Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 22,1 (2000) pp.

29–55

Mechatronic systems: concepts and

applications
R. Isermann
Institut für Automatisierungstechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt,
Germany

The synergetic integration of mechanical processes, microelectronics and information pro-

cessing opens new possibilities to the design of processes as well as for its automatic control.
The solution of tasks within mechatronic systems is performed on the process side and the
digital–electronic side. As the interrelations during the design play an important role, simul-
taneous engineering has to take place from the very beginning. Mechatronic systems are
developed for mechanical elements, machines, vehicles and precision mechanic devices. The
integration of mechatronic systems can be performed by the components (hardware
integration) and by information processing (software integration). The information processing
consists of low-level and high-level feedback control, supervision and diagnosis and general
process management. Special signal processing, model-based and adaptive methods are
applied. With the aid of a knowledge base and inference mechanisms, mechatronic systems
with increasing intelligence will be developed. The main goals are to increase systems perform-
ance, reliability and economy, and decrease production costs.

Key words: adaptive control; electronics; fault diagnosis; fuzzy control; hardware-in-the-loop
simulation; information processing; integration; mechanics; modelling.

1. Introduction

Mechanical systems are increasingly integrated with actuators, sensors and digital
electronics. Figure 1 shows a general scheme of a modern mechanical process like

Address for correspondence: R. Isermann, Institut für Automatisierungstechnik, Technische Univer-

sität Darmstadt, Landgraf-Georg-Str. 4, D-64283 Darmstadt, Germany.
E-mail: risermann얀iat.tu-darmstadt.de

 2000 The Institute of Measurement and Control 0142-3312(00)TM005OA

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30 Mechatronic systems

a power-producing or a power-generating machine. A primary energy flows into

the machine and is then either directly used for the energy consumer in the case
of an energy transformer or converted into another energy form in the case of an
energy converter. The form of energy can, for example, be electrical, mechanical
(potential or kinetic, hydraulic, pneumatic) chemical or thermal. The primary
energy flow originates from an energy source or energy supply and can be manipu-
lated by an actuator. The energy consumer is in many cases an energy sink or/and
an energy storage. Machines are mostly characterized by a continuous or periodic
(repetitive) energy flow. For other mechanical processes like mechanical elements
or precision mechanical devices, piecewise or intermittent energy flows are typical.
The energy flow is generally a product of a generalized flow and a potential
(effort). Information on the state of the mechanical process can be obtained from
measured generalized flows, like speed, volume or mass flow, electrical current
or potentials like force, pressure, temperature and voltage. These measured signals
are then the basis for information processing in a digital computer operating under
real-time conditions. Together with reference variables, the measured variables
are therefore the inputs for an information flow through the digital electronics
resulting in manipulated variables for the actuators or in monitored variables on
a display. Hence, the mechanical–electronic system can be considered as consisting
of a feedforward energy flow and a feedback information flow.
Presently a development is taking place to integrate the mechanical systems,
the actuators, sensors and microelectronics, forming an inseparable overall system.

Figure 1 Energy and information flow within a mechatronic

system

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 R. Isermann 31

These integrated mechanical–electronic systems are increasingly called mech-

atronic systems.
Thus, MECHAnics and elecTRONICS are conjoined. The word ‘mechatronics’
was probably first created by a Japanese engineer in 1969 (Kyura and Oho, 1996).
A unified definition cannot be found (compare, e.g., Schweitzer, 1989; Ovaska,
1992). In the IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics a preliminarily definition is
given: ‘Mechatronics is the synergetic integration of mechanical engineering with
electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing of
industrial products and processes’ (Harashima et al., 1996).
All definitions agree that mechatronics is an interdisciplinary field, in which
the following disciplines act together (Figure 2):
1) mechanical systems (mechanical elements, machines, precision mechanics);
2) electronic systems (microelectronics, power electronics, sensor and actuator
technology);
3) information technology (systems theory, automation, software engineering, arti-
ficial intelligence).
Descriptions of the developments until now can be seen in Schweitzer, 1992;
Gansemeiser et al., 1985; Harashima et al., 1996; Isermann, 1996. An insight into
general aspects are given editorially in the journals Mechatronics (1991); Mechatron-
ics System Engineering (1993); IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics (1996), the
conference proceedings of, e.g., IEE, Mechatronics (1990); and in the following jour-
nal articles Isermann (1993), M. Hiller (1995), Kaynak et al. (1995), Lückel (1995),
and in the books of Kitaura (1987), Bradley et al. (1991), McConaill et al. (1991)
and Isermann (1999a).
The solution of tasks for designing mechatronic systems is performed as well
on the mechanical and on the digital–electronic side. Herewith interrelations dur-
ing the design play an important role, because the mechanical system influences
the electronic system and vice versa, the electronic system also influences the
design of the mechanical system. This means that simultaneous engineering has to
take place with the goal of also creating synergetic effects.

