrinsic Renal Failure Can affect difference areas of the kidney:
o Tubules: Acute Tubular Necrosis
o Glomerulus: Acute Glomerulonephritis
o Interstitium: Acute Interstitial Nephritis
o Blood vessel: TTP, Eclampsia, Malignant HTN
o Collecting System: Acute Pyelonephritis
Tubules: Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN)
Acute Tubular Necrosis Characterized as Toxic or Ischemic
o Ischemic:
Leads to a prolonged prerenal state
o Toxic:
Are separated into two categories:
Exogenous – something that is given to the patient
o EX – antibiotics (Vancomycin), cancer drugs, IV Iodinated contrast dye, and mannitol (high osmotic compounds)
Endogenous – something the body produces in excess
o EX – Myoglobin (Rhabdomyolysis), Uric acid (Tumor Lysis Syndrome), Light Chains (Multiple Myeloma), Hemoglobin
(Hemolysis)
o Tumor Lysis Syndrome: Lysis of tumor cells post chemotherapy exposure; The higher the tumor burden, the greater
the risk.
Contrast Induced Risk Factors:
Nephropathy o Advanced Age; Underlying CKD; Type II DM; Volume depletion; CHF; Anemia; Contrast load; Concomitant use of nephrotoxic
agents
o Incidence reported: 0.6 to 2.3% but higher if risk factors present
Clinical Features:
o Rise in serum creatinine 48‐72 hours after contrast exposure
o Generally non‐oliguric still making urine
o Initially pre‐renal urine indices with high urine specific gravity but ultimately leads to ATN
Treatment:
o Prevention is the key.
o Hydrate patients with IV fluids pre and post contrast exposure
o Stop diuretics and ACEI/ARB where appropriate
o Supportive medical management and in some cases, may need dialysis support.
Pathogenesis Key finding: granular (“muddy brown”) casts
Occurs in three stages
o INITIATION PHASE: (hours to days)
Evolving tubular injury
Potentially reversible if diagnosed early
o MAINTAINANCE PHASE: (typically 1‐2 weeks)
May be prolonged to 1‐3 months in some cases
Established renal injury
Generally oliguric (stop making urine) during this phase
Muddy brown urine with casts noted in sediment
o RECOVERY PHASE:
Repair and regeneration of tubules.
Polyuric phase (making LOTS of urine 4‐8 L) and if patient is intubated/no access to free water, at risk for hypernatremia,
replace 1/2‐1/3 of UOP with hypotonic fluid.
Even though serum creatinine may reach prior baseline, some residual scarring expected and can eventually lead to CKD.
Glomerulus: Acute Glomerulonephritis
Unexplained renal failure
Can be hypertensive
Subnephrotic range proteinuria <3 gm/day
Active urine sediment with positive blood, protein, WBC, dysmorphic RBC and RBC casts.
Kidney biopsy for definitive diagnosis
Associated Diseases Post Strep GN
Lupus Nephritis
ANCA Vasculitis
Anti GBM
Ig A/HSP
Interstitium: Acute Interstitial Nephritis (AIN)
Etiology Medications – PPIs, Bactrim, Quinolones
Infections
Auto‐immune
Clinical Classic triad of fever, rash and eosinophilia seen in < 10% of cases.
Urine eosinophils neither sensitive nor specific.
Sterile pyuria WBC in urine with NO BACTERIA
Definitive diagnosis by kidney biopsy
Treatment Generally reversible once the offending agent is stopped.
Treating underlying infection or auto‐immune disease.
Blood Vessel:
Most common causes TTP/HUS
o TTP – Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
o HUS: Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
Malignant HTN
o BP > 180/120 with end organ damage
Scleroderma renal crisis
o Auto‐immune disease causing thickened skin and kidney problems
Preeclampsia
o new onset HTN after 20 weeks, proteinuria can be present. Can cause AKI.
Thromboembolic disease
Collecting System: Pyelonephritis
Clinical features:
o fevers, flank pain, dysuria.
Positive urine/blood cultures with WBC casts in urine
Perinephric stranding on imaging
Treatment with fluids and ABX.
Establishing a Diagnosis History of inciting events – any nausea/vomiting/diarrhea/decreased oral intake, heavy exercise, fevers or rash, over the
counter/herbal medication use, recent change in prescribed medications, recent hospitalizations, any contrast studies done in
the recent past
Thorough chart review for in‐hospital AKI
Inputs/Outputs (often times urinary output (UOP) is not documented accurately and hence cannot take it at face value unless
catheter in place), trends in BP/HR and weights, intra‐op notes if available, medication/contrast exposure
Physical exam in assessing volume status – JVD/crackles(fluid in the lungs)/edema/skin tenting but tough to assess volume status
especially in cirrhotic patients whose total body volume is up but could be intravascularly dry.
Looking at the urine and urine sediment
Kidney biopsy for definitive diagnosis in Glomerulonephritis/Interstitial Nephritis/unexplained renal failure
Pitfalls of Creatinine in AKI AKI is not a steady state and hence cannot calculate estimated GFR using any of the available formulae
Serum creatinine lags behind the actual injury
Serum Creatinine levels depend on:
o Clearance rate (changing in AKI)
o Rate of production (changing in AKI)
o Volume of distribution (changing in AKI)
Creatinine produced predominantly by the muscles and hence, muscular people can have high serum creatinine and emaciated
people with very low serum creatinine, not corresponding with the actual GFR.
Drugs that block tubular secretion of creatinine can elevate serum creatinine without actual decrease in GFR
o Ex: high dose bactrim, probenecid, high dose cimetidine
Why was creatinine chosen Creatinine is released from skeletal muscle at a constant rate proportional to muscle mass.
to measure renal function? Muscle mass decreases with age BUT GFR also normally decreases with age
Creatinine is freely filtered and NOT reabsorbed by the kidney; though a very small amount is secreted into the proximal tubule
Thus, if creatinine production remains constant, a decrease in GFR increases the plasma creatinine concentration, while an
increase in GFR decreases plasma creatinine concentration
Differentiating Pre‐Renal Lab Value Pre‐Renal Intrinsic
versus ATN (Intrinsic) Urine Specific Gravity > 1.020 <1.010
Urine Osmolality (mOsm/kg) >500 <350
Urine Na (mEq/L) <20 >40
Fractional excretion of sodium (FeNa) <35% >35%
Urine/Plasma Creatinine Ratio >40 <20
Serum BUN/Cr ratio >20:1 <10:1
What do they reflect? Intact tubular function Impaired tubular function
Serum BUN/Cr Ratio High BUN
o Prerenal state
o High dose steroids
o Hypercatabolic states – high fevers, burns
o High protein diet – look for protein load in ICU patients on tube feeds
o GI bleed
Low BUN or Creatinine
o Low protein diet
o Cachetic patients
o Cirrhosis – high bilirubin interferes with creatinine measurement
High Creatinine
o High muscle mass
o Using creatine supplements
o Rhabdomyolysis
o Diet rich in animal protein
o Drugs blocking tubular secretion
o Interference with creatinine measurement – cephalosporins, ketosis
Management of AKI Treatment of underlying etiology
o Volume repletion in volume depletion
o Treatment of heart failure
o Treatment of underlying infections
o Stopping offending medications
o Relieving obstruction.
Track daily weights, BP and Inputs/outputs.
Maintain mean arterial pressure (MAP > 60 mmHg).
Dose medications to renal function – can be tricky.
Avoid contrast studies and use least nephrotoxic medications when possible (should be the case in general).
Management of electrolyte disturbances – hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, hyperphosphatemia.
Hemodialysis in AKI Exact timing – controversial and varying results in literature.
Early dialysis: exposing the patient to risks of dialysis when there is a chance for renal function to recover.
Too late: may effect overall morbidity/mortality
Dialysis is an invasive procedure : requires line placement and complications associated with line placement (many sick ICU
patients have bleeding diathesis), increased risk of hypotensive episodes and arrhythmias during dialysis (dialysis is the best
available stress test for the heart!)
The bigger question is how do you determine the timing….
General indications for Acidosis
dialysis: AEIOU still stand o metabolic acidosis refractory to medical management
true to date. Electrolytes
o hyperkalemia refractory to treatment or rapidly rising levels in potassium
Intoxications with dialyzable drug, including
o salicylates, lithium, isopropanol, methanol, and ethylene glycol (SLIME)
Overload
o volume overload that does not respond to diuresis
especially with increased oxygen requirements
Uremia
o elevated BUN with signs of uremia, such as uremic bleeding, encephalopathy, and pericarditis.
Prognosis of AKI Depends on severity of underlying illness.
Most patients recover but “complete” recovery is not always the case even if serum creatinine reaches baseline.
At risk for CKD with repeated AKI episodes.
Mortality of > 50% in patients with AKI and multi‐organ dysfunction.
Often times, patients die with renal failure than from renal failure due to widely available renal replacement therapy options.
Congenital Abnormalities
Development
Kidney Development Is characterized by three successive systems
o Pronephros
o Mesonephros
o Metanephros
Week 4 Segmented nephrotomes appear in the cervical intermediate mesoderm of the embryo. These structures grow laterally and
canalize to form nephric tubules. The first tubules formed regress before the last ones are formed. By the end of week 4, the
pronephros disappears and does not function.
Week 5 In week 5, the mesonephros appears as S‐shaped tubules in the intermediate mesoderm of the thoracic and lumbar regions of
the embryo.
o The medial end of each tubule enlarges to form the Bowman’s capsule into which a tuft of capillaries, or glomerulus,
invaginates.
o The lateral end of each tubule opens into the mesonephric (Wolffian) duct, an intermediate mesoderm derivative. The duct
drains into the hindgut
o Mesonephric tubules function temporarily and degenerate by the beginning of the third month. The
mesonephric duct persists in the male as the ductus epididymidis, ductus deferens, and the
ejaculatory duct. Where the mesonephric duct disappears in females
During week 5, the metanephros, or permanent kidney, develops from 2 sources:
o the ureteric bud – a diverticulum of the mesonephric duct
o the metanephric mass (blastema) – from intermediate mesoderm of the lumbar and sacral regions.
The ureteric bud penetrates the metanephric mass, which condenses around the diverticulum to form
the metanephrogenic cap.
o The bud dilates to form the renal pelvis, which subsequently splits into the cranial
and caudal major calyces.
Each major calyx buds into the metanephric tissue to form the minor calyces.
One to 3 million collecting tubules then develops from the minor calyces
forming the renal pyramids.
The ureteric bud forms the drainage components of the urinary system (calyces,
pelvis, ureter).
Penetration of collecting tubules into the metanephric mass induces cells of the tissue cap to form nephrons, or excretory units.
o Lengthening of the excretory tubule gives rise to the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, and the distal
convoluted tubule.
The kidneys develop in the pelvis but appear to ascend into the abdomen as a result of fetal growth of the lumbar and sacral
regions between the 6‐9 weeks
With their ascent, the ureters elongate, and the kidneys become vascularized by arteries which arise from the abdominal aorta.
Congenital Abnormalities of the Renal System
Renal Agenesis Results from failure of one or both kidneys to develop because of early degeneration of the ureteric bud.
o Unilateral agenesis if fairly common
Where the remaining kidney undergoes compensatory hypertrophy.
Patients often have adequate renal function and are asymptomatic.
o Bilateral agenesis is fatal and associated with Oligohydramnios called Potter Sequence
Affected fetuses typically also have
Potter facies – flattened nose, low set ears ears, and recessed chin
Talipes equinovarus – talus [ankle] + pes [foot] and equino [heel] + varus [turned upward] = clubfoot
Pulmonary hypoplasia
Hypoplasia Hypoplasia is failure of a kidney (usually unilateral) to develop to normal weight; the hypoplastic kidney has a decreased number
of calyces and lobes.
Horseshoe Kidney Horseshoe kidney is a common congenital anomaly that is found in 1:500‐1000 autopsies
The kidneys show fusion, usually at the lower pole where the kidney is trapped by the Inferior Mesenteric Artery
Affected individuals have normal renal function but may be predisposed to renal calculi.
Abnormal locations The most common abnormal location is a pelvic kidney.
(Ectopic) The ectopic kidney usually has normal function.
Tortuosity of ureters may predispose to pyelonephritis.
Cystic Lesions
Childhood Autosomal is a rare autosomal recessive disease that presents in infancy with progressive and often fatal renal or liver
Recessive Polycystic Kidney failure.
Disease (ARPKD) o perinatal, neonatal, infantile, juvenile subcategories
(also called infantile Epidemiology: incidence 1 in 20,000 rare
polycystic kidney disease or Pathogenesis: A mutation in the PKHD1 gene, Chromosome 6p, fibrocystin
renal dysgenesis Potter type The kidneys are
1) o bilaterally enlarged (reniform kidney‐like shape)
o cysts in the cortex & medulla
o cross‐sections have a sponge‐like appearance, saccular dilatation of collecting tubules
The liver may have
o cysts + expanded portal area (fibrosis) + bile ducts proliferation (tortuous dilated) leading to
congenital hepatic fibrosis
Diagnosis:
o Radiology
Prognosis:
o renal/liver failure at birth, infancy, juvenile oliguric renal failure in utero can lead to Potter sequence
o Beyond neonatal period include: systemic hypertension, progressive renal insufficiency, and portal hypertension
Treatment: transplantation
Autosomal Dominant is an autosomal dominant disease that affects 1 in 1,000 common
Polycystic Kidney Disease o There is most frequently a mutation of the PKD1 gene on chromosome 16 which produces a transmembrane
(also called Adult Polycystic protein called polycystin 1.
Kidney Disease (APKD) or 85%, earlier onset of renal failure, more severe
renal dysgenesis Potter type polycystin 1 function Cell‐cell, cell‐matrix interactions
III) o Other mutations involve PKD2 on chromosome 4 which produces polycystin 2.
later onset of renal failure
polycystin 2 function regulation of intercellular Ca2+ levels
o Abnormalities in cell differentiation
o Ciliopathy (mechanosensors) – defects in mechanosensing
Clinically, patients are (40‐50 year old)
o asymptomatic or pain
o colic
o abdominal mass
o hemorrhage
o hematuria
o progressive renal failure
o polyuria
o hypertension
o low proteinuria (<2g)
Diagnosis is established with U/S and CT scan
o Most patients develop end‐stage renal failure by middle/later life depending on mutation
On gross pathologic examination, the kidneys have massive bilateral enlargement (reniform kidney‐
like shape) with large bulging cysts filled with serous, turbid, or hemorrhagic fluid.
Microscopic examination shows functioning nephrons present between the cysts; the cysts arise
from the tubular epithelial cells of the kidney.
Extrarenal manifestations include:
o Benign cysts of the liver, pancreas, and lungs (40%)
o berry aneurysms of the circle of Willis (4‐10% of deaths)
o mitral valve prolapse (20‐25%)
o colonic diverticula
Treatment:
o Transplantation; ACE inhibitors or ARBs
Dysplasia versus hypoplasia versus polycystic:
o Dysplasia – abnormal development
o Hypoplasia – small size but otherwise normally developed
o Polycystic – cystic but without dysplastic elements
Cystic Renal Dysplasia (also Aberrant metanephric differentiation – persistence of immature elements, cartilage
called Pediatric Dysplasia) o NOT related to neoplasia but a developmental abnormality
The most common renal cystic disease in children (1:1000‐2000)
Associated abnormalities:
o uretero‐pelvic junction obstruction
o ureteral agenesis/atresia
Grossly: kidney(s) are enlarged irregular shaped renal mass (“bunch of grapes”) with cartilage and immature collecting ducts
Microscopy: disorganized renal parenchyma with immature tubules surrounded by
collarets of condensed mesenchyme; cartilage
o immature, persistent abnormal structures aberrant nephronic differentiation,
biologically benign cysts enlarge but there is NO invasion of nearby tissues, no
metastatic potential
It may progress clinically to renal failure.
Pediatric Dysplasia ARPKD (Childhood) APKD (Adult)
Incidence 1:1,000‐2,000 1:20,000 (rare) 1:500‐1,000 (common)
Bilateral Yes/No Yes (hereditary) Yes (hereditary)
Segmental Yes/No No No
Shape Irregular Reniform Reniform
Ureter abnormalities Yes No No
Liver abnormalities No Yes Yes
Acquired polycystic disease Seen in renal dialysis patients:
o Cortical and Medullary cysts
o small risk (7%/10years) of developing renal adenomas and renal cell carcinoma.
Simple cysts Cysts are filled with ultrafiltrate and anechoic (black) on ultrasound
Very common in adults
Usually asymptomatic with multiple or single cysts
Can cause hematuria, pain, and calcification
Medullary diseases with Inherited disease causing tubulointerstitial fibrosis and progressive renal insufficiency with inability to concentration urine.
cysts Medullary cysts usually not visualized; shrunken kidneys on ultrasound. Poor Prognosis
Medullary sponge kidney
o can cause nephrolithiasis
o relatively common and innocuous
Nephronophthisis‐medullary cystic disease complex
o presents as polyuria and polydipsia
o Pediatric onset CKD (Chronic Kidney Disease) that can progress to chronic renal failure in young adults.
o There are autosomal recessive forms.
o The cysts are in the cortex and the medulla.
Kidney Tumors
Adult Benign Kidney Tumors
Oncocytoma Benign epithelial cell tumor arising from collecting ducts (distal nephron)
Presents: painless hematuria, flank pain, abdominal mass
Gross: well circumscribed mass (mahogany brown) with central scar
Microscopy: Large eosinophilic cells with abundant mitochondria without perinuclear clearing
Treatment: often resected to exclude malignancy such as renal cell carcinoma
Angiomyolipoma Vessels/smooth muscle/fat (radiologic diagnosis)
Tuberous sclerosis, some sporadic
Tuberous Sclerosis is associated with two genes
o TSC1 ‐ Hamartin 9q34
o TSC2 ‐ Tuberin 16p13
benign tumors: brain, kidneys, heart, liver, eyes, lungs, skin
microscopic: fat, smooth muscle, poorly formed vessels benign, can rupture with bleeding
o when tumor reaches 4 cm, the tumor is removed due to risk of rupture
Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC)
Most common 1° renal malignancy.
o Associated with gene deletion on chromosome 3 (most sporadic or familial (4%) as von Hippel‐Lindau syndrome).
o Clear Cell Carcinoma:
RCC = 3 letters = chromosome 3 3p deletion
somatic mutation/hypermethylation induced inactivation of the VHL gene (tumor suppressor gene)
Loss of VHL gene results in accumulation of the transcription factor
HIF‐1alpha and over‐expression of HIF‐1alpha target genes, which facilitate cellular adaptation to tissue hypoxia
VHL gene in development of both sporadic and familial clear cell RCC
Other kidney cancers:
chromosomal gains (papillary, met oncogene)
Chromosomal losses (chromophobe)
o Associated with paraneoplastic syndromes:
Hypercalcemia
Hypertension
Polycythemia
Cushing syndrome
feminization/masculinization
Originates from PCT cells polygonal clear cells filled with accumulated lipids and carbohydrates ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐>
Often golden‐yellow due to increased lipid content. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐>
Most common in men 50–70 years old.
Risk factors:
o Tobacco
o Obesity
o HTN
o occupational exposure to heavy metals (eg cadmium)
Manifests clinically with:
o Hematuria
o palpable mass
o 2° polycythemia
o flank pain
o fever
o weight loss.
Invades renal vein (may develop varicocele if left sided) then IVC and spreads hematogenously; metastasizes to lung and bone.
