Pasteurization

Liquid milk can be delivered to the consumer after various heat treatments: none (raw
milk), pasteurized or sterilized, and either packaged or not (although sterilized milk is, of
course, always packaged). The properties of liquid milk that require the most attention are
safety to the consumer, shelf life, and flavor.
Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment that is used on a wide range of different types
of food products. The pasteurization process was developed by Louis Pasteur. It has been
described as the process of heating milk to such temperature and for such periods of time as
are required to destroy any pathogens which may be present, whilst causing minimum
changes in the composition, flavour and nutritive value (Ahmad, 2012). The two primary
aims of pasteurization are to remove pathogenic bacteria from foods, thereby preventing
disease, and to remove spoilage (souring) bacteria to improve its keeping quality.
Pasteurization ensures the safety and greatly enhances the shelf life of the product.
This heat treatment, kills all pathogens that may be present (especially Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Salmonella spp., enteropathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Listeria
monocytogenes) to such an extent that no health hazard is left. Such pasteurization inactivates
alkaline phosphatase to the extent as to be no longer detectable. Most of the spoilage
microorganisms in raw milk, such as coliforms, mesophilic lactic acid bacteria, and
psychrotrophs, are also killed by pasteurization.
FSSA definition
The term “Pasteurization”, “Pasteurised” and similar terms shall be taken to refer to
the process of heating every particle of milk of different classes to at least 630C (sixty three
degree centigrade) and holding at such temperature continuously for at least 30 minutes or
heating it to at least 71.50C (seventy one point five degree centigrade) and holding at such
temperature continuously for at least 15 seconds or an approved temperature time
combination that will serve to give a negative Phosphatase test.
All pasteurised milk of different classes shall be cooled immediately to a temperature
of 100C, or less. (less than 10 degree centigrade)
International Dairy Federation (IDF) definition
International Dairy Federation (IDF) definition of pasteurization is as follows:
“pasteurization is a process applied to a product with the objective of minimizing possible
health hazards arising from pathogenic microorganisms associated with the product (milk)
which is consistent with minimal chemical, physical, and organoleptic changes in the
product.” This definition is also applicable to products other than milk, including, creams, ice
cream mix, eggs, fruit juices, fermented products, soups, and other beverages.
Pasteurization does not inactivate all microorganisms; those that survive
pasteurization are termed thermodurics and those that survive a harsher treatment at 80-
1000C for 30 min are termed spore formers. Traditionally, pasteurization was carried out in a
batch process- the Holder process- at 630C for 30 min, but this was replaced by the
introduction and acceptance of continuous HTST processes.
Batch/ Holding Pasteurization
This process is also called the Low –Temperature-Long-Time (LTLT) method. This
process is not popular in the dairy industry any more after HTST system was introduced. The
milk and milk products is heated or cooled in batches in one, two, or three tanks. The process
involves heating the milk to a temperature between 62.8 and 65.60C, holding it at that
temperature for 30 min, and rapidly cooling it to below 100C. Batch processing involves
filling the vessel, heating, holding, cooling, emptying the vessel and filling into containers,
and cleaning the vessels (Lewis and Jun, 2012).
The heating and cooling of the product is done through a metal wall. The milk is
heated in open vats by using steam or hot water. Then the product is heated or cooled, gentle
agitation is done for rapid heat transfer. The pasteurizers may be of three types:
Water-jacketed vat: This is double walled around the sides and bottom in which hot water
or steam under partial vacuum circulates for heating, and cold water for cooling. The outer
wall (lining) is usually insulated to reduce heat loss. The heat-exchange takes place through
the wall of the inner lining. The difference between the temperature of the heating water and
the milk is kept to a minimum. The milk is agitated by slowly moving (revolving) propellers.
When heating, the vat cover is left open for escape of off flavours; and when holding, the
cover is closed. During the holding period, an air space/foam heater (steam or electrically
heated) prevents surface cooling of milk.
Water-spray type: A film of water is sprayed from a perforated pipe over the surface of the
tank holding the product. The product is agitated as above. A rapidly moving continuous film
of water provides rapid heat transfer.
Coil-vat type: The heating/cooling medium is pumped through a coil placed in either a
horizontal or vertical position, while the coil is turned through the product. The turning coil
agitates the product (but additional agitation may be necessary).
The batch pasteurizers are relatively cheap, simple and well suited for small plants and for
low volume products (De, 2001).
High temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization
This was first developed by A. P. V. Co. in the United Kingdom in 1922. The HTST
pasteurizer gives a continuous flow of milk. The HTST process involves heating milk to 72-
750C with a 15 second holding time before it is cooled.
One of the main advantages of continuous systems over batch systems is that energy
can be recovered in terms of regeneration. Regeneration efficiencies up to 95% can be
obtained, which means that a pasteurized product requiring heating to 720C would be heated
up to more than 680C by regeneration when initial temperature of milk is 4 deg C. Although
high regeneration efficiencies result in considerable saving in energy, they necessitate the use
of larger surface areas because of the lower temperature driving force and there is a slightly
higher capital cost for the heat exchanger.
The following parts and functions are involved as milk passes through the HTST
pasteurization systems:
1. Float-Controlled Balance Tank (FCBT): Maintains a constant head of milk for feeding
the raw milk pump; also receives any sub-temperature milk diverted by flow diversion valve
(FDV).
2. Pump: Either a rotary positive pump between the regenerator and heater, or a centrifugal
pump with a flow control device to ensure constant output, after FCBT is used.