Figure 2 Mechatronics: synergetic integration of different

disciplines

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32 Mechatronic systems

Mechatronic systems show up in the development of mechanical elements,

machines and vehicles and precision mechanic devices. Figure 3 gives some
examples. Hence, the integration with electronics comprise many classes of techni-
cal systems. In several cases the mechanical part of the process is coupled with
an electrical, thermodynamical, chemical or information processing part. The rea-
son is that, e.g., machines are energy converters where in addition to the mechan-
ical energy other kinds of energy appear. Therefore, mechatronic systems in a
wider sense comprise mechanical and also nonmechanical coupled processes.
However, the mechanical part should be dominating.
Because an auxiliary energy is required to change the fixed properties of for-
merly passive mechanical systems by feedforward or feedback control these mech-
anical systems are also called active mechanical systems.

2. Functions of mechatronic systems

Mechatronic systems permit many improved and new functions. This will be dis-
cussed by considering some examples.

2.1 Division of functions between mechanics and electronics

For designing mechatronic systems the interplay for the realization of functions
in the mechanical and electronic part is crucial. Compared to pure mechanical

Figure 3 Mechanical systems with integrated electronics:

examples for mechanical elements, machines and precision mech-
anics

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 R. Isermann 33

realizations, the use of amplifiers and actuators with electrical auxiliary energy has
already led to considerable simplifications, as can be seen from watches, electrical
typewriters and cameras. A further considerable simplification in the mechanics
resulted from introducing microcomputers in connection with decentralized elec-
trical drives, e.g., for electronic typewriters, sewing machines, multi-axis handling
systems and automatic gears.
The design of lightweight constructions leads to elastic systems which are
weakly damped through the material itself. An electronic damping through pos-
ition, speed or vibration sensors and electronic feedback can be realized with the
additional advantage of an adjustable damping through the algorithms. Examples
are elastic drive chains of vehicles with damping algorithms in the engine elec-
tronics, elastic robots, hydraulic systems, far-reaching cranes and space construc-
tions (e.g., with flywheels).
The addition of closed loop control, e.g., for position, speed or force, does not
only result in a precise tracking of reference variables, but also an approximate
linear overall behaviour, though the mechanical systems show nonlinear behav-
iour. By omitting the constraint of linearization on the mechanical side, the effort
in construction and manufacturing may be reduced. Examples are simple mechan-
ical pneumatic and electro-mechanical actuators and flow valves with electronic
control.
With the aid of freely programmable reference variable generation, the adap-
tation of nonlinear mechanical systems to the operator can be improved. This is
already used for the driving pedal characteristics within the engine electronics for
automobiles, telemanipulation of vehicles and aircraft and in development for
hydraulic actuated excavators and electric power steering.
However, with the increasing number of sensors, actuators, switches and control
units, the number of cables and electrical connections also increase such that
reliability, cost, weight and the required space are major concerns. Therefore the
development of suitable bus systems, plug systems, and redundant and recon-
figurable electronic systems are challenges for the design.

2.2 Operating properties

By applying active feedback control the precision of, e.g., a position is reached by
comparison of a programmed reference variable, and a measured control variable,
and not only through the high mechanical precision of a passively feedforward-
controlled mechanical element. Therefore the mechanical precision in design and
manufacturing may be reduced somewhat and more simple constructions for
bearings or slideways can be used. An important aspect is the compensation of
a larger and time-variant friction by adaptive friction compensation (Isermann et
al., 1992; Isermann, 1999a). Then also a larger friction on the cost of backlash may
be intended (e.g., gears with pretension), because it is usually easier to compensate
for friction than for backlash.
Model-based and adaptive control further allow an operation in more operating
points (wide range operation), compared to fixed control with unsatisfactory per-
formance (danger of instability or sluggish behaviour). A combination of robust

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34 Mechatronic systems

and adaptive control allows a wide range operation to become possible, e.g., for
flow-, force-, speed-control and for processes like engines, vehicles and aircraft.
A better control performance allows the reference variables to be moved closer
to constraints with improved efficiencies and yields (e.g., higher temperatures,
pressures for combustion engines and turbines, compressors at stalling limits,
higher tensions and higher speed for paper machines and steel mills).

2.3 New functions

Mechatronic systems allow also functions which could not be performed without
digital electronics. First, nonmeasurable quantities can be calculated on the basis
of measured signals and can be influenced by feedforward or feedback control.
Examples of this are time-dependent variables like the slip for tyres, internal tensi-
tions, temperatures, the slip angle and ground speed for steering control of
vehicles or parameters like damping and stiffness coefficients, resistances. The
adaptation of parameters like damping and stiffness for oscillating systems based
on measurements of displacements or accelerations is another example. Integrated
supervision and fault diagnosis becomes more and more important with increas-
ing automatic functions, increasing complexity and higher demands on reliability
and safety. Then the triggering of redundant components, a system reconfigur-
ation, maintenance on request and any kind of teleservice make the system more
‘intelligent’. Table 1 summarizes some properties of mechatronic systems com-
pared to conventional electro-mechanical systems.
Table 1 Properties of conventional and mechatronic designed systems

Conventional design Mechatronic design

Added components Integration of components (hardware)

1 Bulky Compact
2 Complex mechanisms Simple mechanisms
3 Cable problems Bus or wireless communication
4 Connnected components Autonomous units