Treatment:
o surgery/ablation for localized disease.
o Immunotherapy (eg, aldesleukin, IL‐2, IFN‐alpha)
o Targeted therapy for metastatic disease (multikinase inhibitors = Sunitinib, Sorafenib; monoclonal antibodies to VEGF =
Bevacizumab; mTOR inhibitors = Temsirolimus, Everolimus), rarely curative. Resistant to chemotherapy and radiation
therapy.
von Hippel‐Lindau (VHL) 1:40,000, autosomal dominant
syndrome associated with Age @ onset 37 years versus 61 years in sporadic RCC
RCC clear cell type Multiple bilateral cysts & tumors in 40‐60% of affected people
Germline mutation of the VHL gene 3p25, somatic mutation on second allele
Tumors with high vascularity + clear cells
Hemangioblastoma (cerebellum, retina)
Angiomas of the retina
Pheochromocytomas (some), other
Many different alterations in the VHL gene (3p25) with some correlation between specific inactivation and phenotype
Control of HIF‐1alpha by Under normoxic conditions VHL ubiquitinates HIF‐1alpha, leading to ubiquitin‐mediated proteolysis and
VHL in Normoxic Conditions degradation by the proteasome
Control of HIF‐1alpha by In hypoxic cells, such as those found in tumors, HIF‐1alpha ultimately initiates the transcription of hypoxia‐induced
VHL in Hypoxic Conditions genes, including those which promote
o Cell survival under anaerobic conditions
o Angiogenesis
o Metastasis
Clear Cell Type Pathology Pathology dependent on carcinoma type:
o RCC clear cell type, most common, 65%
o Gross: yellow‐orange “adrenal gland‐like” with Invasion into renal vein at advanced stages
o
o Microscope: cells with clear cytoplasm, highly vascular, delicate, “chicken” wire‐like, blood vessels
o
Renal cell carcinoma – Morphology + cytogenetic + molecular genetic studies
adults classification Clear cell carcinoma (aka conventional) ‐ 65%; loss 3p
Papillary renal cell carcinoma: 10‐15%; chromosomal gains
Chromophobe renal cell carcinoma: 5%; chromosomal losses
Papillary RCC 10‐15%, better prognosis than clear cell RCC
Contains Papillary architecture
Can be Hereditary (Familial) ‐ multiple bilateral tumors
Frequiently cystic
Trisomies 7, 16, 17
Involvement of Chromosome 7 – MET oncogene
Gross:
Microscope:
Chromophobe RCC 5%
Multiple chromosomal losses
Distal nephron
Morphologic overlap with oncocytoma
Histiology: Prominent cell membrane “vegetable‐like”
Better prognosis
Microscope: vegetable‐like cells
Electron Microscopy: vesicles
mTOR: A Central Regulator mTOR is an intracellular serine/threonine kinase in the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway
of Cancer Cell Growth, mTOR is a central regulator that senses changes in
Angiogenesis, and o Growth factor signaling
Metabolism o Nutrients and energy
mTOR activation promotes
o Cell growth and proliferation
o Angiogenesis
o Cancer cell metabolism through increased nutrient uptake and utilization
mTOR = mammalian target of Rapamycin
Activation of mTOR signaling promotes the production of proteins that regulate progression through the cell cycle and
angiogenesis
mTOR regulates HIF – activation of mTOR increases HIF activity
Activation of mTOR by mutations that disrupt the TSC 1 and 2 genes confers a predisposition to RCC and is associated with
increased HIF activity
Estimated Survival by Stage 5 year survival estimates based on stage
o Stage I = 96% tumon less than 4 cm in diameter and limited to the kidney
o Stage II = 82%
o Stage III = 64% extention of tumor into the renal sinus
o Stage IV = 23%
Adult renal tumors ‐ Malignant until proven otherwise
summary Surgical treatment = mainstay, targeted therapies
Prognosis:
o stage, tumor histology
o presence of nodal metastases
o evidence of metastatic disease at presentation
o patterns of metastases: lung, bone, brain, liver and adrenal gland
Classification evolving, role of molecular studies
Urothelial carcinoma
5‐10% of renal tumors = urothelial carcinoma
Adults
Renal pelvis, ureter, frequently also concomitant urinary bladder cancer
Hematuria
Analgesic nephropathy = risk factor
Wilms Tumor
Clinical Typical palpated mass 75%
Presentation: 25% with other developmental abnormalities; syndromic in 10%:
o Beckwith‐Wiedemann syndrome: Wilms tumor, macroglossia, organomegaly, hemihypertrophy
(extremities)
o WAGR complex: Wilms tumor, Aniridia, Genital abnormalities, mental Retardation
o Denys‐Drash syndrome: Wilms tumor, gonadal dysgenesis, renal (mesangial sclerosis)
Epidemiology: pediatric, most common kidney tumor
children <10 yo; 2‐5 yo
Pathogenesis mutations WT1, WT2, loss of function mutation
recapitulates nephrogenesis
nephrogenic rests = putative precursor lesion of WT
Pathology: recapitulates nephrogenesis
o undifferentiated blastemal: “embryonal”, “small blue cells”, attempts to recapitulate nephrogenesis,
biologically malignant; uncontrolled growth, can invade nearby tissues and metastasize
Gross – very soft
Wilms’ tumor triphasic histology ‐undifferentiated blastema
(astrix) (small blue cells)
‐tubules (carrot)
‐fibroblast‐like stroma (hashtag)
Diagnosis: radiologic studies
Prognosis: excellent, 90% five years survival
Treatment: surgery with/without chemotherapy depending on stage
chemo sensitive
Pediatric Malignancy: Age 0 to 4 years
Leukemia – blood
Retinoblastoma – eye, neuronal origin
Neuroblastoma – adrenal gland
Wilms’ tumor ‐ kidney
Wilms Tumor Versus Cystic Dysplasia
Feature Wilms Tumor Cystic Dysplasia
Congenital Malformation Increased risk 100%
Histogenesis Attempts to recapitulate Aberrant Nephronic Differentiation
Nephrogenesis
Histology Undifferentiated blastema: embryonal, small blue cells Immature, persistent abnormal structures
Behavior Malignant Benign
Invasion of Nearby Tissues Yes No
Metastatic Potential Yes No
Cysts Rare Yes
Genetics Mutations: somatic, germline some Sporadic
Bilateral 5‐10% Bilateral associated with Potter’s syndrome
Synchronous (simultaneously)
Metachronous (one after the other)
A 2 yo boy is brought to pediatrician because his mother palpated “a bulging mass” while bathing him. What best applies to the
case?
A. This tumor most likely is composed of clear cells
B. This tumor typically shows loss of short arm of chromosome 3
C. This tumors is most likely highly chemoresistant
D. This tumor is chemosensitive
E. Cysts, disorganized renal parenchyma with immature tubules and cartilage
An infant is diagnosed with an enlarged left kidney – shown. Most likely:
A. This lesion will respond to chemotherapy
B. This is autosomal dominant lesion
C. This is a congenital disorder with recessive inheritance
D. Cystic lesion, disorganized renal parenchyma with immature tubules and cartilage
E. Kidney sections show undifferentiated blastema, tubules and stroma
During a radiologic workup for gall bladder stones, a 65 yo male was found to have a 5 cm mass in his right kidney.
A. This is most likely oncocytoma
B. This is most likely a benign tumor
C. Chemotherapy will be effective
D. Surgery consultation will be scheduled
E. Tumor’s morphology shows abortive glomeruli/tubules and stroma
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)
CKD: Definition and Presence of either kidney damage or decreased renal function
Epidemiology o Duration for > 3 months irrespective of cause
o +/‐ Albuminuria
HTN, Diabetes Mellitus make up 72% of all cases
More common in African Americans
Prevalence overall on the rise
o Aging population
o Increased prevalence of HTN, DM, obesity
CKD risk factor for cardiovascular disease
o Angina pectoris
o ACS (Acute Coronary Syndrome)
o Heart failure
o Stroke
o AKI (Acute Kidney Injury)
o Peripheral Vascular Disease
o Arrhythmias/Sudden Cardiac Death
< 2% of patients ultimately require RRT
o Most die from CV causes before ESRD
KDIGO CLASSIFICATION ‐
2012
CALCULATION OF eGFR MDRD (Modified Diet in Renal Disease) formula: widely used.
(estimated GFR) Current staging of CKD based on MDRD classification.
Some important considerations of MDRD:
o Can’t be used in AKI, has to be in steady state
o Underestimates GFR in the healthy
o Not tested in pregnancy and the very elderly
o Relies on creatinine and so all the pitfalls associated with it.
CKD EPI equation thought to be more accurate than MDRD
Etiology of CKD Diabetes Mellitus – 44.9%
Hypertension – 27.2%
Glomerulonephritis – 8.2%
CKD Snapshots
Diabetic Nephropathy Most common cause of CKD/ESRD in US
Pathogenesis:
o Hyperglycemia and glycation of tissue proteins leads to mesangial expansion
o glomerular basement membrane thickening
o podocyte injury
o hyaline deposition in the glomerular arterioles (nodular glomerulosclerosis or Kimmelstiel‐Wilson (KW) lesions)
Diabetic Nephropathy Type 1 DM Type 2 DM
Onset 15 years 5‐10 years
Retinopathy Precedes nephropathy Not always the case
Albuminuria Yes Yes
Hematuria Can be present Can be present
Treatment Tight control of DM early in the diagnosis and ACEI/ARB for BP control
Progression of Diabetic Nephropathy – Not always the case and albuminuria can improve with tight DM and BP control.
Hypertensive Nephropathy 2nd most common cause of CKD/ESRD in US.
Also known as “hypertensive nephrosclerosis” or “benign nephrosclerosis”.
African Americans have an 8‐fold increased risk even if good BP control is achieved.
o Possible role of apolipoprotein ‐1 (APOL‐1) gene variation.
Generally seen in patients with long standing history of HTN with slow gradual decline in renal function.
Pathogenesis:
o Hyaline arteriosclerosis of small arteries and arterioles in the kidney along with focal and segmental sclerosis and interstitial
fibrosis.
Proteinuria is present but generally less than 1 gm/24 hours
Small to normal size kidneys on ultrasound imaging.
Treatment is control of BP.
Glomerular Diseases: Glomerulonephritis
Glomerular Diseases: CLINICO‐PATHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSES: based on biopsy findings in appropriate clinical settings
Glomerulonephritis o IgA nephropathy is predominant in Asian populations
o Post‐infectious glomerulonephritis
o Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis
o Lupus nephritis
o Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
IgA Nephropathy Most common glomerulonephritis worldwide
IgA deposits in glomeruli (mesangial)
Progresses to CKD over several decades in 25‐30% of cases
Typically presents as hematuria 1‐2 days after URI (Upper Respiratory Tract Infection)
Clinical features:
o Microhematuria/proteinuria
o AKI, nephrotic range proteinuria (rare)
Many associated systemic diseases:
o Cirrhosis
o RA
o HIV
o HSP
Post‐infectious GN Most often a complication of streptococcal skin infections (impetigo) or streptococcal pharyngitis
Immune complexes become lodged in the glomerular basement membrane (GBM)
Complement activation leads to GBM destruction
Onset of disease usually 2‐4 weeks after initial infection
High ASO titre, low serum C3 complement usual findings (C4 is normal)
Membranoproliferative Occurs most commonly in children and young adults
Glomerulonephritis ‐ MPGN Seen with Hepatitis C infection
Caused by deposits in the GBM and the mesangium
Complement activation leads to glomerular destruction
Not to be confused with membranous glomerulonephritis (does not affect mesangium)
Lupus Nephritis Auto‐immune disease with anti‐nuclear antibodies and complement activation leading to multi‐system organ involvement.
Kidney involvement seen in up to 50% at some point in time.
Six histologic subtypes of disease described
Stage 1: minimal in its histology has a normal appearance under a light microscope, but mesangial deposits are visible under an electron
mesangial microscope. At this stage urinalysis is normal.
nephritis
Stage 2: mesangial is noted by mesangial hypercellularity and matrix expansion. Microscopic haematuria with or without proteinuria may
proliferative be seen. Hypertension, nephrotic syndrome, and acute kidney insufficiency are very rare at this stage
nephritis
Stage 3: focal is indicated by sclerotic lesions involving less than 50% of the glomeruli, which can be segmental or global, and active
lupus nephritis or chronic, with endocapillary or extracapillary proliferative lesions. Under the electron microscopy, subendothelial
deposits are noted, and some mesangial changes may be present. Immunofluorescence reveals positively for IgG, IgA,
IgM, C3, and C1q. Clinically, haematuria and proteinuria are present, with or without nephrotic syndrome,
hypertension, and elevated serum creatinine
Stage 4: diffuse is both the most severe, and the most common subtype. More than 50% of glomeruli are involved. Lesions can be
proliferative segmental or global, and active or chronic, with endocapillary or extracapillary proliferative lesions. Under electron
nephritis microscopy, subendothelial deposits are noted, and some mesangial changes may be present. Clinically, haematuria
and proteinuria are present, frequently with nephrotic syndrome, hypertension, hypocomplementemia, elevated anti‐
dsDNA titres and elevated serum creatinine
Stage 5: is characterized by diffuse thickening of the glomerular capillary wall (segmentally or globally), with diffuse membrane
membranous thickening, and subepithelial deposits seen under the electron microscope. Clinically, stage V presents with signs of
nephritis nephrotic syndrome. Microscopic haematuria and hypertension may also been seen. Stage V also can also lead to
thrombotic complications such as renal vein thromboses or pulmonary emboli.
Stage 6: advanced is represented by global sclerosis involving more than 90% of glomeruli, and represents healing of prior inflammatory
sclerosing lupus injury. Active glomerulonephritis is not usually present. This stage is characterised by slowly progressive kidney
nephritis dysfunction, with relatively bland urine sediment. Response to immunotherapy is usually poor. A tubuloreticular
inclusion within capillary endothelial cells is also characteristic of lupus nephritis, and can be seen under an electron
microscope in all stages. It is not diagnostic however, as it exists in other conditions such as HIV infection. It is thought
to be due to the chronic interferon exposure
Lupus nephritis staging does NOT imply a chronological progression from stages I‐VI
Can see stage V with other stages
Stage IV is most common and most severe
Clinical sequelae
o HTN
o Hematuria
o proteinuria/nephrosis
o Progressive CKD
o thrombophilia
Rapidly Progressive A.K.A. “crescentic glomerulonephritis”
Glomerulonephritis‐ RPGN o High numbers of crescents seen on renal biopsy histology
Rapid decline in renal funcion (in days/weeks/months)
Common causes
o Goodpasture’s syndrome
o Immunecomplex GN – Lupus, Ig A
o Pauci‐immune as in ANCA Vasculitis
Glomerular Diseases: Nephrotic Syndrome
Glomerular Diseases: Minimal change disease highest prevalence with children
Nephrotic Syndrome Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis highest prevalence with adults
Membranous nephropathy
Amyloidosis
Minimal change disease Most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in young children
o Can also occur in older children and adults
More common in those with history of autoimmunity
Bland light microscopy findings
o Hence the name of the disease
Usually treatable with steroids and ACE‐I therapy (for proteinuria)
Focal segmental Occurs in children and adolescents more often than in adults
glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) o Most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in adults, though
Can be primary disease or secondary to other conditions
o HIV, heroin use, familial forms
Less responsive to steroid treatment compared to minimal change disease
Can be misdiagnosed as Minimal Change Disease as focal sclerosis can be missed.
Membranous nephropathy 2nd most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in adults
Tendency to affect Caucasians
Most cases are primary, anti‐PLA2R (Phospholipase A2 Receptor) autoantibodies thought to play a role.
Increased risk of thromboses (DVT, PE) compared to other nephrotic syndromes
Secondary causes
o SLE, infections (hepatitis B), drugs, tumors
Treatment: immunosuppression (mixed results)
Amyloidosis Variety of disorders in which amyloid proteins deposit in tissues/organs and cause damage
Primary disease: AL amyloidosis
Secondary disease: AA amyloidosis
Clinical features: CKD, heart disease, skin lesions, macroglossia (enlarged tongue), GI disease, polyneuropathy
Cholesterol Atheroembolic Seen in the presence of severe atherosclerotic disease.
Disease Occurs when cholesterol is released from an atheromatous plaque into the bloodstream.
Generally occurs after an intervention (CT contrast, angiogram, vascular surgery) but can occur spontaneously as well
(hemodynamic stress).
Clinical manifestations: Fever, malaise, digital gangrene, characteristic rash (livedo reticularis), renal failure.
Low complements and peripheral eosinophilia can be present.
Definitive diagnosis is by tissue biopsy (Cholesterol clefts) ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐>
Treatment: Supportive medical management
Polycystic Kidney Disease Two types:
o ADPKD – Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease and
o ARPKD ‐ Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease
ADPKD more common than ARPKD, approximately 1 in every 400 to 1000 live births
Mutations in PKD1 (85% cases, chromosome 16) or PKD2 (15% cases, chromosome 4) genes account for most cases of ADPKD.
Clinical presentation: Hematuria, flank pain, kidney stones,. Concomitant liver cysts, diverticulosis of the colon, mitral valve
prolapse and intracranial aneurysms can be seen.
Diagnosis: Genetic testing available and presence of multiple cysts on imaging studies.
CKD Management
CONSEQUENCES OF RENAL MAD HUNGER – PNEUMONIC
FAILURE Metabolic Acidosis
Dyslipidemia (especially high triglycerides) with nephrotic range proteinuria
Hyperkalemia
Uremia – clinical syndrome marked by an increase BUN leading to nausea, anorexia, asterixis, encephalopathy, pericarditis,
platelet dysfunction.
Na+/H20 retention – HTN, Volume Overload, Heart failure
Growth retardation and developmental delay
Erythropoietin deficiency
Renal Osteodystrophy due to secondary hyperthyroid deficiency
CKD: Stage II/III Promote healthy living
Management: o Smoking cessation
“Conservative o Normal body weight, exercise
Renoprotection” BP, lipid control
Glycemic control (diabetics)
Optimize coexistent liver, cardiac disease
ACE‐I/ARB therapy
o Especially with proteinuria
Medication dosage adjustment per eGFR
Avoid nephrotoxic agents (NSAIDs, e.g.)
CKD Stage III‐V Step One: Nephrology Referral
Management
CKD Stage III‐V Pathophysiology:
Management: o Sodium retention due to decreased GFR
Hypertension Control o High renin state
Lifestyle changes play a huge role:
o 2 gm sodium diet
o Weight loss, smoking cessation
Just as an example: One slice of bread can contain anywhere from 80 to 230 mg of sodium, and a slice of frozen pizza can contain
between 370 and 730 mg.
CKD Stage III‐IV Goal is < 300mg – 500mg/day
Management: Slows CKD progression
Proteinuria Reduction Usually treatment is through ACE‐I +/‐ ARB
Reduce dietary protein intake
o 0.8 – 1.0gm/kg/day
CKD Stage IV‐V In chronic kidney disease there is reduced renal phosphorous clearance
Management: o Leads to hyperphosphatemia and increased FGF‐23
Mineral/Bone Disorders Causes reduced 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D
Resulting in hypocalcemia and secondary hyperparathyroidism
CKD Stage IV‐V Restrict phosphate intake or reduce phosphate with phosphate binders
Management: Supplement 1,25(OH) Vit‐D
MBD ‐ Treatment
High Phosphorus Diet All dairy products
Dried beans and lentils
Processed meat
Chocolate
Color Soda: Cola, Dr. Pepper and Beer
Muffins, Biscuits, or Pancakes from a Mix
Liver or Organ Meats
Nuts and Seeds
CKD Stage IV‐V Many contributing factors
Management: o Decrease Erythropoietin synthesis
Anemia o Iron deficiency and transport dysregulation
o Decrease Erythrocyte half‐life
o Blood loss in dialysis patients
Treatment goals
o Target hemoglobin 9‐11 g/dL
o Target transferrin saturation > 20%
Treatment options
o Exogenous erythropoietin – subcutaneous or IV routes
o Iron supplementation – oral or IV
CKD Stage IV‐V Early CKD: normal anion gap metabolic acidosis
Management: o Due to defective tubular hydrogen ion secretion
Metabolic acidosis Advanced CKD: increased anion gap acidosis
o Due to defective sulfuric acid excretion
Long term effects if metabolic acidosis in CKD
o Progression of CKD by accelerating interstitial fibrosis
o Bone resorption and osteopenia
Treatment options
o Sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate.
o Aim to keep serum bicarbonate in the normal range (22‐24).
o Would avoid in volume overloaded patients.
End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)
Renal Replacement Therapy Kidney Transplantation: Living or deceased donor
Options o Kidney transplantation is the best option but not everyone is a candidate and not enough kidneys available.
Hemodialysis: In‐center or home HD
Peritoneal dialysis
Dialysis Dialysis is a process of by which the solute composition in one compartment (blood) is altered by exposing it to a solution in a
second compartment (dialysate) through a semipermeable membrane.
It is a process of removing toxins and fluid from the extravascular compartment.
o Simple diffusion for the removal of toxins and waste products
o Convection for volume removal
The goal of dialysis is to remove accumulated fluid and toxins to maintain their concentrations below the levels at which they
produce uremic symptoms
Principle Mechanisms in Simple diffusion for the removal of toxins and waste products
Hemodialysis Convection for volume removal
Principle Mechanisms in Simple diffusion for the removal of toxins and waste products
Peritoneal dialysis Osmosis for volume removal by osmotic gradient using dextrose
Sequelae of ESRD Uremic cardiovascular disease
o Medial vascular calcification
o Arterial stiffness
o LV hypertrophy
o Higher risk of cardiac arrest and heart failure
Metabolic Acidosis or Alkalosis
Introduction An acid is a compound capable of donating a proton and a base is a compound capable of accepting a proton
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
General Concepts Daily Acid Production
o Volatile mechanism – CO2 production which is excreted by the lungs
o Non‐volatile mechanism – acid production from intermediary metabolism, specifically catabolism of sulfur‐containing amino
acids in protein
There are 2 main homeostatic mechanisms which are responsible for maintaining acid‐base balance in response to non‐volatile
acid production
o Internal buffer systems – which neutralize acid
o Excretion of hydrogen ion – which excretes acid
Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic acidosis Defined as a primary decrease in the bicarbonate concentration of the plasma
o It is normally accompanied by a decrease in PCO2 (respiratory adaptation) in order to maintain near normal pH
Henderson and Henderson‐ These equations depict the relationships between the three determining variables in acid‐base homeostasis
Hasselbalch Equations Henderson
24 ∙ 2
3
Henderson‐Hasselbalch
3
2 3
Acid‐Base Homeostasis is dependent on the following reactions:
3 ↔ 2 3↔ 2 2
o A primary change in either [HCO3‐] or PCO2 will produce an adaptive (compensatory) change in the other in the same
direction in an attempt to keep pH constant (Tables 1 and 2)
Table 1. The Four Primary Acid‐Base Disorders and Their Compensatory Responses
Acid‐Base Disorder Primary Abnormality Effect on pH Compensatory Response
Metabolic Acidosis Low [HCO3] Low pH Decrease PCO2
Metabolic alkalosis High [HCO3] High pH Increase PCO2
Respiratory acidosis High PCO2 Low pH High [HCO3]
Respiratory alkalosis Low PCO3 High pH Low [HCO3]
Table 2. Expected Compensation for Primary Acid‐Base Disorders
Acid‐Base Disorder Primary Change Secondary Adaptation
Metabolic Acidosis Decrease in HCO3 of 1 mEq/L Decrease in PCO2 of 1.2 mmHg
Metabolic alkalosis Increase in HCO3 of 1 mEq/L Increase in PCO2 of 0.7 mmHg
Respiratory acidosis Increase in PCO2 of 10 mmHg Acute: Increase in HCO3 of 1.0 mEq/L
Chronic: Increase in HCO3 of 3.5 mEq/L
Respiratory alkalosis Decrease in PCO2 of 10 mmHg Acute: Decrease in HCO3 of 2 mEq/L
Chronic: Decrease in HCO3 of 4‐5 mEq/L
Renal Regulation of Acid‐ Reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate. Most or all of bicarbonate filtered at the glomerulus is reabsorbed, primarily in the
Base Balance proximal tubule.
o Failure of this reabsorption mechanism leads to proximal renal tubular acidosis.