3. Plates: The Plate Heat Exchanger is commonly used in the HTST system, especially for
heating to temperatures which are below the boiling point of milk. The plate heat exchanger
is a compact, simple, easily cleaned and inspected unit. Its plates may be used for heating,
cooling, regeneration and holding. A space of approximately 3 mm is maintained between the
plates by a non-absorbent rubber gasket or seal.
4. Regeneration (Heating): The raw cold incoming milk is partially and indirectly heated
by the hot outgoing milk (milk-to-milk regeneration). This adds to economy of the HTST
process, as the incoming milk requires less heating by hot water to raise its temperature for
holding.
5. Filter: Variously shaped filter units to connect directly to the HTST system are placed
after the pre-heater or regenerative (heating) section. These units, using 40-90 mesh cloth, are
usually cylindrical in shape. Usually two filters are attached but they are used at a time.
6. Holding: The holding tube or plates ensures that milk is held for a specified time, not less
than 15 sec, at the pasteurization temperature of 720C or more
7. Flow diversion valve (FDV): This routes the milk after heat treatment. If the milk has
been properly pasteurized, it flows forward through the unit; that which is unpasteurized, it
flows forward through the unit; that which is unpasteurized is automatically diverted back to
FCBT for reprocessing. It is usually operated by air pressure working against a strong spring.
8. Regeneration (cooling): The pasteurized hot outgoing milk is partially and indirectly
cooled by the incoming cold milk. This again adds to the economy of the HTST process.
9. Control panel: Contains instruments, controls, FDV mechanism and holding system, all
centralized in one moisture proof panel.
10. Hot water set: Circulates hot water through the heating section of the machine to
maintain the correct milk temperature within very fine limits.
11. Automatic control devices: These include steam pressure controller and water
temperature controller.
Steam pressure controller: Maintains a constant hot water temperature for heating milk
accurately to the required pasteurization temperature.
Water temperature controller: Regulates the amount of milk leaving the holding tube/
plate. This is an electric contact instrument that operates either a FDV or a milk pump,
automatically preventing milk from leaving the holding section at required temperature. Both
the frequency and duration of the flow diversion and the temperature of the milk leaving the
holder are recorded on the thermograph (recording chart) by means of two separate pens (De,
2001).
Advantages of HTST pasteurization
Ø Large volume of milk may be processed continuously.
Ø Automatic precision controls assure positive pasteurization.
Ø The equipment requires a relatively small amount of floor and plant space.
Ø The system adapts itself well to CIP cleaning.
Ø Filling operations may begin almost simultaneously.
Ø The HTST method is economical, as it uses regenerator.
Ø The entire system is simple, requiring little supervisory attention.
Ø The capacity may be increased by increasing the number of plates without sacrificing floor
space.
Ø It is well suited for regenerative heating and cooling.
Ø The closed unit keeps the processing losses to a minimum.
Disadvantages of HTST system
Ø The system is not well-adapted to handling small quantities of several liquid milk
products.
Ø Gaskets require constant observation for possible leakage and lack of sanitation.
Ø It requires precision instruments of control.
Ø Complete drainage is not possible without losses.
Ø Long run pasteurisers may give rise to serious bacteriological problems; plant should be
efficiently cleaned every six to eight hours to avoid these.
Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurizers
Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurizers are widely used in the beverage industry for continuous
heating and cooling of products in sealed containers. They are ideal for high-volume
throughput. Examples of such products are soft and carbonated drinks, juices, beers, and
sauces. Using this procedure, post-processing contamination should be very much reduced,
the major cause being defective seams on the container. There are three main stages in the
tunnel: heating, holding, and cooling. In each stage water at the appropriate temperature is
sprayed onto the container. Since heating rates are not as high as for plate or tubular heat
exchangers, these processes are more suited to longer time/ lower temperature processes. The
total transit time may be about 1 h, with holding temperatures between 60 and 700C for about
20 min (Brennan and Grandison, 2008).
Alkaline Phosphatase Test for Checking Efficiency of Pasteurization in Liquid Milk
Alkaline Phosphatase is an indigenous milk enzyme. The enzyme activity is destroyed
at pasteurization temperature and has been adopted as an index of the efficiency of
pasteurization. Since milk is a proven vector for a number of pathogenic bacteria, including
Salmonella, Compylobactor and Listeria, the test is of very great significance to the dairy
industry as a means of policing the thoroughness of heat treatments. In the following method,
a solution of disodium p-nitrophenyl phosphate in a buffer of pH 10.2 is used as substrate.
This compound, colourless in solution, is hydrolysed by alkaline phosphate of milk to liberate
p-nitrophenol, which under alkaline condition gives an intense yellow colouration to the
solution. The liberated p-nitrophenol is measured by direct comparison with standard colour
discs in a Lovibond comparator. The test does not apply to sour milk and milk preserved with
chemical preservatives (FSSA, 2012).
Procedure
Into a test tube pipette 5 ml of buffer substrate solution, stopper and bring the
temperature to 370C. Add 1 ml of test milk to it and shake and replace stopper, incubate at
370C for 2 hr. Incubate one blank prepared from boiled milk of the same type as that
undergoing the test with each series of sample. Remove the tubes after 2 h and the content
should be well mixed. Place the boiled milk blank on left hand side of the Comparator stand
and test sample on the right. Take the reading in reflected light by revolving the disc until the
test sample is matched. Record the readings falling between two standards by affixing a plus
or minus sign to the figure for the nearest standard.
Interpretation
The test is considered satisfactory if it gives a reading of 10 µg or less of p-
nitrophenyl per ml of milk. Properly pasteurized milk gives no discernible colour.
 Milk Pippette