Simple control Integration by information processing

(software)
5 Stiff construction Elastic construction with damping by
electronic feedback
6 Feedforward control, linear (analogue) Programmable feedback (nonlinear) digital
control control
7 Precision through narrow tolerances Precision through measurement and
feedback-control
8 Nonmeasurable quantities change Control of nonmeasurable estimated
arbitrarily quantities
9 Simple monitoring Supervision with fault diagnosis
10 Fixed abilities Learning abilities

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 R. Isermann 35

3. Methods of integration

Figure 4 shows a general scheme of a classical mechanical–electronic system. Such

systems resulted from adding available sensors and actuators and analogue or
digital controllers to the mechanical components. The limits of this approach were
the lack of suitable sensors and actuators, the unsatisfactory lifetime under rough
operating conditions (acceleration, temperature, contamination), large space
requirements, the required cables and relatively slow data processing. With
increasing improvements in the miniaturization, robustness and computing power
of microelectronic components, one can now try to put more weight on the elec-
tronic side and to design the mechanical part from the beginning with a view to
a mechatronic overall system. Then more autonomous systems can be envisaged,
e.g., in the form of capsuled units with touchless signal transfer or bus connections
and robust microelectronics.
The integration within a mechatronic system can be performed mainly in two
ways – through the integration of components and through the integration by
information processing.
The integration of components (hardware integration) results from designing
the mechatronic system as an overall system and imbedding the sensors, actuators
and microcomputers into the mechanical process (Figure 5). This spatial inte-
gration may be limited to the process and sensor, or the process and actuator.
The microcomputers can be integrated with the actuator, the process or sensor,
or be arranged at several places.
Integrated sensors and microcomputers lead to smart sensors and integrated
actuators, and microcomputers develop to smart actuators. For larger systems bus
connections will replace the many cables. Hence, there are several possibilities for
building an integrated overall system by proper integration of the hardware.
The integration by information processing (software integration) is mostly
based on advanced control functions. Besides a basic feedforward and feedback
control, an additional influence may take place through process knowledge and
corresponding on-line information processing (Figure 5). This means a processing
of the available signals at higher levels (discussed in the next section). This
includes the solution of tasks like supervision with fault diagnosis, optimization
and general process management. The respective problem solutions result in real-
time algorithms which must be adapted to the mechanical process properties, for
example expressed by mathematical models in the form of static characteristics,
differential equations, etc. Therefore, a knowledge base is required, comprising
methods for design and information gain, process models and performance cri-
teria. In this way the mechanical parts are governed in various ways through

Figure 4 General scheme of a (classical) mechanical–electronic

system

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36 Mechatronic systems

Figure 5 Ways of integration with mechatronic systems

higher level information processing with intelligent properties, possibly including

learning, thus forming an integration by process-adapted software.
In the following section, the integration through information processing will be
considered further.

4. Information processing methods

The governing of mechanical systems is usually performed through actuators for

changing of positions, speeds, flows, forces or torques, and voltages. The directly
measurable output quantities are frequently positions, speeds, accelerations or
forces and currents.

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 R. Isermann 37

4.1 Multi-level control systems

The information processing of direct measurable input and output signals can be
organized into several levels (Figure 6):
level 1: low level control (feedforward, feedback for damping, stabilization,
linearization);
level 2: high level control (advanced feedback control strategies);
level 3: supervision, incl. fault diagnosis;
level 4: optimization, co-ordination (of processes);
level 5: general process management.

Figure 6 Advanced intelligent automatic system with multi-

control levels, knowledge base, inference mechanisms and inter-
faces

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38 Mechatronic systems

Recent approaches for mechatronic systems mostly use signal processing in the
lower levels, for example damping or control of motions or simple supervision.
Digital information processing, however, allows the solutions of many more tasks,
such as adaptive control, learning control, supervision with fault diagnosis,
decisions for maintenance or even redundancy actions, economic optimization and
coordination. The tasks in the higher levels are sometimes summarized as ‘pro-
cess management’.

4.2 Special signal processing

The methods described above are partially also applicable for nonmeasurable
quantities which are reconstructed by using mathematical process models. In this
way it is possible to control, e.g., damping ratios, material and heat stress and
slip, or to supervise quantities like resistances, capacitances, temperatures within
components, or parameters of wear and contamination. This signal processing
may require special filters to determine amplitudes or frequencies of vibrations,
to determine derivated or integrated quantities, or state variable observers.

4.3 Model-based and adaptive systems

The information processing is, at least in the lower levels, performed by simple
algorithms or software-modules under real-time conditions. These algorithms con-
tain free adjustable parameters, which have to be adapted to the static and
dynamic behaviour of the process. In contrast to manual tuning by trial and error
the use of mathematical models allows precise and fast automatic adaptation.
The mathematical models can be obtained by identification and parameter esti-
mation, which use the measured and sampled input and output signals. These
methods are not restricted to linear models, but also allow the identification of
several classes of nonlinear systems. If the parameter estimation methods are com-
bined with appropriate control algorithm design methods, adaptive control sys-
tems result, which can be used for precise controller tuning permanently or only
for commissioning (Isermann et al., 1992).