Excretion of acid. The kidney excretes acid in 3 fashions:
o Free hydrogen ion (H+) excretion (lowers urine pH) – this is quantitatively the least important mechanism
o Titratable acid excretion (secreted H+ combines with poorly reabsorbable anions such as phosphate)
o Excretion of ammonium ion (NH4+) most important
The kidney generates ammonia (NH3) which combines with secreted H+ and is excreted as ammonium ion.
Failure of H+ secretion and/or ammonia production/ammonium excretion result in distal renal tubular acidosis
Types of Metabolic Acidosis Metabolic acidosis can occur due to overproduction of an endogenous weakly dissociable acid (such as lactic acid).
o Such acids can be generically represented as H+A‐ (for lactic acid, A‐ would be the acid anion lactate).
o In this case the excess H+ ions titrate extracellular bicarbonate as before, but now there is accumulation of the excess anion
(A‐) rather than chloride, resulting in a high anion gap acidosis.
Metabolic acidosis can also occur due to decreased renal acid excretion leading to retention of acid (H+ ions), which titrate
extracellular bicarbonate, or it can be caused by loss of bicarbonate from the body.
o In either instance, the decrease in filtered bicarbonate results in decreased renal bicarbonate and increased renal chloride
reabsorption (to maintain electroneutrality), resulting in a hyperchloremic acidosis.
o The plasma chloride rises to the same extent as the plasma bicarbonate falls, and the anion gap remains normal.
High Anion Gap Acidosis The anion gap is a concept to give a clue as to the cause of metabolic acidosis (Figure 1). Electroneutrality demands that the
number of positive charges equals the number of negative charges (ions) in body fluids. Therefore, in plasma:
Na (142mEq/L) + K (5) + Ca (5) + Mg (3) = Cl (105) + HCO3 (25) + Alb (Albumin) (16) + OA (organic anions) (6) + HPO4 (2) + SO4 (1)
Simplifying this equation to include only certain monovalent measured anions and calling the other cations
o unmeasured cations (UC) = K + Ca + Mg
o unmeasured anions (UA) = Alb (Albumin) + OA (organic anions) + PO4 + SO4
Na + UC = Cl + HCO3 + UA
Anion gap = Na – Cl – HCO3 = (UA – UC)
Normal AG = 10‐12 mEq/L
Overproduction of an endogenous organic acid (H+A‐), where A‐ is the acid anion
o leads to high anion gap metabolic acidosis (for example with lactic acidosis A‐ = lactate).
When lactic acid (produced in Sepsis) is produced, the H+ is titrated by bicarbonate as follows:
HA + HCO3 H2CO3 H2O + CO2 + A
This reaction consumes 1 mol of bicarbonate for each mole of acid produced.
o If lactate (A) is not excreted or metabolized, it will accumulate in plasma, resulting in an “anion gap”.
Increased Anion Gap Increased organic acid production (with retention of organic acids)
Acidosis o Ketoacidosis – acetoacetate, beta‐hydroxybutyrate
o Lactic acidosis – lactate
o Toxin ingestion
Salicylate (Aspirin) – mostly lactate
Methanol (wood alcohol) – formate and formaldehyde
Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) – glyoxylate, oxalate
Failure to excrete inorganic anions:
o Renal failure leading to increased AG – phosphate, sulfate
Normal Anion Gap Gastrointestinal loss of bicarbonate:
(Hyperchloremia) Acidosis o diarrhea
Renal loss of bicarbonate:
o Proximal renal tubular acidosis (RTA) (Type 2)
o Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (prevent proximal HCO3 reabsorption)
Failure to excrete acid:
o Distal renal tubular acidosis (RTA) (Type 1, Type 4)
o Renal failure – leads to high and normal anion gap acidosis
Administration of acid:
o Infusion of HCl or its congeners (e.g., ammonium chloride, TPN)
Administration of large amounts of saline:
o dilutional acidosis
Type 2 RTA (Proximal) In normal kidneys, there is complete reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate (by the proximal
tubule) until the plasma bicarbonate level exceeds normal (i.e., 25 mEq/L).
If there is dysfunction of the proximal tubule, there is a defect in bicarbonate reabsorption
Proximal RTA Type 2
o leading to a decrease in the plasma bicarbonate level to the point that the kidneys are
again able to reabsorb all of the filtered bicarbonate.
o Often accompanied by other features of Fanconi Syndrome an increase excretion of
nearly all amino acids, glucose, bicarbonate, and phosphate
In the example given in the Figure,
o this is a plasma HCO3 of 15 mEq/L. Since filtered bicarbonate is equal to the plasma
HCO3 x GFR, in this case, the kidneys ability to reabsorb bicarbonate would be 15 to 25
OR 60% of normal.
Type 1 RTA (Distal) In normal kidneys, acid (H+) is excreted by the distal tubule alpha‐intercalated cells,
predominantly in the form of ammonium ion (NH4+).
o When H+ is excreted, an equimolar amount of HCO3 is returned to the blood,
thus regenerating the bicarbonate that has been titrated by acid produced from protein
metabolism.
Type 1 distal RTA can be due to
o failure of the Proton ATP pump on the lumen side of the cell
o failure of the HCO3‐Cl exchanger on the blood side of the cell
o backleak of protons from the lumen into the cell
In addition, an increased secretion of potassium also occurs, resulting in hypokalemic
hyperchloremia acidosis
The most common causes of Type 1 Distal RTA are:
o Hereditary; Autoimmune disease; Tubulointerstitial disease; Dysproteinemias
Urine pH is increased (>5.3) despite systemic acidosis.
There is decreased ammonium ion (NH4) resulting in a decreased excretion of chloride ion
Type 4 RTA (Distal) Usually due to an Aldosterone deficiency (Hypoaldosteronism) which decreases the activity of the Proton ATPase.
o The resulting hyperkalemia leads to decreased ammonium ion excretion
Due to inhibition of ammonia formation
Most common causes are:
o Diabetes – due to the glycation of prorenin with impaired activation to renin
o Drugs – RAAS axis inhibitors
o Aldosterone synthesis inhibitors such as Heparin
o Inhibitors of tubular potassium secretion such as Trimethoprim and Calcineurin inhibitors
o NSAIDs inhibit the RAAS axis as well as tubular potassium secretion
Summary of Major RTA Type 1 Type 2 Type 4
Laboratory Findings in RTA Plasma Potassium Low Low High
Urine pH >5.3 <5.3 <5.3
Treatment of Metabolic Treat underlying cause(s) sepsis, shock
Acidosis Bicarbonate (especially with normal anion gap acidosis) – Na or K bicarbonate (or bicarbonate former) depending on etiology
and electrolyte values.
Metabolic Alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis is defined as a primary increase in the bicarbonate concentration, i.e. [HCO3‐], of the plasma.
o In primary metabolic alkalosis:
the pH of the blood will be elevated (alkalemia)
An increase in [HCO3‐] of 1.0 mEq/L should be accompanied by an increase in PCO2 of 0.7 mm Hg (this is termed respiratory adaptation).
The rise in PCO2 will keep the blood pH near normal (although mild alkalemia will be present).
Generation of metabolic There are three ways to generate metabolic alkalosis:
alkalosis o Net loss of hydrogen ions (H+) from extracellular fluid (ECF)
o Net addition of HCO3‐ to ECF
o Loss of fluid containing chloride in excess of bicarbonate ("contraction alkalosis")
Net loss of hydrogen ions Causes of H+ loss
(H+) from extracellular fluid Gastrointestinal ‐ loss of HCl HCl secretion by parietal cells of stomach does not normally cause metabolic alkalosis
(ECF) from stomach (vomiting, gastric because HCl is titrated by pancreatic sodium bicarbonate:
drainage) HCl (stomach) + NaHCO3 (pancreases) ‐‐> NaCl + CO2 + H2O.
However, if HCl is lost from the body because of vomiting or gastric drainage, there is a
net gain of bicarbonate.
Metabolic alkalosis is then maintained by
o increased renal bicarbonate reabsorption and decreased bicarbonate secretion
due to depletion of ECF and chloride
Renal ‐ loss of H+ into urine Hydrogen ions generated by protein metabolism are normally excreted by the kidneys
(mineralocorticoid excess primarily in the form of ammonium (NH4+) ions.
states) In certain conditions, an inappropriate increase in renal H+ excretion leads to metabolic
alkalosis.
o This is characteristic of primary mineralocorticoid excess states.
Because, Aldosterone (the naturally occurring mineralocorticoid hormone)
increases sodium reabsorption and potassium and H+ secretion in the cortical
collecting tubule.
Sodium retention expands ECF volume and decreases proximal tubule sodium
reabsorption.
Metabolic alkalosis then results from the combination of excess mineralocorticoid
hormone effect and increased distal delivery of sodium
(in the presence of aldosterone, sodium in the lumen will enter the cells of the
collecting tubule and potassium and H+ will exit the cells into the tubule lumen).
Administration of diuretic drugs that impair ion transport in the loop of Henle or distal
convoluted tubule also results in stimulation of aldosterone secretion (secondary to
renin release in response to hypovolemia) and increased sodium delivery to the
collecting tubule.
Of note, high levels of aldosterone may not result in metabolic alkalosis in the absence
of adequate distal sodium delivery.
o For instance, in congestive heart failure and liver cirrhosis,
there is secondary hyperaldosteronism (due to decreased renal perfusion and
increased renin secretion)
however, distal sodium delivery is decreased and metabolic alkalosis does not
normally occur unless diuretics are administered.
Shift into cells ‐ severe K+ With very severe potassium deficiency
deficiency o K+ will shift out of cells into the ECF in exchange for H+.
o Therefore H+ is "lost" into the cells, causing metabolic alkalosis
o The increase in intracellular H+ in renal tubular cells results in increased H+ secretion
and bicarbonate reabsorption
thus also maintaining metabolic alkalosis
Net addition of HCO3‐ to Causes of HCO3‐ gain:
ECF Exogenous alkali administration (bicarbonate, lactate, citrate, acetate)
This only occurs with either massive administration of alkali (usually iatrogenic) or in the presence of impaired renal function.
Loss of fluid containing Causes of Cl‐‐rich fluid loss:
chloride in excess of Gastrointestinal ‐ villous Villous adenomas are tumors that secrete chloride into the stool; K+ depletion also contributes
bicarbonate ("contraction adenoma, congenital to the generation of alkalosis.
alkalosis") chloridorrhea. Congenital chloridorrhea is a rare disorder in which there is a failure of gut reabsorption of
chloride secreted by the stomach.
Renal ‐ diuretics, Diuretics are a very common cause of metabolic alkalosis
Bartter's and Gitelman's o because impaired chloride reabsorption by the kidney plus stimulation of the renin‐
syndromes. angiotensin‐aldosterone axis by volume contraction called secondary hyperaldosteronism
Bartter's syndrome is a genetic defect of the loop diuretic‐sensitive Na‐K‐2Cl co‐transporter in
the loop of Henle ("endogenous loop diuretic").
Gitelman's syndrome is a genetic defect of the thiazide‐sensitive Na‐Cl co‐transporter in the
distal tubule ("endogenous thiazide")
During chronic hypercapnia (seen frequently in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
o there is an appropriate adaptive increase in renal H+ secretion and thus bicarbonate
reabsorption.
o This is accompanied by loss of chloride in the urine (sodium is reabsorbed preferentially with
bicarbonate rather than chloride).
o Rapid restoration of PCO2 to normal with mechanical ventilation is not accompanied by a
similarly rapid change in bicarbonate handling by the kidney and may result in severe
alkalemia.
o Because of previous chloride depletion, post‐hypercapnic metabolic alkalosis is typically
associated with a low urine chloride concentration and improves with saline administration.
Skin ‐ cystic fibrosis Metabolic alkalosis has been described in children with cystic fibrosis
o due to loss of chloride in excess of bicarbonate in sweat.
Maintenance of Metabolic Under normal physiologic conditions,
Alkalosis o bicarbonate is filtered by the glomerulus (the filtered load is the product of the GFR and the plasma bicarbonate
concentration).
o Virtually all of the filtered bicarbonate is then reabsorbed,
primarily at proximal nephron sites.
o Since normally about 1 mEq/kg of protons are generated by the
body each day
this amount of bicarbonate buffer is titrated in the ECF and
needs to be regenerated in the distal nephron.
Both reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate and regeneration of
bicarbonate occur by tubular secretion of H+.
H+ is formed in the tubular cell from the splitting of H2O into H+
and OH‐.
After the H+ is secreted into the tubular lumen, OH‐ then
combines with CO2 to form HCO3‐, which is reabsorbed into the
peritubular capillary.
Reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate occurs by titration of
filtered bicarbonate by H+ in the proximal tubular lumen with addition of bicarbonate
formed in the tubular cell into the peritubular capillary.
In the distal nephron, luminal bicarbonate is usually absent;
therefore H+ secretion results in urinary H+ loss (primarily in the form of ammonium
ions or NH4+) and thus bicarbonate regeneration.
Mechanism of bicarbonate reabsorption and regeneration by tubular cells.
o The figure depicts the major cellular and luminal events in bicarbonate reabsorption in the
proximal tubule (top panel) and regeneration in collecting tubules (bottom panel).
o In the proximal tubule
H+ ions are secreted into the lumen by the Na‐H exchanger, whereas HCO3‐ ions are
returned to the systemic circulation primarily via a Na‐HCO3 co‐transporter.
Secreted H+ combines with filtered HCO3‐ to form CO2 and H2O (this reaction is facilitated
by carbonic anhydrase (CA) in the brush border).
o In the collecting tubule
a Proton‐ATPase pump and a Cl‐‐HCO3 exchanger mediate these processes.
H+ secretion will then result in regeneration of bicarbonate.
Note: the collecting tubule cell shown is a type A intercalated cell; there also are type B intercalated cells
Once metabolic alkalosis has occurred
o its maintenance must indicate a failure of the kidneys to excrete the excess bicarbonate.
This can occur either because of a
decreased filtered load of bicarbonate (due to a decrease in GFR)
an increase in tubular bicarbonate reabsorption (or decrease in bicarbonate secretion)
o In the absence of renal failure
inability of the kidneys to excrete the excess bicarbonate implies the presence of a factor (or factors) that either
increase bicarbonate reabsorption or decrease its secretion
o such as ECF or chloride depletion, potassium depletion, and hypercapnia.
The mechanism(s) by ECF depletion
which these factors o Decrease GFR and Increases proximal tubular Na+ and HCO3‐ reabsorption
maintain metabolic since there is hypochloremia, decreased filtration of chloride leads to bicarbonate reabsorption with sodium in an attempt
alkalosis. to maintain ECF volume
o Stimulates renin secretion leading to secondary hyperaldosteronism
increases H+ secretion and HCO3‐ generation in the collecting tubule
Chloride depletion (recent data suggest that this is the most important mechanism)
o Increases distal tubular HCO3‐ reabsorption
decreased tubular fluid chloride concentration promotes H+ secretion and chloride‐bicarbonate exchange by type A
intercalated cells in the distal tubule
o Decreases distal tubular HCO3‐ secretion
decreased tubular fluid chloride concentration inhibits chloride‐bicarbonate exchange by type B intercalated cells in the
distal tubule
Note that type B cells have the opposite configuration to type A cells, i.e. the location of the H+‐ATPase and chloride‐
bicarbonate exchangers are reversed
o Directly stimulates renin production
leading to secondary hyperaldosteronism and increased H+ excretion
K+ depletion
o Decreases intracellular pH and Increases tubular HCO3‐ reabsorption
Hypercapnia (increased PCO2)
o Decreases intracellular pH and Increases tubular HCO3‐ reabsorption
Note: K+ depletion and hypercapnia will both lead to intracellular acidosis, which increases H+ secretion (K+ depletion leads to
shift of K+ out of cells and H+ into cells; CO2 movement into cells results in acidosis because CO2 combines with OH‐ [formed
from splitting of H2O into H+ and OH‐]).
Clinical Features of History
Metabolic Alkalosis o vomiting
o gastric drainage
o diuretics
Symptoms
o often none
o sometimes cramps
Signs
o hypertension (in primary mineralocorticoid excess states) called Kussmaul sign
Kussmaul sign is a paradoxical rise in jugular venous pressure (JVP) on inspiration, or a failure in the appropriate fall of the
JVP with inspiration. It can be seen in some forms of heart disease and is usually indicative of limited right ventricular filling
due to right heart dysfunction.
o hypoventilation (usually not evident on physical exam)
o tetany and/or increased deep tendon reflexes (metabolic alkalosis results in increased negative charges on serum albumin,
thus increasing binding of calcium to albumin and decreasing the concentration of free or ionized calcium)
o cardiac arrhythmias (esp. if pH > 7.6)
Laboratory Findings in Arterial blood gases:
Metabolic Alkalosis o increased pH, [HCO3‐], and PCO2
Electrolytes:
o elevated [HCO3‐]
o decreased [Cl‐]
o usually low [K+]
o slight increase in anion gap (increased negative charges on albumin, increased lactate due to increased intracellular pH)
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN):
o frequently increased (due to volume depletion)
Hematocrit:
o frequently increased (volume depletion)
Urine chloride [Cl‐]:
o very helpful in differential diagnosis (value < 10 mEq/L indicates volume/chloride depletion)
Note: Urine [Na+] may not be low despite volume depletion
o because urinary loss of bicarbonate forces urinary cation (Na+ and K+) excretion.
Differential Diagnosis of Chloride‐responsive type (urine Cl‐ low, i.e. < 10 mEq/L):
Metabolic Alkalosis o In these conditions, the kidney is avidly reabsorbing chloride because of persistent volume (and chloride) depletion that
developed during the generation of metabolic alkalosis.
GI ‐ vomiting, gastric drainage, villous adenoma, chloride diarrhea
Renal – continued diuretics use after drug cessation
Skin ‐ cystic fibrosis
Chloride‐resistant type (urine Cl‐ high, i.e., > 20 mEq/L)
o Renal ‐ Mineralocorticoid excess states ‐‐ can be either primary (low renin) of secondary (high renin)
Primary Secondary (Increase levels of Renin stimulate aldosterone)
Primary hyperaldosteronism Renal artery stenosis
Cushing’s syndrome Accelerated hypertension
Licorice ingestion (stimulates hyperaldosteronism) Renin‐secreting tumor
Liddle syndrome (stimulates hyperaldosteronism) Estrogen therapy
Bartter’s syndrome
Gitelman syndrome
Diuretics (during drug administration)
o Other – Profound potassium depletion
Treatment of Metabolic In general, metabolic alkalosis in the presence of ECF excess (as occurs in mineralocorticoid excess states) is mild and does not
Alkalosis require treatment.
Alkalosis of sufficient severity to require treatment is generally associated with volume depletion and can be corrected with
sodium chloride administration.
o Volume expansion will decrease HCO3‐ reabsorption.
o Administration of potassium is indicated if hypokalemia is present, as entry of K+ into cells in exchange for H+ will buffer
excess ECF HCO3‐.
Some patients, such as those with severe congestive heart failure, may have metabolic alkalosis
o due to relative plasma volume depletion (due to loop diuretics) but still have increased ECF volume (edema).
In this setting, administration of a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor such as acetazolamide may be beneficial.
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors are proximally acting diuretics which result in decreased bicarbonate reabsorption and
bicarbonaturia.
In the presence of life‐threatening alkalosis
o intravenous HCl or ammonium chloride (providing the patient does not have hepatic or renal failure) can be given.
Ammonium chloride administration titrates bicarbonate by the following reaction:
NH4Cl + NaHCO3 NaCl + NH3 + CO2 + H2O
Finally, prevention of metabolic alkalosis in patients undergoing gastric drainage by drugs that inhibit gastric acid secretion (H2
blockers, omeprazole) is indicated.
Primary Disorder Predicted Compensation
Metabolic acidosis An decrease in [HCO3‐] of 1.0 mEq/L an decrease in PCO2 of 1.2 mm Hg
Metabolic alkalosis An increase in [HCO3‐] of 1.0 mEq/L an increase in PCO2 of 0.7 mm Hg
Respiratory acidosis Acute An increase in [HCO3‐] of 0.1 mEq/L an increase in PCO2 of 1 mm Hg
Chronic An increase in [HCO3‐] of 0.4 mEq/L an increase in PCO2 of 1 mm Hg
Respiratory alkalosis Acute An decrease in [HCO3‐] of 0.2 mEq/L an decrease in PCO2 of 1 mm Hg
Chronic An decrease in [HCO3‐] of 0.4 mEq/L an decrease in PCO2 of 1 mm Hg
Acid‐Base Problems:
Patient 1. A 70‐year‐old man presents with weakness. Blood chemistries reveal (in mmol/L): sodium 145, potassium 3.0, chloride
120, total CO2 16; (in mg/dL): urea nitrogen 30, creatinine 1.2. Arterial blood gases (ABG) reveal: pH 7.35, PCO2 30 mmHg, HCO3 16
mEq/L.
