Nature of Inquiry and Research: Prepared By: Mr. Norberto L. Gesite, JR, LPT Research/ Ict Teacher

NATURE OF INQUIRY AND
RESEARCH
PREPARED BY:
MR. NORBERTO L. GESITE, JR, LPT
RESEARCH/ ICT TEACHER
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• WHAT S QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
• WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTICS ?
• WHAT ARE THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
• HOW IMPORTANT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN GENERATING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
ACROSS FIELDS?
• WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VARIABLES IN THIS KIND OF RESEARCH AND THEIR USES?
DEFINITION QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH INQUIRES ABOUT PEOPLE’S VIEWS INA STRUCTURED MANNER SO
THAT HARD EVIDENCE AND STATISTICS THAT MAY BE USE, E.G. DECISION MAKING, CAN BE
GENERATED. IN THIS CASE, IN ORDER TO GET CONSISTENT STATISTICAL RESULTS, IT IS VITAL TO
SURVEY A CONSIDERABLE NUMBER OF PEOPLE AND GET REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF THE
TARGET POPULATION. THE RESEARCHER IS CENTERED ON COLLECTING NUMERICAL DATA AND
S/HE MAKES USE OF THE DATA TO GENERALIZE CONDITIONS FROM ACROSS A GROUP OF
POPULATION.
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS DEFINE AS “INQUIRY PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING A SOCIAL OR