4.4 Intelligent systems

The information processing within mechatronic systems may range between sim-
ple control functions and intelligent control. Various definitions of intelligent con-
trol systems do exist (see, e.g., Saridis, 1977; Saridis and Valavanis, 1988; Åström,
1991; White and Sofge, 1992; Antaklis, 1994; Harris, 1994; Gupta and Sinha, 1996).
An intelligent control system may be organized as an on-line expert system
according to Figure 6 and comprises:
1) multi control functions (executive functions);
2) knowledge base;

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 R. Isermann 39

3) inference mechanisms;
4) communication interfaces.
The on-line control functions are usually organized in multi-levels, as already
described. The knowledge base contains quantitative and qualitative knowledge.
The quantitative part operates with analytical (mathematical) process models,
parameter and state estimation methods, analytical design methods (e.g., for con-
trol and fault detection), and quantitative optimization methods. Similar modules
hold for the qualitative knowledge, e.g., in form of rules (fuzzy and soft
computing). Further knowledge is the past history in the memory and the possi-
bility of predicting the behaviour. Finally, tasks or schedules may be included.
The inference mechanism draws conclusions either by quantitative reasoning
(e.g., Boolean methods) or by qualitative reasoning (e.g., possibilistic methods)
and takes decisions for the executive functions.
Finally, communication between the different modules, an information manage-
ment database and the man–machine interaction has to be organized.
Based on these functions of an on-line expert system an intelligent system can be
built up, with the ability ‘to model, reason and learn the process and its automatic
functions within a given frame and to govern it towards a certain goal’. Hence,
intelligent mechatronic systems can be developed, ranging from ‘low-degree intel-
ligent’ (Isermann, 1999a), such as intelligent actuators, to ‘fairly intelligent sys-
tems’, such as self-navigating automatic guided vehicles.
An intelligent mechatronic system can adapt the controller to the mostly nonlin-
ear behaviour (adaptation) and store its controller parameters dependent on the
position and load (learning), supervise all relevant elements and perform a fault
diagnosis (supervision) to request for maintenance or if a failure occurs (decisions
on actions). In the case of multiple components, supervision may help to switch
off the faulty component and perform a reconfiguration of the controlled process.

5. Modelling of mechatronic systems

Mathematical process models for the static and dynamic behaviour are required
for various steps in the design of mechatronic systems, such as, e.g., simulation,
control design, reconstruction of variables (section 8). There are mainly two ways
to obtain these models, the theoretical modelling based on first (physical) prin-
ciples and the experimental modelling (identification) with measured input and
output variables. A basic problem in theoretical modelling of mechatronic systems
is that the components originate from different domains. There exists a well
developed domain-specific knowledge for the modelling of, e.g., electrical circuits,
multibody mechanical systems or hydraulic systems and also corresponding
software packages. However, a computer-assisted general methodology for the
modelling and simulation of components from different domains is still missing
(Otter and Elmqvist, 1997).
The basic principles of theoretical modelling for systems with energy flow are
known and can be unified for components from different domains as electrical,
mechanical and thermal (see Paynter, 1961; MacFarlane, 1964; Wellstead, 1979;

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40 Mechatronic systems

Karnopp et al., 1990; Cellier, 1991 and Gawthrop and Smith, 1996). The modelling
methodology becomes more involved if material flows are also incorporated as
for fluids, thermodynamics and chemical processes.
A general procedure for theoretical modelling of lumped parameter processes
can be sketched as follows (Isermann, 1999a):
1) definition of flows
a) energy flow (electrical, mechanical, thermal conductance processes);
b) energy and material flow (fluidic, thermal transfer, thermodynamics,
chemical processes);
2) definition of process elements: flow diagrams
a) sources, sinks (dissipative processes);
b) storages, transformers, converters;
3) graphical representation of the process model
a) multi-port diagrams (terminals, flows and potentials or across and
through variables);
b) block diagrams for signal flow;
c) bond graphs for energy flow;
4) statement of equations for all process elements
a) Balance equations for storages (mass, energy, momentum);
b) Constitutive equations for process elements (sources, transformers,
converters);
c) Phenomenological laws for irreversible processes (dissipative systems:
sinks);
5) interconnection equations for the process elements
a) continuity equations for parallel connections (node law: ⌺ through-vari-
ables = 0);
b) compatibility equations for serial connections (closed circuit law: ⌺ across
variables = 0);
6) overall process model calculation
a) establishment of input and output variables;
b) state space representation;
c) input/output models (e.g. differential equations, transfer functions).
An example for steps 1–3 is shown in Figure 7 for a drive-by-wire vehicle.
Transformers, converters, storages and sinks usually have no definite causality.
However, sources show a definite causality either as potential or flow sources.
Together with actuators they usually impress a potential or flow variable on the
following process elements and force a definite causality of the overall system.
A unified approach for processes with energy flow is known for electrical, mech-
anical and hydraulic processes with incompressible fluids. Generalized through
and across variables can be defined, as shown in Table 2.
In these cases the product of the through and across variables is power. This
unification enabled the formulation of the standard bond graph model (Karnopp et
al., 1990). Also for hydraulic processes with compressible fluids and thermal pro-
cesses these variables can be defined to result in powers (Table 2). However, this
is not engineering practice where mass flows and heat flows are used. If these
variables are used, so-called pseudo bond graphs with special laws result, leaving