Normal Blood Chemistries Values: Normal ABG Values: Normal Urine Chemistries:
Sodium = 136‐144 mmol/L pH = 7.36‐7.46 Sodium = >40 mmol/L
Potassium = 3.5‐5.3 mmol/L PCO2 = 32‐46 mmHg Potassium = >20 mmol/L
Chloride = 98‐108 mmol/L PO2 = 74‐108 mmHg Chloride = >10 mmol/L
Total CO2 = 23‐27 mmol/L HCO3 = 21‐29 mmol/L
BUN = 7‐22 mg/dL
Creatinine = 0.7‐1.4 mg/dL
Glucose, fasting = 70‐100 mg/dL
Q1A: What is the acid base disturbance?
A. Metabolic acidosis
B. Metabolic alkalosis
C. Mixed metabolic acidosis/metabolic alkalosis
D. No metabolic disturbance
ABG, blood pH is below normal mild acidemia. The expected respiratory compensation is a decreased of PCO2. Since the delta
bicarbonate is 24‐16=8, the delta PCO2 should be 40 ‐ 1.2*8 = 30.4 +/‐ 2, which is within the range of the ABG PCO2. Therefore, this
is metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation
Q1B: How would you further characterize it?
A. High‐anion gap acidosis
B. Normal anion gap (hyperchloremic) acidosis
Bicarbonate is low and the AG = 145 – 120 – 16 = 9 (normal = 10‐12). Hence, this is a non‐AG or hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis.
Another way to tell is that the serum chloride is elevated relative to the serum sodium level. The normal ratio of sodium to chloride
is 138/100 = 1.38, but in this case is 145/120 = 1.21.
Q2: What is the differential diagnosis and most likely cause?
A. Chronic kidney disease
B. RTA (Renal Tubular Acidosis)
C. Diarrhea (due to increased stool bicarbonate loss)
D. Hydrochloric acid ingestion
In patients with normal or near‐normal renal function, the cause of hyperchloremic acidosis will usually be RTA or diarrhea.
o Classic (distal) RTA and proximal RTA as well as diarrhea typically present with hypokalemic hyperchloremic metabolic
acidosis.
o A urine pH>5.5 suggests distal RTA, although it can also be elevated with laxative abuse leading to diarrhea, volume
depletion, and impaired distal sodium delivery.
o In classic RTA: The urine AG or net charge (Na + K – Cl) is positive due to impairment of ammonium excretion and thus
decreased urine chloride
o in diarrhea: The renal proton excretion is enhanced, and thus there is a large amount of ammonium chloride in the urine,
and the net charge is typically negative.
o In proximal RTA: the net charge is variable
In this cause, the urine net charge is 40 + 5 ‐ 100 = ‐55 (values given in the book for this problem) therefore, diagnosis is diarrhea
Patient 2. A 30‐year‐old woman presents with fatigue and weakness. She denies vomiting or diarrhea and takes no medications. Her
physical examination is normal except for mild orthostatic hypotension (volume depleted). Blood chemistries reveal (in mmol/L):
sodium 138, potassium 2.9, chloride 90, total CO2 40. Arterial blood gases (ABG) reveal: pH 7.50; PCO2 53 mmHg; HCO3 40 mEq/L.
The urine pH is 7.5. Urine chemistries reveal (in mmol/L): sodium 30, potassium 30, chloride 5.
Normal Blood Chemistries Values: Normal ABG Values: Normal Urine Chemistries:
Sodium = 136‐144 mmol/L pH = 7.36‐7.46 Sodium = >40 mmol/L
Potassium = 3.5‐5.3 mmol/L PCO2 = 32‐46 mmHg Potassium = >20 mmol/L
Chloride = 98‐108 mmol/L PO2 = 74‐108 mmHg Chloride = >10 mmol/L
Total CO2 = 23‐27 mmol/L HCO3 = 21‐29 mmol/L
BUN = 7‐22 mg/dL
Creatinine = 0.7‐1.4 mg/dL
Glucose, fasting = 70‐100 mg/dL
Q1: What is the acid base disorder?
A. Metabolic acidosis
B. Metabolic alkalosis
C. Mixed metabolic acidosis/metabolic alkalosis
D. No metabolic disturbance
On the ABG, the pH is high (7.5) which indicates alkalemia, and bicarbonate is high (40), indicating metabolic alkalosis. Since the
delta bicarbonate is 24‐40=16, the delta PCO2 = 0.7*16 = 11.2 +/‐ 2, where the actual delta PCO2 = 53‐40 = 13. Therefore, this is a
simple metabolic alkalosis.
On the ABG:
Step 1. pH = 7.5 which is >7.4 = Alkalemia
Step 2. CO2 = 53 which is >40 = Metabolic alkalosis
Step 3. Calculate AG = 138 – 90 – 40 = 8 which is <12 = Non‐Anion Gap = Simple Metabolic alkalosis
Q2: What is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Diuretic intake
B. Bartter’s syndrome
C. Gitelman’s syndrome
D. Surreptitious vomiting
E. Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
Since we have a Metabolic alkalosis, we need to check the urine Cl = 5 which is <10 so this could be from Diuretics, Dehydration,
Emesis, or Nasogastric suction. Then we look at the urine K = 30 which is >20 so this is due to vomiting.
Diuretic intake would cause an increase in chloride, sodium, and potassium excretion
Bartter’s and Gitelman’s Syndrome are tubular reabsorptive disorders (similar to endogenous diuretics) and would also
cause increased chloride, sodium, and potassium excretion
Hypokalemic periodic paralysis is not associated with metabolic alkalosis
Patient 3. A 60‐year‐old female patient presents to the emergency room (ER) with fever and confusion. She has known chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and is on home oxygen.
Serum chemistries reveal (in mmol/L): sodium = 136; potassium = 3.9; chloride = 101; total CO2 = 5.
ABG: pH = 6.8; PCO2 = 33 mm Hg; HCO3 = 5 mEq/L.
Q1: What is the acid‐base disturbance?
A. Metabolic acidosis
B. Respiratory acidosis
C. Respiratory alkalosis
D. Mixed metabolic acidosis/respiratory alkalosis
E. Mixed metabolic acidosis/respiratory acidosis
On the ABG:
Step 1. pH = 6.8 which is <7.4 = Acidemia
Step 2. CO2 = 33 which is <40 = Metabolic acidosis
Step 3. Calculate AG = 136 – 101 – 5 = 30 which is >12 = Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis
Step 4. Is PCO2 appropriate?
Winter’s = 1.5*HCO3 + 8+/‐2 = 1.5*5 + 8 = 15.5 +/‐ 2.
Since the given PCO2 = 33 is greater than expected = Respiratory Acidosis.
Step 5. Is there a HCO3 problem?
Delta AG = 12 – 30 = 18.
Add the delta AG to the HCO3 = 5 + 18 = 23 which is less than normal HCO3 = 24. Thus this is a Metabolic Acidosis.
Q2: Why do you think the patient developed it?
This patient had sepsis leading to lactic acidosis. She was unable to achieve appropriate respiratory compensation due to her
underlying COPD. Thus, the very profound acidemia should raise the possibility to a combined acidosis, i.e. both metabolic and
respiratory acidosis.
Patient 4. A 30‐year‐old male patient presents to the emergency room (ER) with confusion.
Serum chemistries reveal (in mmol/L): sodium = 136; potassium = 3.9; chloride = 101; total CO2 = 15.
ABG: pH = 7.5; PCO2 = 20 mm Hg; HCO3 = 15 mEq/L.
Q1: What is the acid‐base disturbance?
A. Metabolic acidosis
B. Respiratory acidosis
C. Respiratory alkalosis
D. Mixed metabolic acidosis/respiratory alkalosis
E. Mixed metabolic acidosis/respiratory acidosis
On the ABG:
Step 1. pH = 7.5 which is >7.4 = Alkalemia
Step 2. CO2 = 20 which is <40 = Respiratory alkalosis
Step 3. Calculate AG = 136 – 101 – 15 = 20 which is >12 = High Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis
Step 4. Is PCO2 appropriate?
Winter’s = 1.5*HCO3 + 8+/‐2 = 1.5*15 + 8 = 30.5 +/‐ 2.
Since the given PCO2 = 20 is smaller than expected = Respiratory Alkalosis
Step 5. Is there a HCO3 problem?
Delta AG = 12 (normal) – 20 = 8.
Add the delta AG to determine the expected HCO3 = 15 + 8 = 23.
The delta HCO3 = 24 – 23 = 1 which is <2 Acute Respiratory Alkalosis.
Since the given HCO3 (15) < expected HCO3 (23) coexisting Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis
Q2: Why do you think the patient developed it?
Salicylate toxicity causes an AG metabolic acidosis and an acute respiratory alkalosis.
Hematuria and Nephrolithiasis
Hematuria
Overview Can be gross (visible) or microscopic (invisible)
Can be transient or persistent
Can occur from any site along urinary tract
Broad differential diagnosis
o Entirely benign causes
o Malignant, potentially lethal causes
Gross Hematuria From pink to dark maroon +/‐ clots
Normally Painless
Sequelae
o Acute urinary retention
o Anemia (when severe)
Associated with a higher risk of urologic cancer
Detection of Hematuria
Dipstick testing for A dipstick detects ‘heme’
hematuria o Red blood cells (RBCs)
o Free hemoglobin
o Free myoglobin
o “heme”+ from Semen
Beware of:
o Contamination from menstrual bleeding or GI bleeding
Detecting Hematuria Positive Dipstick testing
o Requires microscopic confirmation to check for presence of RBCs
o Micrscopic hematuria is defined as > 3 RBCs per hpf
Imposters:
o Positive dipstick for blood, BUT negative microscopy for RBCs
Imposters
o Free hemoglobinuria (hemolysis, sickle cell disease)
o Myoglobinuria (rhabdomyolysis from crush injury) = positive dipstick with no red blood cells
o Semen
NOT due anticoagulation or over‐anticoagulation
o Exception: marked overdose of warfarin
Search for cause is usually warranted if > 3 RBCs/hpf in the urine
Microscopic Hematuria: Review Microscopic Analysis of Urine
Evaluation o Glomerular hematuria
RBC casts
Dysmorphic RBC’s, acanthocytes
Proteinuria (ratio > 0.3 or >300mg/day)
Elevated renal indices (BUN, Creatinine)
Hypertension
o Non‐glomerular hematuria
Isomorphic RBC’s same size
No proteinuria
Normal renal indices
Glomerular source suspected
o Refer to Nephrology
Non‐glomerular source suspected
o Refer to Urology
Causes of Microscopic Hematuria
Glomerular Causes
Age < 50 years old Age > 50 years old
IgA Nephropathy IgA Nephropathy
Thin Basement Membrane Disease (also called Glomerulonephritis (also called Goodpastures, Churg‐Strauss, ANCA or
Benign Familial Hematuria) Wegener’s Vasculitis, Lupus Nephritis)
Hereditary Nephritis (also called Alport’s
Syndrome)
Uncertain Causes
Age < 50 years old Age > 50 years old
Exercise Hematuria Exercise Hematuria
Benign Hematuria (Unexplained Microscopic Over‐Anticoagulation (usually due to Warfarin – rare, but if something is to
Hematuria) bleed, it will bleed on Warfarin)
Over‐Anticoagulation (elevated INR usually
due to Warfarin)
Factitious Hematuria (usually presents as
Gross Hematuria
Non‐Glomerular Upper urinary tract Causes
Age < 50 years old Age > 50 years old
Nephrolithiasis Nephrolithiasis
Pyelonephritis or UTI Renal Cell Carcinoma
Medullary Sponge Kidney Disease due to kidney stones Pyelonephritis
Renal Tuberculosis (endemic areas, HIV infection) Ureteral Cancer
Renal Trauma Papillary Necrosis
Renal Infarction or AVM Renal Infarction
Ureteral Stricture Ureteral Stricture and Hydronephrosis
Sickle Cell Disease or Trait Renal Tuberculosis
Lower urinary tract Causes
Age < 50 years old Age > 50 years old
Cystitis, Prostatitis, Urethritis or UTI Cystitis, Prostatitis, Urethritis or UTI
Benign Bladder and Ureteral Polyps and Tumors Bladder Cancer
Bladder Cancer Prostate Cancer
Prostate Cancer Benign Bladder and Ureteral Polyps and Tumors
Urethral and Meatal Strictures
Schistosoma haematobium (North Africa)
Urologic Cancer
Incidence Approximately 5% of cases of microscopic hematuria
o Higher incidence in gross hematuria
Risk increases with age
o Especially ≥ 65 y/o
Risk factors Cigarette smoking
Occupational exposures Leather, dye, rubber/tire manufacturing industries
Phenacetin use analgesic
Aristolochic acid herbal supplement agent that causes urologic cancers and kidney failure in Asia and Japan
Testing to Detect Urologic Evaluation of the Upper Tract
Cancers o CT scan
Evaluation of the Lower Tract
o Cystoscopy
Cytologic Studies of Urine
o First AM void, three consecutive days ideally
Upper Tract Imaging CT
Modalities
Ultrasound
X‐ray
Microscopic Hematuria: Imaging of Upper Tract Positive
Evaluation o Mass or Cyst suspected: Urology referral to rule out and treat cancer
o Polycystic kidneys: Nephrology referral to follow for progression and development of kidney disease that may need transplant
and/or dialysis
Imaging of Upper Tract Negative
o About 70% of all cases
o Further workup depends upon age, risk factors for urologic cancer
o Exact age cutoff for/against further workup is controversial
o Cystoscopy and ureteroscopy
Age < 40‐50 y/o, no risk factors for urologic cancer
o Perform cytology of voided urine x 3
o Workup ends if negative (consider f/u annual UA)
o Cystoscopy if neoplastic cells suggested on cytology
Age > 40‐50 or risk factors for urologic cancer
o Urine cytology and cystoscopy
o Workup ends if both negative
o No f/u studies necessary unless symptoms develop
BUT if there is gross hematuria should always get full workup due to higher risk of urologic cancer
Gross Hematuria: Large bore Foley catheterization +/‐ traction
Additional Management Bladder irrigation
Intravesicle therapy
Cystoscopic/surgical treatments
Nephrolithias – Kidney Stones
Epidemiology Very Common
o Lifetime risk: 10‐20% (1:5 people)
o Male more likely to have kidney stones than Females
Lifetime prevalence of 12% (male) and 7% (female)
o More common in the South where the southeast is more common than the northwest
o Affects Caucasians > Hispanics and Asians > Blacks (very rare)
o Recurrence is variable:
5 ‐10% within one year (rare)
35% in five years
50% in 10 years
o Incidence of Stones
70‐80% Calcium oxalate (most common) or calcium phosphate
10‐15% Uric acid
10‐15% Magnesium ammonium phosphate (a.k.a. Struvite)
1% Cystine
1% Medication crystals (indinavir, triamterene)
Clinical Presentation Most patients with moderate/severe colic
o With or without gross or microscopic hematuria
Stone in upper ureter
o Flank pain, upper anterior abdominal pain
Stone in lower ureter
o Groin pain, ipsilateral testicular/labial pain
Stone lodged in the kidney does not hurt
o Painless hematuria
o Persistent urinary tract infection (UTI)
Pathophysiology of stone Factors leading to supersaturation
formation o Increased ions or solutes – calcium
o Decreased inhibitors – citrate
o Increased promoters
o Low urine flow or volume
Calcium Oxalate Stones Stone Shape: envelope and dumbbell
o Most are a one time or rare occurrence (once every 5‐10 years)
o Most are idiopathic
o But some can be associated with medical conditions and can be recurrent (every couple of months)
Common Causes:
o Idiopathic familial hypercalciuria
o Primary hyperparathyroidism (increased PTH) “Stones, moans, and groans”
o Sarcoidosis (overproduction of 1,25‐Dihydroxy vitamin D)
o Hypercalcemia of malignancy
o Renal Tubular Acidosis (RTA)
o Vitamin C abuse (ascorbic acid)
Excess vitamin C is excreted in the oxalate form, and this may bind calcium in the urine
leading calcium oxalate crystals
People take vitamin C to prevent and treat colds (more than 4‐5 tabs a day daily) AVOID!
Other Unique and Rare Causes:
o Enteric hyperoxaluria:
Dietary calcium binds to FFAs in small bowel
Unbound oxalate is absorbed in the colon and then filtered into the urine
In the urine, oxalate binds to calcium, resulting in oxalate nephrolithiasis
Complication of short bowel syndrome
Large missing portion of small bowel in cases of (a.k.a. Crohn disease)
Fat malabsorption
o Primary hyperoxaluria:
Autosomal recessive enzymatic defects in glyoxylate metabolism that result in enhanced oxalate overproduction
PH type 1
PH type 2
PH type 3
Diagnosed in infants and children and can lead to kidney failure, transplantation and/or dialysis
o Antifreeze poisoning (ethylene glycol):
Intentional with suicide attempt
Unintentional with experimenting with ‘drugs’
Unintentional ingestion with kids or pets
Calcium Oxalate stones and Hypocitraturia
o Citrate inhibits calcium stone formation by forming a soluble complex with calcium (inhibitor)
o Metabolic acidosis (diarrhea or RTA) diminishes citrate excretion
due to enhanced citrate reabsorption in the proximal tubule (promoter)
Hypocitrituria
o Medullary sponge kidney
o Distal RTA
o Idiopathic or high animal protein diet
Calcium Phosphate Stones Stone Shape: Wedge shaped prisms and needles
o Not as common as Calcium Oxalate
o Form in alkaline urine pH
o Common complication of distal RTA
Struvite Stones (also called Stone Shape: Coffin Lid
Staghorn) Causes and Mechanisms
Ammonium, Magnesium, o Chronic upper urinary tract infection with urease producing bacteria
Phosphate Proteus species
Haemophilus species
Klebsiella species
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Staphylococcus saprophyticus
o Hydrolyzes urea to ammonia leads to persistently alkaline urine
o More common in women, chronic urinary obstruction (neurogenic bladder, e.g.)
Uric Acid Stones Stone Shape: pleomorphic, most often appearing as rhombic plates or rosettes
with either a yellow or reddish‐brown appearance and form ONLY in acidic urine
o Radiolucent on Xray (can’t see)
o Visible on CT
o Rhomboid or rosettes on micro
Caused by:
o Red meat, obesity, soda
Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes mellites
o Obesity is a global epidemic, prevalence of 30% in the USA
Diet is associated with both a more acid urine pH and increases in urinary uric acid excretion
Obesity also increases risk of gout
Predisposing Risk Factors
o Hot and arid climate:
dehydration, low urine volume and acidic pH
o Chronic diarrhea:
leads to systemic acidosis and low urine pH as well as dehydration and low urine volumes
o Hyperproducers of uric acid:
Conditions with high cell turn over (PV, AML, TLS)
o Gout can have high elevated uric acid levels
o Uric acid solubility decreases with acidic pH
Mechanisms
o Acid urine pH + uric acid
Uric acid crystals are much less soluble to an acid pH than alkaline pH
Uric acid solubility increases >10x when urine pH increases from 5 to 7
Most uric acid stone formers have a urine pH of < 6
Cystine Stones Stone Shape: Hexagonal
o Very Rare
o Radiolucent on Xray (can’t see)
o Radiopaqye on CT
Cystinuria: autosomal recessive condition
Proximal tubule dysfunction of reabsorption of Cystine AND
o Ornithine
o Lysine
o Arginine
Cystine
o Only soluble in low concentrations or in alkaline urine
Screening:
o Cyanide‐nitroprusside screen indicates a urinary cystine concentration >75 mg/L (yellow to purple‐red color)
Evaluation of Stones History and physical
o Prior stone history
o Related medical illnesses
IBD (Crohn disease), thyroid/parathyroid disease, sarcoid, Renal Tubular Acidosis (RTA), small bowl resection
UTI’s, urinary obstruction, cancer
o Family history
o Medications
o Diet
o Daily volume intake
Imaging
o CT scan without contrast preferred
Requires no contrast to detect stones
Displays proximal and distal ureters
Can detect small stones
Can detect radiolucent stones uric acid and cystine stones does not show up on x‐ray
Can detect renal disorders other than stones
Can detect other intra‐abdominal disorders that may be source of symptoms
o Renal US, IVP less preferred
Stone Evaluation
o Retrieving stone for analysis is CRUCIAL
Calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate; Uric acid; Struvite; Cystine
Blood tests
o Routine serum chemistries
Look for:
Serum calcium; Acidosis; Hypokalemia; Uric acid
o iPTH level if hypercalcemia or hypercalciuria detected/known
o Vitamin D 25, Vitamin D 1,25
Urine Analysis
o UA look for pH and crystal presence
o Some experts advocate 24 hour urine collection in ALL patients
o Others advocate workup in certain settings
After 2nd stone event
1st stone in patients under 20 y/o
Suspected related medical illness
Patient willing to make lifestyle changes in response to findings
24 Urine Analysis
o Two consecutive 24 hour urine collections
At least six weeks after stone has passed
o Variables measured
Total volume (2 L/day), creatinine, pH
Calcium, oxalate, citrate, uric acid
Sodium, potassium, phosphorus
Certain circumstances: Cystine
Active Stone Management Medical therapy reasonable
o Small stones (< 5mm) – pass on their own
o Distal ureteral location
o Adequate pain control with analgesics
o No associated UTI or localized obstruction
Interventional therapy reasonable
o Larger stones (>6mm), especially proximal
o Not passing after 4 weeks of medical therapy Figure 1. Extracorporeal Figure 2. Ureteroscopy
o Intractable pain Shock Wave Lithotripsy
o Associated UTI or localized obstruction
Medical therapy
o Analgesia (NSAIDS = opiates in RCTs)
o Increase Oral intake of 2‐3L/day
o Tamsulosin – alpha antagonist to help the ureter relax
Interventional therapy:
o Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) Figure 1
o Ureteroscopy Figure 2
Future Stone Prevention For all stones:
o Increase daily fluid 2‐3L/day, preferably water
o Double urine output or achieve > 2L/day
Specific stone management strategies
o Calcium stones:
Low sodium diet – avoid can food and boxed dinners
NORMAL dietary calcium
Restriction will enhance oxalate absorption
Medication:
Thiazide diuretic: Decreases calcium excretion in urine
Citrate for calcium oxalate: alkalinizes urine pH
Correct low Citrate/Hypocitraturia
Citrate increases urinary pH and increases calcium solubility
o Lemon juice is an effective source of citrate
o 4 ounces of lemon juice concentrate per day mixed with tap water as lemonade for a total volume of 2 liters
o Uric Acid stones:
Insoluble in low urine pH (pH <6.5) give citrate to raise pH
Medications:
First line:
o potassium citrate
o Alkalinize urine, maintain urine pH > 6.5
Second line: Allopurinol, Losartan
o Useful with hyperuricemia, marked hyperuricosuria
o Also useful if patient cannot maintain urine pH > 6.5
Diet:
Lose weight! Low purine diet thought to be not very palatable
o Struvite stones
Urine pH between 8‐9 normal is 6.5
Eradicate infection with antibiotic therapy
Complete removal of all stones
Including residual fragments
Often requires surgical intervention
Prevent future UTIs
Directed Responses of Hyperoxaluria to much oxalate
Future Stone Prevention o Low oxalate diet
o Increase calcium intake
o Medications:
calcium carbonate (tums)
o Restrict vitamin C
Facilitates urine oxalate excretion
Cystine stone treatment options:
o Reduce supersaturation:
Increase fluid intake to decrease [cystine]
Restrict protein and sodium intake to decrease [cystine]
Alkalanize urine (increase cystine solubility)
Cystine solubility increases by 3X in an alkaline urine, but only if the urine pH is greater than 7
o Chelating agents containing thiol:
Penicillamine – poorly tolerated
Tiopronin – really expensive
Thiol‐containing drugs have sulfhydryl groups reduce disulfide bond of cystine, producing mixed disulfides with cysteine that
are more soluble than the homodimer cystine
Dietary Review Foods Rich in Calcium
o Dairy products
o Yogurt
o Sardines
o Dark leafy greens ‐ Spinach, kale
o Fortified cereals
o Fortified Orange juice
o Soybeans
o Fortified soymilk
o Enriched breads/grains
Food Rich in Oxalate
o Black tea
o Chocolate
o Soymilk
o Nuts
o Berries
o Beans, spinach, okra
o Beets, rhubarb
o Carrots
o Celery, Swiss chard
o Sweet potatoes
Low Sodium Diet
58 yo man with obesity and diabetes who presents to your office with history of multiple stones. He has had five stones passed in the last year and
three stones a year ago. He strained his urine and brought the stones in for pathology evaluation. In addition, PMH is + for h/o gout. urine and do a
dipstick which shows a pH of 5.5 (acidic). You also look at the urine under the microscope and see the following crystals:
Which of the following is TRUE?