HUMAN PROBLEM BASED ON BUILDING COMPLEX, HOLISTIC PICTURE FORMED WITH WORDS,
REPORTING DETAILED VIEWS OF INFORMANTS, AND CONDUCTED IN A NATURAL
SETTING”(CRESWELL 1994, 2).
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH, ON THE OTHER HAND, IS “AN INQUIRY INTO A SOCIAL OR HUMAN
PROBLEM USED ON TESTING A THEORY COMPOSED OF VARIABLES, MEASURED WITH NUMBERS,
AND ANALYZED WITH STATISTICAL PROCEDURE IN ORDER TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE
PREDICTIVE GENERALIZATION OF THE THEORY HOLDS TRUE” (CRESWELL 1994, 2).
CHARACTERISTICS OF
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: PARADIGM (ASSUMPTION ABOUT THE WORLD)
• CHARACTERISTIC: POSITIVISM
• DESCRIPTION: AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITION THAT ADVOCATED THE APPLICATION OF THE
METHODS OD THE NATURAL SCIENCES TO THE STUDY OF SOCIAL REALITY AND BEYOND
(BRYMAN 2008, 697)
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: PARADIGM (ASSUMPTION ABOUT THE WORLD)
• CHARACTERISTIC: REALISM
• DESCRIPTION: AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITION THAT ACKNOWLEDGES A REALITY
INDEPENDENT OD THE SENSES THAT IS ACCESSIBLE TO THE RESEARCHER’S TOOLS AND
THEORETICAL SPECULATIONS. IT IMPLIES THAT THE CATEGORIES CREATED BY SCIENTISTS REFER
TO REAL OBJECTS IN THE NATURAL OR SOCIAL WORLD (BRYMAN 2008, 698).
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: RESEARCH PURPOSE (RATIONALE)
• CHARACTERISTIC: NUMERICAL DESCRIPTION
• DESCRIPTION: THIS REFERS TO FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION, PERCENTAGE, AND MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCIES LIKE MODE, MEDIAN, AND MEAN.
RESEARCH
• CHARACTERISTIC: CAUSAL EXPLANATION
• DESCRIPTION: CAUSAL EXPLANATION RELATES TO THE MEANING OF CAUSAL, WHICH REFERS
TO A CONCERN WITH ESTABLISHING CAUSAL CONNECTIONS RATHER THAN MERE
RELATIONSHIPS (BRYMAN 2008, 691).
RESEARCH
• CHARACTERISTIC: PREDICTION
• DESCRIPTION: PREDICTION IS A STATEMENT ABOUT THE FUTURE BASED ON THE FACTS
(HTTPS://WWW. VOCABULARY.COM/DICTIONARY/PREDICTION).
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: ONTOLOGY (NATURE OF REALITY)
• CHARACTERISTIC: NATURE OF SOCIAL REALITY
• DESCRIPTION: THIS REFERS TO “WHAT CAN BE KNOWN AND HOW.” FOR EXAMPLE: “IS THE
SOCIAL WORLD PATTERNED AND PREDICTABLE OR IS THE SOCIAL WORLD CONTINUALLY
BEING CONSTRUCTED THROUGH HUMAN PERSPECTIVE?” (BIBER AND LEAVY 2011, 4)
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: EPISTEMOLOGY (THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE)
• CHARACTERISTIC: OBJECTIVIST
• DESCRIPTION: OBJECTIVIST REFERS TO THE NOTION THAT REALITY IS “OBJECTIVE”, “OUT
THERE,” SINGULAR, AND APART FROM THE RESEARCHER, AND IT CAN BE MEASURED
OBJECTIVELY BY USING A QUESTIONNAIRE OF AN INSTRUMENT (CRESWELL 1994).
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: METHODOLOGY (AIMS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION)
• CHARACTERISTIC: EXPERIMENTAL/ MANIPULATIVE
• DESCRIPTION: REFERS TO A TYPE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH WHERE THE RESEARCHERS
MANIPULATE ONE VARIABLE AND CONTROL/ RANDOMIZE THE REST OF THE VARIABLES. IT HAS
A CONTROL GROUP AND SUBJECTS HAVE BEEN RANDOMLY ASSIGNED BETWEEN THE
GROUPS. RESEARCHERS TEST ONLY ONE EFFECT AT A TIME
(HTTPS://EXPLORABLE.COM/EXPERIMENTAL-RESEARCH).
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: RESEARCH METHODS (TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS)
• CHARACTERISTIC: EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION
• DESCRIPTION: EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION IS GENERALLY REFERRED TO AS INFORMATION THAT IS
DERIVED THROUGH OBSERVATION OR EXPERIMENT. THIS MAY ALSO BE LINKED WITH
EMPIRICISM, WHICH IS AN APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF REALITY THAT SUGGESTS THAT ONLY
KNOWLEDGE GAINED THROUGH EXPERIENCE AND THE SENSES IS ACCEPTABLE (BRYMAN 2008,
693)
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: RESEARCH METHODS (TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS)
• CHARACTERISTIC: MEASUREMENT
• DESCRIPTION: MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE FOR ASSIGNING SYMBOLS, LETTERS, OR NUMBERS
TO EMPIRICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIABLES ACCORDING TO RULES
(WEB.CSULB.EDU/~MSAINTG/PPA696/696MEAS.HTM). IT IS ALSO THE PROCESS OF
OBSERVING AND RECORDING THE OBSERVATIONS COLLECTED AS PART OF A RESEARCH
EFFORTS (TROCHIM 2006)
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: RESEARCH METHODS (TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS
• CHARACTERISTIC: HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• DESCRIPTION: HYPOTHESIS IS AN INFORMED SPECULATION, WHICH IS SET UP TO BE TESTED,
ABOUT THE POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO OR MORE VARIABLES (BRYMAN 2008,
694). HYPOTHESIS TESTING, THEREFORE, IS CHECKING IF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND
DEPENDENT VARIABLE HAVE A RELATIONSHIP.
RESEARCH
• CHARACTERISTIC: RANDOMIZATION
• DESCRIPTION: RANDOMIZATION IS RELATED TO RANDOM ASSIGNMENT, A TERM USED IN
CONNECTION WITH EXPERIMENTS TO REFER TO THE RANDOM ALLOCATION OF RESEARCH
PARTICIPANTS TO THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP.
RESEARCH
• CHARACTERISTIC: RESEARCH PROTOCOL
• DESCRIPTION: RESEARCH PROTOCOL IS THE SEQUENCE OF MANIPULATIONS AND
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES THAT MAKE UP THE EXPERIMENT. ITS DESCRIPTION SHOULD
FOLLOW THE EXACT SEQUENCE OF HOW THE PROCEDURES WERE EXECUTED. THIS INVOLVES
A DESCRIPTION OF BASELINE CONDITION AND ANY ASSOCIATED BASELINE MEASUREMENT,
FOLLOWED BY THE SEQUENCE OF MANIPULATIONS OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND THE
SUBSEQUENT MEASUREMENT OF CHANGES IN THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
RESEARCH
• CHARACTERISTIC: QUESTIONNAIRES
• DESCRIPTION: A QUESTIONNAIRES IS A COLLECTION OF QUESTIONS ADMINISTERED TO
RESPONDENTS (BRYMAN 2008, 697).
RESEARCH
• ORIENTATION: SCIENTIFIC METHOD (ROLES OF THEORY)
• CHARACTERISTIC: DEDUCTIVE APPROACH/ TESTING OF THEORY
• DESCRIPTION: AN APPROACH TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY AND RESEARCH IN
WHICH THE LATTER IS CONDUCTED WITH REFERENCE TO HYPOTHESIS AND IDEAS INFERRED
FROM THE FORMER.
RESEARCH
• TO FURTHER DEEPEN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH, LETS IDENTIFY THE PREOCCUPATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCHERS NAMELY:
MEASUREMENT CAUSALITY
GENERALIZATION REPLICATION
MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH, WHICH IS WHY RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ARE
EMBEDDED IN ITS METHODOLOGY.
MEASUREMENT - RELIABILITY
RELIABILITY SPEAKS OF CONSISTENCY OF A MEASURE OF A

CONCEPT. ACCORDING TO BRYMAN (2008, 149-150),
MEASUREMENT IS RELIABLE IF IT CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS
INTERNAL RELIABILITY – THIS MEANS “CONSISTENCY OF