Why 10.75ml milk is taken for fat estimation by Gerber method in India?
The Gerber Method is a primary and historic chemical test to determine the fat
content of substances, most commonly milk. The Gerber Method was developed and patented
by Dr. Niklaus Gerber of Switzerland in 1891. In this method milk fat is separated from
proteins by adding sulfuric acid (1.820-1.825 sp. gr. at 60°F). The separation is facilitated by
using amyl alcohol and centrifugation. The fat content is read directly via a special calibrated
butyrometer.
The theory behind using 10.75 ml milk in the pipette is as follows:
Gerber butyrometer is graduated on 0-10 scale and calibrated in such a way that each 1%
division represents 0.125 ml of fat.
The weight of the fat in the area is equal to Volume × Density = Mass; 0.125 x 0.9 = 0.1125
(because density of fat = 0.9 g/lit)
If 1 % represents 0.1125 then 100 % will be represented 11.25 g.
As per this, we should be pipetting 11.25 g of milk, but there are certain impurities due to iso-
amyl alcohol, which affects the fat reading. These impurities are estimated at 2.5-3%
(average (2.5+3)/2 = 2.667%).
So the fat is 1.125-(1.125×2.667/100) = 1.095 g.
According to this we should be pipetting 10.95 g of milk.
This is equivalent to 10.65 ml of milk (10.95/1.02547, the denominator being the density of
milk).
Since 0.1 ml residual milk remains in the glass pipette sticking to the walls, we take 10.75 ml
of milk.
 Economics - Model Dairy Farm
MODEL PROJECT FOR SETTING UP 10 & 20 COW DAIRY FARM (INDICATIVE)

The model project for 10 and 20 cows farm have been provided in this section.
The above models are only indicative and in no way designed to provide exact economics.
Following guidelines may be used by the interested persons to work out the details of their
project, depending upon the local market and conditions.
An interactive module considering the land availability for fodder cultivation, willingness to opt
for silage bunkers, type of chaff cutter (manual or machine operated), milking machine, mister
set, etc. is under preparation.
The proposed interactive module would require preference for set of inputs and intended herd
size and accordingly generate output outlining the estimated investment, cost and return.