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 R. Isermann 41

Figure 7 Different schemes for an automobile (as required for

drive-by-wire-longitudinal control). (a) Scheme of the compo-
nents (construction map); (b) energy flow diagram; (c) multi-port
diagram with flows and potentials; (d) signal flow diagram for
multi-port

Table 2 Generalized across and through variables for processes with energy flow

System Through variables Across variables

Electrical Electric current I Electric voltage U

Magnetic Magnetic flow ␾ Magnetic flow ␪
Mechanical
Translation Force F Velocity w
Rotation Torque M Rotational speed ␻
·
Hydraulic Volume flow V Pressure p
Thermodynamical Entropy flow ·s Temperature T

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42 Mechatronic systems

the simplicity of standard bond graphs. Bond graphs lead to a high level abstrac-
tion, have less flexibility and need additional effort to generate simulation algor-
ithms. Therefore, they are not the ideal tool for mechatronic systems in general
(Otter and Elmqvist, 1997). Also the tedious work to establish block diagrams
with an early definition of causal input/output blocks is not very suitable.
As shown above, all process elements except the sources have no definite caus-
ality, i.e., it is not defined what the input variables are and what the output vari-
able are before connecting a special source, which can be either an effort source
or a flow source. Therefore, in order to stay enough flexible during physical mod-
elling, the models of the elements should stay noncausal as long as possible
(except the sources). An appropriate approach for modelling is to have a software
language available with following properties:
1) basis process elements are described by their physical laws (differential and
algebraic equations without definite causality);
2) connection of process elements via terminals or ports, like the real system (i.e.,
the models possess ‘cuts’ as interfaces);
3) inclusion of other models, e.g., obtained from experiments for elements which
cannot be modelled physically (i.e., models from identification, especially non-
linear models, also in form of look-up-tables and then with specialized
causality);
4) easy user handling by adding or neglecting elements (because modelling is fre-
quently an iterative procedure) and by a graphical interface.
These properties can be met by object-oriented modelling environments, like
described in Birtwistle et al. (1973), Elmqvist (1978), Elmqvist and Mattson (1989),
and realized in modelling languages SIMULA and DYMOLA. These modelling
languages use object-oriented programming, as applied for other complex
software (Wegner, 1990), characterized by objects, classes and inheritance. With
regard to object-oriented modelling, the following definitions are used (Fritzson
and Engelson, 1998):
1) objects are a collection of equations, functions with variables and parameters.
They may share states which are instance variables;
2) classes are templates from which objects or subclasses can be created;
3) inheritance allows us to reuse equations, functions of a class, when defining
new objects and classes.
Based on such a framework, unified object-oriented languages for physical sys-
tems modelling in different domains are developed presently, like MODELICA,
OMOLA and VHDL-AMS.
The following features are then implemented: encapsulation of knowledge in
an object with well-developed interfaces, topological interconnection ability by
plugging process model elements together, hierarchical modelling by declaring
interconnected models as new objects, object instantiation by describing generic
object classes to instantiate new objects, class inheritance to reuse already encapsu-
lated knowledge, a generalized networking capability by interconnecting models
through nodes, using across and through variables, and a graphical interface.

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 R. Isermann 43

Recent publications on these developments are Åström et al. (1998), Cellier et al.
(1996) and Isermann (1997a).
Hence, the development of theoretical modelling of mechatronic systems with a
unified transparent and flexible procedure from the basic components of different
domains to simulation are a challenge for further development. Many components
show nonlinear behaviour and nondifferentiable nonlinearities like different types
of friction and backlash. For more complex process parts multidimensional map-
pings (e.g., combustion engines, tyre behaviour) must also be integrated.

5.1 Identification of mechatronic systems

For the verification of theoretical models, several well known identification
methods can be used, like correlation analysis and frequency response measure-
ment, Fourier and spectral analysis. As some parameters are frequently unknown
or change with time, parameter estimation methods can be applied for models
with continuous time or discrete time, especially if the models are linear in their
parameters (Eykhoff, 1974; Isermann, 1992). For the identification and approxi-
mation of nonlinear, multidimensional characteristics, artificial neural networks
(multi-layer perceptrons or radial-basis functions) are flexible methods, which can
be expanded for nonlinear dynamic processes (Isermann et al., 1997, 1999b).

6. Advanced control methods for mechanical systems

Because of the integration of various functions, the use of modern tools plays an
important rule for the design of the control system if higher performances are
required. It is proposed to consider the basic control as a knowledge-based multi-
level feedback control system which is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Knowledge-based multilevel feedback control for

mechatronic systems

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44 Mechatronic systems

The knowledge-based multilevel feedback control system is a part of the intelli-

gent system of Figure 6. The knowledge base consists of mathematical process
models, parameter estimation and controller design methods, and control per-
formance criteria. The feedback control is organized in lower level and higher
level controllers, a reference value generation module and controller parameter
adaptation. With this structure the main control functions of mechatronic systems
can be organized. In this section some control principles will be considered briefly.