THE SCALE OR INDEX, WHETHER RESPONDENTS’ SCORE ON
ANY ONE INDICATOR TEND TO BE RELATED TO THEIR
SCORES ON THE OTHER INDICATORS.”
INTER-OBSERVER CONSISTENCY – THIS MEANS “BEING

CAUTIOUS OF THE POSSIBILITY OF THE INCONSISTENCY OF
OBSERVER WHEN A GREAT DEAL OF SUBJECTIVE JUDGEMENT IS
INVOLVED, SUCH AS IN RECORDING OF OBSERVATIONS OR
TRANSLATING OF DATA INTO CATEGORIES AD WHEN MORE
THAT ONE OBSERVER IN INVOLVED.”
MEASUREMENT - VALIDITY
FACE VALIDITY – “THE MEASURE REFLECTS THE CONTENT OF THE

CONCEPT IN QUESTION. THIS MAY BE UNDERTAKEN BY ASKING
OTHER PEOPLE WHETHER THE MEASURE SEEMS TO BE GETTING
AT THE CONCEPT THAT IS THE FOCUS OF ATTENTION.”
EXAMPLE: PEOPLE WITH EXPERTISE OR EXPERIENCE IN A CERTAIN FIELD
MIGHT BE ASKED TO ACT AS JUDGE TO DETERMINE WHETHER IN THE FACE
OF IT, THE MEASURE SEEMS TO REFLECT THE CONCEPT CONCERNED.”
CONCURRENT VALIDITY – “EMPLOYS A CRITERION ON WHICH CASES ARE KNOWN TO
DIFFER AND THAT IS RELEVANT TO THE CONCEPT IN QUESTION.”
EXAMPLE: “A NEW CRITERION MEASURE OF JOB SATISFACTION CAN BE ABSENTEEISM.
TO ESTABLISH THE CONCURRENT VALIDITY OF THIS MEASURE OF JOB SATISFACTION,
WE MIGHT LOOK INTO HOW PEOPLE WHO ARE SATISFIED WITH THEIR JOB ARE LESS
LIKELY TO BE ABSENT FROM WORK. IF A LACK OF CORRESPONDENCE WAS FOUND,
SUCH AS THERE BEING NO DIFFERENCE IN LEVELS OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONG
FREQUENT ABSENTEES, DOUBT MIGHT BE CAST ON WHETHER OUR MEASURE IS REALLY
ADDRESSING JOB SATISFACTION.”
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY – “USES A FUTURE CRITERION MEASURE RATHER THAN

A CONTEMPORARY ONE.”
EXAMPLE: “THE RESEARCHER WOULD TAKE FUTURE LEVELS OF ABSENTEEISM
AS THE CRITERION AGAINST WHICH THE VALIDITY OF A NEW MEASURE OF
JOB SATISFACTION WOULD BE EXAMINED. THE DIFFERENCE OF THIS FROM
CONCURRENT VALIDITY IS THAT A FUTURE RATHER THAN A SIMULTANEOUS
CRITERION MEASURE IS EMPLOYED” (BRYMAN 2008, 152.)
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY – “DEDUCES HYPOTHESES FROM A THEORY THAT IS RELEVANT TO THE
CONCEPT.”
EXAMPLE: “DRAWING UPON THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE EXPERIENCE OF WORK, THE
RESEARCHER MIGHT ANTICIPATE THAT PEOPLE WHO ARE SATISFIED WITH THEIR JOB ARE LESS
LIKELY TO WORK ON ROUTINE JOBS; THOSE WHO ARE NOT SATISFIED ARE MORE LIKELY TO
WORK ON ROUTINE JOBS. WE COULD INVESTIGATE THIS THEORETICAL DEDUCTION BY
EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB ROUTINE.
CAUTION: (1) EITHER THE THEORY OR THE DEDUCTION MADE FROM IT MIGHT BE MISGUIDED; OR
(2) THE MEASURE OF JOB ROUTINE COULD BE AN INVALID MEASURE OF THAT CONCEPT.”
CONVERGENT VALIDITY – “THE VALIDITY OF A MEASURE OUGHT TO BE

GAUGED BY COMPARING IT TO MEASURES OF THE SAME CONCEPT
DEVELOPED THROUGH OTHER MEASURE.”
EXAMPLE: “IF WE DEVELOP A QUESTIONNAIRE MEASURE OF HOW MUCH
TIME MANAGERS SPEND ON VARIOUS ACTIVITIES, WE MIGHT EXAMINE ITS
VALIDITY BY TRACKING A NUMBER OF MANAGERS AND USING A
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION SCHEDULE TO RECORD HOW MUCH TIME IS
SPENT IN VARIOUS ACTIVITIES AND THEIR FREQUENCY.”
CAUSALITY
MOST QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IS CONCERNED ABOUT EXPLANATION. THEY ARE

STRONG ON EXPLAINING WHY THINGS HAPPEN IN CERTAIN WAYS. HENCE THEY
ARE INTERESTED NOT ONLY ABOUT THE PHENOMENON OF THINGS BUT ALSO
THE CAUSES OF IT (BRYMAN 2008, 156).
GENERALIZATION
QUALITATIVE RESEARCHERS ARE USUALLY APPREHENSIVE ABOUT FINDING THAT

CANNOT BE GENERALIZED. THEY PURSUE FINDINGS THAT CAN BE GENERALIZED
BEYOND THE MARGINS OF A CERTAIN CONTEXT IN WHICH THE RESEARCH WAS
UNDERTAKEN. THIS AREA OF CONCERN REVEALS ITSELF IN SOCIAL SURVEY
RESEARCH, IN THE ATTENTION THAT IS OFTEN TO THE QUESTION OF HOW ONE
CAN CREATE A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE (BRYMAN 2008, 156).
REPLICATION
REPLICATION IS THE ABILITY TO REPEAT AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF AN

ACTIVITY. THE ATTEMPT TO MAKE THE PROCEDURES HIGHLY EXPLICIT IN AN
INTERVENTION TO MAKE AN EXPERIMENT CAPABLE OF REPLICATION. HOWEVER,
ACCORDING TO BRYMAN (2008, 157), “REPLICATION IS NOT A HIGH-STATUS
ACTIVITY IN NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES.” IT IS, MOST OF THE TIME,
CONSIDERED AS NOT CAPABLE OF SUSTAINING INTEREST. IN SOCIAL SCIENCES,
IT IS DIFFICULT TO WARRANT THAT THE SETTINGS IN A REPLICATION ARE THOSE
THAT ARE REFERRED TO IN THE ORIGINAL STUDY.
TYPES OF
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• THERE ARE FIVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

NAMELY:
DESCRIPTIVE EXPERIMENTAL SURVEY
CORRELATION CASUAL-COMPARATIVE
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
ANSWER THE QUESTIONS WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, AND HOW.

WHY DOES NOT ANSWER BY THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH BECAUSE IT
DOES NOT SEEK TO EXPLAIN WHY CERTAIN THINGS HAPPEN.
DEFINING FEATURES: IT AIMS TO DEFINE THE EXISTING CONDITION OF A

CLASSIFIED VARIABLE. THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH IS INTENDED TO OFFER
METHODICAL DATA OR SYSTEMATIC INFORMATION ABOUT A PHENOMENON.
IN ADDITION, THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH DOES NOT USUALLY START WITH A
HYPOTHESIS BUT GATHERING SINCE THE TEST OF HYPOTHESIS COMES FROM
DATA ANALYSIS. GATHERING OF DATA NECESSITATES THOROUGH SELECTION
NOT ONLY OF THE UNITS STUDIED BUT THE MEASUREMENT OF EACH
VARIABLE AS WELL.
EXAMPLE:
• DESCRIPTION OF HOW HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS CELEBRATE THEIR
BIRTHDAY
• A DESCRIPTION OF HOW PARENTS FEEL ABOUT THE K TO 12
CURRICULUM
• A DESCRIPTION OF YOUTH’S PERCEPTION OF THE 2016 ELECTION
• A DESCRIPTION OF THE ATTITUDES OF WOMEN’S GROUPS TOWARDS
RODRIDO DUTERTE’S JOKE ABOUT AN AUSTRALIAN RAPE VINCTIM
SURVEY RESEARCH
A SURVEY RESEARCH IS INTENDED TO ACQUIRE INFORMATION FROM

PEOPLE CONCERNING THE PREDOMINANCE, DISTRIBUTION, AND
INTERRELATIONS OF VARIABLES WITHIN AN IDENTIFIED GROUP. IN SIMPLE
TERMS, SURVEYS ARE DONE TO GATHER EVIDENCE OF PEOPLE’S
KNOWLEDGE, OPINIONS, ATTITUDES, AND VALUES ON VARIOUS ISSUES
AND CONCERNS. SURVEYS ARE USED FOR COLLECTING DATA ARE MAINLY
QUANTITATIVE (BRYMAN 2008, 165).
SURVEY RESEARCH
DEFINING FEATURE: A SURVEYS IS INTENDED TO ACQUIRE INFORMATION

FROM PEOPLE CONCERNING THE PREDOMINANCE, DISTRIBUTION AND
VARIABLES WITHIN THE IDENTIFIED GROUP OF PEOPLE. IN SIMPLE TERMS,
SURVEYS ARE DONE TO GATHER EVIDENCE ON PEOPLE’S KNOWLEDGE,
OPINIONS, ATTITUDE, AND VALUES ON CARIOUS ISSUES AND CONCERNS.
SURVEYS ARE INCLINED FOR COLLECTING DATA THAT ARE MAINLY
QUANTITATIVE. (BRYMAN 2008, 165)
SURVEY RESEARCH
EXAMPLES:
• VOTERS PREFERENCES
• CONSUMER COPING BEHAVIOR
• SURVEY ON SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN Q.C.
• METRO MANILA SURVEY OF ADOLESCENCE ON HEALTH
• ASEAN BUSINESS OUTLOOK SURVEYS 2016
• SURVEY ON ASEAN EMPLOYERS
• ON SKILLS AND COMPETITIVENESS
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• A TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH THAT AUTHORIZES THE