A. Xray conducted will likely show stones
B. 24‐hour urine will likely show elevated calcium
C. Treatment may include citrate or lemon juice
D. Recommended daily fluid intake is one liter
55 year old man with history of small bowel resection due to difficult to manage Crohn disease. Since the age of 30 he has been passing stones
every few months. Which crystals are you more likely to see on microscopy? Answer is A
63 year old woman presents to the office after having passed a stone for which she was medically treated in the emergency room. CT scan showed
staghorn calculi on the left kidney.
Which of the following is TRUE?
A. Urine pH will be acidic
B. She likely has chronic UTIs due to Proteus
C. Micro will show dumbbell crystals
D. Her stones will not be visible on Xrays
The formation of renal stones is a consequence of all of the following events EXCEPT:
A. Supersaturation
B. Nucleation
C. Imbalance between promoters and inhibitors
D. Excessive urine flow
Disorders of Plasma Sodium Concentration
Introduction Approximately 60% of body weight is salt water.
The blood sodium concentration ([Na+]) is approximated by the ratio of total body sodium to total body water, i.e.
Blood (plasma or serum) [Na+] = Total body sodium/Total body water
Most disorders of sodium concentration are primarily due to alterations in water balance Usually due to total body water
Definitions Hyponatremia:
o defined as a plasma (or serum) sodium concentration [Na+] < 135 mEq/L.
Hypernatremia:
o defined as a plasma sodium concentration [Na+] > 145 mEq/L.
Physiologic Regulation of In steady state, water intake equals water output.
Plasma Sodium Water excess without a change in total body sodium content leads to Hyponatremia.
Concentration [Na+] Water deficit without a change in total body sodium content leads to Hypernatremia.
Increase water intake
o Causes a slight decrease plasma [Na+]
o Causes a decrease antidiuretic hormone (ADH) release and loss of thirst
o Causes an increase renal water excretion and decrease water intake
o Resulting in the normalization of plasma [Na+]
Decrease water intake
o Causes an increase plasma [Na+]
o Causes an increase ADH and thirst
o Causes a decrease renal water excretion and an increase water intake
o Resulting in the normalization of plasma [Na+]
Regulation of ADH ADH is arginine vasopressin (AVP)
o an octapeptide
o synthesized by the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei in the Hypothalamus
o stored and secreted by the posterior pituitary
ADH acts on the collecting duct to increase water reabsorption and thus decrease renal water excretion.
o In the presence of substantial amounts of ADH
the urine will be concentrated i.e. urine osmolality (Uosm) > plasma osmolality (Posm).
ADH secretion is physiologically regulated by
o osmotic (most sensitive) and nonosmotic factors
o A small (1% to 2%) increase in effective osmolality ([Na+ ] + [glucose]) will increase ADH release.
Both thirst and ADH are triggered at a plasma osmolality = 280 mmol/kg and will shut off at lower plasma osmolality
o A large (∼10%) decrease in blood volume or blood pressure will also increase ADH release and can override the effect of
osmolality called non‐osmotic stimulation of ADH release
o ADH release can also be affected by other non‐osmotic stimuli (e.g., drugs, pain, stress).
Assuming normal renal response to its effects,
o when ADH is completely suppressed, urine osmolality is very low (< 150 to ∼50 mmol per kg)
o when ADH is maximally active, urine osmolality is high (>700 to ∼1,200 mmol per kg).
Hyponatremia
Types of Hyponatremia Pseudo‐Hyponatremia:
o plasma [Na+] is low due to an
increase in the protein and/or lipid content of plasma
plasma water [Na+] is normal
plasma osmolality is thus normal
Hypertonic Hyponatremia (plasma osmolality is high) Serum Osmolality > 295 mOsm/kg
o Hyperglycemia:
Elevated glucose in plasma osmotically draws water from cells lowering the plasma [Na+].
Corrected [Na+] = measured [Na+] + [1.6 × (glucose / 100 − 1)]
where glucose concentration is expressed in mg/dL
Note that the correction factor is larger (up to 4) when there is extreme Hyperglycemia
o Exogenous solutes:
Hypertonic mannitol used to treat cerebral edema
Isotonic Hyponatremia Serum Osmolality is Normal (280‐295 mOsm/kg)
o Addition of an isosmotic but non–sodium‐containing fluid to the extracellular space such as glycine or sorbitol used as
endoscopic irrigant solutions
Hypotonic Hyponatremia (plasma osmolality is low) Serum Osmolality < 280 mOsm/kg
o which can be further subdivided into 3 types based on clinical and laboratory assessment of plasma/extracellular volume
Euvolemic
Hypovolemic
Hypervolemic
o Most Hyponatremia falls into this category.
Pathogenesis of Hypotonic Plasma sodium concentration [Na+] reflects the relationship between total body cations (sodium plus potassium) and total body
Hyponatremia water (TBW)
o [Na+] = alpha (Nae + Ke ) / TBW + beta
where
Nae = isotopically measured exchangeable sodium
Ke = isotopically measured exchangeable potassium.
Thus, plasma [Na+] only gives an indication of the relative amount of total body cations and TBW and not the absolute amount
of either.
In the absence of severe potassium depletion:
o plasma [Na+] is determined by the ratio of [Na+] = TBNa+ / TBW.
Hyponatremia = decrease plasma sodium concentration = excess of TBW relative to total body sodium (TBNa+)
Increase in TBW with normal This typically occurs when there is an inappropriate increase in ADH secretion,
TBNa+ syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) where the kidneys are
reabsorbing water
For example,
o if a tumor is secreting ADH
ADH secretion is not being regulated by the plasma sodium concentration
Then if water is ingested it will be retained
Causing persistent Hyponatremia.
Decrease in TBW with a large This usually occurs when there are sodium and water losses, with replacement of water
decrease in TBNa+ but not sodium.
For example:
o some patients taking diuretics (which cause renal loss of sodium and water) will ingest
a large amount of water possibly due to stimulation of thirst by volume depletion
volume depletion, if severe, can also (appropriately) cause ADH release which
contributes to Hyponatremia.
Large increase in TBW with This may occur in edematous disorders, that is,
normal or increased TBNa+ o congestive heart failure (CHF)
o liver cirrhosis
o nephrotic syndrome
o renal failure
For example,
o in severe CHF, there is a decrease in “effective blood volume” or “effective circulatory
volume” due to impaired cardiac output
o since there is decreased renal perfusion, the kidney perceives volume depletion and
retains sodium and water.
ADH release is increased due to the decrease in effective blood volume and blood
pressure which contributes to Hyponatremia.
o Plasma sodium concentration gives no information about the TBNa+
Estimation of TBNa+ requires physical examination.
Signs of low TBNa+
flat neck veins
decreased skin turgor
dry mucous membranes
absence of edema
orthostatic changes in pulse and blood pressure
The principal sign of high TBNa+
edema
Pathophysiology of Hyponatremia
Normal kidneys can excrete a large amount of water
o because of the great ability of the kidneys to form dilute urine
In the absence of ADH
o urine osmolality can be as low as 50 mmol per kg.
o The daily solute load is generally 600 to 1,200 mmol per day.
o Even if urine osmole excretion is 600 mmol per day, 12 L of dilute urine can be excreted.
o Thus sustained Hyponatremia due to fluid ingestion ALONE is very rare, providing solute intake is maintained (kidney’s are not
able to excrete distilled water)
Therefore, Hyponatremia Decreased solute excretion:
usually indicates impaired o If osmole (solute) excretion is lower than normal
renal water excretion due Hyponatremia may ensue as a result of smaller fluid intakes.
to the following: This has been described in beer drinkers, who ingest much fluid but very little solute (i.e., 100 to 200 mmol per day) solute
(beer drinker’s potomania).
ADH Urine Osmolality (mmol/kg) Urine volume (L/day) If patient drinks 6 L of beer, will hold onto __ L of fluid
0 50 4 2
++ 400 0.5
++++ 1200 0.125
Impaired urinary dilution:
o Excess ADH production:
either appropriate, i.e., in response to a physiologic stimulus, or inappropriate
o Intrarenal factors (independent of ADH).
Normal renal ability to excrete water depends on three factors:
Filtration of solute by the glomeruli
Delivery of solute to distal (diluting) nephron sites
Water impermeability of diluting nephron sites, which occurs providing ADH is absent.
Cause Decreased filtration Increased solute reabsorption in proximal Decreased solute reabsorption
of solute nephron in distal nephron
Mechanism Decreased GFR Reduced renal blood flow resulting in stimulations Inhibitors of solute reabsorption
of proximal solute reabsorption in distal nephron
Example Renal failure Congestive heart failure Thiazide diuretics
Volume Status Total body water is divided into intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF)
o Sodium is present in HIGH concentration in the ECF but only in LOW concentration in the ICF
o Clinically, it is usually the ECF volume that is detected, and thus when we say “volume”, we generally mean ECF volume, which
is dependent on Total Body Sodium Content
Hypovolemia: low total body sodium (ECF volume)
o Flat neck veins
o Decreased skin turgor
o Orthostatic changes in heart rate and blood pressure
Associated with an increase in heart rate and a decrease in blood pressure when standing
Hypervolemia: high total body sodium (ECF) volume
o Edema
Euvolemia: no findings of either Hypovolemia or hypervolemia
Water depletion alone will only lead to clinically‐evident Hypovolemia if it is very severe not very common
Etiology of Hypotonic Hyponatremia
Hypovolemic Hyponatremia = a decrease in TBNa+: Renal Na+ losses—Urine Na > 20 mEq/L
o Dehydration
o Diuretics
o primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison disease)
o isolated mineralocorticoid deficiency
o salt‐wasting nephropathies
Extrarenal Na+ losses— Urine Na < 10 mEq/L
o Diarrhea
o Vomiting
o excessive sweating
Euvolemic Hyponatremia = normal TBNa+: SIADH—most commonly due to
o (1) tumor
o (2) pulmonary disease
o (3) central nervous system disease
o In some cases, the set point for ADH secretion is altered (“reset osmostat”).
o Medications associated with SIADH or SIADH‐like syndrome include
Chlorpropamide
carbamazepine
cyclophosphamide
vinca alkaloids
amitriptyline
haloperidol
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
thiazide‐type diuretics
Nephrogenic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (NSIAD).
o Looks similar to SIADH except that ADH levels are zero.
o ADH receptors are mutated and constitutively activated
Severe Hypothyroidism (may be due to decreased cardiac output and GFR)
Psychogenic polydipsia (increased water intake)
Beer drinker’s potomania (decreased solute intake)
Exercise Hyponatremia (increased water intake plus ADH release)
Postoperative Hyponatremia (increase Hypotonic fluid administration plus ADH release)
Hypervolemic Hyponatremia = increased TBNa+: Examples include the following edema states:
o CHF
o Liver cirrhosis
o Nephrotic syndrome
o Renal failure
Laboratory Evaluation of Plasma osmolality:
Hyponatremia o low in Hypotonic Hyponatremia < 280 mOsm/kg
Urine osmolality:
o urine should be maximally dilute Uosm ~50 mmol per kg in the presence of Hypoosmolality
o however, generally urine is inappropriately concentrated
except in:
psychogenic polydipsia
reset osmostat
beer drinker’s syndrome
Low UNa+ < 10 mmol/L or FENa+ < 1
o suggests extrarenal loss of Na+ or an edematous disorder
in which kidneys are sodium avid, and thus causing edema
due to a decrease in effective circulatory volume)
“Normal” UNa+ > 20 mmol/L or FENa+ >1
o suggests renal loss of Na+ or excess ADH in the absence of renal sodium avidity, as in SIADH
BUN levels are typically increased in
o Hypovolemic or Hypervolemic Hyponatremia
owing to increased proximal tubule urea reabsorption
BUN levels are typically low or normal in
o Euvolemic Hyponatremia
Plasma uric acid levels are typically
o reduced in SIADH and cerebral salt wasting
o elevated in Hypovolemic or Hypervolemic Hyponatremia due to increased proximal tubule urate reabsorption
Thyroid‐stimulating hormone (TSH) may indicate Hypothyroidism
plasma cortisol levels may indicate Hypoadrenalism
Computed tomography (CT) of the head and radiography of the chest can be helpful if SIADH or cerebral salt wasting is
suspected.
Treatment of Hyponatremia Rate of correction is dependent on severity of problem, that is, whether Hyponatremia is deemed to be acute or chronic.
Hypovolemic Hyponatremia: treated with physiologic saline.
Hypervolemic Hyponatremia: Treat with fluid restriction and diuretics (to treat salt overload)
Euvolemic Hyponatremia (e.g., Mild asymptomatic Hyponatremia (plasma sodium < 136 mmol/L)
SIADH) is treated as follows: o should be considered a diagnostic clue but does not mandate treatment.
More severe asymptomatic Hyponatremia (plasma sodium < 125 mmol/L)
o should be treated with water restriction
Symptomatic Hyponatremia:
o Signs and Symptoms:
confusion, seizures, coma is considered a medical emergency
o Initial treatment with Hypertonic (3%) saline is appropriate.
However, the magnitude of correction should not exceed 10 mmol/L from
baseline (e.g., from 100 to 110 mmol/L).
The rate of correction should not exceed 2 mmol/L/h
In patients in whom Hyponatremia is known to be chronic and who have only
mild symptoms, a rate of correction should not exceed 0.5 mmol/L/h
Hypernatremia
Etiology of Hypernatremia Sodium is the primary determinant of plasma osmolality
Hypernatremia is thus always a Hypertonic or Hyperosmolar condition
To calculate the Plasma osmolality
o POsm = 2 x Na (mmol/L) + urea nitrogen (mg/dL) / 2.8 + glucose (mg/dL) / 18
Hypernatremia occurs ONLY when Hyperosmolality is accompanied by an impaired thirst mechanism or when water ingestion is
restricted.
In response to Hypernatremia
o water moves out of cells with a resulting decrease in brain volume
The brain responds by intracellular uptake of electrolytes, amino acids, and other organic solutes
Therefore, rapid hydration can cause cerebral edema.
Pathogenesis of Hypernatremia = increased [Na+] = decrease in TBW relative to TBNa+ .
Hypernatremia Decrease TBW with normal This is typical of two clinical conditions:
TBNa+ o (1) patients in nursing homes with decreased thirst or inability to drink water
o (2) diabetes insipidus (DI) where
Central DI ADH release is impaired or absent
Nephrogenic DI the kidney does not respond to ADH
Decrease TBW with decreased This can occur when water losses exceed sodium losses from sweat, GI tract, or
TBNa+ kidneys.
Normal TBW with increased This is usually iatrogenic
TBNa+ o due to administration of Hypertonic fluids or isotonic fluids in the setting of renal
water losses
when the concentration of sodium in administered fluid is greater than urinary
concentration
In the presence of ADH
o normal kidneys can concentrate urine to a urine osmolality of 1,200 mmol/kg
Older patients, urine osmolality generally will increase only to the 700 to 1,000 mmol/kg range
o Thus, if the daily solute load is 600 mmol/day
The urine output can be as low as 500 ml/day (with lesser daily solute loads, daily urine output can be theoretically even
lower when maximally concentrated).
These low urinary volumes will minimize renal water loss if water intake is impaired.
However, insensible water loss (primarily via respiration) is about 500 to 700 mL/day.
Therefore, even when there is maximum antidiuresis, total cessation of water intake will lead to Hypernatremia over a
period of hours to a few days
Etiology of Hypernatremia Hypernatremia is always associated with Hyperosmolality
o can be divided into Hypovolemic, euvolemic, and Hypervolemic Hyponatremia depending on the clinical evaluation
Hypovolemic Hypernatremia = decrease in TBNa+ Renal Na+ losses:
o diuretics (with inadequate water intake)
o osmotic diuresis (due to Hyperglycemia, mannitol, urea)
o postobstructive diuresis
o tubular injury (recovery phase of ATN)
Extrarenal Na+ losses:
o Sweating
o Diarrhea
o vomiting (with inadequate water intake)
Euvolemic Hypernatremia = decrease in TBH2O Central Diabetes insipidus:
o trauma, idiopathic tumor
Nephrogenic Diabetes insipidus:
o congenital, drugs, Hypercalcemia, tubular disease
Decreased water intake (“nursing home syndrome”)
Hypervolemic Hypernatremia = increase in TBNa+ Iatrogenic administration of Hypertonic fluid (Hypertonic
saline, bicarbonate, etc.)
Mineralocorticoid excess states (e.g.,
Hyperaldosteronism)— causes mild Hypernatremia
Salt poisoning (and seawater ingestion)
Clinical evaluation involves history and physical examination.
o Urine chemistries (especially osmolality)
in central DI
urine osmolality < plasma osmolality (usually < 100 mmol per kg)
osmotic diuresis
urine osmolality > plasma osmolality.
Treatment of Hypovolemic Hypernatremia: treated with Hypotonic fluids.
Hypernatremia Euvolemic Hypernatremia treated with water administration (+ ADH in central DI)
Hypervolemic Hypernatremia If severe, may require both water administration and either
diuretics or dialysis to remove the excess sodium.
Rate of correction should not exceed 0.5 mmol/L/h
o Chronic Hypernatremia (i.e., developing over days)
A too rapid a reduction in plasma sodium and osmolality may result in shift of water into the brain causing brain edema.
o Acute Hypernatremia is very rare, so caution in rate of correction is usually in order.
o However, if Hypernatremia is known to have occurred over a period of minutes to hours (salt poisoning), more rapid
correction is indicated.
This is because the brain has not had time to accumulate idiogenic osmoles, and therefore there is a little risk of
development of brain edema with more rapid correction of Hypernatremia
Patient 1
A 60 year old man with known lung cancer presents with fatigue and cough. On exam his vital signs are normal. He is not orthostatic. His jugular
veins are visible but not distended, skin turgor is normal, and he has no edema. He is alert and oriented and answers questions appropriately.
Chest X‐ray shows a R lower lobe infiltrate. Plasma electrolytes (in mmol/L) are: Na = 114, K = 4, Cl = 80, CO2 = 24. The plasma urea nitrogen and
creatinine are 6 and 0.6 mg/dL, respectively. The urine osmolality is 500 mmol/L (High) Hyponatremia with concentrating urine
Q1. What is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Beer drinker’s syndrome
B. Psychogenic polydipsia
C. Addison’s disease
D. SIADH
Beer drinker’s syndrome and psychogenic polydipsia are excluded by the presence of
concentrated urine (Uosm > Posm). Adison’s disease is due to a hypovolemic state.
SIADH from the lung cancer is the most likely diagnosis.
Q2. How do you treat the hyponatremia?
A. Isotonic saline
B. Hypertonic saline
C. Tolvaptan – blocks ADH
D. Fluid restriction
Since he is relatively asymptomatic (fatigue is non‐specific and he has normal mental status), fluid restriction is the appropriate initial therapy.
Isotonic saline will not be effective in a euvolemic patient. There is no indication for hypertonic saline. Tolvaptan would be effective but is
unnecessary in this setting and is very expensive.
Patient 2
An 85‐year‐old woman with Alzheimer’s dementia is admitted from a nursing home for obtundation. On examination she has hypotension (BP
80/50 mmHg), flat neck veins, clear chest, and no edema. Chest X‐ray is clear.
Plasma electrolytes (in mmol/L) are: Na = 164 (high, Normal = 140), K = 4, Cl = 130, CO2 = 24.
The plasma urea nitrogen and creatinine are 16 and 1.2 mg/dL, respectively.
The urine osmolality is 500 mmol/L.
Q1. What is the your diagnosis?
A. Dehydration water depletion
B. Volume depletion sodium depletion
C. Both
D. Neither
This patient has clinical findings of volume depletion (hypotension, flat neck veins = low
TBNa+) and has hypernatremia. Therefore, both TBNa+ and TBH2O are low, but the decrement
in TBH2O is greater than the decrement in TBNa+. This is termed hypovolemic hypernatremia.
She is in a appropriate antidiuretic state (Uosm > Posm) which is helping to prevent further water losses and thus one can exclude diabetes
insipidus. She has not been adequately hydrated in the nursing home.
Plasma [Na+] = TBNa+ / TBH2O
Q2. How do you initially treat this patient?
A. Isotonic saline
B. Hypotonic saline
C. Dextrose in water
D. Oral water replacement
Since she is hypotensive, the initial treatment should be isotonic saline, which will restore ECF and plasma volume and raise blood pressure.
However, after BP is raised, it is essential to change the IV solution to either hypotonic saline or dextrose in water, which will slowly correct the
hyponatremia. Oral water as initial therapy is a poor choice as she is obtunded and it will not effectively replenish ECF volume.
Clinical Vignette – Hyponatremia
A 45‐year‐old male with Hypertension and Hyperlipidemia presents for evaluation of shortness of breath and cough for the past month. He takes
hydrochlorothiazide for blood pressure control. He denies chest pain or palpitations. He has what he thinks are migraines twice a week, which
resolve with ibuprofen. He has smoked ½ ppd for the past 25 years. On a recent visit to the emergency room, he was noted to have Hyponatremia.
Vitals signs and physical examination are normal.
Blood chemistry: Lipid profile:
Sodium, 125 mmol/L Total cholesterol, 200 mg/dL (5.2 mmol/L)
Potassium, 4.0 mmol/L Triglycerides, 450 mg/dL (5.1 mmol/L)
Chloride, 104 mmol/L
Total CO2, 24 mmol/L Chest X‐ray, 2‐cm lung in right upper lobe nodule
Urea nitrogen, 10 mg/dL (Urea, 3.6 mmol/L)
Creatinine, 1.2 mg/dL (106 mcmol/L) MRI Head with and without (1768 mcmol/L) FENa, 2.9%
Glucose, 100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L) Plasma ADH, undetectable
Plasma osmolality (measured), 260 mmol/kg TSH, 2.0 mIU/L (normal)
Plasma osmolality (calculated), 263 mmol/kg Fasting AM cortisol, 10 mcg/dL (276 nmol/L) (normal)
Urine chemistry:
Osmolality, 900 mmol/kg
Sodium, 60 mmol/L
Creatinine, 20 mg/dL (1768 mcmol/L)
Complete blood count:
White blood cells, 4,500/mm3
Hemoglobin, 12 g/dL (120 g/L)
Hematocrit, 40%
Platelets, 250,000/mm3
With low serum sodium (hyponatremia) and high serum osmolality Hypotonic Hyponatremia
Urine sodium > 20
Q: What is the next step?.
A. Fluid restriction
B. Lung nodule biopsy
C. Stop the ibuprofen
D. Stop the hydrochlorothiazide
E. Administer gemfibrozil
F. Give intravenous isotonic saline
G. Give intravenous Hypertonic saline
A: first step in the evaluation of Hyponatremia is to obtain a plasma osmolality, urine osmolality, and urine electrolytes. He is clinically euvolemic,
and plasma Hypoosmolality coupled with high urine sodium and high urine osmolality suggests SIADH. The plasma sodium is not extremely low
and he is asymptomatic, so emergent intravenous isotonic or Hypertonic saline is not necessary. The FENa may be elevated due to the thiazide
diuretic. Thiazides have also been implicated in SIADH as well as impaired urinary dilution due to ADH‐independent effects of the drug (impairment
of urinary dilution). The triglycerides are high but pseudoHyponatremia is not present since plasma osmolality is low. The lung nodule is
concerning for an ADH‐secreting malignant tumor; however, the plasma ADH is undetectable. Hence, we have an SIADH picture without ADH,
which is consistent with nephrogenic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (NSIAD). NSIAD is usually caused by a mutated ADH (V2) receptor,
which is constitutively active (“gain of function mutation”). It is usually diagnosed in infants, but can present for the first time in adulthood. It is
treated with fluid restriction and, if necessary, oral urea. Incidentally, the patient later underwent a needle biopsy of the lung nodule, which
revealed a benign hamartoma.
Clinical Vignette – Hypernatremia
A 65‐year‐old male with CHF, diabetes mellitus (DM), and a recent subdural hematoma presents for evaluation of new‐onset seizures. Currently,
he is tired and has a headache. He complains of nausea and has vomited once. His family reports that he drinks a lot of water. Medications include
furosemide 20 mg daily, lisinopril 10 mg daily, aspirin 81 mg daily, and insulin. He does not smoke or use alcohol or illicit drugs. Vitals are normal
except for a mild fever of 38C. Physical examination is significant for irritability and restlessness. There is no papilledema, but there is mild nuchal
rigidity. He does not have peripheral edema, jugular venous distension, or rales on pulmonary auscultation. He weighs 100 kg.
Blood chemistry: Lipid profile:
Sodium, 105 mmol/L Total cholesterol, 200 mg/dL (5.2 mmol/L)
Potassium, 4.0 mmol/L Triglycerides, 210 mg/dL (5.1 mmol/L)
Chloride, 71 mmol/L
Total CO2, 24 mmol/L Chest X‐ray, normal
Urea nitrogen, 10 mg/dL (Urea, 3.6 mmol/L)
Creatinine, 1.2 mg/dL (106 mcmol/L) CT of the head, stable subdural hematoma (similar to CT done 2 weeks
Glucose, 100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L) ago)
Plasma osmolality, 220 mmol/kg Lumbar puncture, normal
TSH, 2.0 mIU/L (normal)
Fasting AM cortisol, 10 mcg/dL (276 nmol/L) (normal)
Urine chemistry:
Osmolality, pending
Sodium, pending
Drug screen, negative
Complete blood count:
White blood cells, 4,500/mm3
Hemoglobin, 12 g/dL (120 g/L)
Hematocrit, 40%
Platelets, 250,000/mm3
Q: What is the next step in treatment?
A. Fluid restriction 2 L per day
B. Stop furosemide and lisinopril
C. Give isotonic saline 2.5 L over 5 hours
D. Give 3% Hypertonic saline 1.2 L over 5 hours
The patient’s primary problem is new‐onset seizures. His history of subdural hematoma prompts us to evaluate him for intracranial
pathology. His CT of the head is negative for worsening of subdural hematoma or other intracranial lesions.
He has mild fever but lumbar puncture findings are normal.
There is no evidence of toxic ingestion, and he is not Hypoglycemic or Hypoxic.
His mental status changes and seizures are attributed to severe Hyponatremia.
He appears euvolemic as he has neither lower extremity edema nor jugular venous distension or pulmonary rales.
Even without urine osmolality and urine electrolytes
o it seems likely that SIADH is the cause of the Hyponatremia.
o This can be further delineated by the laboratory findings when available (high urine sodium and osmolality are expected).
Because he is very symptomatic, raising the plasma sodium to ~115 mmol/L at a rate of 2 mmol/L/h is indicated.
o The amount of sodium required to bring the plasma sodium from 105 to 115 is calculated to be 600 mmol
[(115 − 105) × 100 kg × 0.6]
o Administration of 1.2 L of 3% Hypertonic saline (which contains ~500 mmol/L of sodium) over 5 hours is reasonable.
o However, one should monitor plasma sodium every 1 to 2 hours to assure an appropriate rate and magnitude of correction.
o For instance, if the urine osmolality is unexpectedly low, or the stimulus for ADH release wanes and the urine becomes dilute
during treatment, spontaneous water excretion may lead to a more rapid increase in plasma sodium level than predicted on the
basis of the above formula. It is especially important not to overcorrect the plasma sodium due to the risk of osmotic
demyelination syndrome (ODS). Because >8% to 10% acute increase in brain water will lead to herniation and death, there is a
limit to the amount of brain edema that can occur. Therefore, it is unnecessary and potentially dangerous to acutely raise the
plasma sodium level more than 8% to 10% even in severe symptomatic Hyponatremia.
In SIADH, isotonic saline is ineffective because administered sodium will be excreted and some of the administered water retained due to
high ADH levels.
Clinical Vignette – Hypernatremia
A 92‐year‐old man with multi‐infarct dementia, coronary artery disease, prostate cancer, benign prostatic Hypertrophy, and DM presents from a
nursing home with decreased oral intake, decreased urination, and increasing confusion. He has also had generalized weakness, dizziness, and
palpitations. He now does not recognize his son, who visits every day. Medications include glyburide 10 mg daily, aspirin 81 mg daily, metoprolol 25
mg bid, lisinopril 10 mg daily, and Tamsulosin (Flomax) 0.4 mg daily. Vitals are as follows: P, 120/min; BP, 90/70 mm Hg; R, 22/min; T, 35oC.
Physical examination is significant for confusion, irritability, and lack of cooperation. There is decreased turgor of the skin, dry oral mucosae, and
weakness in all extremities. There are no neurologic deficits.
Blood chemistry: Urinalysis:
Sodium, 150 mmol/L Color, dark yellow
Potassium, 4.5 mmol/L pH, 6
Chloride, 115 mmol/L Specific gravity, 1.025
Total CO2, 25 mmol/L Protein, negative
Urea nitrogen, 60 mg/dL (Urea, 21 mol/L) Blood, negative
Creatinine, 2.0 mg/dL (177 mcmol/L) Glucose, negative
Glucose, 110 mg/dL (6.1 mmol/L) Ketones, 2+
Osmolality, 330 mmol/kg Bilirubin, negative
Creatine kinase, 100 U/L Urobilinogen, negative
TSH, 2.3 mIU/L Leukocyte esterase, negative
Nitrite, negative
WBC, 2/hpf
RBC, 0/hpf
Bacteria, rare
Urine chemistry: CT of the head—generalized cortical atrophy
Osmolality, 800 mmol/kg MRI brain—cortical atrophy with multiple cerebral infarcts and a
Sodium, 5 mmol/L Hypothalamic infarct, age undetermined
Potassium, 20 mmol/L
Chloride, 10 mmol/L
Complete blood count:
White blood cells, 4,000/mm3
Hemoglobin, 16 g/dL (160 g/L)
Hematocrit, 50%
Platelets, 300,000/mm3
Q: Which of the following is least likely to be contributing to Hypernatremia?
A. Dementia
B. Altered thirst sensation
C. Decreased access to water
D. Central DI
In any case of altered mental status, acute intracranial abnormalities should be excluded.
o In the elderly, especially with underlying dementia, Hypoxia, Hypotension, and sepsis should be considered.
o Electrolyte disorders, especially Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia, need to be excluded, and one should test thyroid, kidney,
and liver function.
o Vitamin deficiencies (such as deficiency in vitamin B12, thiamine, or niacin) and psychiatric conditions should be considered.
This patient has multi‐infarct dementia and has decreased oral intake at the nursing home.
o Both altered thirst sensation and decreased access to water are common underlying factors resulting in decreased water intake
and Hypernatremia in such patients.
o The physical exam (tachycardia, Hypotension, decreased skin turgor, and dry mucosae) is consistent with volume depletion.
o Hypernatremia and acute prerenal failure (low urinary sodium, concentrated urine) are the important laboratory findings.
o Starvation ketosis resulting in ketonuria is also present.
This patient thus has evidence of volume depletion (based on physical exam, prerenal failure, and hemoconcentration) as well as
dehydration (based on Hypernatremia).
Both plasma and urine osmolalities (as well as urine specific gravity) are high
o indicating appropriate ADH release, as Hyperosmolality, Hypovolemia, and Hypotension are all stimuli for the secretion of ADH.
ADH causes the insertion of water channels in the collecting duct, which allows for the conservation of water.
Though this patient has had a Hypothalamic stroke, raising the possibility of central DI, ADH production is appropriate, as reflected by the
appropriately high urine specific gravity and osmolality.
Clinical Vignette – Hypernatremia
A 51‐year‐old female with dilated cardiomyopathy and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease presents for evaluation of shortness of breath. She
quit smoking 3 months ago. She has been using her albuterol nebulizer four times a day as opposed to her usual usage of once per day or less. She
thinks her lower extremity edema is worse. She also reports three pillow orthopnea and daily paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. She denies excess
sodium intake. She denies fever, chills, or dysuria. She does have cough with yellow sputum. Medications include bupropion, prednisone (started 1
week ago by her primary physician), Combivent (ipatropium/albuterol), Flovent (fluticasone), albuterol via nebulizer prn, furosemide, lisinopril,
carvedilol, baby aspirin, and simvastatin. Vitals are as follows: P, 90/min; BP, 115/85 mm Hg; R, 20/min; T, 36.5oC. Positive findings on physical
examination include jugular venous distension, a third heart sound (S3), and bibasilar rales halfway up the lungs. There is also shifting dullness on
abdominal percussion and 3+ edema in the lower extremities. The neurologic examination is normal.
Blood chemistry: Complete blood count:
Sodium, 150 mmol/L White blood cells, 4,000/mm3
Potassium, 5.5 mmol/L Hemoglobin, 12 g/dL (120 g/L)
Chloride, 115 mmol/L Hematocrit, 36%
Total CO2, 25 mmol/L Platelets, 220,000/mm3
Urea nitrogen, 30 mg/dL (Urea, 10.7 mmol/L)
Creatinine, 1.7 mg/dL (150 mcmol/L)
Glucose, 133 mg/dL (7.4 mmol/L)
Osmolality, 320 mmol/kg
Urine chemistry: Chest X‐ray, enlarged heart, pulmonary edema
Osmolality, 350 mmol/kg D‐dimer, 1.0 μg/L
Sodium, 40 mmol/L CT scan chest, no pulmonary embolus, pulmonary edema, pleural
Potassium, 10 mmol/L effusions
Chloride, 60 mmol/L
Q: Which of the following is not a potential treatment for the Hypernatremia?
A. 5% dextrose in water (D5W)
B. Loop diuretics
C. Dialysis
D. Isotonic saline
The history indicates a dyspneic patient who is not getting relief through nebulizer treatments and who complains of orthopnea and
paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea.
In addition, the patient has recently started prednisone
o which probably caused worsening of fluid overload due to renal sodium retention
Jugular venous distension, the presence of an S3, diffuse rales on lung auscultation, and lower extremity edema as well as possible ascites
on abdominal percussion all confirm Hypervolemia.
Hypernatremia indicates that total body sodium is in excess of TBW
o probably due to the effects of prednisone (renal sodium retention) and furosemide (renal water loss in excess of renal sodium
loss).
Plasma osmolality is high; although urine osmolality is higher than plasma osmolality, it should be higher with this degree of
Hyperosmolar Hypernatremia.
o This is probably due to diuretics (which limit urinary concentrating ability).
There is no evidence for an acute MI or pulmonary embolism.
Treatment of Hypervolemic Hypernatremia is often problematic.
o This patient needs diuretics to treat the pulmonary edema (the cause of the initial presentiation, i.e., dyspnea), but this can
lead to further worsening of Hypernatremia.
o Isotonic dextrose in water (D5W) can be used simultaneously to dilute the plasma sodium; however, it should not be given until
Hypervolemia is improved.
o If the kidneys fail to diurese, dialysis should be implemented.
o Isotonic saline is not appropriate for Hypervolemic Hypernatremia.
Pathophysiology of Hypertension
Blood Pressure Blood Pressure is the product of Cardiac Output (CO) and Systemic Vascular resistance (SVR)
Blood Pressure is generated by cardiac contraction against Vascular resistance;
MAP = CO X SVR.
o MAP (mean arterial pressure) = DBP + (SBP‐DBP)/3
o CO (Cardiac Output) = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate (aka contractility)
o SVR (Systemic Vascular Resistance is also known as Total Peripheral Resistance)
If one component increases the other must decrease proportionately to maintain normal BP or hypertension will result.
Blood pressure modulation Cardiac Output Peripheral Resistance
by effects o Blood Volume o Hemoral Factors: o Neural Factors: o Local Factors:
on cardiac output and Sodium Constrictors: Constrictors: Autoregulation
peripheral resistance Mineralocorticoids Angiotensin II Alpha‐adrenergic Ionic (pH and hypoxia)
Atrial Natriuretic Catecholamines Dilators:
Peptide Thromboxane Beta‐adrenergic
o Cardiac Factors Leukotrienes
Heart rate Endothelin
contractility Dilators:
Prostaglandins
Kinins
Nitric Oxide
Cardiac Output Stroke volume is affected by pre‐load, after‐load, and contractility
The primary determinant of CO in normal individuals is volume status (sodium content)
An increase in CO is rarely the cause of persistent hypertension
Systemic Vascular SVR is affected by humoral and local factors:
Resistance o Humoral factors:
Sensors: baroreceptors, JG apparatus atrium
Mediators: BP, distal tubule chloride delivery, atrial stretch
Balance of vasoconstrictors and vasodilators
Angiotensin II and norepinephrine are two of the more important factors.
o Local factors:
The vessel wall, endothelium monolayer, vascular smooth muscle cell
Signals‐blood pressure, shear stress, generated by blood flow (viscosity), humoral factors
Effectors:
Vasoconstrictors: myogenic response, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, endothelin, endothelium‐derived constricting factor
(EDCF), angiotensin, endothelial cationic channels, oubain‐like factor
Vasodilators: endothelium‐derived relating factor (EDRF, nitric oxide) prostaglandins, endothelial ionic channels
Local mechanism allows for auto regulation of blood flow and capillary pressure to various organs (brain and kidney most
prominently)
Hypothetical scheme for the
pathogenesis of essential
(primary) hypertension
Renin Angiotensin System in Renin angiotensin system has major effect in pathogenesis and maintenance of hypertension via angiotensin II
Hypertension Direct vasoconstriction and increased SVR
Enhanced Na reabsorption by the proximal tubule
Stimulates aldosterone release which increases Na reabsorption by the collecting tubule
Sympathetic Nervous Increased adrenergic tone leads to hypertension.
System o Where Adrenergic tone increases
Vascular tone
Na+ retention
Cardiac inotropy
Blockade of the sympathetic nervous system reduces BP
Primary or Essential No known etiology accounts for about 90% of hypertension.
Hypertension Occurs in cluster of families but it is not hereditary
Polygenic, no single gene identify
Monogenic hypertension is defined when a single gene is identified as the cause for hypertension
Guyton Hypothesis and Fundamental mechanism of long term control of BP is the fluid volume feedback mechanism
Renal Function Curves Kidneys regulate arterial pressure by altering renal excretion of Na (and H2O) called Renal Pressure Natriuresis
o thereby controlling circulatory volume and cardiac output
Hypertension causes a shift in the curve to the right
salt sensitive and non‐salt sensitive can both occur in essential hypertension
Renal Pressure Natriuresis Elevated BP
o raises sodium excretion
is usually accompanied by increased water excretion called Renal Pressure Diuresis
In hypertension
o sodium excretion (equal to sodium intake) is maintained at higher BP levels than that would normally result in natriuresis and
diuresis
Thus, in hypertensive subjects, pressure and diuresis are reset
Derived Curves of Renal
Handling of Salt and Water
Intake in Normal People and
in Patients with Essential
Hypertension
Renal Pressure Natriuresis Renal pressure natriuresis is impaired and shifted in all forms of hypertension studied
in Hypertension o It may be due to either intra‐renal or extra‐renal factors yet to be fully described
Intra‐renal factors:
lead to reduced renal blood flow, decreased glomerular filtration rate or increased tubular reabsorption
Extra‐renal factors:
include increase sympathetic nervous system activity or increased anti‐natriuretic hormones
Kidneys in Pathogenesis No obvious renal defects identified in hypertensive patients so far but almost all experimental hypertension is caused by insult to
of Essential Hypertension kidneys altering either renal homodynamic or tubular reabsorption
Renal pressure natriuresis mechanism is abnormal in all types of experimental and clinical hypertension
Kidney Regulation of Maintenance of volume by regulating sodium excretion
Normal Blood Pressure Pressure natriuresis an essential function of kidneys
Resetting of pressure natriuresis at high level occurs in essential hypertension
Most monogenic hypertension due to increase sodium retention
Monogenic Hypertension Glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism (GRM):
o also describable as aldosterone synthase hyperactivity
o is an autosomal dominant disorder in which the increase in aldosterone secretion produced by ACTH is no longer transient.
o It is a cause of primary hyperaldosteronism
Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME):
o is an autosomal recessive disorder causing hypertension (high blood pressure) and hypokalemia (abnormally low levels of
potassium).
Mineralocorticoid receptor mutation (increases Na Ca activity):
o Mutations in the mineralocorticoid receptor gene cause autosomal dominant pseudohypoaldosteronism type I
Liddle Syndrome: gain of function ENac
o is a genetic disorder inherited in an autosomal dominant manner that is characterized by early, and frequently severe, high
blood pressure associated with low plasma renin activity, metabolic alkalosis, low blood potassium, and normal to low levels
of aldosterone.
T594M mutation African‐American subtype salt sensitive (increases ENac activity)
o The T594M allele of the epithelial sodium channel‐subunit has been proposed as a gain‐of‐function mutation leading to salt‐
sensitive hypertension in blacks that is particularly responsive to the specific sodium channel antagonist amiloride
Secondary Hypertension An explainable cause for hypertension is present
May be superimposed on pre‐existing essential hypertension
Overall incidence is about 5‐10% although in specific populations it may be >15‐20%
Primarily Volume Mediated Primarily Vasoconstrictor Mediated
Non‐renal causes Pheochromocytoma: tumor of adrenal medulla which
o Primary hyperaldosteronism: A tumor or hyperplasia of produces excessive amounts of epinephrine and
adrenal cortex leads to increased production of norepinephrine. This increased level of catecholamine
aldosterone. Aldosterone leads to sodium retention and produces severe hypertension due to intense
expanded volume leading to severe hypertension. This is vasoconstriction.
pure volume expansion. The plasma levels of aldosterone Unilateral renal artery stenosis
are increased and that of plasma renin are suppressed. Hypercalcemia
o Cushing’s syndrome:
o Mineralocorticoid producing tumors:
Renal causes
o Renal failure
o Acute glomerulonephritis
Represents about 10% of all hypertension
Identifiable underlying cause, has specific therapy and potentially curable, major causes:
o Kidney disease.
o Renal artery stenosis
o Hyperaldosteronism
o Pheochromocytoma
Renal Acute glomerulonephritis
Chronic kidney disease
Polycystic disease
Renal artery stenosis
Renal vasculitis
Renin‐producing tumors
Endocrine Adrenocortical hyperfunction
Exogenous hormones
Pheochromocytoma
Acromegaly
Hypothryoidism (myxedema)
Hyperthryoidism (thyrotoxicosis)
Pregnancy‐induced
Cardiovascular Coarctation of the aorta
Polyarteritis nodosa
Neurologic Psychogenic
Increased intracranial pressure
Sleep apnea
Acute stress, including surgery
Renovascular Hypertension Defined as resulting from stenosis of unilateral or bilateral renal artery stenosis
Stenosis doesn’t necessarily mean hypertension
Degree of stenosis is critical
Renal Artery Stenosis Clinical presentations
o Severe and difficult to control hypertension
o Kidney failure
o Flash pulmonary edema
Two disease processes
o Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis
o Fibromuscular dysplasia
Goldblatt Model of A clip is applied to one renal artery in an animal with two functioning kidneys. That results renal artery stenosis on clipped
Unilateral Renal Artery artery.
Stenosis with two kidneys Results in hypo perfusion in clipped kidney, leads to increase secretion of renin–angiotensin.
Increase BP results in pressure natriuresis in contralateral normal kidney, keeping near normal volume.
Increase blood pressure maintained by increased TPR and some impaired pressure natriuresis.
Goldblatt Model II A clip is applied to one renal artery in an animal with one functioning kidney, a model of renal artery
stenosis in a single kidney (such as renal artery stenosis in transplanted kidney).
Bilateral renal artery stenosis:
o Similar mechanism of hypertension.
o Total renal mass is hypo‐perfused
o Impaired clearance
o No off‐setting pressure natriuresis (in contralateral kidney, thus absence or marked impairment
of pressure natriuresis.)
Two Kidney‐One Clip BP increased
(Unilateral Renal Artery Blood Volume did not change
Stenosis) Plasma Renin increased
Response to ACE‐I was positive to control the BP
One Kidney‐One Clip BP increased
(Renal Artery Stenosis of a Blood Volume increased
Solitary Kidney) Plasma Renin did not change
Response to ACE‐I was negative and would need to add a diuretic
Two Kidney‐Two Clip BP increased
(Bilateral Renal Artery Blood Volume increased
Stenosis) Plasma Renin did not change
Response to ACE‐I was negative and would need to add a diuretic
Renovascular Hypertension: Unilateral renal artery stenosis with presence of normal contralateral kidney is vasoconstrictive maintained by increased RAS
Pathogenesis system
Renal artery stenosis in solitary kidney or bilateral renal artery stenosis is volume dependent
Renal Artery Stenosis Therapy
o Medical – antihypertensive +/‐ ACE inhibitors
o Interventional – renal artery angioplasty +/‐ stenting
o Surgical – renal artery bypass
Aldosterone and Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, is a sodium retainer
Hypertension Excess aldosterone
o leads to sodium and volume retention
resulting in hypertension
Primary aldosterone tumor is relatively rare but primary aldosteronism may result from adrenal hyperplasia and may be more
common
Aldosterone Excess aldosterone
o leads to hypertension
Aldosterone results in
o Na retention and hypervolemia
Excess potassium excretion
o leads of hypokalemia
Volume expansion may be clinically absent due to “aldo‐escape”
Chronic Kidney Disease and As kidney function falls (decrease in GFR), its ability to excrete sodium and water is impaired
Hypertension This leads to excess volume
o which causes and worsens hypertension
Impaired Sodium Excretion BP incidence increases with patients with chronic kidney disease
BP is very responsive to manipulations of volume status
Seems to be mediated by abnormal vasoregulation and increased SVR
Kidney Failure With the loss of kidney function, virtually 100% of patients become hypertensive
Chronic kidney disease is the most common form of secondary hypertension
Hypertension can be controlled with diuretics and other hypotensive agents and in End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) by
hemodialysis and ultrafiltration.
Effect of Decrease in Body Fluid Volume by Dialysis Therapy Upon BP of a Patient With Chronic Renal Disease
0
Bodyweight (kg)
-2
Change in
-4
-6
-8
-10
180
Blood Pressure (mmHg)
Mean
160
140
120
Diastolic
100
80 Start Dialysis
Treatment
5 10 14 18 22 26 30
Hypertensive Renal Injury Two patterns of Hypertension injury to Kidneys
o Essential hypertension
Benign nephrosclerosis.
o Malignant hypertension
Intimal thickening
Proliferative arteritis
Fibrinoid necrosis
o Renal auto regulation.
Essential Hypertension and Contracted kidneys in essential hypertension
Nephrosclerosis Progressive reduction in size
Cortical atrophy and diffuse fibrosis
Biopsy shows afferent arteriolar hyaline arteriosclerosis
Subintimal hyaline homogenous eosinophilic deposits
Ischemic atrophy
Nephrosclerosis
“Benign” hypertension –
hyaline arteriolopathy
Malignant Hypertension Marked elevation of BP
Evidence of widespread acute arteriolar injury
Fundoscopic finding of hypertensive neuroretinopathy
Autoregulation Autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow (RBF) is
o due to pre‐glomerular vasoconstriction that impedes the transmission of elevated systemic arterial pressure to glomerulus
and peritubular capillaries of the kidneys
Autoregulation protects kidneys from hypertensive injury
o but may be altered in chronic kidney disease and diabetic kidney disease
Autoregulation of Renal Ensures that renal blood flow and GFR remain relatively constant even while systemic arterial pressures fluctuate
Blood Flow & GFR Depends primarily on two mechanisms:
o Myogenic Response
o Tubuloglomerular Feedback
o
o
Myogenic Response Response to increased afferent arteriolar pressure:
o stimulates reflexive vasoconstriction
by stimulating smooth muscle cell contraction
o minimizes increase in PGC that would otherwise occur in response to increased systemic arterial pressure
o prevents damage to glomerular capillaries
which already function at hydrostatic pressures that are much greater than those in the systemic capillaries
Response to decreased afferent arteriolar pressure:
o stimulates reflexive vasodilation
by stimulating vascular smooth muscle relaxation
o increases blood flow and filtration pressure in the glomerulus
thereby helping maintain GFR
Renal autoregulation Autoregulation
prevents transmission of
systemic blood pressure to
BP N
glomerular capillaries
A E
G
Systemic hypertension
would increase glomerular
capillary pressure in BP
absence of autoregulation
A E
G
Dihydropyridine calcium DCA
antagonists (DCA) abolish
renal autoregulation and
BP
prevent normalization of
glomerular capillary
pressure A E
G
Kidney Autoregulation: Autoregulation of kidneys modulate blood flow and pressure transmission to glomerular tufts and protects them against injury.
Therapeutic role In CKD or diabetes:
o autoregulation is impaired making kidney more prone to hypertensive injury.
Some antihypertensive drugs may abolish autoregulation and may worsen renal injury.
Treatment of Hypertension: Lowering BP:
Renal Considerations o will minimize damage to kidneys and slow down progression of renal failure
In presence of chronic kidney disease
o sodium and water are retained and volume becomes an important factor
Diuretics are necessary in most instances of hypertension with CKD
Drugs which preserve renal autoregulation help preserve renal functions
Summary Kidneys play a central role in long term regulation of blood pressure and hypertension
There is shifting of pressure natriuresis curve to right in essential hypertension or reset at higher BP level
Unilateral renal artery stenosis with a normal contralateral kidney is renin dependent and blocking the renin‐angiotensin system
is an effective treatment
In bilateral renal artery stenosis and in stenotic solitary kidney, the hypertension is volume related
Interaction of volume and vasoconstriction is responsible for the vast majority of essential hypertension
Kidneys are prone to hypertensive injury and keeping blood pressure under control prevents development of renal failure
Urinary Tract Infection
Definition of UTI Lower UTI
o Cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis
o Infection of the lower genitourinary tract characterized by:
Dysuria
Increased frequency of urination
Urinary urgency
Suprapubic pain
Hematuria (occasionally)
Upper UTI
o Infection of the kidney (pyelonephritis)
o Characterized by:
Fever
+/‐ Chills
Flank pain/tenderness
o May or may not be associated with signs and symptoms of lower UTI
Uncomplicated UTI
o Simple cystitis
o Absence of:
Pyelonephritis
Pregnancy
Presence of urologic abnormalities including stones
Presence of indwelling foley catheter, stent, nephrostomy tube or urinary diversion
Immunosuppression
Bacteremia
Complicated UTI
o Infection in men, pregnancy and children
o Hospital‐acquired infection
o Infection in the presence of factors that predispose to persistent or relapsing infection:
Calculi or other obstruction
Indwelling catheters or other drainage devices
Immunosuppression
Renal failure
Immunosuppression: renal transplantation, chemotherapy, steroids, AIDS
Urinary retention from neurological disease
Pathogenesis of UTI Route of infection:
o Ascending
GUT flora reach bladder via urethra
Perineal/periurethral colonization in females
Massaging action of intercourse
Catheterization or other instrumentation
o Hematogenous
Common in Staphylococcal bacteremias
o Lymphatic
Direct extension from adjacent organs via lymphatic system: retroperitoneal abscess or severe bowel obstruction
Increased pressure in the bladder can cause lymphatic flow to be directed towards the kidneys.
Microbial Factors
o Adherence factors: pili or fimbriae
o Motility‐ ascend against urine flow
o Hemolysin‐ induces pores in cell membrane
o Cytotoxin‐ Cytotoxic necrotizing factor‐1
o Aerobactin‐ a siderophore that scavenges iron
o Urease‐ elevated urinary pH by breakdown of urea (Proteus); associated with staghorn calculi
o Serum resistance
o Biofilm
Adhesin Receptor Site
Type 1 FimH (MS) most common D‐mannose on many epithelial cells Bladder and lower tract
in E coli
PAP – P fimbriae most common P blood group antigens – digalacoside on Renal pelvis and kidney
in E coli RBC and Urothelium
AFA – not fimbria RBC Kidney
SFA – S fimbriae Human and bovine RBC Kidney
DR adhesins DR blood group Renal pelvis and kidney
Host Factors
o Behavior
Frequency of sexual intercourse
Use of diaphragm/vaginal spermicide
Hygiene: direction of wiping front to back
o Susceptibility to local colonization
Receptors: women who are of P1 blood group have epithelial receptors that mediate attachment of bacteria
pH of urine
o Urinary stasis
Diabetes, neurological disorders, spinal cord injury, etc
o Anatomic/physiologic changes:
Urinary obstruction
Reflux
Pregnancy
o Instrumentation/Foreign bodies
Presence of catheters, stents, nephrostomy tubes, etc
o Protective properties of urine
IgA and IgG
Tamm‐Horsfall protein‐ decrease bacterial attachment
Epidemiology of UTI Organisms
Acute uncomplicated Complicated or Recurrent
o E.coli‐ 80% o E.coli
o S. saprophyticus o Proteus
o Klebsiella o Providentia
o Proteus o Klebsiella
o Other o Pseudomonas
o Serratia
o Enterococcus
o Staphylococcus
o Yeast
Prevalence‐ Age and Sex Distribution
o 8.6 million ambulatory visits (84% women) in 2007
o Self reported annual incidence in women 12%
o By age 32, one half of all women report at least 1 UTI
2‐5% have recurrent UTIs with genetic predisposition
o Among healthy women with cystitis, 25% recur within six months
o Acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis less common
Estimated one episode per 28 episodes of cystitis
Age Prevalence (%) Sex Factors
Neonates 1 M>F GU abnormalities
Children 4‐5 F>>M
Sexually active adults 10 F Sexual activity and use of contraception (spermicide)
Elderly 3‐40 M = F Prostate hypertrophy, bladder prolapse, incontinence
Clinical Features of UTI Cystitis
o Acute onset of dysuria, frequency, and urgency
o Suprapubic pain and tenderness
o Typically young sexually active women
o Hematuria (about half of the time)
o Pyuria (WBC in urine)
o Positive culture ‐ may see lower numbers of bacteria
Major causes of acute dysuria in women
o Cystitis – E. coli, S. saprophyticus, Proteus species, Klebsiella species
o Urethritis – causes STDs: N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, HSV
o Vaginitis – Candida, Trichomonas vaginalis, vaginal flora (BV)
Pyelonephritis
o Acute onset of flank pain, fever and frequently lower tract symptoms (dysuria, frequency, urgency)
o Costovertebral angle tenderness
o Bacteremia and septic shock may occur
o Complication ‐ papillary necrosis (diabetes, SS disease, obstruction)
o Risk of pyelonephritis is greater in pregnancy
o WBC casts on UA
Prostatitis
o Pain in perineal area, lower back
Acute prostatitis ‐ fever, chills, dysuria, urinary retention
Boggy, tender prostate
Chronic prostatitis ‐ asymptomatic or perineal pain or mild dysuria
Urine cultures positive
Diagnosis of Acute Women with symptoms of lower UTI, no vaginal discharge, had >90% probability of acute cystitis
Uncomplicated Cystitis Do not need to do a UA
Do not need a urine culture
Can start antibiotics
Specimen collection
o Urine specimen must be collected in a manner that avoids contamination
Clean‐voided, midstream urine
Catheterization
Suprapubic aspiration
Microscopic examination
o Pyuria = more than 10 WBC's/microliter (10,000/ml) of urine OR more than 2 ‐ 5 WBC's/high power field on slide prepared
from sediment of centrifuged urine
Sensitivity 95%; specificity 71%
o White blood cell casts ‐ indicates pyelonephritis
o Gram stain of uncentrifuged urine
One or more bacteria per oil‐immersion field correlates with >10^5 bacteria/ml of urine
Less sensitive, more specific
Chemical screening tests
o Leukocyte esterase ‐ detects pyuria
o Nitrite ‐ detects action of bacterial nitrate reductase on urinary nitrates
GNR: E.coli, Klebsiella, Proteus
o Comparable to urinalysis but false negative tests occur.
Microbiological tests
o Quantitative urine culture –
>10^5 bacteria/ml usually (80% correlation) indicates infection
<10^3 bacteria/ml usually indicates contamination
o Lower numbers, i.e., 10^2 – 10^4/ml, may be significant in young women with cystitis, males, and patients with indwelling
catheters
o Blood culture ‐ may be positive in acute pyelonephritis or acute prostatitis
WBC (Pyuria)
WBC Cast Microscopic cylindrical structures
Associated with the presence of WBCs and bacteria in the urine sediment
Formed in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of nephrons
Indicative of tubulointerstitial disease: pyelonephritis, acute interstitial nephritis (AIN), lupus nephritis, acute
papillary necrosis
LUMC: UA with Reflex to Although pyuria alone without other signs or symptoms of UTI should not be used to
Urine Culture confirm a UTI diagnosis, the absence of pyuria strongly suggests the patient does not have
a UTI. Therefore, urine cultures will only be processed if the urinalysis shows >6 WBCs/hpf.
Exemptions to this protocol include:
o Neutropenic patients (WBC < 1K/UL)
o Pregnancy
o Neonatal status
o Pediatric patients with known congenital anomalies of the urinary tract
o Patients scheduled for transurethral resection of the prostate
o Patients scheduled for urologic procedure for which mucosal bleeding is anticipated
Pure plate of >100,000
col/ml
Mixed bacterial growth due
to contamination
Management of UTI Uncomplicated Cystitis (IDSA guidelines)
o First line regimens:
Nitrofurantoin: 100 mg PO BID x 5 days
Trimethoprim‐sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim): 160/800 mg BID x 3 days (avoid if resistance prevalence is >20% or if used in
previous 3 months)
Fosfomycin: 3 gm x single dose
o Alternative regimens:
Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) x 3 days
Cautions, black box warning, increasing resistance
o Oral beta‐lactams:
Amoxicillin‐ clavulanate
Cephalexin
Cefuroxime
Cefdinir 3rd gen
Duration: 3‐7 days
Decreased rates of cure
Close follow‐up
Pyelonephritis ‐ uncomplicated
o Fluoroquinoline
Ciprofloxacin: 7 days
Levofloxacin: 5 days
May give parenteral cephalosporin (ceftriaxone)
o Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole – 14 days
If organism sensitive
o Complete 7 days of therapy if patient responded promptly, otherwise, 10‐14 days is recommended when there is delay in
response or with severe infection
Asymptomatic Bacteriuria Positive urine culture without any signs and symptoms of UTI
o Screening only recommended for:
Pregnant women: urine culture at 1st and 3rd trimester
Patients undergoing transurethral resection of the prostate
Patients undergoing urologic procedures for which mucosal bleeding is anticipated
Catheter‐Associated UTI Patients with indwelling urethral, suprapubic, or intermittent catheterization with signs and symptoms compatible with UTI
(CAUTI) along with ≥ 10^3 CFU/mL of bacterial sp from urine sample
Above in patients whose catheters have been removed within 48 hours
Best Way to Prevent CAUTI Best way:
o Limit unnecessary foley catheterization if you don’t need it, then remove it
o Discontinuation of catheterization
Methods with no data for recommendations:
o Antimicrobial coated catheters
o Prophylaxis with systemic abx
o Prophylaxis with methenamine salts
o Prophylaxis with cranberry products
o Enhanced meatal care
o Catheter irrigation
o Antimicrobials in the drainage bag
Question # 1
A 35 year‐old woman comes to your clinic with a 5‐day history of burning on urination. She is married, monogamous.
2 days later, she develops a fever of 101.5 associated with chills and right flank pain.
What is your diagnosis?
A UTI defined by the location (lower or upper UTI), complicating factors
Question #2
On further history‐taking, she reports being sexually active with her husband.
She uses a diaphragm and occasionally a spermicide.
She admits to being stressed with work lately. She works for a very busy company that she rarely takes a break.
What are her risk factors for developing UTI?
Sexually active, spermicide (inhibits lactobacillus), female, stressed
Question #3
What organism do you suspect is the cause of her UTI?
A. Klebsiella
B. Proteus
C. E.coli
D. S. saprophyticus
Question #4
If she saw you 2 days ago before developing fevers, chills and right flank pain, what would have been your next step in
management?
A. Advise cranberry juice
B. Obtain a urine dipstick in your office
C. Send to the lab for urine culture
D. Start her on nitrofurantoin
Question #5
You instruct her to submit a urine specimen to your medical assistant for urinalysis and urine culture. Later that day, you
review the results of her urinalysis that showed:
pH of 6
No proteins
No glucose
WBC >180 = pyuria
Nitrites +
Leukocyte esterase +
WBC cast +
RBC >10
Which of the above parameters is highly suggestive of pyelonephritis?
WBC cast +
Question #6
After submitting her urine specimen, you discuss with her your diagnosis. Because of the fevers, you also ordered for 2
sets of blood cultures.
She then asks you, what do I do now, doctor?
A. Send her to the ED for admission.
B. Start her on nitrofurantoin.
C. Start her on ciprofloxacin
D. Advise cranberry juice while waiting for urine culture.
Question #7
You send her home on a 7‐day Rx of ciprofloxacin. Her urine culture later grew >100,000 col of E.coli sensitive to
ciprofloxacin. Her blood cultures were negative.
At the completion of her therapy, she calls your office and asks you if there is anything else she needs to do. Her
symptoms have resolved.
A. Send her to the lab for repeat UA.
B. Send her to the lab for repeat UA and urine culture.
C. No follow‐up needed.
D. Cranberry juice to prevent recurrent UTI
Question #8
1 year later, she comes to your office for a wellness check‐up. She reports noticing foul‐smelling urine (depends on food
you eat and your hydration level) yesterday when she woke up. She denies other symptoms. She requests for a UA and
urine culture. What will you do?
A. Obtain UA only to prove she has no UTI.
B. Obtain UA AND urine culture due to her history of UTI in the past.
C. Start her on nitrofurantoin.
D. Explain “gently” that there is no indication for any further testing at this time.
Clinical Obstructive Uropathy
Obstructive Uropathy Location of the pt’s pain corresponds to the location of the kidney stone –
o Ureterovesical junction (UVJ) – most common location for obstruction b/c it is the narrowest part of the ureter;
Presents with gonadal, testicular, vaginal pain
o Crossing of iliac artery (mid‐ureter) – 2nd most common location
o Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) – 3rd most common location; flank pain in back
Causes of obstruction: Intraluminal
o Renal calculi – most common cause
o Blood clots
o Fungal ball
o Sloughed renal papillae
papilla can become necrotic; slough off & obstruct the ureter
disease processes implicated in this/any chronic illness that can causes vascular disease:
diabetes
sickle cell
pyelonephritis
phenacetin abuse
o Urothelial tumors
can get transitional cell cancer anywhere in the urinary tract, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder;
most common in the bladder
tumor emanates into the tubular portion of the ureter causing an obstruction
Intramural (intrinsic)
o UPJ obstruction
o Structural lesions
Primarily seen in pediatric population; normal ureteral anatomy cannot facilitate peristalsis
Extramural (anything strangling ureter or urethra that can cause obstruction)
o Prostatic disease – lower UT obstruction; most common reason
o Gynecologic, colorectal or retroperitoneal malignancy (lymphoma, breast cancer, cervical cancer)
anatomy of ureter can be markedly distorted by retroperitoneal processes (bleed, tumor, or infection)
o Crossing vessel to the lower pole of the kidney
IVC & aorta lie anteriorly to the ureter (posterior) Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis (excessive collagen)
Pathophysiology Clinical Definitions
o Hydronephrosis:
extra water in kidney, doesn’t always mean obstruction is present
dilatation of the pelvis & calyces
o Obstructive uropathy:
structural impedance to the flow of urine anywhere along the tract
o Obstructive nephropathy:
functional damage &/or anatomic damage to the renal parenchyma
results from an obstruction of urine flow
Renal Functional Changes Acute obstruction:
o kidney stones move from pelvis to ureter
o triphasic changes in:
Renal blood flow
Ureteral pressure
GFR
Chronic:
o might be a malignancy in the retroperitoneum, growing prostate
Unilateral obstruction: Phase I: 0‐2 hours
o Ureteral pressure increases
o Renal blood flow increases
due to:
afferent arteriolar dilation; tubuloglomerular feedback: prostaglandins, iNOS
Phase II: 2‐5 hours
o Ureteral pressures continues to rise due to efferent arteriolar vasoconstriction
o Renal blood flow starts to decrease
afferent arteriolar constriction – angiotensin II via RAAS
shift of regional flow from outer to inner cortex
Phase III: >5 hours
o Ureteral pressure declines to baseline by 24h
due to decrease in GFR
urine production starts to decrease
o Renal blood flow continues to decrease
afferent arteriolar constriction
angiotensin II via RAAS
endothelin & thromboxane A2
o This process will chronically manifest as obstructive nephropathy
Treatment: Percutaneous extraction techniques
Laser treatment
Bilateral ureteral stents
o if there is extramural obstruction or intramural obstruction, this can be used to alleviate obstruction
Nephrostomy tubes:
o allow urine to drain out through the back
Lower Urinary Tract Primarily a male phenomenon Bulky tissue of the prostate obstructs the urethra
Obstruction
Urethral Stricture Disease (USD)
o A urethral stricture is scarring in or around the urethra that narrows or blocks the passageway through which urine flows from
the bladder.
o The stricture results from inflammation, infection or injury, and is much more common in men than in women.
o USD: w/ urethritis (from gono, chlam)
causes dysuria; infection can manifest 10‐15y later as scar tissue in the urethra & cause obstruction
o Pts w/ pelvic straddle disease can have USD as well
o Urethral lumen is narrowed
o Laser treatment of prostate enlargement
o Treatment for USD: dilation or reconstructive surgery
Bilateral Obstruction Common etiologies:
o BPH (lower UT)
o Retroperitoneal disease (upper UT)
Distinct/additional/adjunctive pathophysiological effects
Tends to present w/ a chronic picture of kidney failure reflected in abnormal blood test levels
o Elevated Creatine
Remember, unilateral obstruction presents w/ symptoms
Effect of Obstruction on Urinary Concentrating Ability:
o Normal concentrating ability requires –
Medullary interstitial gradient
Water permeability in the collecting duct by ADH
Following release of bilateral urinary obstruction (BUO)
o there is decreased expression of aquaporin channels, which causes polyuria & impaired concentrating ability
b/c medullary gradient has been dispersed by a chronic disease process, & now you are not expressing aquaporin channels
so you can’t absorb water
Post‐obstructive diuresis: Marked polyuria can be seen after relief of BUO or obstruction of a solitary kidney
o Physiologic – retained urea, sodium, water
diuresis ends when fluid homeostasis achieved
o Pathologic – impairment of concentrating ability or sodium reabsorption
down regulation of sodium transporters
loss of medullary interstitial solute gradient (solute is lost)
poor response to ADH (no receptors or channels for it to act on)
Main point: you cannot concentrate your urine
Review of Obstructive When obstruction cause functional (acute) or anatomic (chronic) renal damage
Nephropathy o Functional: effect is on GFR (understanding triphasic response to the acute urinary obstruction)
o Anatomic: Renal damage from chronic obstruction (thinning parenchyma on ultrasound)
Review of Anatomy The course of the ureter as it relates to intraluminal obstruction by kidney stones
The anterior and posterior relationships of the renal collecting system and vasculature
Intramural structure of the ureter
LOWER urinary tract obstruction in the male affects both renal units
Review of Acute versus Acute:
Chronic o Most often unilateral & stones are the most common
o Common presentation is pain or infection & the creatinine may not be affected b/c the other kidney is normal/compensating
o Effects on GFR may be reversible
Chronic:
o More likely to be bilateral from
prostatic disease (b/c of its loction, affects both kidneys)
malignancies causing extramular obstruction (extramural = outside the wall, squeezing it)
o UPJ obstruction would be an example of unilateral
o Common presentation is renal failure (elevated creatinine)
o Post obstructive diuresis can be seen (when obstruction is relieved)
o Renal anatomic damage is irreversible
Autoimmune
Definition of Autoimmunity Normal persons are unresponsive (tolerant) to their own (self) antigens.
Autoimmunity results from a failure of self‐tolerance.
Immune reactions to self antigens (i.e., autoimmunity)
Specific immune responses are directed against one particular organ or cell type localized tissue damage.
Can be divided into 2 categories:
o Organ specific (e.g. Grave’s disease, type l DM…)
o Systemic (SLE, systemic sclerosis…)
Immunologic Tolerance Central tolerance.
o The principal mechanism of central tolerance is the antigen‐induced deletion
(death) of self‐reactive T and B lymphocytes during their maturation in central
(generative) lymphoid organs (i.e., in the thymus for T cells and in the bone marrow
for B cells).
In the thymus, many autologous (self) protein antigens are processed and
presented by thymic APCs in association with self MHC.
Any immature T cell that encounters such a self‐antigen undergoes apoptosis (a
process called deletion, or negative selection), and the T cells that complete their
maturation are thereby depleted of self‐reactive cells.
An exciting advance has been the identification of putative transcription factors that induce the expression of peripheral
tissue antigens in the thymus,
thus making the thymus an immunologic mirror of self.
o One such factor is called the autoimmune regulator (AIRE); mutations in the AIRE gene are responsible for an
autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome in which T cells specific for multiple self‐antigens escape deletion (presumably
because these self‐antigens are not expressed in the thymus), and attack tissues expressing the self‐antigens. Some T
cells that encounter self‐antigens in the thymus are not killed but differentiate into regulatory T cells
o Immature B cells that recognize self‐antigens with high affinity in the bone marrow also may die by apoptosis.
Some self‐reactive B cells may not be deleted but may undergo a second round of rearrangement of antigen receptor genes
and then express new receptors that are no longer self‐reactive (a process called “receptor editing”).
o Unfortunately, the process of deletion of self‐reactive lymphocytes is not perfect.
Many self‐antigens may not be present in the thymus, so T cells bearing receptors for such autoantigens can escape into the
periphery.
There is similar “slippage” in the B cell system as well, and B cells that bear receptors for a variety of self‐antigens, including
thyroglobulin, collagen, and DNA, can be found in healthy persons.
Peripheral tolerance.
o Self‐reactive T cells that escape negative selection in the thymus can potentially wreak havoc unless they are deleted or
effectively muzzled.
o Several mechanisms in the peripheral tissues that silence such potentially autoreactive T cells have been identified:
Anergy: This term refers to functional inactivation (rather than death) of lymphocytes induced by encounter with antigens
under certain conditions.
Activation of T cells requires two signals:
o recognition of peptide antigen in association with self MHC molecules on APCs
o a set of second costimulatory signals (e.g., through B7 molecules) provided by the APCs
If the second costimulatory signals are not delivered, or if an inhibitory receptor on the T cell (rather than the
costimulatory receptor) is engaged when the cell encounters self‐antigen, the T cell becomes anergic and cannot respond
to the antigen.
Because costimulatory molecules are not strongly expressed on most normal tissues, the encounter between autoreactive
T cells and self‐antigens in tissues may result in anergy.
B cells can also become anergic if they encounter antigen in the absence of specific helper T cells.
Suppression by regulatory T cells: The responses of T lymphocytes to self‐antigens may be actively suppressed by regulatory
T cells.
The best‐defined populations of regulatory T cells express CD25, one of the chains of the receptor for IL‐2, and require IL‐2
for their generation and survival.
These cells also express a unique transcription factor called FoxP3.
o This protein is necessary for the development of regulatory cells, and mutations in the FOXP3 gene are responsible
for a systemic autoimmune disease called IPEX (immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X‐linked
syndrome)
which is associated with deficiency of regulatory T cells.
Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how regulatory T cells control immune responses, including
secretion of immunosuppressive cytokines (e.g., IL‐10, transforming growth factor‐β [TGF‐β]), which can dampen a
variety of T cell responses, and competitive blocking of B7 molecules on APCs.
Activation‐induced cell death: Another mechanism of peripheral tolerance involves apoptosis of mature lymphocytes as a
result of self‐antigen recognition.
One mechanism of apoptosis involves the death receptor Fas (a member of the TNF receptor family), which can be
engaged by its ligand co‐expressed on the same or neighboring cells.
The same pathway is important for the deletion of self‐reactive B cells by Fas ligand expressed on T cells.
The importance of this pathway of self‐tolerance is illustrated by the discovery that mutations in the FAS gene are
responsible for an autoimmune disease called the autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS), characterized by
lymphadenopathy and multiple autoantibodies including anti‐DNA.
Defects in Fas and Fas ligand are also the cause of similar autoimmune diseases in mice.
The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, which does not depend on death receptors, may also be involved in the
elimination of self‐reactive lymphocytes.
Pathogenesis of Autoimmunity arises from the inheritance of susceptibility genes that may interfere with self‐tolerance, in
autoimmunity association with environmental triggers (infection, tissue injury, inflammation) that alter the display of self‐
antigens, promote lymphocyte entry into tissues, and enhance the activation of self‐reactive lymphocytes.
Genetic factors in Autoimmune diseases have a tendency to run in families, and there is a greater incidence of the same disease in monozygotic
autoimmunity than in dizygotic twins.
Several autoimmune diseases are linked with the HLA locus, especially class II alleles
Gender Influence There is a strong gender bias of autoimmunity
Much more common in Women than Men
o If males are affected, the disease is much more severe
Not well understood
Hormones?
Other factors?
Role of Infections and Several hypotheses:
Tissue Injury o Viruses and other microbes may share cross‐reacting epitopes with self antigens
o Microbial infections with resultant tissue necrosis and inflammation
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
History The word ‘lupus’ is derived from the Latin word for “wolf”.
Named in the 13th century by the physician “Rogerius”.
He described the rash as erosive facial lesions as a consequence of a wolf's bite.
The facial rash is also called “Butterfly rash” because it resembles a butterfly shape.
Definition An inflammatory, multisystem, autoimmune disease of unknown etiology with variable clinical and laboratory manifestations
and a variable course and prognosis
Lupus can be a mild disease, a severe and life‐threatening illness, or anything in between
The diversity of clinical symptoms in SLE is great, and all organ systems are vulnerable
Characterized by
o periods of flare (when disease is active)
o remission (when disease is inactive)
o can culminate in irreversible end‐organ damage
Characterized by a variety of antibodies that are important for diagnosis and responsible for clinical manifestations.
Epidemiology Every year there are more than 16,000 new cases of lupus in North America.
2–140/100,000 worldwide but as high as 207/100,000
Female:male ratio is 9:1
15‐45 years old of age of females
Affects minorities (African Americans and Hispanics) more commonly and more severely.
Health disparities in SLE Young female
Specific racial/ethnic minorities
Low income
Poverty
Pathogenesis Failure to maintain self‐tolerance autoantibody formation Tissue damage
Model for the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus.
o Genetic susceptibility and exposure result in failure of self‐tolerance and persistence of nuclear antigens.
o Autoantibodies serve to internalize nuclear components, which engage TLRs and stimulate IFN production.
o IFN may stimulate B and T cell responses to the nuclear antigens.
IFN, interferon; IgG, immunoglobulin G; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TLRs, Toll‐like receptors;
UV, ultraviolet.
Clinical manifestations Great masquerader
Symptoms vary by organ system affected
Can initially present just with fatigue, rashes, joint achiness
Lupus intangibles
o Fatigue
o Brain fog
o Achiness
o Depression
o Joint pain
Lupus on the outside Malar rash
Raynaud
Discoid rash
Sub‐acute cutaneous rash
Alopecia
Jaccoud deformity
Lupus on the Inside Lupus nephritis
Pleurisy
Pericarditis
Hemorrhagic stroke
Libman‐Sacks Endocarditis Non‐infectious, verrucous thrombi
Usually on mitral or aortic valve
Can be associated with anti‐phospholipid syndrome
Remember: LSE in SLE
ACR Classification Criteria Patient must have 4 of the following 11 criteria at any time during the disease history to be diagnosed with SLE
Mnemonic: SOAP BRAIN MD
o Serositis
o Oral ulcers
o Arthritis
o Photosensitivity
o Blood disorder
o Renal disorder
o ANA
o Immunologic abnormalities: (anti‐Smith antibody, anti‐double stranded DNA, anti‐phospholipid antibodies)
o Neurologic symptoms
o Malar Rash
o Discoid Rash
Subtypes of Lupus There are five types:
o Systemic lupus erythematosus; Discoid lupus; Drug induced lupus; Neonatal lupus; Overlap syndrome (SLE associated with
another AI disease)
Diagnosis of SLE A thorough history and physical exam Antibodies Specificity for SLE Clinical associations
Blood work based on pre‐test probability Anti‐DsDNA High Lupus nephritis
Correlates with disease activity
Anti‐nuclear antibody (ANA): Useful screening test in Anti‐Smith High None
symptomatic patients; Reported as a titer (i.e. 1/160, Anti‐SSA Low Dry eyes/dry mouth
1/320, etc.…); Non‐specific but very sensitive (useful Subacute cutaneous lupus
Neonatal lupus
when negative) Congenital heart block
Other laboratory tests Anti‐SSB Low Dry eyes/dry mouth
o White cell count Subacute cutaneous lupus
Neonatal lupus
o Hemoglobin Congenital heart block
o Platelet count Anti‐RNP Low Raynaud, myositis, lung disease
o Creatinine level Anti‐phospholipid antibodies Low Clotting disorder
o Proteinuria
o Complement 3 and 4
o DsDNA
Treatment of SLE NSAIDs
Anti‐malarials
Corticosteroids
Immunosuppressive medications
Adjunctive measures Avoid sun exposure
NO smoking
Healthy diet
Regular exercise
Mortality in SLE Cardiovascular disease: major cause of mortality
Other factors:
o High disease severity at diagnosis
o Younger age at diagnosis
o Ethnicity: Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American populations
o Male gender
o Low socioeconomic status
o Poor patient adherence
o Poor social support
o Low education
Sjogren’s syndrome
Definition Autoimmune disease characterized by exocrine glandular dysfunction due to lymphocytic infiltration.
Female gender
Can be primary or secondary to another autoimmune disease (RA, SLE…)
Clinical manifestations Dry eyes (xerophthamia)
Dry mouth (xerostomia)
But also:
o dry skin, chronic cough, vaginal dryness, numbness in the arms and legs, feeling tired, muscle
and joint pains, and thyroid problems
Laboratory abnormalities Positive Anti‐SSA (anti‐Ro) and/or anti‐SSB (anti‐La) antibody
Positive Rheumatoid factor
Renal tubular acidosis (RTA)
Prognosis Can cause congenital heart block in newborn of mother with Sjogren. Will need a permanent pacemaker placement.
Caution: increased risk of lymphoma (40 times increased risk, esp. mucosa‐associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Systemic Sclerosis
Scleroderma, or systemic Define: is an autoimmune disease characterized by:
sclerosis (SSc) o Vasculopathy
o Fibrosis
Significant morbidity and high rates of mortality.
Clinical manifestations Raynaud
Skin tightening (no wrinkles)
Finger tip ulcers
Joint contractures
Renal hypertension
Dyspnea
GERD
Diarrhea/malabsorption
Weight loss
Definition of Raynaud Decreased blood flow to the skin secondary to arteriolar vasospasm in reaction to cold or stress (emotions).
Color change:
o White (ischemia) blue (hypoxia) red (reperfusion)
Two types:
o Raynaud disease: when primary/idiopathic
o Raynaud phenomenon: when associated with another autoimmune disease (e.g. Scleroderma, SLE, Mixed connective tissue
disease …)
Treatment: vasodilators such as calcium channel blockers.
Subtypes of SSc Diffuse Scleroderma:
o Extensive skin involvement
o Interstitial lung disease
o Anti‐topoisomerase l (Scl70)
Limited scleroderma: CREST syndrome
o Limited skin involvement (fingers and face)
o Calcinosis, Raynaud, Esophageal dysmotility (difficulty in swallowing), Sclerodactyly and Telangiectasia
o Pulmonary hypertension
o Anti‐centromere antibody
Scleroderma renal crisis
o typically presents with acute kidney injury in combination with
worsening symptoms of scleroderma
new‐onset hypertension
o Investigations often reveal a bland urine sediment, and evidence of microangiopathic hemolytic anemia.
o Early warning signs include:
the onset of the diffuse‐skin‐disease subtype of scleroderma within the past 4 years
rapidly progressive skin disease
presence of RNA‐polymerase antibodies
o Recent intensification of glucocorticoid therapy (to doses of prednisone >15 mg daily) can also predispose to the onset of
scleroderma renal crisis.
Clinical manifestations Raynaud
Sclerodactyly
Calcinosis
Decreased mouth aperture
Telangiectasia
Scleroderma antibodies Antibodies Clinical Associations
Anti‐centromere antibody o CREST syndrome
o Pulmonary hypertension
Anti‐topoisomerase (Scl70) o Diffuse skin involvement
o Interstitial lung disease
Anti‐RNA‐polymerase 3 o Scleroderma renal crisis
o malignancy
Anti‐phospholipid syndrome
Can be primary or secondary (most commonly associated with SLE)
Diagnosis is based on a clinical event of thrombosis (arterial or venous) or a pregnancy morbidity along with abnormal laboratory
test (clotting antibody).
Anti‐phospholipid Anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL)
antibodies Anti‐beta2‐Glycoprotein I antibodies
Lupus anticoagulant (LAC)
PS: Can cause false positive VDRL/RPR test.
LAC can prolong PTT.
Clinical case 1
20 year old African American female presents to the ED with 3 months of fatigue, joint pain (fingers and wrists) and a
rash (picture) that started after she was vacationing in the Caribbean‘s. On exam: vitals stable. Has mild anemia and
proteinuria on urine dipstick.
Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Sun burn
B. Rheumatoid arthritis
C. Psoriasis
D. Systemic lupus erythematous
E. Sjogren’s disease
Which of the following laboratory screening tests is most appropriate as initial work up?
A. Chest x‐ray
B. Lumbar puncture
C. Antinuclear antibody
D. Lyme serology
E. DsDNA
Clinical case 2
65 year old female with 20 year history of Sjogren’s disease comes for follow up. She noticed recent onset of a lump
behind her right jaw. Dry eyes and dry mouth are stable
Exam: decreased salivary pooling and right parotid gland enlargement.
Labs: Platelets: 80,000 (were 200,000 a year ago)
Which of the following condition is likely to occur?
A. Sinusitis
B. Parotid gland lymphoma
C. Otitis media
D. Mumps infection
Clinical case 3
36 year old female presents with 6 months of skin tightening, GERD, change in the color of her fingers.
On physical exam, her BP is 190/100, HR 80, RR 16, T 98, sclerodactyly and few telangiectasia on her face.
What process is most likely to explain the cause of her hypertension?
A. Atherosclerosis
B. Hyperaldosteronism
C. Cocaine use
D. Licorice use
E. Scleroderma renal crisis
what antibody has been shown to be associated with this condition?
A. Anti‐SSA
B. Anti‐topoisomerase (anti‐Scl70)
C. Anti‐RNA polymerase III
D. Anti‐centromere antibody
E. Anti‐nuclear antibody