6.1 Lower level feedback control

The goal of the lower level feedback is to provide a certain dynamic behaviour
(e.g., enforcement of damping), to compensate for nonlinearities like friction, and
to reduce parameter sensitivity. Some examples are:
1) damping of high frequent oscillations – weakly damped higher frequent oscil-
lations appear, e.g., in multimass drive chains. The damping can generally be
improved by high pass filtering the outputs and using a state variable feedback
or PD (proportional-derivative) feedback. Figure 9 shows a scheme of an
adaptive damping feedback with parameter estimation.
2) compensation of nonlinear static characteristics – nonlinear static characteristics are
present in many subsystems of mechanical processes. Figure 10 shows as an
example the position control for a nonlinear actuator. Frequently a first nonlin-
earity appears in the force or torque-generating part, like an electromagnet or
a pneumatic or hydraulic actuator, where, e.g., the force FD = f(U) follows a
nonlinear static characteristic. This nonlinearity can now be compensated for
by an inverse characteristic U = f−1(U⬘) such that the I/O-
behaviour FD = f(U⬘) becomes approximately linear (Isermann and Raab, 1993),
and a linear (PID-type) controller GC1 can be applied.
3) friction compensation – for many mechanical systems the friction can be
described approximately by
F (t) = f sign Y·(t) + f Y·(t) 兩Y·(t)兩 ⬎ 0
F± FC± F␷±

Figure 9 Adaptive damping feedback of drive chain oscillations

(usually a selection of ␻M, ␻G and ␻D is fed back)

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 R. Isermann 45

Figure 10 Adaptive position control of a nonlinear actuator

where fFC is the Coulomb friction and fF␷ the linear viscous friction coefficient
which may be dependent on the motion direction, indicated by + or −.

The Coulomb friction has an especially strongly negative effect on the control
performance, if a high positioning accuracy is required, because it leads to a hys-
teresis effect. When the process stops within the hysteresis width before the set
point is reached, only the integral part of the position controller can compensate
for the offset. This may yield a significant loss of control performance and accu-
racy, especially during small position changes.
The basic idea of friction compensation is to compensate the relay function of
the Coulomb friction by adding an adequate compensation signal UFC to the
normal control action. Different methods such as dithering, feedforward compen-
sation and adaptive friction compensation are alternatives (Isermann, 1999a; Iser-
mann and Raab, 1993; Tomizuka, 1995).
After compensating for the nonlinear friction, the position controller GC2 can be
designed to control the underlying linearized force control and the remaining
mechanical process without friction (Figure 10). In simple cases, a linear controller
of PID-type or a state controller is sufficient.
An alternative for position control of nonliner actuators is the use of a sliding
mode controller. It consists of a nominal part for feedback linearization and an
additional feedback to compensate for model uncertainties (Utkin, 1977; Slotine
and Weiping, 1991). The resulting chattering near the included switching function
generates a dither signal. A comparison of a fixed PID-controller with friction
compensation and a sliding mode controller for an electromagnetic actuator is,
e.g., shown by Pfeufer et al. (1995). The sliding mode controller resulted in a good
robustness in response to changing process parameters on the cost of higher
design and computational effort.

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46 Mechatronic systems

6.2 Higher level feedback control

The task of the higher level controller is to generate a good overall dynamic behav-
iour with regard to the servo dynamics function due to changes of the position
reference W(t), and to compensate for disturbances stemming from, e.g., variations
of the load forces FL(t) (see Figure 10). This high level controller may be realized
as a parameter-optimized controller of PID-type or a state controller with or with-
out state observer. A state observer is required if only the position Y(t) is measur-
·
able. If both, Y(t), and Y(t) can be measured Ÿ(t) can be obtained by differen-
·
tiation of Y(t) (if required at all ) such that no state observer is needed (see
Isermann et al., 1995).
The control scheme may be expanded by additional feedback controllers from
a load or working process which is coupled with the mechanical process shown
in Figure 7, resulting in a multiple cascaded control system.

6.3 Adaptive control

A prerequisite for the application of advanced control algorithms is the use of

well adapted process models. This then leads to self-tuning or adaptive control
systems:
1) Parameter scheduling – parameter scheduling based on the measurement of vary-
ing operation conditions is an effective method for dealing with known and
approximately time-invariant process nonlinearities. Supposing auxiliary vari-
ables V are measurable, and correlate well with the process changes, the adap-
tation of the controller parameters ⌫ is performed as a function of V
(parameter schedules).
2) Parameter-adaptive control systems – parameter-adaptive control systems are
characterized by using identification methods for parametric process models.
This is indicated in the adaptation level of Figure 8. Parameter estimation has
proven to be an appropriate basis for the adaptive control of mechanical pro-
cesses, including the adaptation to nonlinear characteristics, Coulomb friction,
and unknown parameters such as masses, stiffness and damping (see Isermann
and Raab, 1993; Isermann et al., 1995). These digital adaptive control systems
work well if the assumptions for their design and convergence are satisfied.
This includes, e.g., proper excitation of the process dynamics. For the cases
where the assumptions are violated, a supervision level is required, which
takes appropriate action.

6.4 Fuzzy control

The development of fuzzy logic theory (Zadeh, 1972) stimulated alternative ways
to solve automatic control problems. Based on these basic ideas, fuzzy controllers
were proposed (Mamdani and Assilian, 1975) that describe human control in
linguistic form. As fuzzy logic provides a systematic framework with which to

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 R. Isermann 47

treat vague variables and information, it should be applied primarily if sensors

yield imprecise outputs, the process behaviour is only qualitatively known or the
automation functions cannot be described by equations or Boolean logic. As dis-
cussed in Isermann (1997b, 1998), the potentials of fuzzy logic approaches in gen-
eral increase with higher automation levels, because the degree of the qualitative
knowledge and the required intelligence grow with the hierarchical level.
The static and dynamic behaviour of most mechanical systems can be rather
precisely described by mathematical process models obtained through theoretical
modelling and identification methods. Hence, there is in many cases no need to
apply fuzzy concepts for the control of mechanical systems in the lower levels.
However, fuzzy control concepts may be of interest for:
1) fuzzy-tuning and adaptation of classical controllers;
2) fuzzy quality and comfort control;
3) fuzzy control for special (abnormal) operating conditions.
Particularly for reference value generation of underlying (classical) control sys-
tems (Figure 8), where the quality or comfort and therefore the human reception
plays a role, fuzzy rule-based methods offer interesting possibilities, i.e., for the
higher control levels. Examples for such mechatronic systems are:
1) the comfort control of suspensions in passenger cars;
2) the comfort of start-up of automobiles with clutch manipulation, gear shifting
and automatic transmission;
3) distance and velocity control of automobiles and elevators.
For a more detailed description see Isermann (1997b, 1998).

7. Supervision and fault detection

With the increasing number of automatic functions (autonomy) inlcuding elec-

tronic components, sensors and actuators, increasing complexity and increasing
demands on reliability and safety, integrated supervision with fault diagnosis
becomes more and more important. This is therefore a significant natural feature
of an intelligent mechatronic system. Figure 11 shows a process influenced by
faults. These faults indicate unpermitted deviations from normal states and can
be generated either externally or internally. External faults are for example caused
by the power supply, contamination or collision, internal faults by wear, missing
lubrication, actuator or sensor faults. The classical method for fault detection is
the limit value checking of a few measurable variables. However, incipient and
intermittant faults cannot usually be detected and an in-depth fault diagnosis is
not possible with this simple approach. Therefore, model-based fault detection
and diagnosis methods were developed in recent years, allowing early detection
of small faults with normally measured signals, and also in closed loops
(Isermann, 1997b). Based on measured input signals U(t) and output signals Y(t),
and process models, features are generated by, e.g., parameter estimation, state
and output observers, and parity equations (Figure 11).
These residuals are then compared with the residuals for normal behaviour and,

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48 Mechatronic systems

Figure 11 Scheme for a model-based fault detection

with change detection methods, analytical symptoms are obtained. Then a fault
diagnosis is performed via methods of classification or reasoning.
A considerable advantage is that the same process model can be used for both
the (adaptive) controller design and the fault detection. In general, continuous
time models are preferred if fault detection is based on parameter estimation or
parity equations. For fault detection with state estimation and also parity equa-
tions, discrete-time models can be used.
Advanced supervision and fault diagnosis is a basis for improving reliability
and safety, state dependent maintenance, triggering of redundancies and recon-
figuration.

8. Design procedure for mechatronic systems

The design of mechatronic systems requires a systematic development and use of

modern design tools.
Table 3 shows five important development steps for mechatronic systems, start-
ing from a purely mechanical system and resulting in a fully integrated mech-
atronic system. Depending on the type of the mechanical system, the intensity of
the single development steps is different. For precision mechanical devices fairly
integrated mechatronic systems already exist. The influence of the electronics on
mechanical elements may be considerable, as shown by adaptive dampers, anti-
lock system brakes and automatic gears. However, complete machines and
vehicles show first a mechatronic design of their elements and then slowly a

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 R. Isermann 49

Table 3 Steps in the design of mechatronic systems

redesign of parts of the overall structure as can be observed in the development

of machine tools, robots and vehicle bodies.

8.1 Software tools for the design

The computer aided development of mechatronic systems comprises:

1) constructive specification in the engineering development stage using CAD-
and CAE-tools;
2) model building for obtaining static and dynamic process models;
3) transformation into computer codes for system simulation;

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50 Mechatronic systems

4) programming and implementation of the final mechatronic software.

Some software tools are described for example in Otter and Gruebel (1993).
A broad range of CAD/CAE tools is available for two- and three-dimensional
mechanical design, such as Auto CAD with a direct link to CAM (computer-aided
manufacturing); PADS for multi-layer printed-circuit board layout, etc. However,
computer-aided modelling is not as advanced (see Section 5). Object-oriented lan-
guages such as DYMOLA and MOBILE for modelling of large combined systems
are described in Otter and Gruebel (1993), Elmqvist (1993) and Hiller (1995).
These packages are based on specified ordinary differential equations, algebraic
equations and discontinuities. A recent description of computer-aided control sys-
tem design can be found in James et al. (1995). For system simulation (and control-
ler design) a variety of program systems exist, like ACSL, SIMPACK,
MATLAB/SIMULINK, MATRIX-X. These simulation techniques are valuable
tools for design, as they allow the study of the interaction of components, and
the variations of design parameters before manufacturing. However, they are not
generally suitable for real-time simulation.

8.2 Real-time simulation

For the design of mechatronic systems, real-time simulation is increasingly applied.

This is particulary required if the process, the hardware and the software are
developed simultaneously in order to minimize iterative development cycles and
to meet a short time to market. With regard to the required speed of the compu-
tation, simulation methods can be subdivided into:
1) simulation without (hard) time limitation;
2) real-time simulation;
3) simulation faster than real-time.
Some application examples are given in Figure 12. Herewith, real-time simul-
ation means that the simulation of a component is performed such that the input
and output signals show the same time-dependent values as the real dynamically
operating component. This becomes a computational problem for processes which
have fast dynamics compared with the required algorithms and calculation speed.
Different types of real-time simulation methods are shown in Figure 13. The
reason for the real-time requirement is mostly that one part of the investigated
system is not simulated, but real. Three cases can be distinguished:
1) the real process can be operated together with the simulated control by using
another hardware than the final hardware. This is also called ‘control prototyp-
ing’;
2) the simulated process can be operated with the real control hardware, which is
called ‘hardware-in-the-loop simulation’;
3) the simulated process is run with the simulated control in real-time. This may be
required if the final hardware is not available or if a design step before the
hardware-in-the-loop simulation is considered.

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 R. Isermann 51

Figure 12 Classification of simulation methods with regard to

the speed and application examples

Figure 13 Classification of real-time simulation

In the following, the hardware-in-the-loop simulation and control prototyping

is considered.

8.2.1 Hardware-in-the-loop simulation: The hardware-in-the-loop simulation

(HIL) is characterized by operating real components in connection with real-time
simulated components. Usually, the control system hardware and software is the
real system, as used for series production. The controlled process, consisting of
actuators, physical processes and sensors, can then either be simulated or parts

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52 Mechatronic systems

of it may be real components (Figure 14a). In general, mixtures of the cases shown
are realized. Frequently some actuators are real, and the process and the sensors
are simulated. The reason is that actuators and the control hardware very often
form one integrated subsystem or that actuators are difficult to model precisely
and to simulate in real time. (The use of real sensors together with a simulated
process may require considerable realization efforts, because the physical sensor
input does not exist and must be generated artificially). In order to change or
redesign some functions of the control hardware or software a bypass unit can
be connected to the basic control hardware. Hence, hardware-in-the-loop simu-
lators may also contain partially simulated (emulated) control functions.
The advantages of the hardware-in-the-loop simulation are generally:
1) design and testing of the control hardware and software without operating a
real process (moving the process field into the laboratory);
2) testing of the control hardware and software under extreme environmental
conditions in the laboratory (e.g., high/low temperature, high accelerations
and mechanical shocks, aggressive media, electromagnetic compatibility);
3) testing of the effects of faults and failures of actuators, sensors and computers
on the overall system;
4) operating and testing of extreme and dangerous operating conditions;
5) reproducible experiments, frequently repeatable;
6) easy operation with different man–machine interfaces (cockpit design and
training of operators);
7) saving of cost and development time.

Figure 14 Realtime simulation: hybrid structures. (a) Hardware-

in-the-loop simulation; (b) control prototyping

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 R. Isermann 53

8.2.2 Control prototyping: For the design and testing of complex control sys-
tems and their algorithms under real-time constraints, a real-time controller simul-
ation (emulation) with hardware (e.g., an off-the-shelf signal processor) other than
the final series production hardware (e.g., special ASICS) may be performed. The
process, the actuators and sensors can then be real. This is called control prototyp-
ing (Figure 14b). However, in this case also, parts of the process or actuators may
be simulated, resulting in a mixture of HIL-simulation and control prototyping.
The advantages are mainly:
1) early development of signal processing methods, process models and control
system structure including algorithms with high level software and high per-
formance off-the-shelf hardware;
2) testing of signal processing and control systems together with other design of
actuators, process parts and sensor technology, in order to create synergetic
effects;
3) reduction of models and algorithms to meet the requirements of cheaper mass
production hardware;
4) defining the specifications for final hardware and software.
Some of the advantages of HIL-simulation also hold for control prototyping.
Some references for real-time simulation are Hanselmann (1993) and Isermann et
al. (1999).

9. Conclusions
This contribution has shown that mechatronic systems cover a great variety of
technical processes, and require the integration of components and information
processing during the design. Several disciplines like mechanics, electronics and
information technology are merged together to create synergetic effects. Several
of the discussed developments can be observed in existing products of precision
engineering and show up presently with increasing tendency for mechanical
components, machines, automobiles and aircraft.
The intensive use of computer-aided design, theoretical and experimental mod-
elling, digital simulation, hardware-in-the-loop simulation, control systems
design, verification, software engineering, etc., and the interrelations with the
basic process design require methods and tools developed in the control com-
munity. Therefore, the development of mechatronic systems is a real challenge
for control engineering.

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