QUESTION TO “CONTROL THE SITUATION WHICH ALLOWS THEM
TO ANSWER THE QUESTION. ‘WHAT CAUSES SOMETHING TO
OCCUR?’ IN ADDITION, IT ALSO SANCTIONS RESEARCHERS TO IDENTIFY
CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES AND TO
DISTINGUISH PLACEBO EFFECTS FROM TREATMENT EFFECT.”
DEFINING FEATURES: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IS USUALLY TERMED AS TRUE

EXPERIMENTATION. IT APPLIES THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD TO PROVE “THE
CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP AMONG A GROUP OF VARIABLES THAT
MAKE UP A STUDY.” THE TRY EXPERIMENT IS ALSO USUALLY CONSIDERED
AS A “LABORATORY STUDY,” YET THIS IS NOT MOST OF THE TIME THE
SITUATION BECAUSE A LABORATORY SETTING MAY NOT BE NECESSARY.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRUE EXPERIMENT:

a. ANY STUDY WHERE AN EFFORT IS MADE TO IDENTIFY AND IMPOSE
CONTROL OVER ALL OTHER VARIABLES EXCEPT ONE.
b. AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE WHICH IS MANIPULATED TO DETERMINE ITS
EFFECTS ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES
c. SUBJECTS THAT ARE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS
RATHER THAN IDENTIFIED IN NATURALLY OCCURRING GROUPS
EXAMPLE:
• THE EFFECT OF COUNSELING AND TREATMENT ON ALCOHOLISM
• THE EFFECT OF SUPPORT GROUPS ON SMOKING
• THE EFFECT OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT ON ONE’S ATTITUDE TO EXCEL IN SCHOOL
• THE EFFECT OF PEER COUNSELING AND SUPPORT GROUP ON A STUDENT’S EMOTIONAL CONDITION
• THE EFFECT OF A KIND AND SUPPORTIVE HOME ROOM ADVISER ON THE STUDENTS’ HELPFULNESS
• THE EFFECT OF A MATH TERROR TEACHER ON STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE ABOUT ATTENDING MATH
CLASSES UNDER THAT TEACHER
CORRELATION RESEARCH
ACCORDING TO BLACK(1999, 618), CORRELATION ARE “BASED ON PAIRS

OR MEASURES OR SCORES FOR MEMBERS OF A SINGLE SAMPLE AND
PROVIDE AN INDICATION OF THE STRENGTHS OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES THAT EMBODY CHARACTERISTICS OF OR
PERFORMANCES BY THAT GROUP.”
DEFINING FEATURES: CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH TRIES TO DEFINE THE DEGREE OF

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO OR MORE VARIABLES USING STATISTICAL DATA.
THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH SEEKS TO INTERPRET THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AND
AMONG A NUMBER OF FACTS. IN ADDITION, THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH
DISTINGUISHES TENDENCIES AND PATTERN IN DATA, BUT IT DOES NOT GO SO
FAR ITS ANALYSIS TO PROVE CAUSES FOR THESE OBSERVED PATTERN.
MOREOVER, THE DATA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND DISTRIBUTION VARIABLES ARE
IDENTITIES ONLY IN A NATURAL SETTING AND NOT IN A MANIPULATED ONE.
EXAMPLE:
• THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL CAREER AND EDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT
• THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIGH GRADES AND HAVING TUTORS
• THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENTRANCE AND EXIT RESULTS AND
ATTENDANCE IN REVIEW CENTER
• THE RELATIONSHIP BET
CASUAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
ACCORDING TO GAY (1996), THERE ARE TIMES THAT CASUAL-

COMPARATIVE RESEARCH IS CONSIDERED AS A KIND OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH BECAUSE IT DESCRIBES EXISTING CONDITION. HOWEVER
UNLIKE DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH, CASUAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
ENDEAVORS TO FIND OUT THE CAUSES OF EXISTING PHENOMENA (GAY
1996, 321).
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
OF
STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• STUDY FINDINGS CAN BE GENERALIZED TO THE POPULATION

ABOUT WHICH INFORMATION IS REQUIRED.
• SAMPLES OF INDIVIDUALS, COMMUNITIES, OR ORGANIZATIONS
CAN BE SELECTED TO ENSURE THAT THE RESULTS WILL BE
REPRESENTATIVE OF THE POPULATION BEING STUDIED.
• STRUCTURAL FACTORS THAT DETERMINE HOW INEQUALITIES (SUCH

AS GENDER INEQUALITIES) ARE PRODUCED CAN BE ANALYZED.
• ESTIMATE OF THE MAGNITUDE AND DISTRIBUTION OF IMPACTS CAN
BE OBTAINED.
• ESTIMATE OF THE COST AND BENEFITS OF INTERVENTION CAN BE
OBTAINED.
• CLEAR DOCUMENTATION CAN BE PROVIDED REGARDING THE CONTENT

AND APPLICATION OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS SO THAT OTHER
RESEARCHER CAN ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THE FINDINGS
• STANDARDIZED APPROACHED PERMITS THE STUDY TO BE REPLICATED IN
DIFFERENT AREAS OR OVER TIME WITH THE PRODUCTION OF
COMPARABLE FINDINGS.
• IT IS POSSIBLE TO CONTROL THE EFFECTS OF EXTRANEOUS

VARIABLES THAT MIGHT RESULT IN MISLEADING INTERPRETATIONS
OF CAUSALITY (ALTHOUGH THIS CAN BE CHALLENGING IN THE
NATURAL SETTINGS OF EVALUATION).
WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• MANY KINDS OF INFORMATION ARE DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN

THROUGH STRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS,
PARTICULARLY INFORMATION ON SENSITIVE TOPICS SUCH AS
DOMESTICS VIOLENCE OR INCOME.
• MANY GROUP SUCH AS SEX WORKERS, DRUG USER, ILLEGAL

IMMIGRANTS, SQUATTERS, AND ETHNICS MINORITIES ARE ALWAYS
DIFFICULT TO REACH, BUT THE PROBLEMS ARE OFTEN GREATER FOR
QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS
• SELF-REPORTED INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM QUESTIONNAIRES
MAY BE INACCURATE OR INCOMPLETE.
• THERE IS OFTEN NO INFORMATION ON CONTEXTUAL FACTORS TO

HELP INTERPRET RESULT OR TO EXPLAIN VARIATIONS IN BEHAVIOR
BETWEEN HOUSEHOLDS WITH SIMILAR ECONOMIC AND
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS.
• THE ADMINISTRATION OF A STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE CREATES
AN UNNATURAL SITUATION THAT MAY ALIENATE RESPONDENTS
• STUDIES ARE EXPENSIVE AND TIME-CONSUMING, AND EVEN

PRELIMINARY RESULT ARE NOT AVAILABLE FOR A LONG PERIOD OF
TIME.
• RESEARCH METHODS ARE INFLEXIBLE BECAUSE THE INSTRUMENT
CANNOT BE MODIFIED ONCE THE STUDY BEGINS.
• REDUCTION OF DATA TO NUMBERS RESULTS IN LOST INFORMATION
• THE CORRELATION PROCEDURE (E.G., BETWEEN COSTS AND

BENEFITS, GENDER, AND ACCESS TO SERVICES OR BENEFITS) MAY
MASK OR IGNORE UNDERLYING CAUSES OR REALITIES.
• UNTESTED VARIABLES MAY ACCOUNT FOR PROGRAM IMPACTS.
• ERRORS IN THE HYPOTHESES TESTED MAY YIELD MISIMPRESSIONS
OF PROGRAM QUALITY OR INFLUENTIAL FACTORS.
• ERRORS IN THE SELECTION OF PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING

STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE CAN RESULT IN ERRONEOUS FINDINGS
REGARDING IMPACT.
IMPORTANCE OF
IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• THE VALUE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IS ESSENTIALLY CAPTURED IN THE IDENTIFIED
STRENGTHS OF THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH. BASICALLY, QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS IS
COMMONLY APPLIED IN DIFFERENT FIELDS SUCH AS MARKET RESEARCH, ECONOMICS,
SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND OTHER BRANCHES OF SCIENCE. SINCE QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH IS ABOUT NUMERIC DATA AND STATISTICS, IT IS VERY BENEFICIAL IN VARIOUS
ASPECTS OF LIFE SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING
1. IT IS USEFUL IN GENERATING LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA IN IDENTIFYING THE PATTERN OF
BEHAVIOR OF VARIOUS SECTORS IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS. ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
WILL DETERMINE DISSIMILARITIES AND SIMILARITIES AMONG THE IDENTIFIED PATTERN WHICH
WILL PROVIDE NEW PATTERN. DISCOVERING PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR GIVES US AN IDEA FOR
FUTURE-RELATED INVENTIONS.
2. IF YOU ARE AFTER OBJECTIVITY, THEN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH MAY BE ADOPTED BECAUSE IT IS
LESS PRONE TO BIAS AS THE FINDINGS ARE EXPRESSES IN TERMS OF NUMBERS. QUANTITATIVE
ANALYSIS PERMITS THE RESEARCHER TO ORGANIZE DATA FOR A CLEAR DATA DISSEMINATION.
RESULTS ARE ANALYZED IN PERCENTAGES AND STATISTICS AND ARE PRESENTED IN GRAPHS AND
CHARTS
3. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IS ADOPTED BY SOME RESEARCHERS INSTEAD OF THE QUALITATIVE
APPROACH DUE TO THE FOLLOWING REASONS: (A) IT IS MORE RELIABLE AND OBJECTIVE; (B)
IT USES STATISTICS TO GENERALIZE FINDING; (C) IT REDUCES AND RESTRUCTURES A
COMPLEX PROBLEM TO LIMITED NUMBER OF VARIABLES; (D) IT LOOKS AT RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN VARIABLES AND CAN ESTABLISH CAUSE AND EFFECT IN HIGHLY CONTROLLED
CIRCUMSTANCES; (E) IT TEST THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES; (G) THE SUBJECTIVE OF THE
RESEARCHER IS RECOGNIZED LESS; AND (H) IT IS LESS DETAILED THAN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
(LIBWEB.SURREY.AC.UK/…/INTRODUCTION%20TO%20RESEARCH%20AND%20MAN).
DIFFERENT TYPES
OF VARIABLES
DIFFERENT TYPES OF VARIABLES
IN TERMS OF LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

TYPES OF VARIABLE: CATEGORICAL VARIABLE
CHARACTERISTICS: VARIABLE THAT IS MADE UP OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OR CATEGORIES OF A PHENOMENON
EXAMPLES: VARIABLE SEX IS MADE UP OF TWO CATEGORIES, MALE
AND FEMALE
IN TERMS OF LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

TYPES OF VARIABLE: QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
CHARACTERISTICS: A VARIABLE THAT VARIES IN DEGREE OR
AMOUNT OF PHENOMENON
EXAMPLES: VARIABLE ANNUAL INCOME VARIES FROM 0 TO A VERY
HIGH LEVEL OF INCOME.
ROLES OF THE VARIABLE

TYPES OF VARIABLE: INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
CHARACTERISTICS: A VARIABLE THAT IS PRESUMED TO CAUSE
CHANGES TO ANOTHER VARIABLE
EXAMPLES: AMOUNT OF STUDYING (IV) AFFECTS TEST GRADES
(DV)

TYPES OF VARIABLE: DEPENDENT VARIABLE
CHARACTERISTICS: A VARIABLE THAT CHANGES BECAUSE OF
ANOTHER VARIABLE; THE EFFECT OR OUTCOME VARIABLE
EXAMPLES: AMOUNT OF STUDYING (IV) AFFECTS TEST GRADES
(DV).

TYPES OF VARIABLE: MEDIATING VARIABLE
CHARACTERISTICS: VARIABLE THAT COMES IN BETWEEN OTHER VARIABLES; HELPS TO
DELINEATE THE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH VARIABLES AFFECT ONE ANOTHER.
EXAMPLES: AMOUNT OF STUDYING LEADS TO INPUT AND ORGANIZATION OF
KNOWLEDGE IN ONE’S LONG-TERM MEMORY (MEDIATING VARIABLES) WHICH AFFECTS
TEST GRADES (DV)

TYPES OF VARIABLE: MODERATOR VARIABLE
CHARACTERISTICS: A VARIABLE THAT DELINEATES HOW A RELATIONSHIP OF
INTEREST CHANGES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES
EXAMPLES: PERHAPS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDYING (IV) AND TEST
GRADE (DV) CHANGES ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF USE OF A DRUG SUCH
AS RITALIN (MODERATOR VARIABLE)
VARIABLES AND THEORIES
• THEORIES, “WHICH REFER TO MODELS, AND EXPLANATIONS THAT

ELABORATE ON WHY EVENTS HAVE OCCURRED, ARE DEVICES TO
DESCRIBE CASUAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACTIONS AND OR
EVENTS” (BLACK 1999, 7). ACCORDING TO BLACK (1999, 7). THESE
MAY INCLUDE “A NUMBER OF LAWS – RELATIONSHIPS AMONG
VARIABLES – THAT APPEAR TO INFLUENCE EVENTS.”
• ACCORDING TO BHATTACHEJEE (2012), A THEORY IS A SET OF SYSTEMATICALLY INTERRELATED
CONSTRUCTS AND PROPOSITION INTENDED TO EXPLAIN AND PREDICT A PHENOMENON OR
BEHAVIOR OF INTEREST WITHIN CERTAIN BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS. IT IS
BASICALLY A COMPILATION OF RELATED PROPOSITIONS WHEREIN THE PROPOSITIONS CONNECT
TWO OR THREE CONSTRUCTS.
• NEVERTHELESS, BATTACHERJEE (2012) UNDERSCORED THAT THEORY IS NOT “TRUTH” NOR
UNTOUCHABLE. A CERTAIN THEORY MAY AT SOME POINT DIMINISH BECAUSE IT WILL BE
SUPERSEDED BY NEW THEORIES WITH “HIGHER EXPLANATORY POWERS.” THE CHALLENGE
THEREFORE AMONG RESEARCHERS IS TO “BUILD BETTER AND MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORIES.” IN
COMBINATION WITH A THEORY IS A MODEL. WHICH IS AN ILLUSTRATION OF ALL PART OF A
SYSTEM THAT IS CONSTRUCTED TO STUDY THAT SYSTEM.” SO AS BHATTACHERJEE (2012) POINTED
OUT, A THEORY TRIES TO EXPLAIN A PHENOMENON WHILE A MODEL TRIES TO REPRESENT A
PHENOMENON.
FOUR BUILDING BLOCKS OF THEORY
• CONSTRUCTS – CAPTURE THE “WHAT” OF THEORIES (I.E., WHAT CONCEPTS ARE IMPORTANT
FOR EXPLAINING A PHENOMENON)
• PROPOSITIONS – CAPTURE THE “HOW” (I.E., HOW ARE THESE CONCEPTS RELATED TO EACH
OTHER)
• LOGIC – REPRESENTS THE “WHY” (I.E., WHY ARE THESE CONCEPTS RELATED)
• CONDITIONS/ ASSUMPTIONS – EXAMINE THE “WHO, WHEN, AND WHERE” (I.E., UNDER WHAT
CIRCUMSTANCES WILL THESE CONCEPTS ARE RELATIONSHIPS WORK)
REFERENCE
THE PADAYON SERIES, APPLIED RESEARCH:
AN INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS AND REPORT WRITING,
MA. LOURDES F. MELEGRITO,
PHD CAND., DIANA J. MENDOZA, PHD
ACTIVITY 1: TITLE DEFENSE
• DIVIDE THE CLASS INTO GROUP WITH THREE OR FOUR MEMBERS
• THINK OF A TOPIC RELATED TO YOUR COURSE THAT YOU WANT
TO CONDUCT A STUDY
• BASED ON YOUR CHOSEN TOPIC, THINK OF A TITLE RELATED TO
IT
• NEXT MEETING WILL BE YOUR TITLE DEFENSE

Nature of Inquiry and Research: Prepared By: Mr. Norberto L. Gesite, JR, LPT Research/ Ict Teacher

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Nature of Inquiry and Research: Prepared By: Mr. Norberto L. Gesite, JR, LPT Research/ Ict Teacher

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NATURE OF INQUIRY AND

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS DEFINE AS “INQUIRY PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING A SOCIAL OR

MEASUREMENT IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN QUANTITATIVE

RELIABILITY SPEAKS OF CONSISTENCY OF A MEASURE OF A

INTERNAL RELIABILITY – THIS MEANS “CONSISTENCY OF

INTER-OBSERVER CONSISTENCY – THIS MEANS “BEING

FACE VALIDITY – “THE MEASURE REFLECTS THE CONTENT OF THE

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY – “USES A FUTURE CRITERION MEASURE RATHER THAN

CONVERGENT VALIDITY – “THE VALIDITY OF A MEASURE OUGHT TO BE

MOST QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IS CONCERNED ABOUT EXPLANATION. THEY ARE

QUALITATIVE RESEARCHERS ARE USUALLY APPREHENSIVE ABOUT FINDING THAT

REPLICATION IS THE ABILITY TO REPEAT AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF AN

• THERE ARE FIVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ANSWER THE QUESTIONS WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, AND HOW.

DEFINING FEATURES: IT AIMS TO DEFINE THE EXISTING CONDITION OF A

A SURVEY RESEARCH IS INTENDED TO ACQUIRE INFORMATION FROM

DEFINING FEATURE: A SURVEYS IS INTENDED TO ACQUIRE INFORMATION

• A TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH THAT AUTHORIZES THE

DEFINING FEATURES: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IS USUALLY TERMED AS TRUE

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRUE EXPERIMENT:

ACCORDING TO BLACK(1999, 618), CORRELATION ARE “BASED ON PAIRS

DEFINING FEATURES: CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH TRIES TO DEFINE THE DEGREE OF

ACCORDING TO GAY (1996), THERE ARE TIMES THAT CASUAL-

• STUDY FINDINGS CAN BE GENERALIZED TO THE POPULATION

• STRUCTURAL FACTORS THAT DETERMINE HOW INEQUALITIES (SUCH

• CLEAR DOCUMENTATION CAN BE PROVIDED REGARDING THE CONTENT

• IT IS POSSIBLE TO CONTROL THE EFFECTS OF EXTRANEOUS

• MANY KINDS OF INFORMATION ARE DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN

• MANY GROUP SUCH AS SEX WORKERS, DRUG USER, ILLEGAL

• THERE IS OFTEN NO INFORMATION ON CONTEXTUAL FACTORS TO

• STUDIES ARE EXPENSIVE AND TIME-CONSUMING, AND EVEN

• THE CORRELATION PROCEDURE (E.G., BETWEEN COSTS AND

• ERRORS IN THE SELECTION OF PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING

IN TERMS OF LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

IN TERMS OF LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

ROLES OF THE VARIABLE

ROLES OF THE VARIABLE

ROLES OF THE VARIABLE

ROLES OF THE VARIABLE

• THEORIES, “WHICH REFER TO MODELS, AND EXPLANATIONS THAT

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