Active vs.

passive

Unlike the distinction between temporary and permanent support, the distinction between active and
passive support refers to the load existing in the chosen support prior to its installation. For example, active
support forces a load onto the rock surface in order to support broken rockmass and ensure its stability.
Examples of active support types are: tensioned rockbolts, cablebolts, hydraulic jacks and powered
supports for longwall mining. Passive support on the other hand is reactive to the ground's movements. It
develops its load as the rock deforms. Examples of passive support types are: untensioned rockbolts,
meshes and screens, reinforcing bars, shotcrete, timbered sets and steel arches. A combination of active
and passive supports is typically optimal for most mining situations.
Primary vs. secondary

A more modern way of relating ground support techniques and systems is to define a primary and
secondary support strategy. The primary support is installed in conjunction with excavation and serves
supporting and reinforcing functions. This enables simultaneous control of boundary displacements. Any
support applied at a later stage will be defined as secondary support. This ground control strategy
maximizes the capacities of the support selected. As the excavation size and displacements are increased,
the selected support develops the required load to maintain the required internal pressure[4]. Figure 1 below
clearly demonstrates this principle.

This design strategy is also explained through the analysis for ground support reaction curves. These
analyses are necessary in the design stages of a ground support strategy in order to determine the true
failure mode of an excavation.

Types of support

Since the development of the first mechanical rockbolts in the United States, where the first rockbolting
occurrence is recorded in 1936 at the St. Joseph Lead Co. in Missouri [6],
the types of ground support available have greatly increased and offer a range of functionalities and
capacities. The types of support can be divided in the following categories:

Various Rockbolts, DeHuia (China)

 Rockbolts (mechanical, frictional, grouted)

 Cablebolts (plain, birdcage, bulbed, nutcaged)

 Other Rockbolts (cone bolts, yieldable bars)

 Shotcrete (covers, reinforced, arches, pillars)

 Mesh, straps and screens

Often times, rockbolts and cablebolts are categorized according to their anchor type[ mechanical, frictional,
etc.), their permanency (grouted or not grouted) and their deformation reactions (pre-tensioned or nor,
dynamic vs. static).
The use of timber supports is seldom used for mining applications as its use underground is related to
many hazards such as fire and is easily replaced by other support types.
Rockbolts and cablebolts

Rockbolts and cablebolts are the most common type of ground support in current use in underground
mines. The great diversity of rockbolts and cablebolts allows for selection of the most geotechnically and
economically appropriate ground support element for a specific situation. The sections below describe
some of the characteristics and cost of various rockbolts and cablebolts in greater detail:

Mechanical Bolts, (McKinnon, 2001)

Mechanical rockbolts

Mechanical rockbolts are the type of ground support traditionally used. These are favourable for short term
support as they are only anchored in the rockmass at both ends of the bolt. Furthermore, they are subject
to blast vibrations and corrosion[5].These bolts come in two varieties: threaded or forged ends. The
threaded end rockbolts which are inserted into the rock face and held in place by a face plate and a nut
allow for adjustment to the rock face surface and the angle of the face plate. As for forged ends, the end of
the bolt is forged to the nut allowing for less flexibility.

Costs Mechanical rockbolts, due to their temporary nature, are often used in shorter lengths. A typical cost
for these bolts, including the face plate, are $US 4.63 for a 3' (0.8m) bolt and $US 9.22 for a 10' (3m) bolt
both of 5/8" diameter.

Installation Installing mechanical rockbolts is a straightforward process. The workers are required to drill a
hole to the specified diameter, usually using a jackleg or a stoper, see Mining equipment. The bolt is then
inserted in the drilled hole with the plate and nut. The bolt is then tensioned to the specified torque.

Properties The 2008 report on dynamic behaviour of rock support tensors provided by CANMET and
Workplace Safety North (MASHA) provides technical information for a typical mechanical rockbolt of 1.5m
in length of comparable steel grade to the DSI products and after 85mm of displacement (C1070 grade).

Frictional rockbolts

Frictional rockbolts or friction bolts attribute their name to their support mechanism. The bolt is maintained
in the rockmass when fricition is created along the bolt. Due to this characteristic, friction bolts can slip in
the hole when ground movement occurs. This makes friction bolts very efficient in dynamic conditions
although they are subject to corrosion and have a lower load bearing capacity compared to supported
bolts, i.e. mechanical and grouted bolts.