The project outlines the following

 Asset requirements in terms of land, equipment, building and animals

 Estimated total investment
 Estimated Fixed cost
 Estimated Variable cost
 Estimated Income generated
 Profit before Depreciation, Interest and Tax
 Internal Rate of Return and
 Return on Investment
 10 Crossbred Cow Farm
 20 Crossbred Cow Farm

10 Crossbred Cow Farm

Assumptions
1. The cost of land for the project is not considered.
2. Inter-calving period of 390 days (300 lactating days and 90 dry days)
3. Provision for silage bunker & mister set
4. Change in market price of the animals assumed in following manner
1. Animals in 1st lactation: No change
2. Animals in 2nd lactation: +5%
3. Animals in 3rd lactation: -5%
4. Animals in 4th lactation: -10%
5. Animals in 5th lactation: -30%
6. Animals in 6th lactation: -50%
7. Animals in 7th lactation: -70%
5. Once the young animal, reared within the herd that is ready to calve, would replace the oldest
animal.
6. The animals apart from 1st, 2nd or 3rd lactations are assumed to be sold off to maintain
constant herd size.
7. Required land is available for cultivating green fodder for animals.
8. For lactating animals, total dry matter of feed and fodder is assumed to be in the range of 3.5-
4 kg per 100 kg body weight.
9. For dry animals, total dry matter of feed and fodder is assumed to be around 2.5 kg per 100
kg body weight.
10. The project is considered as on-going and therefore, terminal values of assets are not
considered.
 11. Male calves are assumed to be sold off.
12. Price assumptions are on average basis and would vary region to region
13. Provision for any taxation has not been made
14. Of total 10 cows purchased
 5 cows are of 1st lactation having yield of 15 litres/ day, costing ₹ 60,000/ animal
 3 cows are of 2nd lactation having yield of 18 litres/ day, costing ₹ 63,000/ animal
 2 cows are of 3rd lactation having yield of 17 litres/ day, costing ₹ 60,000/ animal
15. Of 10 animals, 5 are assumed to be purchased at the beginning of the project and rest after 6
months
16. Provision for manual chaff cutter
17. No milking machine
PROJECT DETAILS (INDICATIVE) for 10 COW FARM
square
Pre-requisite for the project
feet
Land requirement for cattle shed, storage and silage bunker 2325

Project cost
Amount
Item
(₹)
Cattle shed for adult animals 420,000
Cattle shed for calves 140,000
Cattle shed for heifers 245,000
Silage bunker 37,500
Construction for storage area 233,340
Animals 623,000
Equipments 16,000
Contigency 34,300
Total Project cost 1,749,140

Fixed cost
Item Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7
Depreciation of cattleshed 103,834 103,834 103,834 103,834 103,834 103,834 103,834
Depreciation of equipment 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600
Relative change in value of
-9,000 -63,000 -15,000 18,000 72,000 0 0
herd
Interest on capital investment 209,897 209,897 209,897 209,897 209,897 209,897 209,897
Total fixed cost 306,331 252,331 300,331 333,331 387,331 315,331 315,331

Variable cost
Item Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7
Green fodder cultivation 48,000 48,000 48,000 48,000 48,000 48,000 48,000
Green fodder cost 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dry fodder cost 143,904 210,240 245,280 280,320 280,320 280,320 280,320
Concentrate cost 171,976 240,576 261,016 281,456 281,456 281,456 281,456
Mineral mixture cost 15,282 21,564 23,754 25,944 25,944 25,944 25,944
Labour charges 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000
Insurance charges 24,120 24,120 24,120 24,120 24,120 24,120 24,120
Veterinary & breeding
15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
expenses
Electricity & water charges 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
Transportation cost for milk
1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
sale
Minor repair of building/
5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
equipments
Interest on working capital 6,866 7,331 7,520 7,710 7,710 7,710 7,710
Total variable cost 506,148 647,831 705,690 763,550 763,550 763,550 763,550

Income
Item Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7
Milk 854,120 1,200,420 1,109,160 1,031,940 1,067,040 1,165,320 1,165,320
Gunny bags 2,460 3,440 3,730 4,020 4,020 4,020 4,020
Sale of animals 2,000 2,000 2,000 62,000 134,000 122,000 224,000
Sale of dung/ manure 12,600 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800
Total receipt 871,180 1,222,660 1,131,690 1,114,760 1,221,860 1,308,140 1,410,140

PBDIT (Operating Profit) (₹) 365,032 574,829 426,000 351,210 458,310 544,590 646,590
Net Profit (₹) 58,701 322,498 125,669 17,879 70,979 229,259 331,259

IRR 18.4%
ROI 21.9%

Village level investment

 01. National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBBDD)
 02. National Dairy Plan I (NDP I)
 03. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
 04. Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), NABARD
 05. Financing and Supporting Producer Organisations, NABARD
 06. Support to Training & Employment Programme for Women (STEP), Ministry
of Women & Child Development
 07. Organisations in the field of Women and Child Development General Grant-in-
aid (GIA) Scheme for Assistance to Voluntary
 08. Cold Chain (Non-Horticulture) under National Mission on Food Processing,
Ministry of Food Processing Industries
 09. National Mission for Protein Supplements (NMPS) under RKVY 2014-15, RKVY
 10. Biogas Power (Off-grid) Programme, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy