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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART TWO
CONTENTS
2 AVIONICS SYSTEMS ................................................................... 2-1
2.1 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT ...................................................................... 2-1
2.2 AUTOPILOT SYSTEM ..................................................................... 2-1
2.2.1 Error Sensing ................................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Correction ..................................................................... 2-2
2.2.3 Follow-Up ...................................................................... 2-2
2.2.4 Command ..................................................................... 2-2
2.3 AUTOPILOT INTERLOCKS .............................................................. 2-4
2.4 SERVOMOTORS ............................................................................ 2-6
2.5 SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM ................................................... 2-8
2.6 TWO-AXIS SYSTEM ....................................................................... 2-8
2.7 THREE-AXIS SYSTEM.................................................................... 2-8
2.8 SENSING ATTITUDE CHANGES....................................................... 2-8
2.9 AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS .................................. 2-10
2.10 ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM .............................................................. 2-11
2.11 AIRSPEED HOLD........................................................................... 2-12
2.12 ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM ....................................................... 2-12
2.13 CONTROLS AND SELECTORS ......................................................... 2-13
2.14 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM (AFDS) ............................ 2-15
2.15 MODE CONTROL PANEL ............................................................... 2-21
2.15.1 Power supplies A and B ................................................ 2-21
2.15.2 Microprocessor A and B ................................................ 2-21
2.15.3 Push-Button and Toggle Switches ................................ 2-21
2.15.4 Fluorescent Tube Control .............................................. 2-21
2.15.5 Liquid Crystal Displays & Control Knob Encoders ......... 2-22
2.15.6 AFDS Disconnect Switches ........................................... 2-23
2.16 AUTOPILOT FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER (AFDC) ....................... 2-25
2.16.1 Input Signal Selection ................................................... 2-25
2.16.2 AFDC Processors ......................................................... 2-25
2.17 PRIMARY FLIGHT COMPUTER (PFC) .............................................. 2-26
2.18 COMMUNICATIONS ........................................................................ 2-27
2.19 RADIO WAVES ............................................................................. 2-27
2.20 WAVELENGTH & FREQUENCY ....................................................... 2-28
2.20.1 Frequency Bands .......................................................... 2-29
2.21 CARRIER WAVE............................................................................ 2-29
2.22 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) .................................................... 2-30
2.23 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM).................................................... 2-31
2.24 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION ......................................................... 2-33
2.24.1 Ground Wave Propagation ............................................ 2-34
2.24.2 Sky Wave Propagation .................................................. 2-34
2.24.3 Space Wave Propagation.............................................. 2-34
2.25 ANTENNAS ................................................................................... 2-34
2.26 MICROPHONES (MIC) ................................................................... 2-37
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Part 2 - Page 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.1 Carbon Microphone ...................................................... 2-37

2.26.2 The Crystal Microphone ................................................ 2-38
2.26.3 Moving Coil Microphone ............................................... 2-39
2.26.4 Electrostatic Microphone .............................................. 2-40
2.27 EARPHONES ................................................................................ 2-41
2.28 VHF RADIO COMMUNICATION ....................................................... 2-44
2.28.1 VHF Control Panel ........................................................ 2-45
2.29 AUDIO CONTROL PANEL .............................................................. 2-46
2.30 VHF TRANSCEIVER ...................................................................... 2-47
2.30.1 Control .......................................................................... 2-47
2.31 VHF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA .................................................. 2-48
2.32 SERVICE INTERPHONE .................................................................. 2-49
2.32.1 Attendant Interphone Handsets .................................... 2-50
2.33 FLIGHT & GROUND CREW CALL SYSTEM ...................................... 2-51
2.34 PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM (PA) ............................................ 2-52
2.35 AUDIO INTEGRATION SYSTEM ....................................................... 2-53
2.36 CONTROL WHEEL MIC SWITCH ..................................................... 2-54
2.37 OPERATION OF VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ............................ 2-56
2.38 HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) RADIO COMMUNICATION ........................... 2-57
2.38.1 HF Communication Control Panel................................. 2-59
2.39 SELECTIVE CALLING SYSTEM (SELCAL) ...................................... 2-61
2.39.1 SELCAL Control Panel ................................................. 2-62
2.39.2 SELCAL Decoder ......................................................... 2-63
2.40 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER (CVR) ............................................... 2-64
2.40.1 Voice Recorder Control Panel ...................................... 2-66
2.40.2 Voice Recorder Unit...................................................... 2-67
2.40.3 Underwater Locator Device .......................................... 2-67
2.41 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS ................................................................. 2-68
2.42 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI RANGE (VOR) ............................... 2-68
2.42.1 VOR Operation ............................................................. 2-69
2.42.2 Deviation Calculations .................................................. 2-72
2.42.3 VOR Aerial Locations ................................................... 2-73
2.43 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) ................................... 2-76
2.43.1 DME Operation ............................................................. 2-79
2.43.2 DME Controller ............................................................. 2-81
2.44 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)............................................ 2-82
2.44.1 ILS Operation ............................................................... 2-83
2.44.2 Antennas ...................................................................... 2-87
2.44.3 LOC/GS Operation ....................................................... 2-88
2.45 MARKER BEACON SYSTEM (MBS) ................................................ 2-90
2.46 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF).......................................... 2-92
2.46.1 Loop Aerial ................................................................... 2-93
2.46.2 Station Line .................................................................. 2-94
2.46.3 Sensing the Correct Null ............................................... 2-95
2.47 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADIO BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS) ......... 2-101
2.47.1 Transponders ............................................................... 2-101
2.47.2 ATCRBS Control Panel ................................................ 2-103
2.47.3 Mode A ......................................................................... 2-103
Page 2 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47.4 Mode C ......................................................................... 2-104

2.48 MODE S TRANSPONDERS ............................................................. 2-107
2.48.1 Mode S Interrogation & Replies..................................... 2-107
2.48.2 Discrete Addressing ...................................................... 2-107
2.48.3 Operation ...................................................................... 2-108
2.49 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM ................... 2-110
2.49.1 TCAS Introduction ......................................................... 2-110
2.49.2 The TCAS II System ..................................................... 2-112
2.49.3 Aural Annunciation ........................................................ 2-115
2.49.4 Performance Monitoring ................................................ 2-119
2.49.5 TCAS Units ................................................................... 2-119
2.49.6 Self Test........................................................................ 2-121
2.49.7 Data Loader Interface ................................................... 2-122
2.50 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS) ............................................. 2-123
2.50.1 General Principle........................................................... 2-124
2.50.2 INS Operation ............................................................... 2-126
2.50.3 Earth Rate Compensation ............................................. 2-130
2.50.4 Vehicle Rate Compensation .......................................... 2-131
2.50.5 Alignment ...................................................................... 2-135
2.50.6 The Navigation Mode .................................................... 2-135
2.50.7 Strapdown Inertial Navigation ....................................... 2-136
2.50.8 Laser Ring Gyro (LRG) Operation ................................. 2-138
2.50.9 Mode Select Unit (MSU)................................................ 2-140
2.50.10 Mode Select Unit Modes ............................................... 2-141
2.50.11 MSU Annunciators ........................................................ 2-142
2.50.12 Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU) ............................... 2-143
2.50.13 Keyboard ...................................................................... 2-144
2.50.14 Display .......................................................................... 2-144
2.50.15 System Display Switch (SYS DSPL) ............................. 2-144
2.50.16 Display Selector Switch (DSPL SEL)............................. 2-144
2.50.17 Dimmer Knob ................................................................ 2-145
2.50.18 Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) ......................................... 2-145
2.50.19 IRS Alignment Mode ..................................................... 2-147
2.50.20 Gyro Compass Process ................................................ 2-147
2.50.21 Initial Latitude ................................................................ 2-147
2.50.22 Alignment Mode ............................................................ 2-147
2.51 RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI) .............................................. 2-150
2.51.1 Dual Distance Radio Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI) ......... 2-151
2.51.2 DDRMI Principle............................................................ 2-151
2.52 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) ........................................... 2-154
2.52.1 Space Segment ............................................................ 2-154
2.52.2 Control Segment ........................................................... 2-155
2.52.3 Operation ...................................................................... 2-156
2.52.4 Signal Structure ............................................................ 2-158
2.52.5 Time Measurements ..................................................... 2-158
2.52.6 Position Fixing ............................................................... 2-160
2.52.7 Ionospheric Propagation Error....................................... 2-161
2.52.8 Derived Information ....................................................... 2-162
2.52.9 Navigation Management ............................................... 2-162
2.52.10 Boeing 777 GPS ........................................................... 2-164
2.52.11 GPS Modes of Operation .............................................. 2-165
2.52.12 Acquisition Mode ........................................................... 2-165

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.13 Navigation Mode ........................................................... 2-166

2.52.14 Altitude Aided Mode...................................................... 2-166
2.52.15 Aided Mode .................................................................. 2-167
2.52.16 Receiver Autonomous Integrity (RAIM) ......................... 2-169
2.52.17 Differential GPS ............................................................ 2-170
2.53 COMPASS SYSTEMS ..................................................................... 2-171
2.53.1 Direct Reading Compass .............................................. 2-171
2.53.2 Remote Reading Compass (Magnet Gyro) ................... 2-173
2.53.3 Flux valve (Detector Unit) ............................................. 2-174
2.53.4 Control Panel ................................................................ 2-175
2.53.5 Synchronisation Annunciator ........................................ 2-175
2.53.6 Synchronisation Knob ................................................... 2-175
2.53.7 Slaved/DG Switch ......................................................... 2-175
2.53.8 System Test.................................................................. 2-177
2.53.9 Gyro Unit ...................................................................... 2-177
2.53.10 Servo System ............................................................... 2-178
2.53.11 Slaving loop .................................................................. 2-180
2.54 RADIO ALTIMETER ....................................................................... 2-181
2.54.1 Basic Principles ............................................................ 2-181
2.54.2 Radio Altimeter Antenna ............................................... 2-184
2.54.3 Testing.......................................................................... 2-186
2.55 WEATHER RADAR ........................................................................ 2-187
2.55.1 Principle Of Operation .................................................. 2-190
2.55.2 Scanner Stabilization .................................................... 2-192
2.55.3 Weather Radar Installation ........................................... 2-194
2.55.4 Test Mode .................................................................... 2-197
2.55.5 Radome ........................................................................ 2-199
2.56 GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM ......................................... 2-200
2.56.1 System Operation ......................................................... 2-204
2.56.2 Ground Proximity Warning Computer ........................... 2-205
2.56.3 GPWS Control Panel .................................................... 2-206
2.56.4 Warning Lights.............................................................. 2-206
2.56.5 GPWS Bite Operation ................................................... 2-208
2.56.6 BITE Tests .................................................................... 2-208
2.56.7 Fault Recording ............................................................ 2-208
2.57 ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM ...................... 2-210
2.57.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) ............................. 2-211
2.57.2 Terrain Alerting & Display (TAD) ................................... 2-214
2.57.3 Envelope Modulation .................................................... 2-216
2.57.4 Terrain Look Ahead Alerting ......................................... 2-217
2.57.5 Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) ...................................... 2-218
2.57.6 TCF/TAD Control .......................................................... 2-220
2.57.7 EGPWS Interface ......................................................... 2-221
2.57.8 System Activation ......................................................... 2-223
2.57.9 Self Test ....................................................................... 2-223
2.58 AIR DATA SYSTEM (ADS) ............................................................ 2-226
2.58.1 Total Air Temperature Probe ........................................ 2-227
2.58.2 Location Of Probes And Static Vents ............................ 2-228
2.58.3 Air Data Computer (ADC) ............................................. 2-231
2.58.4 Altitude Module ............................................................. 2-233
2.58.5 True Airspeed/Indicated Airspeed Vs Altitude ............... 2-234
2.58.6 Air Data Computer (ADC) ............................................. 2-235

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.7 Digital Air Data Computer (DADC) ................................ 2-236

2.58.8 Definitions and Abbreviations ........................................ 2-237

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2 AVIONICS SYSTEMS
2.1 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
The Automatic Flight Control Systems or AFCS, in modern jet transports, are all
uniquely tailored to the specific aircraft, but all share common features. For
example, the flight aerodynamics of a DC-9 are different from those of a Boeing
747 but both aircraft would most likely require an "attitude hold" mode of
operation.
In this case, the attitude hold feature is common to both autopilot designs, but
gains in the two autopilots will differ to accommodate the differences in the
aerodynamics of each aircraft. Each AFCS receives attitude and heading signals
from a vertical and directional gyro and has its own rate gyro/accelerometer
system to develop attitude and flight path stabilization signals. The AFCS
computers comprise an electronic "brain" that receives signals from its "senses"
to compute the proper responses and provides outputs to electric and/or
hydraulic actuators, which move the aircraft's control surfaces.
2.2 AUTOPILOT SYSTEM
Today's modern autopilots are designed to provide pitch, roll, and yaw axis
stabilization around the pilot's desired reference attitude. To do this, the autopilot
system must detect changes in aircraft attitude and respond to those changes
more quickly and smoothly than its human counterpart.
For an autopilot to maintain this stability, it must:
1. Know what the pilot's desired aircraft attitude is.
2. Know what the actual aircraft attitude is.
3. Compares the two and produce a control signal if there is a difference or error:
4. Use the control signal to correct for the difference or error and Control the
speed of the correction.
The human pilot controls the aircraft by detecting a change in aircraft attitude by
one of his senses. His brain then computes the necessary corrective action
required and transmits a signal to his muscles to move the flight controls. Again
his senses will detect that corrective action has taken place and he will move the
flight controls back to where they started. A typical autopilot would have to do all
that the human pilot does, but would do it through electronic or electrohydraulic
devices.
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The autopilot is divided into four main parts:
2.2.1 Error Sensing
Determines when the flight condition of the aircraft is differing from that
commanded by the pilot. Almost all-modern aircraft use a gyro of some type for
this purpose, and there are two ways that the error signal can be generated,
either by attitude gyros or rate gyros. The attitude gyros only detect how far the
aircraft is away from the settings; the rate gyros detect the rate at which it is
deviating and, hence, are more accurate.
2.2.2 Correction
This is the correcting input, sent to the actuators connected into the flying control
systems. This input is simply the command from the autopilot to reverse the
movement of the aircraft away from its set course. It does not have any idea of
when to stop the correction; this is the job of the follow-up mechanism.
2.2.3 Follow-Up
Is the detection mechanism, which senses that the aircraft is righting itself, under
the commands from the correction part of the autopilot. The mechanism reduces
the correction input as it nears the original selected position and, by the time the
aircraft is level, there will be no correcting input to the actuators.
2.2.4 Command
The command system is incorporated to allow the pilot to dictate which heading,
height, speed or rate of climb he wants the aircraft to follow. This can be a
simple 'Heading Hold' system which is controlled by a "bug" on the compass,
which the pilot sets with a knob on the instrument. Alternatively, the system
'Mode Control Panel' can have many different parameters commanded by the
pilot, such as autopilot modes, altitude, and vertical speed and airspeed/mach
number modes.
Page 2-2 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 1 shows a block schematic of a typical autopilot.
PITCH SERVO
VERTICAL
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER AIRCRAFT
TRIM SYSTEM
COMPASS
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT ROLL SERVO

CONTROLLER
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
YAW SERVO
Basic Autopilot
Figure 1
The sensors take the place of our pilot's "senses" to detect various changes in
aircraft attitude. This information is fed to the computer, which calculates the size
of its output signal and which axis to send it on. The controller turns the autopilot
on and off and provides other system inputs not discussed here. Finally we come
to the loads which are the muscle of our system and move the aircraft's flight
control surfaces in response to the output signal of the computer. As the aircraft
responds to these signals, the sensors, through aerodynamic feedback, detect
the attitude change and tell the computer when the aircraft is back where it
should be.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.3 AUTOPILOT INTERLOCKS
Before an automatic control system can be engaged with an aircraft's flight

controls, certain preliminary operating requirements must be fulfilled to ensure
that the system is in a condition whereby it may safely take control of the aircraft.
The principal requirements are that the connections between system power
supplies, the elements comprising the system and the appropriate signal and
engage circuits are electrically complete. It is the practice, therefore, to
incorporate within any automatic control system, a series of switches and/or
relays, known as interlocks, which operate in a specific sequence to ensure
satisfactory engagement, and the coupling of input signals from outer loop control
elements. Figure 2 shows the interlock circuit.
A/P DISCONNECT A.C - D.C. MACH TRIM PITCH TRIM ATT REF
CAPT F/O
YAW
K1 DAMP MAN
ENGAGE AUTO
OFF
RELAY
AUTO
PILOT
ENGAGE
RELAY
K2
OFF
SERVO
RUDDER
CLUTCH
SERVOS
ELEVATOR
AILERON
OFF CLUTCHES
28V DC
Interlock Circuit
Figure 2

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The number of interlocks incorporated in any one system varies considerably

according to the control capability of that system. The signals from the pitch roll
and yaw gyros or computers are at their respective servos, but cannot impose
their influence until the clutches are engaged.
In the yaw damper only position, K1 relay will close and energize the rudder servo
clutch and engage it to accept signals from a gyro or computer to move the
rudder. With No 1 switch in the autopilot position, it will energize K1 relay subject
to all the interlock switches being made, switch No 2 will now engage the aileron
and elevator clutches, and switch No 3 will pick a voltage from switch No 2 and
energize the rudder clutch. So in the yaw damper position, it is yaw damper only,
and in the autopilot position it is yaw, pitch and roll engagement.
In the yaw damper switch position, only the pilot's disconnect and power valid's
are needed; in the full autopilot condition all switches must be made.
Here is a review of the interlock switches.
Firstly, the autopilot disconnects; either the Captain's or the First Officer's switch
will disconnect the autopilot. The switches are usually located on the control
column.
The power ac and dc valid's are qualifying that power is available and any loss of
power will disconnect.
Mach trim has to be engaged in this case. In some systems, Mach trim is on all
the time, whether the autopilot is engaged or not, and in others it is disengaged
when the autopilot is engaged.
The pitch trim switch is qualifying that auto pitch trim is available in the autopilot
mode. The reason that this is important is that if there is a mis-trim, the autopilot
can compensate for that situation until the autopilot is disconnected, either
through malfunction or deliberate action, or the aircraft could nose up/down rather
dramatically.
The attitude reference switch is checking that the valid's from the vertical gyro are
all correct, and the attitude references are available for the autopilot.
On more sophisticated systems, there are other interlock switches, for example
air data computer, compass system, hydraulic pressure monitoring and radio
altimeters.
Some systems, apart from those that use electrical interlocks, do not use an
electrical servomotor. Instead they use a hydraulic servo.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.4 SERVOMOTORS
The power output element of any automatic flight control system consists of
servomotors, or servo-actuators as they are sometimes called, connected into the
aircraft's primary flight control system circuits; the number of servomotors
employed is governed by the number of control loops required. In addition to the
actuation of primary flight controls, servomotors may also be used, in some
cases, for the actuation of the secondary flight controls provided for trimming
purposes and for yaw damping.
In general, servomotors operate on either electro-pneumatic, electromechanical,

or electro-hydraulic principles, the choice, and constructional features adopted in
applying such principles being dependent on the type of automatic control
system, and on the methods adopted for actuation of the primary flight control
surfaces. Servomotors may be connected either in series or in parallel with the
normal flight control system of an aircraft. A series-connected servomotor is one,
which moves the flight control surfaces without moving the pilot's controls, while a
parallel-connected servomotor moves both the control surfaces and the pilot's
controls.
Servomotors may utilise either direct current or alternating current, depending on

the individual systems. Motor type ranges from dc permanent magnet to ac two-
phase or hysteresis type.
The closed loop servo technique can be applied as a means of achieving

automatic flight control of an aircraft. A functional diagram is at Figure 3. This
forms the basic control system for all classes of automatic flight control systems.
This system controls what is termed “Inner Loop” stabilization.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
SERVOMOTORS
(ACTUATORS)
FEEDBACK
PROCESSING
SIGNAL
AERODYNAMICS
PILOT’S DEMANDS
SENSING
ERROR
MODE SELECT
AUTOPILOT
CONTROLS
MANUAL
FLIGHT
ATTITUDE
SENSING
Inner Loop Stabilization

Figure 3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The number of control loops, or channels, comprising an automatic flight control

system is dependent on the number of axes about which control is to be effected
and in this connection it is usual to classify systems as:
1. Single Axis System.
2. Two-Axis System.
3. Three-Axis System.
2.5 SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM
In the single axis system, control is normally about the “Roll” axis. The control
surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the “Ailerons”. It is found on
small aircraft to provide lateral stabilization (wing levelling).
2.6 TWO-AXIS SYSTEM
In the two-axis system, control is normally about the “Roll” and “Pitch” axes. The
control surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the “Ailerons” and
“Elevators”. These are found on medium sized aircraft and provide a means of
automatically controlling the aircraft’s heading and altitude.
2.7 THREE-AXIS SYSTEM
In the three-axis system, control is about all three axes (Pitch, Roll and Yaw).
These systems are designed to meet the requirements for stabilization and
control of high performance category aircraft, and have a large number of modes
of operation.
2.8 SENSING ATTITUDE CHANGES
Under automatically controlled flight conditions, the sensing of all changes in the
aircraft’s attitude is accomplished by referencing them against some form of
stabilized device. The device universally adopted for this purpose, from the
earliest types of control system to those now current, has been the gyroscope.
In addition to the gyro, it is also the practice in many cases to adopt a pendulous
device which although not purely stabilizing in function, can serve as a “back-up”
to a gyro by sensing short-term attitude changes brought about by the effects of
accelerations, vertical speed changes, and by side-slip.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 4 shows the gyro configuration for a three-axis automatic control system.
OF PRECESSION
DIRECTION
ROLL
AXIS
PITCH RATE
GYRO
YAW RATE
GYRO
AXIS
YAW
OF PRECESSION
ROLL RATE
DIRECTION
GYRO
OF PRECESSION
DIRECTION
PITCH
AXIS
Three-axis Automatic Control System.

Figure 4

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.9 AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS
Once the controller has been selected, and activated, the aircraft is controlled by
the Flight Director/Autopilot System. Rate gyros detect any movement of the
aircraft from the selected flight datum and will output a signal proportional to the
disturbance and in the opposite sense. The gyro output, along with other signals
from associated systems, are processed in the Flight Director/Autopilot
Computer, which in turn will give flight director information and or outputs to move
the control surfaces to bring the aircraft onto the correct flight datum.
Figure 5 shows a schematic of a Flight Director/Autopilot System.
AERODYNAMIC RESPONSE
FLIGHT FLIGHT
DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
ENGAGED COMMAND BAR
GYRO INPUT
MODE SELECT PILOT’S

INPUT
AUTOPILOT
NAV AIDS INPUT COMPUTER
HEADING INPUT FEEDBACK
ALTITUDE INPUT
SERVO
AUTOPILOT
ENGAGED
Flight Director/Autopilot System

Figure 5

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.10 ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM
We know that any change in the aircraft's attitude will be detected by the
Autopilot system. This system alone will not be able to detect a pure vertical
displacement of the aircraft. To maintain an aircraft at a selected altitude we
require further sensing elements.
The purpose of the Altitude Hold system is to maintain the aircraft at a selected
height. The pilot will select "ALT" on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP) and the
system will maintain that altitude. The sensing element consists of a pressure
transducer, similar to that in the Air Data System. Any change in the static
pressure will be felt and an output produced, this output will be fed to the pitch
channel of the autopilot system to adjust the aircraft's altitude.
A simplified Altitude Hold system is shown at Figure 6.
ANEROID
CAPSULE
STATIC
CONTROL
CHASER
MOTOR MOTOR
ERROR
AMP
ALT HOLD
SELECT
REF
TO PITCH
CONTROL
CHANNEL
Altitude Hold System

Figure 6

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.11 AIRSPEED HOLD
Since airspeed hold sensors are used in conjunction with altitude hold sensors,
the methods of transmitting error signals are of a common nature. The only
difference is that whereas an altitude sensor measures only static pressure
changes, an airspeed sensor is required to measure Static and Pitot pressures.
2.12 ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM
The Altitude Alerting System allows the pilot to make changes to the aircraft's
altitude and provide alerts to the pilot when the selected altitude is reached. The
pilot sets the required altitude, from 0 - 50,000 feet, in steps of 10 feet, on the
Flight Mode Panel (FMP).
The altitude alerter gives the pilot an alert when the aircraft approaches the
selected altitude, entry alert ("C" Chord) and illuminates a warning lamp. The
system will then alert the pilot when the aircraft does not follow the selected
altitude with an exit alert ("C" Chimes) and illuminates a warning lamp. Figure 7
shows the different alerts.
1000 feet
EXIT ALERT
ENTRY ALERT ON
ON
“C” CHORD ENTRY ALERT
OFF
250 feet
SELECTED HEIGHT
250 feet
EXIT ALERT
ON
“C” CHIME
1000 feet
Alert Levels
Figure 7

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.13 CONTROLS AND SELECTORS
Figure 8 shows the controls from a BAe 146 aircraft.
S P L IT
A /P A /P N AV 1 N AV 2
M GSL A LT VS M A CH V - NA V IA S
O
D
0 6 8 2 4 6
E
C O U RS E C O U RS E
T UR B
S H DG
V /L B -L O C L -N AV H DG
E
L
M OD E SELE CTO R N A V IG A T IO N S E L E C T O R
R UD EL EV P IT CH
T EST R OL L
L R
A LT S E L D OW N
A
L A LT AR M 2 5 9.0 0
T
F EET
YD A /P
S
E
L YD 1 UP
YD 2
IN
A L T IT U D E S E L E C T O R A U T O P IL O T S E L E C T O R
BAe 146 Autopilot controllers

Figure 8
a) MODE SELECTOR : Is mounted on the glare-shield and contains the push

button switches for the selected mode. Hidden legends are used so that
the button appears blank, until a mode is selected when a white triangle is
illuminated. Engagement of the autopilot is indicated by a green triangle
on the AP button at the top of the panel.
In essence the bottom row selects lateral modes and the middle row
selects vertical modes.
b) NAVIGATION SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield and contains a

large rotary switch labeled NAV 1-SPLIT-NAV 2. This selects the
distribution of radio navigation information to the autopilot and to the pilot’s
flight instruments.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The autopilot and flight directors use the information that is displayed on
the captain's HSI. With SPLIT selected NAV 1 supplies HSI 1 and NAV 2
supplies HSI 2. If NAV 1 is selected then both HSIs are supplied from
NAV 1 and a NAV 2 selection supplies both HSIs from NAV 2.
The COURSE selector knobs allow rotation of the course pointer on the
HSIs. A HDG knob provides remote selection of the heading cursor on
both HSIs. Two ratios are available, coarse and fine.
c) ALTITUDE SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield this contains a five-

figure readout; the last two figures are fixed zeros. A mode select button
labeled ALT ARM allows arming of the selected altitude. The 'armed' state
is indicated by a white triangle.
A press to TEST switch allows warning altitudes to be checked against the
altitude set on the captain's altimeter.
e) AUTOPILOT CONTROLLER : Mounted on the center console and

contains the autopilot (AP) and the yaw damper YD engage buttons.
These also indicate engagement by green illuminated IN for the AP, and
YD1/YD2 for the yaw damper.
PITCH and ROLL controls and associated out of trim indicators (ELEV and
RUD) are also found on the controller.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.14 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM (AFDS)
The Boeing 777 AFDS is used as an example in this module.
The purpose of the AFDS is to automatically control the aircraft’s attitude and to
supply indications to the flight crew in order for them to manually control the
aircraft’s attitude. The autopilot controls the aircraft’s attitude through: Takeoff
(Flight Director only), Climb, Cruise, Descent, Approach, Go-around and
Autoland.
In the Flight Director mode, the director bars (horizontal/vertical) show on the
Primary Flight Displays (PFD). The bars are used as guides to control the
attitude of the aircraft. Figure 9 shows the Primary Flight Display (PFD).
LNAV VNAV
HOLD
LOC G/S 5100
5200
200
A/P
180 6
20 20
5000 2
160 10 10 1
3
14 2 4800
10 10 1
120
4600 2
20 20
6
100
4400
Primary Flight Display

Figure 9

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The mode select panel is the primary interface between the flight crew and
AFDS. Other flight crew inputs to the AFDS are; the disconnect switches and the
Go-around (GA) switches. Figure 10 shows the Auto Flight Director System
(AFDS) mode control panel for the Boeing 777 aircraft.
F/D ON
OFF
A/P
(c)
F/D ON
OFF
A/P
LOC
APP
1000
1000
LOC
APP
17000
17000
ALTITUDE
ALTITUDE
HOLD
HOLD
AUTO
AUTO
VS/FPA
+3288
FPA
VS/FPA
+3288
FPA
V/S
V/S
DOWN
UP
BANK
LIMIT
V/S
DOWN
25
TRK
V/S
UP
238
SEL
HOLD
HDG
HDG
AUTO
BANK
LIMIT
A/P DISENGAGE
25
TRK
V-NAV
L-NAV
FLCH
238
HOLD
SEL
MACH
HDG
HDG
288
AUTO
V-NAV
L-NAV
FLCH
A/P DISENGAGE
MACH
(a)
288
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
CLB
A/T ARM
A/T
ON
R
OFF
A/T
CLB
R
ON
A/T ARM
L
OFF
(b)
L
F/D ON
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
OFF
A/P
Boeing 777 – AFDS Mode Control Panel

Figure 10

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to Figure 10a:
A/P Engage Switch – Captain’s autopilot engage button, shows white when
engaged.
A/T ARM – Left and right autothrottle arm switches.
F/D Switch – Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the
PFD.
CLB CON Switch – Climb continuous thrust switch.
A/T Switch – Engages the autothrottle system.
L-NAV Switch – Engages lateral navigation mode.
V-NAV – Engages vertical navigation mode.
FLCH – Flight Level change engage switch.
IAS/MACH Window – Shows the selected IAS/MACH as selected using the

IAS/MACH select knob.
IAS/MACH Switch – Selects either IAS or MACH as the reference for speed hold
mode.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to Figure 10b:
A/P DISENGAGE Bar - There are three toggle switches under the disengage
bar. The left switch controls the left AFDS only and the right switch controls the
right AFDS. The center switch controls the center AFDS. The center AFDC
cannot do a single autopilot engagement because it does not connect to any back
drive unit. It is there only as a back up for the left or right. The bar is normally in
the up position. Pushing the bar down will disengages all the AFDS.
Figure 11 shows the operation of the disengage bar.
DISENGAGE BAR UP DISENGAGE BAR DOWN

(ALL THREE AFDS ENGAGED) (ALL THREE AFDS DIS-ENGAGED)
DISENGAGE BAR UP
RIGHT AFDS SWITCH DOWN
(ONLY LEFT AND CENTER AFDS ENGAGED)
Disengage Bar Operation

Figure 11

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Light Sensor – A photo light sensor on the MCP front panel monitors ambient
lighting. It controls the brightness of the LCD’s on the mode panel.
HDG/TRK Switch – This switch controls the reference for the Heading/Track
window.
HDG/TRK Window – The window shows heading or track angle in increments of

one degree. The window range is from 001q to 360q. At AFDS power-up, the
window shows 360q.
Heading/Track Selector Switch – This control has two concentric selectors and
one push-button. The outer selector controls the bank angle, the inner selector
controls the value of heading/track required. The inner selector (push-button)
selects between Heading, or Track select modes.
HOLD Push Button – Engages the AFDS into Heading/Track hold mode.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle (V/S/FPA) reference Switch – This switch

controls the reference for the vertical speed/flight path angle window.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle Window - The window shows vertical speed
value (range is +6000 fpm to –8000 fpm). The flight path angle is +9.9q to –9.9q.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle selector – Rotate the selector up to decrease

the value and down to increase the value.
VS/FPA Push Button – Engages the VS/FPA mode.
Altitude Window – Has a range from 0 to 50,000ft. The increment is variable.

The set altitude is also the altitude alert value for the caution and warning system.
At AFDS power-up the display is set at 1,000ft.
Altitude Selector – The control has two concentric selectors. The inner selector
changes the reference altitude in the window. If the selector is pushed while in V-
NAV, this will activate the altitude intervention.
The outer selector changes the window increment. With it selected to 1000
position, the inner selector changes the window at 1000 feet/detent. With the
outer selector in the AUTO position, the window change rate is 100 feet/detent.
HOLD Push Button – Engages the Altitude hold mode.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
With reference to Figure 10c:
A/P Engage Switch – First Officer’s autopilot engage button, shows white when
engaged.
F/D Switch – Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the
PFD.
LOC Push Button – Engages the ILS LOC mode. Captures and holds the
aircraft to a Localizer flight path.
APP Push Button – Engages the Approach mode. Captures and holds the
aircraft to a Glideslope (vertical descent) flight path.
Figure 12 shows a block schematic of the Mode Control Panel.
ARINC AFDC
POWER SUPPLY INPUT/OUTPUT
“A” SIGNAL 429 RX “L”
PROCESSING
AFDC
ARINC “L”/”C”
429 TX &
MICROPROCESSOR “A” AIMS
A/T ARM
A/T F/D ON
L R
HDG 238
5
AUTO SEL
25
BANK
LIMIT
V-NAV
OFF
OFF
ARINC AFDC
429 RX “C”
LCD ON-OFF
DIPLAY PUSH
SW SWITCHES
LIGHTS & KNOBS
AFDC
MICROPROCESSOR “B” ARINC “R”
429 TX &
AIMS
INPUT/OUTPUT
POWER SUPPLY SIGNAL
ARINC AFDC
“A” PROCESSING 429 RX “R”
Mode Control Panel Schematic

Figure 12

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.15 MODE CONTROL PANEL
2.15.1 Power supplies A and B
They receive 28V dc from the left and right 28V dc buses. The MCP functions
with either source. Power supplies A and B supply +12V, -12V and +5V dc to
their respective microprocessors and logic circuits. They also supply power
supply C, which is part of the fluorescent tube control.
2.15.2 Microprocessor A and B
There are two separate microprocessors within the MCP. Microprocessor A

receives data from the left and center AFDC and microprocessor B receives data
from the right and center AFDC. Microprocessor sends data to the left and center
AFDC, microprocessor B sends data to the right AFDS.
To make sure all three AFDC use data from one MCP processor, all AFDS use
the microprocessor data sent to the master AFDS. When the left AFDS is
master, microprocessor A writes to the LCD displays. The right and center AFDC
receive microprocessor A data through the AFDC cross-channel buses.
When the right AFDS is master, microprocessor B writes to the LCD displays.
The left and center AFDC receive microprocessor B data through the AFDC
cross-channel buses.
2.15.3 Push-Button and Toggle Switches
Each push-button and toggle switch has two sets of contacts. One set connects
to microprocessor A and one set connects to microprocessor B. The LED
annunciators in the push-button switches also connect to each microprocessor.
2.15.4 Fluorescent Tube Control
The fluorescent tube control circuit supplies current to drive the tube and the tube
heater. There is a heater coil around the tube, which will operate when the
temperature is <40qF.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.15.5 Liquid Crystal Displays & Control Knob Encoders
There are four LCD windows, which show reference values. The values change
when the selector is rotated or when the AFDC command a new reference.
Microprocessor A and B drive each LCD. Each selector connects to the two
encoders and each encoder sends data to the on-side microprocessor. Figure 13
shows the LCD illumination.
FLUORESCENT
TUBE
LCD (TYPE)
DISPLAY
LCD Illumination
Figure 13

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.15.6 AFDS Disconnect Switches
The autopilot disconnect switches are on the outboard side of each control wheel.
The switch is a push-button type with multiple contacts. These switches manually
disconnect all AFDCs.
Figure 14 shows the Captain’s Control wheel A/P disconnect switch.
ELEVATOR
TRIM SWITCHES
AUTOPILOT
DISCONNECT
BUTTON
A/P Disconnect Switch

Figure 14

HDG TRK V/S FPA
A/T ARM IAS MACH ALTITUDE
L R
A/P
HDG 238 V/S
IAS 288 +3288 17000
L-NAV
Page 2-24
AIMS A/P
OFF 5 25 AUTO 1000
DOWN
BANK LOC
AUTO
SEL F/D ON
CLB V-NAV LIMIT
F/D ON ON
APP
A/P DISENGAGE
A/T VS/FPA
OFF
FLCH HOLD HOLD
OFF UP
A/C SENSORS MODE CONTROL

FLIGHT DECK
NAVIGATION CONTROLS
SENSORS
TO/GA Collins
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMPUTER
DISC (AFDC)
BACKDRIVE
Figure 15
PART 2
ACTUATORS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
AFDS Block Diagram

MODULE 11 BOOK 2
Figure 15 shows the AFDS block schematic diagram

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
AIR DATA INERTIAL

POSITION
REFERENCE UNIT PRIMARY

TRANSDUCERS
FLIGHT
COMPUTER
ACTUATOR
CONTROL
SECONDARY ELECTRONICS PCU
ATTITUDE &
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

ELEVATOR
AIR DATA
AILERON &
REFERENCE UNIT
RUDDER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.16 AUTOPILOT FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER (AFDC)
There are three AFDC within the AFDS each containing the following:
1. ARINC 629 Input/output modules (I/O).
2. Discrete Input/output (I/O) module.
3. Processor A.
4. Processor B.
5. Processor C.
6. Power supply module.
2.16.1 Input Signal Selection
Each ARINC and discrete input/output module monitors and selects input signals.
Each I/O module monitors the validity of the signal first, if validity check is good,
the I/O section selects the signal by one of the following methods:
1. Mid value selection which uses the middle value of the three signals.
Radio Altitude (RA) and ILS are examples of signals selected using this
method.
2. Priority selection for signals with two sources (left/right). Example; the Air
Data Inertial reference Unit (ADIRU) is the normal source of air/inertial
data. If the ADIRU fails, the AFDC selects the Secondary Attitude Air Data
reference Unit (SAARU).
3. Forced selection for Aeroplane Information Management System (AIMS)

data. AIMS tell the AFDC which signal to use.
2.16.2 AFDC Processors
The AFDC has three processors (A,B and C). Processor A and B receive digital
backdrive commands from the Primary Flight Computers (PFC). They convert
the digital backdrive signals into analogue signals for output to the backdrive
actuators.
Processor C calculates the autopilot and flight director control laws, test and data
loading, engage/disengage logic and failure detection/fault response monitoring.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.17 PRIMARY FLIGHT COMPUTER (PFC)
The PFC receives commands from the AFDC. The PFC calculates and sends
surface position digital commands to the Actuator Control Electronics (ACE).
The ACE converts these signals to analogue and sends the signal to the Power
Control Units (PCU). The PCU move the flight surface, sending positional
feedback signal to the ACE, which converts the feedback signals into digital and
sends it to the PFC. The PFC then calculates and sends the digital feedback
signals to the AFDC. The AFDC converts the signals into analogue, and sends
these signals to the backdrive actuators, which moves the control column, control
wheels and rudder pedals.
Figure 16 shows the Primary Flight Computer/Actuator Control Electronics Block

diagram.
ANALOG
ANALOG
POWER
CONTROL
UNIT
POSITION
TRANSDUCER PRIMARY CONTROL
FLIGHT SURFACE
BACKDRIVE COMPUTER
ACTUATOR
ACTUATORS
CONTROL
ELECTRONICS
ANALOG
FLIGHT CONTROL - ARINC 629 BUS (X3)
AFDC AIMS ADIRU SAARU
PFC/ACE Block Diagram

Figure 16

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.18 COMMUNICATIONS
The word "Communication" is defined as the exchange of information of any kind,

by any means and involves the transfer of meaningful information from one
location (the sender or transmitter), to another location (the destination or
receiver).
Radio Communication equipment in aircraft is primarily for the purpose of

communicating with Air Traffic Control (ATC), and other ground stations. It can
also be used for communicating with other aircraft and internally to speak with
cabin crew and passengers.
2.19 RADIO WAVES
Radio signals emanate from the antenna of a transmitter partly in the form of
“Electromagnetic waves”. During radio transmission, the antenna in addition to
the electromagnetic field also generates an electric field. The two fields radiate
from the antenna at the speed of light, which is approximately 186,300 Mls/sec
(300,000,000 mtr/sec). Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, as soon as
the transmitter starts to transmit, its signal may be detected instantly hundreds or
thousands of miles away, depending on the power of the transmitter and the
nature of the wave being transmitted.
The transmitter typically radiates an electromagnetic signal in a 360º pattern from

the antenna. Figure 17 shows the effect of a radio wave being transmitted from
an Omni-directional aerial.
AERIAL
Radio Wave Transmission

Figure 17

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.20 WAVELENGTH & FREQUENCY
The length of a radio wave depends on its frequency. Like an ac sine wave, the
wave emanating from an antenna increases to a maximum in one direction, drops
to zero, and then increases to maximum in the opposite direction. The
wavelength, indicated by the Greek letter lambda (O), is the distance from the
crest of one wave to the next. Since the wave travels at the speed of light
(300,000,000 mtr/sec) the wavelength in metres is equal to 300,000,000 divided
by the number of cycles per second (hertz).
Figure 18 shows the relationship between wavelength and frequency.
O WAVELENGTH = CREST TO CREST (MTR)
RADIO WAVE
CYCLE
FREQUECNY = NUMBER OF CYCLES PER SECOND
VELOCITY
WAVELENGTH =
FREQUENCY
VELOCITY = SPEED OF LIGHT
( 300,000,000 METRES PER SECOND)
VELOCITY
FREQUENCY =
WAVELENGTH
Wavelength and Frequency

Figure 18

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.20.1 Frequency Bands
Frequencies utilized in various types of radio systems range from 3 KHz to as

high as 30 GHz. The frequencies are divided into seven bands, and these bands
are assigned to certain types of operation. Table 1 shows the various types of
bands.
Designation Frequency range Wavelength

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 – 30 KHz 1000,000 – 10,000 Mtr
Low frequency (LF) 30 – 300 KHz 10,000 – 1,000 Mtr
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 – 3000 KHz 1,000 – 100 Mtr
High Frequency (HF) 3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10 Mtr
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 Mtr
Ultra High frequency (UHF) 300 – 3000 MHz 1 Mtr – 10 cm
Super High frequency (SHF) 3 – 30 GHz 10 cm – 1 cm
Frequency Bands
Table 1
Above these radio frequencies lie the various light frequencies. Infrared and
white light are currently being used for some information transmission at
frequencies between 109 – 1011 KHz. Below the radio frequencies are the
audible sound waves, ranging from 20 Hz to 15 KHz. The audio frequency range
for radio transmission is between 300 Hz – 3 KHz and is known as “Commercial
Quality Speech”. Without special techniques, the transmission of these low
frequencies would cause two major problems:
1. High power would be required to transmit them.
2. All radio transmissions would interfere with each other.
2.21 CARRIER WAVE
The energy that carries the intelligence of a radio signal is called the “Carrier
Wave”. The frequency of this carrier wave may be only a few hundred kilohertz
(VLF) or several thousand megahertz (UHF). Carrier waves are usually in the
“Radio Frequency” (RF) range, which is in excess of 20 KHz. Frequencies below
20 KHz are in the “Audio Frequency” (AF) range.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In order to carry intelligence, a RF carrier wave must be modulated. This means

its form and characteristics are changed by means of some form of signal
impressed onto it. There are two methods used for modulating the carrier wave,
these are:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM).
2. Frequency Modulation (FM).
2.22 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
In amplitude modulation, the audio signal is mixed in a “Modulator” with the

higher carrier frequency. The audio affects the amplitude of the carrier frequency
as shown in figure 19.
CARRIER FREQUENCY
AUDIO FREQUENCY
TRANSMITTED AMPLITUDE
MODULATED SIGNAL
Amplitude modulation
Figure 19

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.23 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
This type of modulation provides a signal that is much less affected by

interference than an AM signal. Frequency modulation is accomplished by
varying the frequency of the carrier in accordance with the audio signal desired.
Figure 20 shows how frequency modulation affects the carrier wave.
AUDIO WAVE
FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNAL
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Figure 20

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 21 shows the relationship of frequency modulation with different

amplitudes of audio frequency.
1KHz AUDIO
HALF MAX MAX

AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE
10.5KHz 11KHz
9.5KHz 9KHz
10KHz CARRIER
FM Modulation
Figure 21

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.24 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
The carrier wave emitted by a radio transmission antenna may be broken into
three different propagation categories:
1. Ground wave.
2. Space wave.
3. Sky wave.
Figure 22 shows the different propagation paths.
IONOSPHERE
V E
VE
WA
A
CE
W
A A VE
SP
Y
EW
SK
AC
SP
E
AV
W
ND
OU
GR
Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 22

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.24.1 Ground Wave Propagation
Ground waves tend to be held near the earth’s surface and bend with the
curvature of the earth. Ground waves travel a distance limited by the
transmitter’s output power, antenna design, local terrain, and current weather
conditions. Typically, a relatively powerful transmitter is capable of sending
ground waves a distance of 1,000 miles.
2.24.2 Sky Wave Propagation
Sky waves tend to travel in straight lines, but may also be reflected off the
ionosphere layer in order to reach the receiver. Because of this method, sky
waves may produce a skip zone, where no reception is possible. Neither the line-
of-sight nor the reflected wave can be received in the skip zone.
The ionosphere’s density and distance from the earth determine the skip-zone
range and the exact frequencies that are reflected. The ionosphere is a layer of
ionized gases that surround the earth at an altitude of between 20 – 250 miles,
varying with the time of day, season and location. The density of this layer is also
affected by the sun’s solar flare activities. All these factors will determine the
frequencies that are reflected and their angle of reflection off the ionosphere.
2.24.3 Space Wave Propagation
Space wave frequencies have a short wavelength, which allows them to

penetrate the ionosphere. Because of this, space waves are limited to line-of-
sight reception only. This method is used to communicate with satellites (SAT
COMM/GPS).
2.25 ANTENNAS
An antenna is a specially designed conductor that accepts energy from a

transmitter and radiates it into the atmosphere. During reception, an antenna
acts as a device that receives an induced current from passing electromagnetic
waves. This induced current is then sent to the radio receiver circuitry. Where
transmitters and receivers are built into one unit, often called a “Transceiver”, the
same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving.
The size and design of antennas vary in accordance with the frequency or
frequencies of signals being handled. As frequencies increase the wavelengths
decrease and the length of the antenna must be matched as closely as possible
to the wavelengths of the carrier waves. On aircraft the size of the antenna is
normally ¼O.
Most aircraft communication antennas are of the “Blade” type. The radiating
surface is ¼O and is protected by a polyurethane rubber coating. They are
generally termed “Broad band” antennas, meaning they will receive a wide range
of frequencies. The required frequency is filtered out from all the others by
circuitry within the transceiver. Figure 23 shows a typical VHF blade antenna.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ANTENNA
CAP
ANTENNA
EROSION
BOOT
AIRCRAFT MOUNTING
SKIN SCREWS
TUNING
CABLE
ANTENNA
CABLE
VHF Antenna
Figure 23

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 24 shows an Antenna Coupling unit.

ANTENNA
ANTENNA
COUPLER
RECEIVER
Antenna Coupling Unit

Figure 24

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26 MICROPHONES (MIC)
The purpose of the mic is to convert sound energy into electric energy. This
process uses the dynamic energy of the sound wave produced by the pilot. The
sound strikes a diaphragm, and the sound energy is converted into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is then converted into electric energy. There
are four common aircraft microphones:
1. The Carbon Microphone.
2. The Crystal Microphone.
3. The Moving Coil Microphone.
4. Electrostatic Microphone.
2.26.1 Carbon Microphone
The carbon mic contains tiny carbon granules compressed in a sealed chamber.
The voice diaphragm vibrates the carbon chamber, changing the resistance of
the carbon granules. A current that passes through the granules changes in
amplitude as the sound wave moves the diaphragm. Figure 25 shows the
operation of a carbon microphone.
CARBON CONDUCTING
GRANULES SURFACE
CERAMIC
CUP
DIAPHRAGM
INSULATED
PLUNGER
Carbon Microphone
Figure 25

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.2 The Crystal Microphone
The crystal mic is a voltage generator which utilizes the piezoelectric properties of
a quartz crystal. When the crystal is subjected to mechanical pressure it
develops a potential across two of its faces. This potential is dependent on the
pressure exerted on the crystal. This in turn produces an output, which
corresponds exactly to the applied pressure wave.
Figure 26 shows a crystal microphone operation.
DIAPHRAGM ELECTRODES
CRYSTAL
Crystal Microphone Operation

Figure 26

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.3 Moving Coil Microphone
The moving coil microphone is again a type of voltage generator, this time
working on the electromagnetic-induction principle. The diaphragm is attached to
a coil, which is free to move in or out of a strong magnet. Movement of the
diaphragm causes the coil to cut the magnetic flux and a voltage is induced into
the coil. Figure 27 shows the operation of the moving coil microphone.
MAGNET
COIL
Moving Coil Microphone Operation

Figure 27

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.26.4 Electrostatic Microphone
An electrostatic microphone is similar to the carbon microphone in that it controls

the power taken from a dc supply. The principle is that of varying the value of a
capacitor by altering the distance between the capacitor plates. When the
diaphragm moves under the influence of a sound pressure wave the gap between
the plates varies and alters the capacitance. The current varies directly as the
charge across the microphone alters. Figure 28 shows the operation of the
electrostatic microphone.
DIAPHRAGM AIRGAP
MOVEABLE
PLATE FIXED
PLATE
Electrostatic Microphone Operation

Figure 28

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.27 EARPHONES
The earphone is a transducer that converts electrical waves into sound (pressure)
waves. The waveform of the sound wave should be identical to the electrical
wave in all factors but amplitude. Earphones therefore, merely perform the
reverse process of a microphone. The same principles apply to earphones as
they did for microphones.
Figures 29 - 31 show the different types of earphones and microphones found on

modern aircraft.
HEADBAND
PRESS-TO-TALK
SWITCH
MOUTHPIECE
EARPIECE
ONLY USED TO
MONITOR AUDIO
NO TALK FACILITY
Headset and Hand Held Microphone

Figure 29

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
HEADBAND
EAR PIECE
TRANSDUCERS
AUDIO TUBES
AMPLIFIER
BOOM MIC
JACK PLUG
Headset and Hand Held Microphone

Figure 30
HEAD
RESTRAINER
MASK
OXYGEN
COMMUNICATION
CONNECTION
JACK PLUG
Emergency Oxygen Mask

Figure 31

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 32 shows a simplified block schematic diagram of a basic radio system.
DEMODULATOR
DETECTOR &
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
MODULATED
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO
MODULATOR
LOUDSPEAKER
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR
AUDIO
FRQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
RADIO
MICROPHONE
Simplified Radio System

Figure 32

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.28 VHF RADIO COMMUNICATION
Aircraft communication systems normally use the VHF wave band within a
118.000 MHz to 136.000 MHz range. Within this range the channel spacing was
previously 25 KHz, but because of the high demand for more channels it is
currently being reduced to 8.33 KHz. The VHF system provides short-range
(space wave) voice communication between:
1. The aircraft and ground stations.
2. Aircraft to aircraft.
All modern aircraft have at least two VHF systems, on the larger aircraft, there is
also a third system fitted.
Each VHF communication system receives RF energy via its antenna, processes
the RF signal and sends the resulting AF to the digital audio control system, and
the SELCAL (see later). During transmission, microphone audio from the flight
compartment is processed by the VHF communication system and the RF energy
is transmitted via the antenna. Control of the frequency selection is provided on a
VHF Communication control panel. Figure 33 shows a VHF Radio system block
schematic.
AUDIO OUT TO
INTERPHONE
VHF
AERIAL
RF IN & OUT
MICROPHONE
VHF
INTERPHONE COMMUNICATION
TRANSCEIVER
1ST OFF
VHF
CONTROL
PANEL
CAPT
VHF Radio System

Figure 33

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.28.1 VHF Control Panel
The purpose of the VHF communication control panel is to provide frequency

selection (tuning), frequency transfer, and testing of the associated VHF
transceiver.
There are two sets of concentric frequency select knobs. On each set, the out
knobs select the 2nd and 3rd digits and the inner knobs select the 4th and 5th digits.
Above each set of knobs is a frequency select readout for displaying the selected
frequency. A two position VHF COMM TRF (transfer) switch allows the selection
of one of the pre-selected frequencies. The unselected frequency window has a
bar obscuring the readout.
The COMM TEST switch is a push button switch that enables confidence testing
of the receiving circuits in the system. Figure 34 shows a VHF control panel.
VHF COMM
120.60 118.30
TFR
COMM
TEST
VHF Control Panel

Figure 34

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.29 AUDIO CONTROL PANEL
The audio control panels provide microphone selector pushbuttons and listen
switches for the VHF communication systems. The mic selector pushbuttons
connect the microphone to the desired VHF transceiver. The audio volume
controls allow the selection of audio from the transceivers to heard over the flight
compartment speakers or headphones.
Figure 35 shows an audio control panel.
MIC SELECTOR
SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 INOP PA
INT INT
1 - NAV - 2 1 - ADF INOP MKR
MASK B
V R
R/T I/C
BOOM
Audio Control Panel

Figure 35

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.30 VHF TRANSCEIVER
The purpose of the transceiver is to transmit and receive RF signals for voice and
data communication. It is a solid-state device with a minimum transmit power
output of 20 watts.
2.30.1 Control
The transceiver is tested using front panel controls. The “squelch disable”
pushbutton allows the testing of the receiver section of the transceiver. An amber
“transmit monitor” lamp illuminates whenever the transmitted output power
Exceeds 10 watts. There are also “phone” and “mic” jacks available for the
monitoring of the receiver and transmitter.
Figure 36 shows a VHF transceiver.
ON WHEN
TESTS THE
TRANSCEIVER
RECEIVER
POWER > 10W
SECTION OF
THE TRANSCEIVER
SQUELCH TRANSMIT
DISABLE POWER
PHONE MIC
MONITORING
OF AUDIO OPERATION OF
OUTPUT TRANSMITTER
VHF Transceiver
Figure 36

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.31 VHF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA
The purpose of the VHF antenna is to radiate and intercept radio signals in the
VHF frequency range (118.00 – 136.00 MHz). The No 1 VHF antenna is located
on top of the fuselage and VHF No 2 antenna is on the forward underside of the
fuselage. Figure 37 shows the VHF antenna location on a Boeing 737 aircraft.
UPPER VHF AERIAL OPTION FOR 3RD

(NO 2 SYSTEM) VHF SYSTEM
LOWER VHF AERIAL

(NO1 SYSTEM)
VHF Antenna Location (Boeing 737 aircraft)

Figure 37

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.32 SERVICE INTERPHONE
The service interphone system allows communication between the flight crew,
cabin attendants, ground crew or maintenance personnel. Jacks for plug-in
microphone and headsets are installed at various locations in the aircraft. These
jacks allow ground personnel to communicate with each other. An on/off switch
on the aft overhead panel on the flight deck controls the external jacks. Handsets
are available at the forward and aft attendant’s panels. Figure 38 shows the
layout of the Boeing 737 interphone system.
ACCESSORY
INTERPHONE
AUDIO
SERVICE
UNIT
OFF
ON
ATTENDANT’S
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
MKR
PA
STATION
B
FLT
INT
AFT
V
INOP
SERV
INT
MASKS
BOOM
MIC SELECTOR
1 - ADF
INOP
HF - 1
ATTENDANT’S
FORWARD
I/C
STATION
1 - NAV - 2
1 - VHF - 2
R/T
CONTROL
PILOT’S
STAND
MIC
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
EXTERNAL POWER
WHEELWELL
LIGHT
SPEAKER
SERVICE
NOSE
INTERPHONE
NORM
ON
PANEL
FLIGHT
PILOT
CALL
EXTERNAL
HEADSET
POWER
IN USE
NOT
Boeing 737 Interphone System

Figure 38

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.32.1 Attendant Interphone Handsets
The handsets provide the facility for introducing microphone audio into the
system and for listening to audio from the systems other stations. The handsets
resemble the common hand-held telephone receiver. A pushbutton switch is
located on the grip to activate the mic. Handsets are permanently installed at
each attendant’s station. Figure 39 shows the forward attendant’s interphone
panel as fitted to the Boeing 737 aircraft.
LIGHTS
MUSIC SYSTEM
VOLUME CONTROL
MUSIC ATTENDANT’S
CAPTAIN’S CALL LIGHT
CALL LIGHT CALL SYSTEM
CAPTAIN ATTENDANT RESET
HANDSET
HANDHELD
MICROPHONE
Forward Attendant’s Interphone Panel

Figure 39

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.33 FLIGHT & GROUND CREW CALL SYSTEM
The crew call system is a three-way alerting system that signals crew members to
use the interphone system. The three types of crew call are:
Captain’s Call – A “Hi tone” chime sounds once and the Captain’s
CALL light illuminates. This advises the flight crew that a call has been
initiated from the attendant’s panel or ground crew panel.
Attendant Call – A “Two-tone” chime sounds and the “Pink Master

Call” lights illuminates when an attendant’s call is initiated from the
flight compartment or either attendant’s panels. The lights reset at the
attendant’s panels.
Ground Crew Call – When the ground crew call is initiated in the flight
compartment, a call horn sounds in the nose wheel well.
Figure 40 shows the ground crew’s interphone panel, which is located in the nose
wheel bay.
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT SERVICE
NOSE
PILOT WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT CALL
IN USE
LIGHT
Ground Crew’s Interphone Panel

Figure 40

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.34 PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM (PA)
The passenger address (PA) system provides a means of transmitting flight crew
announcements, boarding music and chime signals to the passenger cabin.
Audio inputs from the pilot’s, attendants and tape reproducer are prioritized by the
PA amplifier. The priority is:
1. Pilots.
2. Cabin attendants.
3. Pre-recorded announcements.
4. Boarding music.
The audio with the highest priority is amplified and distributed to the passenger
cabin speakers, attendant’s speakers and audio integration.
Figure 41 shows the layout of the PA system for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
PA
AMPLIFIER
PA SPEAKER
PA MIC
PA SPEAKERS
PA System (Boeing 737 aircraft)

Figure 41

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.35 AUDIO INTEGRATION SYSTEM
Provides the flight crew with a means of controlling all radio communications,
interphone and PA selection and Navigation receiver’s audio signals. Both pilots
have their own individual system and control panel. Figure 42 shows a block
schematic of the audio integration system.
MKR
PA
R
B
FLT
INT
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL

INOP
SERV
INT
MIC SELECTOR
1 - ADF
BOOM
MASKS
INOP
HF - 1
I/C
1 - NAV - 2
1 - VHF - 2
R/T
HAND
MIC
OXYGEN
MASK
SWITCHES
CONTROL
HEADSET
& BOOM MIC
HEADSET
SPEAKER
Audio Integration System

Figure 42

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.36 CONTROL WHEEL MIC SWITCH
The purpose of the INT/MIC switch is to provide PTT input for the boom or
oxygen mask microphones. The switch is a three-position switch on the outboard
horn of the captain’s and first officer’s control wheel. In the MIC position, mic
audio is directed to the selected communication system. In the INT position, mic
audio is connected directly to the flight interphone system.
Figure 43 shows the control wheel INT/MIC switches of a Boeing 737 aircraft
MIC/INT SWITCH
PRESS-TO-TALK
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
Control Wheel INT/MIC Switches

Figure 43

VHF COMM
120.60 118.30
TFR
NO 1
COMM
VHF COMM
TEST
TRANSCEIVER

MIC SELECTOR
MIC SELECTOR
SERV FLT
INT INT
SERV FLT
INT INT

PART 2

MASK B
V R
Figure 44
AEROPLANE
R/T I/C MASK B

V R
BOOM
AERODYNAMICS,
R/T I/C
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
BOOM
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
VHF COMM
VHF Communication System

120.60 118.30
NO 2
TFR VHF COMM
COMM TRANSCEIVER
Figure 44 shows the layout for a two VHF communication system.
TEST
Page 2-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.37 OPERATION OF VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
To operate the system, apply power to the transceiver and allow a short warm up
period.
Select the VHF comm to be used (1 or 2) on the audio selector panel.
Select the frequency of the ground station that is going to be used and 'listen out'
to ensure that no other transmissions are taking place.
With the microphone close to the mouth, key the transmitter with the ac PTT
switch and speak slowly and clearly into the microphone to establish 2-way
communication with the ground station.
Identify your position by airline and aircraft registration using the standard
phonetic alphabet;
1. A = alpha.
2. B = Bravo etc
Once you have finished speaking, release the PTT switch and listen for the reply,
ensuring that it is loud and clear. Complete the check by confirming to the
ground station the receipt of the reply.
Some important points to note are:
1. DO NOT TRANSMIT ON 121.50 MHz. This is a recognized

emergency/distress channel.
2. DO NOT TRANSMIT WHILST REFUELLING IS TAKING PLACE.
3. DO NOT INTERRUPT ATC-AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.38 HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) RADIO COMMUNICATION
The HF communication system (HF COMM) is for communication between the

aircraft and ground stations. The ionosphere reflects the frequencies in the HF
band, so the line of sight does not limit the reception range of the system. That is
why the HF COMM is suitable for long range, worldwide communication.
The frequency range of the system is 2 to 29.999 MHz. Frequency selection is

made in 1 KHz steps, so there are 28000 channels available. There are two
modes of operation. These modes are:
1. AM – AMPLITUDE MODULATION.
2. SSB – SINGLE SIDE BAND.
In the AM mode the system transmits a carrier with amplitude modulation. In the
SSB mode the carrier and the lower side band is removed. The system only
transmits the upper side band (USB). Figure 45 shows a block schematic of a HF
system.
POWER &
HF COMM CONTROL
TUNING &
CONTROL CONTROL HF COMM
PANEL
ANTENNA
RECEIVE COUPLER
TRANSMIT
MIC
KEY
AUDIO SELCAL
OUT SYSTEM
HF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
HF Communication
Figure 45

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
A HF aerial is of quite a different technology compared with most other aerials for
two reasons. One is the power output of the Transmitter (400 watts) the other
reason is that the quarter wavelength (O/4) distance is about 40 metres at 2 MHz
but only 2.5 metres at 30 MHz, so broadband aerials are not possible. Instead all
HF aerials are fed from an aerial coupling unit to attempt to electrically lengthen
or shorten the aerial for optimum matching, especially to the transmitter. Figure
46 shows the location of the HF antenna and coupling unit.
HF ANTENNA
HF COUPLER
UNIT
HF Antenna & Coupling Unit Locations

Figure 46

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
To get optimal power transfer from transmitter to antenna, the antenna

impedance must be the same as the transmitter output impedance (50-Ohm).
For each frequency the impedance of an antenna is different. Since the antenna
on the aircraft has a fixed length, it is only suitable for one frequency. The
antenna coupler tunes filters to adapt the antenna impedance for each different
frequency to the transmitter output impedance.
2.38.1 HF Communication Control Panel
The purpose of the HF Control Panel is to enable frequency selection, mode

control and RF sensitivity adjustment. There are four frequency select controls
for MHz, 100 KHz, 10 KHz and 1 KHz frequencies. The function selector allows
selection of the operating mode as either:
1. OFF.
2. Upper Side Band (USB).
3. Lower Side Band (LSB).
4. Amplitude Modulation (AM).
Note: LSB is reserved for military operations and normally, civil aircraft have the
facility to select USB.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 47 shows a HF communication control panel.
MEGA HERTZ SELECTED KILO HERTZ

SELECTOR FREQUENCY SELECTOR
DISPLAY
2 .0 0 0
LSB AM
USB
OFF
RF
SENS
FUNCTION RECEIVER
100 KILO HERTZ 10 KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR GAIN
SELECTOR SELECTOR
SWITCH CONTROL
HF Communication Control Panel

Figure 47

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.39 SELECTIVE CALLING SYSTEM (SELCAL)
The selective calling (SELCAL) system allows a ground station to call an aircraft
or group of aircraft using HF and VHF communications without the flight crew
having to continuously monitor the ground station’s frequency.
A coded signal is transmitted from the ground station and received by the
aircraft’s HF or VHF transciever tuned to the appropriate frequency. The output
code is fed to a SELCAL decoder, which, activates aural and visual alerts if and
only if the received code corresponds to the code, selected in the aircraft.
Figure 48 shows the SELCAL System layout.
VO
E IC
C OD E
CO
AL M
LC M
UN
SE IC
AT
IO
N
AIRLINE DISPACH
COMMUNICATION
ARINC ARINC
REMOTE VOICE
STATION STATION
SELCAL Operation
Figure 48

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
There are a total of 10920 codes available and these codes are assigned to
airline organisations, who in turn assign codes to their individual aircraft either on
a flight number or aircraft registration basis.
2.39.1 SELCAL Control Panel
The SELCAL control panel consists of SELCAL warning lamps annotated to the
associated radio system, i.e. VHF 1, VHF 2, HF 1 and HF 2. It also provides a
means of resetting the SELCAL, thus cancelling the visual and audio indications.
The panel also has a self-test button to allow testing of the SELCAL system.
Normally located along with the control panel is the SELCAL code selection
panel, this is used to set the aircraft’s SELCAL code.
Figure 49 shows a SELCAL selector panel.
SELCAL CODE SELECTION PANEL
SELCAL ANNUNCIATOR PANEL
SELCAL Selector Panel & Code Select Panel

Figure 49

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.39.2 SELCAL Decoder
The SELCAL decoder determines if the aircraft’s four-letter code has been
received and produces alert signals in the form of indicators on the SELCAL
control panel and audio tones to the audio system. The alerts are cancelled by
pressing the corresponding alert light on the SELCAL control panel. A self-test of
the alerts lights and audio warnings is carried out using the self-test button on the
SELCAL control, panel. Figure 50 shows a block schematic of the SELCAL
system.
LAMP DRIVES
5 WIRE
CODE
SELECT
RESET
TEST
AUDIO SYSTEM
CHIME LAMP
VHF 1 SWITCH
SWITCH
LAMP
VHF 2
SWITCH
VHF 3 DECODER LAMP

SWITCH
VHF 4 LAMP
SWITCH
VHF 5 LAMP
INTERRUPTER SWITCH
CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
SELCAL Block Schematic

Figure 50

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.40 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER (CVR)
The CVR records the last 30 minutes of the flight deck audio on continuous
magnetic tape. All voice communication is recorded. Operation is automatic
from engine start until five minutes after engine shutdown. The CVR receives
sound from the flight compartment and audio signals from the digital audio control
system. The voice recorder continuously records the sound and audio. Sensing
of the “aircraft-on-ground” and “parking-brake-set” is used to permit bulk erasure
of the voice recording.
The system records on four channels:
1. Channel 1 - Records the third crew member’s summed microphone

and telephone audio or passenger address system audio.
2. Channel 2 – Records the First Officer’s summed microphone and

telephone audio.
3. Channel 3 – records the Captain’s summed microphone and

telephone audio.
4. Channel 4 – records the control panel area microphone audio.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 51 shows a block schematic of the Cockpit Voice Recorder System.
TAPE AND
MOTOR
ERASE
HEAD
BRAKE ON
PARKING
RECORDING
HEADS
TEST
GROUND
A/C ON
3
1
ERASE
MIC
METER
Cockpit Voice Recorder System

Figure 51

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.40.1 Voice Recorder Control Panel
The control panel allows remote monitoring and testing of the voice recorder unit
detects flight compartment sounds and conversations. It also controls bulk
erasure of the recording tape. It contains an area microphone (capacitive) which
senses compartment audio. Pressing the erase button for a minimum of 2
seconds erases the tape. This is only possible when the aircraft is on the ground
and the parking brake is set.
Pressing the TEST switch tests all 4 recording channels in sequence. The meter
indicates green during TEST if the test tone is recorded at a sufficient level. The
headset jack is used to monitor all 4 recorded channels. Figure 52 shows a CVR
control panel.
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER
2 4 6 8
0 10
TEST ERASE
HEADSET
600 OHMS
CVR Control Panel

Figure 52

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.40.2 Voice Recorder Unit
The voice recorder unit makes a 30 - minute recording of four audio channels on
a continuous polyamide tape. The recorder is shock and heat resistant and
contains an underwater locating beacon. It has a TEST switch to initiate an
internal test signal to be recorded. A phone jack monitors the recording as it is
being recorded. The Status indicator provides monitoring of the tape transport
operation and the recorded signal during test. Figure 53 shows a voice recorder
unit.
TEST
PHONE
STATUS IND
UNDERWATER
LOCATING
DEVICE
BATTERY
LIFE LABEL
Voice Recorder Unit

Figure 53
2.40.3 Underwater Locator Device
The underwater locating device is a battery operated acoustical beacon that is

activated when the unit is submerged in water. The unit provides a usable signal
for 30 days. The battery replacement date decal is located on the front of the
device.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.41 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Aircraft navigation is simply a matter of knowing the direction in which we are

flying and our position in relation to the earth's surface. Navigation through the
air is a relatively simple matter of calculating the distance travelled in a given
period of time. In today's modern aircraft we have various methods of assisting
the crew to navigate their aircraft safely form A to B. These navigational aids are
as follows:
1. Very High Frequency - Omni-Range - VOR.
2. Distance Measuring Equipment - DME.
3. Instrument Landing System - ILS.
4. Marker Beacon System MBS.
5. Automatic Direction Finder - ADF.
6. Air Traffic Control - ATC.
7. Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System – TCAS.
8. Inertial Navigation System - INS.
9. Radio Magnetic Indicator - RMI.
10. Global Positioning System - GPS.
11. Compass Systems
12. Radio Altimeter System – RADALT.
13. Weather Radar.
2.42 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI RANGE (VOR)
VOR is an international standard navigational beacon system enabling a number

of aircraft to receive signals from a ground station and determine the bearing to
the station, with respect to magnetic North. This is possible because the VOR
ground station, or transmitter, continually broadcasts an infinite number of
directional radio beams or radials. The VOR signal received in an aircraft is used
to operate a visual indicator from which the pilot determines the bearing of the
VOR station with respect to the aircraft.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.42.1 VOR Operation
The VOR operates in the frequency band from 108.00 to 117.95 MHz. The VOR
ground-station transmits a combination of signals in all directions (omni-
directional). The VOR ground station modulates two signals of 30 Hz each on the
carrier. One 30 Hz signal is the reference signal and the other is the variable
signal. The phase shift between the reference signal and the variable signal
depends on the radial over which the two signals are transmitted. The radial in
the magnetic north direction has a phase shift of 0 degrees, the radial in the
magnetic east direction (90 degrees) has a phase shift of 90 degrees, the radial
in the magnetic south direction (180 degrees) has a phase shift of 180 degrees,
etc. In this way the VOR ground station identifies each radial with the phase shift
between the reference and the variable signal.
Figure 54 shows a VOR ground station and corresponding transmitted

frequencies.
000º
VOR RADIAL = 45°

VOR BEARING = 225°
270º 090º
VOR
BEACON
180º
VOR Ground Station Operation

Figure 54

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The radial information is transmitted from the ground station to the aircraft. When
the VOR system in the aircraft detects the phase shift between the reference and
the variable signal it knows on which radial the aircraft flies. For the bearing
information (opposite direction from aircraft to ground station) the VOR system
adds 180 degrees. In this way the bearing to the station depends on the detected
radial from the station.
The phase shift between the reference and the variable signal identifies a radial
with respect to the magnetic north. The bearing, which is a result from the
detected radial, has therefore also a relation with the magnetic north. So the
bearing output from the VOR system is a MAGNETIC bearing output. This
information is displayed on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Figure 55 shows a
schematic of the VOR system.
RECEIVED
VOR SIGNAL
30Hz AM
ROTATION
INTERMEDIATE DETECTOR
FREQUENCY
AUDIO
RF IF DETECTOR TO PHASE
DETECTOR
RADIO
FREQUENCY
30Hz FM
REFERENCE
DETECTOR
RMI VOR Indications

Figure 56

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 57 shows VOR control panel from a BAe 146 aircraft.
1 1 1 . 25 ACT
1 1 1 . 30 PRE
I
STBY L
NORM
VOR/DME S
T
E
ON TEST S
T
HOLD
DME
SPILT
NAV 1 NAV 2
068 246
COURSE COURSE
VOR Control & Course select Panels (BAe 146)

Figure 57

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.42.2 Deviation Calculations
For lateral guidance in airways, the pilots can select a VOR course on the VOR
control panel. The deviation from the selected course is calculated in the
systems, which show course and deviation (EFIS) or use it for guidance
(AFCAS). Also calculated from the difference between received radial and
selected course is the information if the aircraft flies to or from a VOR station.
The navigation display shows selected course, deviation, and the to-from
information. Figure 58 shows HSI indications for a selected VOR course.
“FROM” FLAG
IN VIEW
SELECTED
COURSE
“TO” FLAG
IN VIEW
SELECTED VOR
RADIAL
POSITION WRT
VOR RADIAL
AIRCRAFT
E 12
6
3
15
S
N
33
21
24
30 W
0 0 0
MILES
HSI Indications for a VOR Course

Figure 58

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.42.3 VOR Aerial Locations
Figure 59 shows the location of the VOR aerials on a Boeing 737 and a Fokker
100 aircraft.
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON TOP
OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON EITHER
SIDE OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
VOR Aerial Locations (B737 & F100 Aircraft)

Figure 59

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
VOR operates in the VHF band responding to horizontally polarised

transmissions. It shares its frequency range with the Localiser facility of the ILS
and in so doing often shares the aerial system and much of the receiver unit. The
aerial can be mounted on either side of the fin and much be Omni directional to
receive VOR/ILS signals from all directions or flush mounted on either side of the
nose section. Figure 60 shows the construction of a typical VOR/ILS aerial
system.
No 2 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 2 SYSTEM
VOR/ILS Aerial
Figure 60

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 61 shows a VOR system block diagram.

ANTENNA
T
S
L
E
S
I
AUDIO
VOR
PRE
ACT
VOR/DME
TEST
1 1 1 . 25
1 1 1 . 40
ON
HOLD
NORM
DME
STBY
CONTROLLER
VOR
RECEIVER
VOR
D
F
A
E 12
6
VOR
3
15
S
N
33
21
VOR
0 24
W 3
COMPASS HEADING
D
F
A
SELECTOR
NAV
COURSE
246
NAV 2
E 12
6
3
15
SPILT
S
N
33
21
24
30
COURSE
W
068
NAV 1
000
MILES
VOR Block Diagram

Figure 61

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.43 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)
The Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) system gives distance information

from the aircraft to the DME ground station. The system interrogates the ground
station and the ground station gives a reply on every interrogation. The system
then detects the time-delay between the transmitted interrogation and the
received reply and from the time-delay the distance is calculated. Figure 62
shows the principle of DME operation.
DME Operation
Figure 62

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The DME system operates in the UHF band and interrogates the ground stations
in the frequency range from 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz. Within this frequency range
the following ground stations are interrogated:
1. DME - Gives a reply on every DME interrogation.
2. VOR/DME - Combination of VOR and DME station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
3. ILS/DME - Combination of ILS and DME station and gives ILS guidance and
distance replies.
4. MLS/DME - Combination of Microwave Landing System (MLS) and DME

station.
5. TACAN - Military station for bearing and distance information for military
aircraft. The civil aircraft use only the distance replies from these stations.
6. VOR/TAC - Combination of VOR and TACAN station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
In addition to the distance reply, identification tones (1350Hz) are received from
the ground station and may be heard as Morse code by the aircrew through
headsets.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 63 shows the location of DME antennas.
DME No 1
DME No 2
BROADBAND
L-BAND AERIAL
DME antenna Location

Figure 63

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 64 shows the principle of operation of the DME.
DME TRANSPONDER AIRCRAFT
RX TX
TIMING
INTERROGATION
50P SEC RANGE

DELAY CIRCUIT
REPLY
TX RX
DISTANCE
OUTPUT
DME Operation
Figure 64
2.43.1 DME Operation
In the DME system, the airborne unit transmits a 2-pulse group to the ground
station at a random rate of 150 pulse pairs a second. After a 50P second delay,
the ground station retransmits the pulse groups. Pulses are sent at one
frequency and received at a different frequency, using the same antenna.
Since many aircraft are using the DME facility, the aircraft equipment must be
capable of selecting only those pulses that are replies from their own
interrogations. A “Search and Track” circuit within the airborne equipment
achieves the selection.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Search and Track circuit receives all DME replies and examines them to
determine which ones have a regular time relation with respect to the transmitted
signals. When the search circuit determines which received pulses are due to its
own interrogations, the tracking unit locks onto them. At the same time, the pulse
rate is greatly reduced; this in turn reduces the interrogation/replies at the ground
station.
Figure 65 shows a basic DME system.
CONTROL
VHF/NAV
PANEL
1 2 3.5
NAUTICAL MILES
INDICATOR
DME
INTERPHONE
SYSTEM
FLIGHT
FREQUENCY SYNTHESISER
RCVR/XMITTR
DELAYED
VARIABLE DELAY
CONTROLLED
TX
MATCHING
CIRCUITS
LOCK
ON
IDENTIFICATION
TRANSMITTER
DUPLEXER
RECIEVER
AUDIO
SUPPRESSOR
BUS
Basic DME System

Figure 65

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.43.2 DME Controller
Figure 66 shows a NAV/VHF controller from a BAe 146 aircraft.
NAV/VHF Controller
Figure 66
All DME frequencies are paired with either VOR or ILS system frequencies.
When these system frequencies are selected, the associated DME facility will be
automatically be selected. DME frequency range is 960 to 1215 MHz.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.44 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
The purpose of the ILS is to provide approach information to the pilot when, due
to weather, the runway is obscured from view. A typical system will allow the pilot
to bring the aircraft to within ½ mile of the runway and less than 200ft above the
runway without external visual reference. At these heights (Decision Height), the
pilot must have visual on the runway and surrounding environment in order to
continue the landing process. If the runway cannot be identified then a missed
approach procedure is carried out. Aircraft will then be flown around the circuit
for another attempt at landing.
Aircraft are fitted with ILS in three categories, these are:
Cat I - Operation down to a minimum of 200ft-decision height and runway visual

range of 800m with a high probability of approach success.
Cat II - Operation down to a minimum below 200ft decision height and runway
visual range of 800m, and to as low as 100ft decision height and runway visual
range of 400m with a high probability of approach success.
Cat III - Three options A, B and C.
A - Operation down to and along the surface of the runway,

with external reference during final phase of the landing
down to runway visual range minimum of 200m.
B - Operation to and along the surface of the runway and

taxiways, with external reference during final phase of the
landing down to runway visual range minimum of 50m.
C - Operation to and along the surface of the runway and

taxiways without external visual reference.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 67 shows the different ILS categories.
CAT 1
200
CAT 2 A B C
100
CAT 3
800 600 400 200 50 0
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (METRES)
ILS Categories
Figure 67
2.44.1 ILS Operation
The ILS gives horizontal and vertical guidance in the approach to a runway. The
system uses two radio signals:
1. The localizer for lateral guidance.
2. The Glideslope for vertical guidance.
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 108.000 - 111.95 MHz. The localizer
transmits two beams one on the right side of the runway centerline and one on
the left side of the runway centerline.
The beam on the right side has a 150 Hz modulation; the one on the left side has
a 90 Hz modulation. When the aircraft flies over the extended centerline to the
runway it receives both signals with an equal strength. When the aircraft deviates
from the centerline there is a difference in signal strength. The system measures
the deviation from the center line by comparing the strength of these 90 Hz and
150 Hz modulation signals.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The Glideslope signal comes from a transmitter at the beginning of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 329.3 MHz to 335 MHz. The
Glideslope transmits two beams to give vertical guidance over the glidepath. The
glidepath has an angle of approximately 3°.
The Glideslope beams are just like the localizer, modulated with 90 Hz and 150
Hz. The 90 Hz modulated beam is above and the 150 Hz modulated beam is
below the 3° glidepath. The system measures the deviation from the difference in
signal strength between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulation signals.
Figures 67 and 68 show the localizer and Glideslope principles respectively.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
DOTS ON HSI
DEVIATION
LATERAL
2 DOT ENVELOPE
(COURSE WIDTH)
AT THRESHOLD
700 ft WIDE
5º ON SHORT RUNWAY
4º ON LONG RUNWAY
LOC
TX
Localizer Principle
Figure 67

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
3,000 ft
COURSE WIDTH 1.4º
2 DOT ENVELOPE
1,000 ft
28 ft
3º
14 ft
1,000 ft
100 ft
50 ft
Glideslope Principle
Figure 68

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.44.2 Antennas
Figure 69 shows the location of the antennas.
VOR/LOC AERIAL
LOCATED ON THE
VOR/LOC No 2
OTHER SIDE
GLIDESLOPE
GLIDESLOPE
No 1 & No 2
LOCATED ON THE
VOR/LOC No 2
OTHER SIDE
VOR/LOC AERIAL
ILS Antenna Location (BAe 146 & F50 aircraft)

Figure 69

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.44.3 LOC/GS Operation
Figure 70 shows a diagram for the LOC signal detection and display.
RF AMP
WARNING
FLAG
IF AMP
SUM
DETECTOR 90Hz FILTER
250mV OUT
OF VIEW
150Hz FILTER
DIFFERENCE
DEVIATION
BAR
LOC Signal detection and Display

Figure 70
The receiver of the Glideslope and Localiser operate in the same manner and
include conventional “Radio Frequency (RF)”, “Intermediate Frequency (IF)” and
Audio Frequency (AF)” stages. The output of the AF detector stage is the 90Hz
and 150Hz signals. These are separated in there respective filters.
The two signals are 180q out of phase and so oppose each other. The two
signals are first summed together, and if the result is more than 250mV, the
LOC/GS flag will be out of view (ILS valid). If the result of the summing is less
than 250mV, the LOC/GS flags will remain in view (ILS invalid).
If the 90Hz and 150Hz signals have the same amplitude, they cancel each other
out in the difference circuit. This produces a 0V output to the deviation bar that is
basically a centre reading dc voltmeter. With the output 0V the deviation bar will
be central indicating the aircraft is positioned on the extended runway centerline
(LOC) or on the glideslope.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
If the aircraft is positioned in the 90Hz signal lobe, then the amplitude of the 90Hz
signal will be strongest. This will give a fly right signal (LOC) or fly down signal
(G/S). If the difference is -75mV, the deviation bar will be located on the first dot
right, if the difference is -150mV or more, then the deviation bar will be located on
the second dot right. If the 150Hz is the stronger signal, then the voltage
produced will be positive. This will give either fly left (LOC) or fly up (G/S).
Because the result of the difference circuit is either a +dc half-cycle or –dc half-
cycle, the signals are condensed using the capacitor, which will produce a steady
dc signal. These condenser capacitors also damp the deviation bar movement.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.45 MARKER BEACON SYSTEM (MBS)
In order to inform the pilot as to the aircraft's progress, during an ILS approach,
along the centerline and Glideslope, there is a marker system. The markers are
normally annotated as follows:
1. Outer marker.
2. Middle Marker.
3. Inner marker.
Note: With Category II & III, ILS the inner marker is virtually non existent.
The marker beacons transmit at a certain frequency to identify it and in a fan

shaped pattern. They will also illuminate certain colour warning lamps within the
flightdeck to inform the pilot of reaching the marker. Figure 71 shows the layout
of the marker system for an ILS approach.
3000 Hz
WHITE
400 Hz
INDICATOR
BLUE
1300 Hz INDICATOR
AMBER
INDICATOR
MORSE MORSE
MORSE
INNER MIDDLE OUTER

MARKER MARKER MARKER
Marker Beacon System

Figure 71

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The inner marker is not normally used with ILS, but is now used as an “Airways”
marker, used for enroute navigation or as holding points above an airport.
Airways markers are identified when the white light comes on and a 3,000Hz tone
is heard.
Outer and Middle markers are associated with the ILS. The outer marker is
usually located directly below the point where an aircraft on a localizer course
should intersect the Glideslope and start descending. An outer marker is
identified when the blue light comes on and a 400 Hz tone is heard. The middle
marker is located near the runway, usually under a point on the glidepath where a
descent could be discontinued. The middle marker is identified when the amber
light comes on and a 1,300 Hz tone is heard. A 75MHz carrier modulates all
marker frequencies. Figure 72 shows the system layout.
MARKER BEACON
SYSTEM AUDIO AUDIO
75 MHz AMPLIFIER (MORSE)
FILTER
RF AMP & 3000 Hz

DETECTOR FILTER AMP INNER
1300 Hz
MARKER FILTER AMP MIDDLE
HIGH
400 Hz
FILTER AMP OUTER
LOW
SENSITIVITY
SWITCH
Marker Beacon System Layout

Figure 72

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.46 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)
The ADF system detects the direction to a Non Directional Beacon (NDB) and
receives audio identification from the NDB. The ADF system shows the direction
to the NDB on the instruments with the bearing pointer. The ADF system
operates in the frequency range of 190 to 1750 KHz.
The NDB ground station transmits an AM (Amplitude Modulated) signal in circular

pattern in all directions. The radio energy induces RF (Radio Frequency) signals
in a combined loop and sense antenna. The receiver antenna signals are
measured in an ADF receiver and calculated to give relative station bearing.
Figure 73 shows the operation of ADF.
MAGNETIC
NORTH
ADF2
ADF 1
300° HEADING 60°
RF 30°
S
AD I G N
F 2 AL M
ST S F F RO
AT RO S N
IO M N AL TIO
A
N SIG ST
RF DF1
A
RELATIVE
BEARINGS
ADF Operation
Figure 73

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.46.1 Loop Aerial
A 'loop aerial', is very sensitive to its directional position, meaning that when it is
pointing towards the transmitter, it receives a null signal but when pointing away
from the transmitter, it receives a strong signal. This ability is used to
automatically find the direction of the transmitter, relative to the aircraft heading
and is displayed on the Radio Magnetic Indicator, RMI.
Figure 74 shows the operation of a loop antenna.
LOOP AERIAL
AT 90° TO SIGNAL
NO INCREASING NO INCREASING NO
CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT
RADIO TRANSMITTER
Loop Antenna
Figure 74

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.46.2 Station Line
By turning the loop aerial to either of its two null positions the directions of a line
joining the receiver with the transmitting station can be determined. This is called
the “Station Line” and is shown in Figure 75.
Station Line
Figure 75
As there are two nulls, 180q apart, the transmitter could be towards “A” or “B” in
figure 75, causing ambiguity. To resolve this ambiguity it is necessary to change
the directional properties of the aerial system. This is achieved by introducing a
second aerial which combines its horizontal polar diagram with that of the loop
aerial which produces a new heart shaped polar diagram called a “Cardioid”.
Figure 76 shows the resultant Cardioid polar diagram from the loop and sense
aerials.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
LOOP
POLAR
DIAGRAMS
SENSE CARDIOID
POLAR POLAR
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
Cardioid Polar Diagram

Figure 76
2.46.3 Sensing the Correct Null
The signal from the ADF transmitter induces a voltage into the loop using the
magnetic component of the signal. The sense aerial has a voltage induced by
the electric component of the signal. This produces 90q phase shift between the
loop and sense aerial voltages. Whether the sense voltage leads or lags the loop
voltage depends on which side of the station line the signal is coming from.
Given a means of rotating the loop and switching the sense aerial into and out of
the receiver input and a means of reversing the polarity of the loop signal to
produce a Cardioid either to the right or left of a relative bearing pointer, aural
sensing can be carried out. The bearing pointer is positioned along the loop axis
in one direction as shown if figure 77.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
BEARING POINTER
ALONG LOOP AXIS IN
ONE DIRECTION
LEFT CARDIOID RIGHT CARDIOID
ADF AERIAL
Bearing Point and Cardiods

Figure 77
On tuning to the ADF beacon and listening to the audio signal, the loop is turned
until a minimum signal is received. The loop is then offset in one direction by 15q
- 20q. The sense aerial is now switched in for the right Cardioid and the loudness
of the audio noted. The loop is then reversed to give a left Cardioid, again the
loudness is noted. The sense aerial is now switched out and the loop is tuned in
the direction of the Cardiods, which gave the loudest signal. The first null the
loop aerial reaches will be the correct one and the pointer will now be pointing the
ADF transmitter the system is tuned to. Figure 78 shows this operation.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ADF
BEACON ADF
BEACON
RIGHT IS
LOUDEST
LEFT IS
NOT AS
LOUD
POINTING TO
WRONG NULL
TURN TOWARDS
LOUDEST FOR
CORRECT NULL LOOP OFFSET
BY 15° - 20°
Calculating the Correct Null

Figure 78

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In modern aircraft, the loop aerials are more streamlined and do not physically
rotate (rotated electronically).
Figure 79 shows the location of the ADF antenna.
NO 2 SENSE
ANTENNA & NO 2 LOOP
COUPLER ANTENNA
NO 1 SENSE NO 1 LOOP
ANTENNA & ANTENNA
COUPLER
ADF Antenna Location

Figure 79

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 80 shows a block schematic of the ADF system.
SENSE
ANTENNA AUDIO
FWD
90° BALANCED AUDIO

MIXER
SHIFT MODULATOR DETECTOR
A
RS 47Hz 47Hz
OSC FILTER
B
ADF PHASE DETECTOR 47Hz

TX M & MODULATOR
ANTENNA or
ADF RECEIVER
AC SUPPLY
TR
RMI
ADF System
Figure 80
The fixed loop antenna is preferred because it is more trouble free, due to fewer
moving parts. The fixed loop consists of two loops orientated at 90q to each
other. Each loop is connected to an individual stator of a receiving resolver within
the ADF receiver.
If the received station is directly ahead of the aircraft, loop “A” will have maximum
signal and the “B” loop will have a null signal. In this case the resolver will see a
null signal due to the orientation of the resolver rotor. If the aircraft is positioned
to the right of the station, then the “A” will see a null and the “B” will see maximum
signal. Intermediate positions of the received station would result in intermediate
positions of the resultant filed in the stator of the resolver.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 81 shows a typical ADF control panel.
ADF ANT
ADF 1 OFF TEST ADF 2
191. 5 ADF 2 1231.5

BFO
1 2
NORM
ADF ANT
OFF TEST
ADF 1
ADF Control panel

Figure 81

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADIO BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS)
2.47.1 Transponders
Transponders are not exactly navigation equipment, but are a "Means of

Identification". In the past, a radar controller watching his scope, would only know
if the 'blip' that he saw on his screen was the aircraft he was 'working', (handling),
if it identified itself by carrying out a turn at the controller's request. With the ATC
system, the controller can identify the aircraft by interrogating it.
The ground control has two types of radar with which to control air traffic:
1. Primary Radar.
2. Secondary Radar.
The primary radar provides the ground station operator with a symbol on his
surveillance radarscope for every aircraft in his area. It is a reflection type of
radar system not requiring any response from the aircraft.
The secondary radar system uses what is called an “ATC Transponder” in the
aircraft. The transponder is a transmitter/receiver, which transmits in response to
an interrogation from the ground station secondary surveillance radar system.
The primary and secondary radar antennas are mounted on the same rotating
mounting, and therefore both always look in the same direction at the same time.
The aircraft’s transponder reply can also include a special code, which identifies
that particular aircraft on the scope. If the pilot receives instructions from the
ground station to do so he presses his “Ident” button on his control panel. This
causes the display on the radarscope to change thus identifying the aircraft to the
controller. The transponder can also transmit the aircraft’s altitude, which can be
displayed to the ground controller.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 82 shows the operation of the ATCRBS.
GROUND SURVEILLANCE
RADAR
ATC RADAR
ANTENNAS
ATC RADAR
TRANSMITTER/
RECEIVER
ATCRBS Operation
Figure 82

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47.2 ATCRBS Control Panel
The ATCRBS control panel allows the flight crew to select ATC 1 or 2, mode of
operation and ident code select. Figure 83 shows a typical ATCRBS control
panel.
STBY MODE
A B
1 2
2567
ALT RPTG
ALT
IDENT
1 2
OFF
SOURCE
ATCRBS Control Panel

Figure 83
The ground station transmits its interrogation pulse on 1030 MHz as a three-pulse
signal. The space between the first and third pulse signifies the mode reply
required. The system operates in four modes, these are:
1. Mode A - Identify.
2. Mode B - Obsolete.
3. Mode C - Pressure Altitude.
4. Mode D – Unassigned.
2.47.3 Mode A
Operating mode for normal operation. The transponder is ready to respond to

ATC any interrogations and replying with a unique identification code. The pulse
spacing is 8Psec.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.47.4 Mode C
Altitude reporting capability of the transponder. The aircraft's Air Data System
will supply altitude information for use in Mode C replies. This allows the ground
controller, to not only identify an aircraft but also to ascertain its altitude, so he
can guide it safely through his allocated airspace. The pulse spacing is 21Psec.
Figure 84 shows the interrogation pulses for mode A & C.
8O SEC
P1 P3
P2
MODE “A” IDENTITY ONLY
21O SEC
P1 P3
P2
MODE “C” IDENTITY & ALTITUDE
Mode A & C Interrogation Pulses

Figure 84
Once the aircraft’s transponder has received an interrogation, it will reply with
either Mode A or C (1090 MHz). One problem to overcome with this system is an
aircraft replying to interrogations when not being illuminated by the primary radar.
To overcome this, a suppression pulse is transmitted (P2). If the amplitude of this
pulse is equal/greater than P1, the aircraft will not reply to the interrogation.
Figure 85 shows the operation of the suppression signal.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
BEAM (P1, P2 & P3)

ANTENNA MAIN
P3
DIRECTIONAL
REPLY
P2
ROTATION
P1
SIDELOBES
P3
NO REPLY
P2
ANTENNA (P2)
DIRECTIONAL
OMNI
P1
ATCRBS Suppression
Figure 85

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 86 shows the basic layouts of the ATCRBS.
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
A IR D A TA
A LT R PTG ON
C O M P U TE R
NO 1 N O 1 A TC
T RA N S P O N DE R
N0 1
A TC AE R IAL
N O 1 EN A B LE
A TC R BS M OD E, 40 9 6, ID EN T
D UA L SU P P
N O 2 EN A B LE
C O N TR O L
N0 2
A TC AE R IAL
N O 2 A TC
A IR D A TA T RA N S P O N DE R
A LT R PTG ON
C O M P U TE R
NO 2
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
A TC R BS V ID E O C O M P A RA T O R
T RA N S P O N DE R SU PP P1 - P2
D IP LE X E R R E CE IV E R
D E CO DE R
1 0 3 0 M Hz M O D E A or C
M OD E SW
SEL F T EST
S E L FT E S T
C IRC U ITS
4096 ID E NT
T RA N S M ITT E R M O D U LA TO R
E N CO DE R
1 0 9 0 M Hz 1 0 9 0 M Hz
E N CO DE D
H E IG H T
ATCRBS Block Schematic

Figure 86

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.48 MODE S TRANSPONDERS
After 1989, a completely new type of ATC system was introduced. This system is
called mode S (mode select). The new interrogators and transponders are called
ATCRBS/mode S because they are capable of working with the old ATCRBS
equipment or with new mode S equipment.
For the present time, there will be ATCRBS only equipped aircraft sharing
airspace with ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft. On the ground, most of the
stations are ATCRBS-only, but there will be a gradual phasing in of
ATCRBS/mode S ground stations. Both types of station can interrogate either
type of transponder, and both types of transponder can respond to either type of
ground station. TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogate both ATCRBS and
ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft just as an ATCRBS/mode S ground station
would do.
At some point in the future, all ATCRBS-only equipment will be phased out for
commercial aviation. All ground stations and aircraft will then operate in mode S
only.
The mode S ATC system enables ground stations to interrogate aircraft as to

identification code and altitude just as the ATCRBS system does. These
interrogations, however, are only part of a larger list of (up-link and downlink)
formats comprising the mode S data link capacity. One of the most important
aspects of mode S is the ability to discretely address one aircraft so that only the
specific aircraft being interrogated responds, instead of all transponder-equipped
aircraft within the range of the interrogator.
2.48.1 Mode S Interrogation & Replies
The ATCRBS/Mode S system operates in a way similar to ATCRBS. As a

transponder equipped aircraft enters the airspace, it receives either a Mode S
only all-call interrogation or an ATCRBS/Mode S all-call interrogation which can
be identified by both ATCRBS and Mode S transponders. ATCRBS transponders
reply in Mode A and Mode C, while the Mode S transponder replies with a Mode
S format that includes that aircraft's unique discrete 24-bit Mode S address. The
Mode S only all-call is used by the interrogators if Mode S targets are to be
acquired without interrogating ATCRBS targets.
2.48.2 Discrete Addressing
The address and the Location of the Mode S aircraft is entered into a roll-call file
by the Mode S ground station. On the next scan, the Mode S aircraft is discretely
addressed. The discrete interrogations of a Mode S aircraft contain a command
field that may desensitise the Mode S transponder to further Mode S all-call
interrogations. This is called Mode S lockout. ATCRBS interrogations (from
ATCRBS only interrogators) are not affected by this lockout. Mode S
transponders reply to the interrogations of an ATCRBS interrogator under all
circumstances.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
TCAS separately interrogates ATCRBS transponders and Mode S transponders.

During the Mode S segment of the surveillance update period, TCAS commences
to interrogate Mode S intruders on its own roll-call list.
Because of the selective address features of the Mode S system, TCAS

surveillance of Mode S- equipped aircraft is straightforward.
Figure 87 shows “Mode S” operation.
TRANSPONDER
PRIMARY
RADAR
REPLY INTERROGATION
1090MHz 1030MHz
ECHO
PRIMARY
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE
SURVEILLANCE RADAR (PSR)
RADAR (SSR)
ATC
RADAR
SCOPE
ROLL CALL
NEIGHBORING
GROUND LINK AIRSPACE
AIRPLANE 1
CONTROLLER
AIRPALNE 2
(MODE S)
AIRPLANE 3
Mode S Operation
Figure 87
2.48.3 Operation
As a Mode S aircraft flies into the airspace served by another Mode S

interrogator, the first Mode S interrogator may send position information and the
aircraft's discrete address to the second interrogator by way of ground lines.
Thus the need to remove the lockout may be eliminated, and the second
interrogator may schedule discrete roll-call interrogations for the aircraft.
Because of the discrete addressing feature of Mode S, the interrogators may
work at a lower rate (or handle more aircraft).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
In areas where Mode S interrogators are not connected by way of ground lines,
the protocol for the transponder is for it to be in the lockout state for only those
interrogators that have the aircraft on the roll-call. If the aircraft enters airspace
served by a different Mode S interrogator, the new interrogator may acquire the
aircraft via the replay to an all-call interrogation. Also, if the aircraft does not
receive an interrogation for 16 seconds, the transponder automatically cancels
the lockout. Figure 88 shows the different types of interrogation pulses for
ATCRBS and Mode S systems
(UNLESS LOCKED
(UNLESS LOCKED
REPLY MODE S
REPLY MODE S
TRANSPONDERS
ATCRBS/MODE S
ONLY MODE S
DISCREETLY
ADDRESSED
NO REPLY
REPLIES
ATCRBS
REPLY
OUT)
OUT)
TRANSPONDERS
ATCRBS
NO REPLY
NO REPLY
REPLY
REPLY
REPLY
P4
P4
P6
P6
P3
P3
P3
P5
P5
INTERROGATION PULSE
P2
P2
P2
P2
P2
P1
P1
P1
P1
P1
ATCRBS & Mode S Interrogation Signals

Figure 88

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM
2.49.1 TCAS Introduction
TCAS is an airborne traffic alert and collision avoidance advisory system, which
operates without support from ATC, ground stations. TCAS detects the presence
of nearby intruder aircraft equipped with transponders that reply to Air Traffic
Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS) Mode C or Mode S interrogations.
TCAS tracks and continuously evaluates the threat potential of intruder aircraft to
its own aircraft and provides a display of the nearby transponder-equipped
aircraft on a traffic display. During threat situations TCAS provides traffic
advisory alerts and vertical maneuvering resolution advisories to assist the flight
crew in avoiding mid-air collisions.
TCAS I provides proximity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition
of intruder aircraft. It is intended for use by smaller commuter and general
aviation aircraft.
TCAS II provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories (recommended

escape maneuvers) in a vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline, larger
commuter and business aircraft will use TCAS II equipment.
TCAS III Still under development, will provide traffic advisories and resolution
advisories in the horizontal as well as the vertical direction to avoid conflicting
traffic.
The level of protection provided by TCAS equipment depends on the type of

transponder the target aircraft is carrying. It should be noted that TCAS provides
no protection against aircraft that do not have an operating transponder.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Table 1 shows levels of protection offered by the transponder carried by

individual aircraft.
OWN AIRCRAFT
TCAS I TCAS II TCAS III
Mode A
XPDR Only TA TA TA
Mode C TA
Or Mode S TA TA VRA
XPDR VRA HRA
TARGET AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
TA TA
TCAS I TA VRA VRA
HRA
TA TA
TCAS II TA VRA VRA
TTC HRA
TTC
TA TA
TCAS III TA VRA VRA
TTC HRA
TTC
TA – TRAFFIC ADVISORY
VRA - VERTICAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
HRA - HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
TTC - TCAS – TCAS COORDINATION
Table 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.2 The TCAS II System
TCAS II provides a traffic display and two types of advisories to the pilot. One
type of advisory, called a traffic advisory (TA) informs the pilot that there are
aircraft in the area, which are potential threats to his own aircraft. The other type
of advisory is called a resolution advisory (RA), which advises the pilot that a
vertical corrective or preventative action is required to avoid a threat aircraft.
TCAS II also provides aural alerts to the pilot. Figure 89 shows TCAS protection
area.
TCAS Protection Area

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 89
When a Mode S or Mode C intruder is acquired, TCAS begins tracking the
intruder. Tracking is performed by repetitious TCAS interrogations in Mode S and
Mode C. When interrogated transponders reply after a fixed delay. Measurement
of the time between interrogation transmission and reply reception allows TCAS
to calculate the range of the intruder. If the intruder's transponder is providing
altitude in its reply, TCAS is able to determine the relative altitude of the intruder.
Figure 90 shows a block schematic diagram of the TCAS system
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
OMNI
OMNI
TRANSPONDER
MODE S/TCAS
CONTROLLER
MODE S
UNIT
AURAL
ALERT
DATA BUS
BAROMETRIC
ALTIMETER
TA/RA
ALTIMETER
RADAR
COMPUTER
TCAS
UNIT
TA/RA
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
OMNI
TCAS System Block Schematic

Figure 90

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Transmission and reception techniques used on TCAS directional aerials allows

TCAS to calculate the bearing of the intruder. Based on closure rates and
relative position computed from the reply data, TCAS will classify the intruders as
non-threat, proximity, TA, or RA threat category aircraft.
If an intruder is being tracked, TCAS displays the intruder aircraft symbol on an

electronic VSI or joint-use weather radar and traffic display. Alternatively in some
aircraft the TCAS display will be on the EFIS system.
The position on the display shows the range and relative bearing of the intruder.
The range of TCAS is about 30 NM in the forward direction. Figure 91 shows
TCAS TA and RA calculations.
SURVEILLANCE
OWN TRACK & BEARING & TARGET

TRACKING
AIRCRAFT SPEED CLOSING PEED AIRCRAFT
TRAFFIC
ADVISORY
(TA)
RANGE ALTITUDE
TEST TEST
THREAT
DETECTION
(RA)
RA
SENSE CLIMB RATE OF STRENGTH
TCAS/TCAS
SELECTION DECENT CLIMB/DECENT SELECTION
CO-ORDINATION
RA
ADVISORY
TA ANNUNCIATION
(TA/RA)
AIR GROUND
COMMUNICATION ATC
TCAS RA and TA Calculations

Figure 91

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.3 Aural Annunciation
Displayed traffic and resolution advisories are supplemented by synthetic voice

advisories generated by the TCAS computer. The words "Traffic, Traffic" are
annunciated at the time of the traffic advisory, which directs the pilot to look at the
TA display to locate the intruding aircraft. If the encounter does not resolve itself,
a resolution advisory is annunciated, e.g., "Climb, Climb, Climb". At this point the
pilot adjusts or maintains the vertical rate of the aircraft to keep the VSI needle
out of the red segments.
Figure 92 gives an overview of TCAS air-to-air operation.
AIRCRAFT 2
TCAS AIRCRAFT 2 TRANSMITS
ATCRBS ALL CALL
AIRCRAFT 2 RECIEVES SQUITTER
(1030 MHz) AIRCRAFT 3
AND ADDS AIRCRAFT 1 TO
RESPONDS MODE C
ITS ROLL CALL, THEN INTERROGATES
(1090 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 1 (TCAS 1030 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 3
ATCRBS ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1
MODE S ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1 TRANSMITS
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SQUITTER SIGNALS
(MODE S 1090 MHz)
ALL 3 AIRCRAFT REPLY

TO INTERROGATIONS FROM
GROUND STATION
(1090 MHz)
GROUND STATION
TRANSMITS
INTERROGATIONS
AT (1030MHz)
TCAS OPERATION IS COMPLETELY INDEPENDENT

NOTE: OF GROUND STATION OPERATION
TCAS Air-to-Air Operation

Figure 92

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 93 shows typical Electronic VSI - TCAS indications.
Honeywell
2
1 4
.5
+03 6
-05
0
-03
6
.5
1 4
2
Electronic VSI - TCAS indications

Figure 93

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 94 shows examples of TCAS warnings as displayed on EADI.
HOLD LNAV VNAV

LOC G/S
110.90 DH150 VERTICAL

142 DME 25.3 2400 SPEED LINE
CMD 5200
180
5000 6
2
160 10 10
1
14 4800
1
REF
120 10 10 4600 2
6
MDA
CRS 123
4700
100
FLY OUT
OF AREA STD
29.86IN
117 MAG 750
RA FLIGHT
BOUNDARY
(RED)
6
2
GREEN
1
SEGMENT
1
RED
SEGMENT 2
6
VERTICAL SPEED
LINE
TCAS Warnings EADI Display

Figure 94

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Displayed traffic and resolution advisories are supplemented by synthetic voice

advisories generated by the TCAS computer. The words "Traffic, Traffic" are
annunciated at the time of the traffic advisory, which directs the pilot to look at the
TA display to locate the traffic. If the encounter does not resolve itself, a
resolution advisory is annunciated. The aural annunciation’s listed in Table 2
have been adopted as aviation industry standards.
The single announcement "Clear of Conflict" indicates that the encounter has
ended (range has started to increase), and the pilot should promptly but smoothly
return to the previous clearance.
Traffic Advisory: TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC

Resolution Advisories:
Preventative:
MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED, MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED. Ensure
that the VSI needle is kept out of the lighted segments.
Corrective:
CLIMB-CLIMB-CLIMB. Climb at the rate shown on the RA indicator:
normally 1500 fpm.
CLIMB.CROSSING CLIMB-CLIMB, CROSSING CLIMB. As above except
that it further indicates that own flightpath will cross through that of the
threat.
DESCEND-DESCEND-DESCEND. Descend at the rate shown on the RA
indicator: normally 1500 fpm.
DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND-DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND.
As above except that it further indicates that own flight path will cross
through that of the threat.
REDUCE CLIMB-REDUCE CLIMB. Reduce vertical speed to that shown
on the RA indicator.
INCREASE CLIMB-INCREASE CLIMB. Follows a "Climb" advisory. The
vertical speed of the climb should be increased to that shown on the RA
indicator nominally 2500 fpm.
INCREASE DESCENT-INCREASE DESCENT. Follows a "Descend"
advisory. The vertical speed of the descent should be increased to that
shown on the RA indicator: nominally 2500 fpm.
CLIMB, CLIMB NOW-CLIMB, CLIMB NOW. Follows a "Descend"
advisory when it has been determined that a reversal of vertical speed is
needed to provide adequate separation.
DESCEND, DESCEND NOW-DESCEND. DESCEND NOW. Follows a
"Climb" advisory when it has been determined that a reversal of vertical
speed is needed to provide adequate separation.
Table 2

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.4 Performance Monitoring
It is important for the pilot to know that TCAS is operating properly. For this
reason a self-test system is incorporated. Self-test can be initiated at any time,
on the ground or in flight, by momentarily pressing the control unit TEST button.
If TA's or RAs occur while the self-test is activated in flight, the test will abort and
the advisories will be processed and displayed.
When self-test is activated an aural annunciation "TCAS TEST" is heard and a

test pattern with fixed traffic and advisory symbols appears on the display for
eight seconds.
After eight seconds "TCAS TEST PASS" or "TCAS TEST FAIL" is aurally
announced to indicate the system status.
2.49.5 TCAS Units
Figure 95 shows a typical Mode S/TCAS control unit.
TA DSPLY XPDR FAIL

XPDR
AUTO ON
TA
TC
OFF ON STBY
AS
IDENT
7777 TA
/RA
ATC
C
A
S ALT RPTG
TCAS XPDR
OFF TEST 1 2
1 2
Dual Mode S Control Unit

Figure 95

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The controls operate as follows:
(1) Transponder Code Display
This shows the ATC code selected by the two dual concentric knobs below
the display. The system select switch (XPDR 1-2) controls input to the
display.
Certain fault indications are also indicated on the display. "PASS" will
show after a successful functional test and "FAIL" will show if a high level
failure is detected under normal operating conditions.
Also shown is the active transponder by displaying ATC 1 or 2.
(2) Mode Control Selector Switch
This is a rotary switch labeled STBY-ALT RPTG OFF-XPNDR-TA-TA/RA.

The TCAS system is activated by selecting traffic advisory (TA) or traffic
and resolution advisory (TA/RA). When STBY is selected both
transponders are inactive. In the ALT RPTG OFF position the altitude data
sources are interrupted preventing the transmission of altitude.
(3) ABV-N-BLW Switch
This selects the altitude range for the TCAS traffic displays. In the ABV
mode the range limits are 7,000 feet above and 2,700 feet below the
aircraft. In the BLW mode the limits are 2,700 feet above and 7,000 feet
below. When normal (N) is selected the displayed range is 2,700 feet
above and below the aircraft.
(4) Traffic Display Switch
When AUTO is selected the TCAS computer sets the displays to "pop-up"
mode under a traffic/resolution advisory condition. In MAN the TCAS
displays are constantly activated advising of any near by traffic.
(5) Range Switch
This selects different nautical mile traffic advisory horizontal range

displays.
(6) IDENT Push-button
When pushed causes the transponder to transmit a special identifier pulse

(SPI) in its replies to the ground.
(7) Flight Level Push-button (FL)
This is used to select between relative and absolute attitude information.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 96 shows a TCAS & Mode S computers.
ATC TPR/MODE S BENDIX/KING
RT-950
Honeywell TCAS
COMPUTER UNIT
TPR
"SELF TEST" TCAS TA

PASS DISP ALT
Replace TCAS CU if ONLY the red TCAS Fail
lamp is on during any status display (following TCAS RA
the lamp test). When additional lamps are on,
DATA IN
FAIL DISP
correct indicated subsystem PRIOR to
replacement of TCAS CU. TOP RAD TOP
ANT ALT
BOT XPDR BOT
ANT BUS
TCAS
HDG ATT
MAINT
DATA LOADER PUSH
TO
TEST RESERVED
RESERVED
BITE
TEST
TCAS COMPUTER
MODE S COMPUTER
Honeywell TCAS & Mode S Computers

Figure 96
2.49.6 Self Test
If the test button is momentarily pressed fault data for the current and previous
flight legs can be displayed on the front panel annunciators.
When the TEST is initially activated all annunciators are on for 3 seconds and
then current fault data is displayed for 10 seconds, after which the test terminates
and all annunciators are extinguished.
If the test button is pressed again during the 10-second fault display period the
display is aborted and a 2-second lamp test is carried out. The fault data
recorded for the previous flight leg is then displayed for 10 seconds.
This procedure can be repeated to obtain recorded data from the previous 10
flight legs.
If the test button is pressed to display fault data after the last recorded data all
annunciators will flash for 3 seconds and then extinguish.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.49.7 Data Loader Interface
Software updates can be incorporated into the computer via a set of ARINC 429
busses and discrete inputs. These allow an interface to either an Airborne Data
Loader (ADL) through pins on the unit's rear connector or to a Portable Data
Loader (PDL) through the front panel "DATA LOADER" connector.
The computer works with either ARINC 603 data loader low speed bus or ARINC
615 high-speed bus.
A personal computer (PC) can be connected to the front panel "DATA LOADER"
connector. This allows the maintenance log and RA event log to be downloaded
to the PC via an RS 232 interface.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)
The modern inertial navigation system is the only self-contained single source for
all navigation data. After being supplied with initial position information, it is
capable of continuously updating extremely accurate displays of the aircraft’s:
1. Position.
2. Ground Speed.
3. Attitude.
4. Heading.
It can also provide guidance and steering information for the auto pilot and flight
instruments. Figure 97 shows a representation of Inertial Navigation principal.
Navigation Triangle
WIND SPEED & DIRECTION

PRESENT
POSITION
DC G
(A DIN
)
ED EA
CK
RA ED
PE S H
T
’S E VELOCITY NORTH/SOUTH (VN)
RS T’
FT DSP
AI F
A
& CRA
R N
RC O U
AI G R
R
&
AI
TRK DRIFT
HDG
EAST/WEST VELOCITY (VE)
Basic Navigation triangle

Figure 97

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.1 General Principle
In order to understand an inertial navigation system we must consider both the

definition of “Inertia” and the basic laws of motion as described by Sir Isaac
Newton. Inertia can be described as follows:
1. Newton’s first law of motion states:
“A body continues in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless

acted upon by an external force”.
2. Newton’s second law of motion states:
“The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the sum of the forces acting
on the body.”
3. Newton’s third law states:
“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
With these laws we can mechanise a device which is able to detect minute
changes in acceleration and velocity, ability necessary in the development of
inertial systems. Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration
by the application of basic calculus. The relationship between acceleration,
velocity and displacement are shown in figure 98.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
FEET PER SECOND

ACCELERATION
VELOCITY FEET
PER SECOND
PER SECOND
DISTANCE IN
FEET
TIME
Acceleration, Velocity and Distance Graphs.

Figure 98
Note; Velocity changes whenever acceleration exists and remains constant when
acceleration is zero.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.2 INS Operation
The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the

accelerometer. Two accelerometers are mounted in the system. One will
measure the aircraft’s accelerations in the north-south direction and the other will
measure the aircraft’s accelerations in the east-west direction. When the aircraft
accelerates, the accelerometer detects the motion and a signal is produced
proportional to the amount of acceleration. This signal is amplified, current from
the amplifier is sent back to the accelerometer to a torque motor, which restores
the accelerometer to its null position.
The acceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a
time multiplication device. It starts with acceleration, which is in feet per second
squared (feet per sec per sec) and end up after multiplication by time with velocity
(feet per second).
The velocity signal is then fed through another integrator, which again is a time
multiplier, which gives a result in distance in feet. So from an accelerometer we
can derive:
1. Ground Speed.
2. Distance Flown.
If the computer associated with the INS knows the latitude and longitude of the
starting point and calculates the aircraft has travelled a certain distance
north/south and east/west it can calculate the aircraft’s present position.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 99 shows INS Operation.
DISTANCE
DESTINATION
POSITION
PRESENT
GROUNDSPEED
VELOCITY
2ND
DISTANCE FLOWN
INTERGRATORS
1ST
PRESENT POSITION
COMPUTER
RECENTRING (FEEDBACK)
MASS
ACCELEROMETER
POSITION
START
POSITION
START
INS Operation
Figure 99

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
To accurately compute the aircraft’s present position, the accelerometer must be

maintained about their sensing axes. To maintain the correct axes, the
accelerometers are mounted on a gimbal assembly commonly referred to as the
platform. The platform is nothing more than a mechanical device, which allows
the aircraft to go through any attitude change at the same time maintaining the
accelerometers level. The inner element of the platform contains the
accelerometers as well as gyroscopes to stabilize the platform. The gyros
provide signals to motors, which in turn control the gimbals of the platform.
Figure 100 shows an Inertial Platform (IP).
AZIMUTH
AXIS
ROLL
AXIS
PITCH
AXIS
Inertial Platform
Figure 100

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
We can also measure the angular distance between the aircraft and the platform
in the three axes, giving us the aircraft’s pitch, roll and heading angles. These
can be used in the navigation computations and also give heading and attitude
information to the relative systems.
The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. When this
gimbal tips off the level position, the spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The
case of the gyro moves with the gimbal, and the movement is detected by a
signal pick-off within the gyro. This signal is amplified and sent to the gimbal
motor, which restores the gimbal back to the level position. Figure 101 shows the
operation of gyro stabilization.
INPUT AXIS
RATE
GYROSCOPE
OUTPUT
AXIS
PLATFORM
GEARS AMPLIFIER
MOTOR
TACHO
GEN
Gyro Stabilization
Figure 101

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.3 Earth Rate Compensation
The INS gyro operates on the principle of gyroscopic inertia, which is the
characteristic of a rotating mass to resist any forces, which tend to change the
direction of its spin axis. Because the earth rotates in space, the space-
orientated gyro appears to rotate with respect to an earth bound observer. This
makes the gyro unsuitable for use as an earth-fixed reference unless the gyro is
deliberately torqued to rotate at a rate proportional to the earth’s rotational rate
(earth rate = 15º/hour). When torqued in this manner, the spin axis appears
stationary, and the gyro is effectively slaved to the earth’s co-ordinate system.
Figure 102 shows the calculations of earth rate for the north and vertical gyros.
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 °/H R ) X C O S LA TIT UD E
E A R TH R AT E
9 0°
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 15 D EG /H R
A T 0 ° L A T IT U D E
N O R TH G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 0 D E G /HR 4 5°
A T 9 0 ° L A T IT U D E
E A R TH R AT E
\
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 1 0 . 6 º /H R 0°
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 °/H R ) X S IN L AT ITU D E
E A R TH R AT E 9 0°
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 0 D E G /HR
A T 0 ° L A T IT U D E
V E RT ICA L G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 15 D EG /H R 4 5°
E A R TH R AT E \
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 1 0 . 6 º /H R 0°
North Gyro Earth Rate Calculation

Figure 102

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.4 Vehicle Rate Compensation
These corrections are used to keep the platform horizontal and pointing to north.
The aim is to cancel out the apparent movement of the gyro as the aircraft moves
over the earth’s surface. These corrections are applied to all three gyros as
torque to the gyro torque motor, the amount of torque being dependant on the
direction of the aircraft movement over the earth’s surface.
x Aircraft Moving North
This will cause the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This effect
is corrected by applying a signal to the East gyro’s torque motor. The strength of
the signal is dependant on the angular rate of change which is found out by the
following formula:
Z= AIRCRAFT’S VELOCITY
EARTH’S RADIUS
Figure 103 shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling North.
Aircraft Travelling North

Figure 103

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
x Aircraft Moving East
This again causes the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This is
corrected by applying a signal to th torque motor of the North gyro. Figure 104
shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the North
axis rotated.
Aircraft Travelling East (North Axis Rotated)

Figure 104

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
When moving east at any latitude other than the equator, the movement also
causes the platform to move away from pointing north. To correct this, we apply
a signal to the torque motor on the vertical gyro. The size of the signal is
dependant on the latitude and the sped of the aircraft. Figure 105 shows the
vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the vertical axis rotated.
Aircraft Travelling East (Vertical Axis Rotated)

Figure 105

Page 2-134
P T (EARTH RATE CORRECTION)
N
/ / ZN = (15º/Hr + RATE OF CHANGE LONG) COS LAT
GYRO
O M (VEHICLE RATE CORRECTION)
P T (EARTH RATE CORRECTION)

V
/ / ZV = (15º/Hr + RATE OF CHANGE LONG) SIN LAT
GYRO
O M (VEHICLE RATE CORRECTION)
PART 2
Figure 106
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
Earth & Vehicle Rate Corrections

Figure 106 shows the Earth rate & Vehicle rate corrections.
P T
E
/ / (VEHICLE RATE CORRECTION) ZE = (RATE OF CHANGE LAT)
GYRO
O M

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.5 Alignment
The accuracy of an INS is dependent on the precise alignment of the inertial

platform to a known reference (True North), with respect to the latitude and
longitude of the ground starting position at the time of “Starting Up” the system.
The inertial system computer carries out a self-alignment calibration procedure
over a given period of time before the system is ready to navigate the aircraft.
The computer requires the following information prior to alignment so that it can
calculate the position of “True North”:
1. Aircraft’s Latitude Position.
2. Aircraft’s Longitude Position.
3. Aircraft’s Magnetic Heading (from Mag Heading System).
The alignment procedure can only be carried out on the ground, during which the
aircraft must not be moved. Once started the alignment procedure is automatic
2.50.6 The Navigation Mode
In the navigation mode the pitch, roll attitude and the magnetic heading
information is updated mainly with the attitude changes sensed by gyros.
Because the IRS is aligned to true north a variation angle is used to calculate the
direction to magnetic north. Each location on earth has its own variation angle.
All variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are stored in the
IRS.
The present position is updated mainly with accelerations sensed by the

accelerometers. The accelerations are corrected for the pitch and roll attitude
and calculated with respect to the true north direction.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.7 Strapdown Inertial Navigation
As already discussed, inertial navigation is the process of determining an

aircraft’s location using internal inertial sensors. Unlike in the gimballed system,
in a strapdown system the accelerometers and gyros are mounted solidly to the
aircraft’s axis. There are no gimbals to keep the sensors level with the earth’s
surface, so that one sensor is always on the aircraft’s longitudinal axis, one on
the lateral axis and one on the vertical axis. Likewise the gyros are mounted
such that one will detect the aircraft’s pitch, another the roll and the third the
aircraft’s heading.
The accelerometer produces an output that is proportional to the acceleration

applied along the sensor’s input axis. A microprocessor integrates the
acceleration signal to calculate a velocity and position. Although it is used to
calculate velocity and position, acceleration is meaningless to the system without
additional information.
Example: Consider the acceleration signal from the accelerometer strapped to

the aircraft’s longitudinal axis. It is measuring the forward acceleration of the
aircraft, however, is the aircraft accelerating north, south, east, west, up or down?
In order to navigate over the surface of the earth, the system must know how its
acceleration is related to the earth’s surface.
Because the accelerometers are mounted on the aircraft’s longitudinal, Lateral

and vertical axes of the aircraft, the IRS must know the relationship of each of
these axes to the surface of the earth. The Laser Ring Gyros (LRGs) in the
strapdown system make measurements necessary to describe this relationship in
terms of pitch, roll and heading angles. These angles are calculated from angular
rates measured by the gyros through integration e.g. Gyro measures an angular
rate of 3q/sec for 30 seconds in the yaw axes. Through integration, the
microprocessor calculates that the heading has changed by 90q after 30 seconds.
Given the knowledge of pitch, roll and heading that the gyros provide, the
microprocessor resolves the acceleration signals into earth-related accelerations,
and then performs the horizontal and vertical navigation calculations. Under
normal conditions, all six sensors sense motion simultaneously and continuously,
thereby entailing calculations that are substantially more complex than a normal
INS. Therefore a powerful, high-speed microprocessor is required in the IRS in
order to rapidly and accurately handle the additional complexity.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 107 shows the block schematic of the Strap-Down inertial Navigation
system.
COMPUTER
ALTIMETER
POSITION
VECTOR
SOLVER
ACCELEROMETERS
COORDINATE
CONVERTER
LONGITUDE
LATITUDE
B MATRIX
GYROS
PITCH
ROLL
YAW
Strap-Down Inertial Navigation System

Figure 107

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.8 Laser Ring Gyro (LRG) Operation
Laser Ring Gyros (LRG) are not in fact gyros, but sensors of angular rate of
rotation about a single axis. They are made of a triangular block of temperature
stable glass. Very small tunnels are precisely drilled parallel to the perimeter of
the triangle, and reflecting mirrors are placed in each corner. A small charge of
Helium-neon gas is inserted and sealed into an aperture in the glass at the base
of the triangle.
When a high voltage is run between the anodes and the cathode, the gas is
ionized, and two beams of light are generated, each travelling around the cavity
in opposite directions.
Since both contrarotating beams travel at the same speed (speed of light), it
takes the exact same time to complete a circuit. However, if the gyro were
rotated on its axis, the path length of one beam would be shortened, while the
other would be lengthened. A laser beam adjusts its wavelength for the length of
the path it travels, so the beam that travelled the shortest distance would rise in
frequency, while the beam that travelled the longer distance would have a
frequency decrease.
The frequency difference between the two beams is directly proportional to the
angular rate of turn about the gyro’s axis. Thus the frequency difference
becomes a measure of rotation rate. If the gyro doesn’t move about its axis, both
frequencies remain the same and the angular rate is zero.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 108 shows a Laser Ring Gyro.
FRINGE
PATTERN
CORNER
PRISM
Laser Ring Gyro (LRG)

Figure 107

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.9 Mode Select Unit (MSU)
The mode select unit controls the mode of operation of the IRS. There are two
types in common use:
1. Six Annunciator MSU.
2. Triple-Channel MSU.
The six-annunciator MSU provides mode selection, status indication and test
initiation for one Inertial Reference Unit (IRU). Figure 109 shows six-annunciator
MSU and Figure 110 shows a triple-channel MSU.
LASEREF NAV
ATT
ALIGN ALIGN FAULT
NAV RDY NO AIR
OFF
ON BATT BATT FAIL
TEST
IRS Six-Annunciator MSU

Figure 109

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
NAV NAV NAV

ATT ATT ATT
ALIGN ALIGN ALIGN
OFF OFF OFF
SYS 1 SYS 2 SYS 3
ALIGN ALIGN ALIGN
ON BATT ON BATT ON BATT TEST
BATT FAIL BATT FAIL BATT FAIL
FAULT FAULT FAULT
IRS Triple-Channel MSU

Figure 110
2.50.10 Mode Select Unit Modes
IRS Modes or set by setting the MSU mode select switch as follows:
OFF-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. The IRU remains in the alignment mode until the mode select switch is set
to OFF, NAV or ATT. The NAV RDY annunciator illuminates upon completion of
the alignment.
OFF-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. Upon completion of the alignment mode the system enters the navigation
mode.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
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ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters navigate mode from alignment mode upon completion of
alignment.
NAV-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the align downmode from the navigate mode.
NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the align downmode and after 30 seconds, automatically re-
enters the navigate mode.
ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT
The IRU enters the erect attitude submode for 20 seconds, during which the MSU
ALIGN annunciator illuminates. The IRU then enters the attitude mode.
2.50.11 MSU Annunciators
ALIGN – Indicates that the IRU is in the alignment mode. A flashing ALIGN
annunciator indicates in-correct LAT/LONG entry, excessive aircraft movement
during align.
NAV RDY
Indicates that the alignment is complete.
FAULT
Indicates an IRS fault.
ON BATT
Indicates that the back-up battery power is being used.
BATT FAIL
Indicates that the back-up battery power is inadequate to sustain IRS operation
during back-up battery operation (less than 21 volts).
NO AIR
Indicates that cooling airflow is inadequate to cool the IRU.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.12 Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU)
The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for display and provides initial
position or heading data to the IRUs. Figure 111 shows an ISDU.
Honeywell LASEREF
DSPL SEL
P/POS N
TK/GS WIND 1 3
2
HDG/STS
TEST
BRT W H E
4
1 5
N
36
2
S
SYS DSPL 7
W H E9
8
2 4 5 6
1 3
ENT CLR
S0
7 8
9
OFF
Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU)

Figure 111

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.13 Keyboard
The keyboard is used to enter latitude and longitude in the alignment mode or
magnetic heading in the attitude mode. The ISDU then sends the entered data
simultaneously to all IRUs when ENT pressed.
The keyboard contains 12 keys, five of the 12 keys are dual function: N/2, W/4,
H/5,E/6 AND S/8. A dual function key is used to select either the type of data
(latitude, longitude or heading) or numerical data to be entered. Single function
keys are used to select only numerical data.
The CLR (clear) and ENT (enter) keys contain green cue lights which, when lit
indicate that the operator action is required. CLR is used to remove data
erroneously entered onto the display; ENT is used to send data to the IRU.
2.50.14 Display
The 13-digit alphanumeric spilt display shows two types of navigation data at the
same time. The display is separated into one group of 6 digits (position 1 through
6) and one group of 7 digits (positions 7 through 13). Punctuation marks (located
in positions 3,5,6,10,12,and 13) light when necessary to indicate degrees,
decimal points, and minutes.
2.50.15 System Display Switch (SYS DSPL)
The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position 1,2 or 3) from which the
displayed data originates. If the switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or
receive data from any of the 3 IRUs.
2.50.16 Display Selector Switch (DSPL SEL)
The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data displayed on the ISDU.
TEST – Selects a display test that illuminates all display elements and keyboard
cue lights to allow inspection for possible malfunctions. The DSPL SEL switch is
spring loaded and must be help in this position.
TK/GS – Selects track angle in degrees on the left display and ground speed in
knots on the right.
PPOS – Selects the aircraft’s present position as latitude on the left display and
longitude on the right. Both latitude and longitude are displayed in degrees,
minutes, and tenths of a minute.
WIND – Selects wind direction in degrees on the left display and wind speed in
knots on the right display.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
HDG/STS – Selects heading or alignment status for display, depending upon the
current IRU mode. Heading is displayed in degrees and tenths of degrees, and
time-to-alignment completion is displayed in minutes and tenths of minutes. In
the alignment mode, the ISDU displays alignment status (time to NAV ready) in
the right display. In the NAV mode, the ISDU displays true heading in the left
display. In the attitude mode, the ISDU displays magnetic heading in the left
display and ATT in the right display.
2.50.17 Dimmer Knob
The dimmer knob is mounted on, on operates independently of, the DSPL SEL
switch. As the dimmer knob is rotated clockwise, the display brightens.
2.50.18 Inertial Reference Unit (IRU)
The IRU is the main electronic assembly of the IRS. The IRU contains an inertial
sensor assembly, microprocessors, and power supplies and aircraft electronic
interface. Accelerometers and LRG in the inertial sensor assembly measure
acceleration and angular rates of the aircraft.
The IRU microprocessors performs computations required for:
1.Primary Attitude.
2.Present Position.
3.Inertial Velocity Vectors.
4.Magnetic and True North Reference.
5.Sensor Error Compensation.
The power supplies receive a.c. and d.c. power from the aircraft and back-up
battery. It supplies power to the IRS, and provides switching to primary a.c. and
d.c. or backup battery power
The aircraft electronic interface converts ARINC inputs for use by the IRS. The
electronic interface also provides IRS outputs in ARINC formats for use by
associated aircraft equipment.
A fault ball indicator and a manual “Interface Test” switch are mounted on the
front of the IRU and are visible when the IRU is mounted in an avionics rack.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 112 shows an IRU
Inertial Reference Unit
INTERFACE
TEST

Figure 112

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.50.19 IRS Alignment Mode
During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and
the direction of true north.
2.50.20 Gyro Compass Process
Inside the inertial reference unit, the three gyros sense angular rate of the aircraft.
Since the aircraft is stationary during alignment, the angular rate is due to earth
rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rate to determine the direction of
true north.
2.50.21 Initial Latitude
During the alignment period, the IRU computer has determined true north by
sensing the direction of the earth’s rotation. The magnitude of the earth’ rotation
vector allows the IRU computer to estimate latitude of the initial present position.
This calculated latitude is compared with the latitude entered by the operator
during initialization.
2.50.22 Alignment Mode
For the IRU to enter ALIGN mode, the mode select switch is set to either the
ALIGN or NAV position. The systems software performs a vertical levelling and
determines aircraft true heading and latitude.
The levelling operations bring the pitch and roll attitudes to within 1q accuracy
(course levelling), followed by fine levelling and heading determination. Initial
latitude and longitude data must be entered manually either via the IRS CDU or
the Flight Management System CDU.
Upon ALIGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically if the mode
select switch was set to NAV during align. If the mode select switch was set to
ALIGN, the system will remain in align until NAV mode is selected. The
alignment time is approximately 10 minutes.

Honeywell LASEREF
Page 2-148
DSPL SEL
P/POS N
TK/GS WIND 1 3
2
HDG/STS
A TEST
BRT W H E
4 N
5 6
INTERFACE
1 2 3
I TEST
S
SYS DSPL 7
W H E9
8
2 4 5 6
R 1 3
ENT CLR
S
0
OFF
7 8 9
C IRU 2
R
A INERTIAL SYSTEM
F Inertial Reference Unit
DISPLAY UNIT
T
S
INTERFACE
PART 2
TEST
Figure 113
Y
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
IRS Block Schematic

MODULE 11 BOOK 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
T IRU 3 NAV NAV NAV

ATT ATT ATT

ALIGN ALIGN ALIGN
E
OFF OFF OFF
M
Inertial Reference Unit SYS 1 SYS 2 SYS 3
S ALIGN ALIGN ALIGN
ON BATT ON BATT ON BATT TEST

Figure 113 shows a block schematic of a three IRU inertial system.
BATT FAIL BATT FAIL BATT FAIL
FAULT FAULT FAULT

INTERFACE
TEST

MODE SELECT UNIT
IRU 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 114 shows a block schematic of the interface of the IRS with the aircraft’s
avionics systems.
COMPUTERS
CONTROL
DAMPER
FLIGHT
YAW
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
THRUST
PROXIMITY
WARNING
GROUND
MANAGEMENT
REFERENCE
COMPUTER
INERTIAL
FLIGHT
PANEL
MODE
UNIT
IR
WEATHER
RADAR
COMPUTER
AUTOBRAKE
ACQN UNIT
AIR DATA
ANTI-SKID
FLIGHT
SYSTEM
DATA
EHSI/EADI
RDMI
VSI
IRS Interface – Block Schematic

Figure 114

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.51 RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)
The radio magnetic indicator is a very useful navigation tool due to its ability to
display several different pieces of information simultaneously. Primarily, the
circular rotating 'card' is a self- correcting compass which is much more accurate
that the older, floating magnet type of compass. Secondly, the displays from the
ADF or VOR units can be displayed on top of the card, using two pointers, one
single and one double. This allows the pilot to see, in one instrument, his
heading and the orientation of up to two ground stations, relative to the aircraft,
using two different navigation systems. Figure 115 shows an RMI display and
aircraft position with respect to an ADF and VOR station.
AIRCRAFT HEADING
MAGNETIC NORTH
BEARING TO
VOR 2
BEACON
BEARING TO
ADF 1
BEACON
N
33 3
30
6
W
A A
24
12
D D
F 21 15 F
S
VOR VOR
RMI Display
Figure 115

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.51.1 Dual Distance Radio Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI)
The Dual-Distance Radio-Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI) is an instrument that gives

indications for various navigation systems:
1. Magnetic heading from Compass system.
2. Bearings from VORs or ADFs.
3. Distances from the DMEs.
2.51.2 DDRMI Principle
Figure 116 shows the principle operation of the DDRMI system.
VOR NO 2
NM
BEARING TO
.5
75
VOR NO 2 = 30º
=
CE
AN
IST
ED
DM
65.5 NM
TANCE =
DME DIS
BEARING TO VOR NO 1
VOR NO 1 = 87º
DDRMI Operation
Figure 116

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 111 shows a DDRMI indications resulting from the situation in figure 117.
65.5 75.5
DME - 1 DME - 2
N 3
33
30
6
W
V V
24
12
O O
R 15 R
21 S
ADF ADF
DDRMI Indication
Figure 117

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 118 shows a block schematic of the DDRMI system and the source of all
displayed data.
DDRMI
F/O’S
SYSTEM
COMPASS
SYSTEM
DME
NO 2
NO 1
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
VOR
NO 2
NO 2
ADF
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
VOR
NO 1
NO 1
ADF
COMPASS
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
NO2
DME
NO 1
CAPT’S
DDRMI
DDRMI Schematic
Figure 118

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
GPS is a space based radio navigation system, which provides worldwide, highly
accurate three-dimensional position, velocity and time information. The overall
system is divided into three parts.
1.Space Segment.
2.Control Segment.
3.User Segment.
2.52.1 Space Segment
Consists of 24 satellites (21 active + 3 spare), in six orbital planes with 4 satellites
in each orbit. They are orbiting the earth every 12 hours at an approximate
altitude of between 11,000nm – 12,500nm. The orbits are such that a minimum
of 6 satellites are in view from any point on the earth. This provides redundancy,
as only 4 satellites are required for three-dimensional position. Figure 119 shows
the Space Segment.
GPS Space Segment

Figure 119

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.2 Control Segment
This is a ground station that controls all satellites and is made up of:
1. Master Control Station.
2. Monitor Stations.
The Master Control Station is located at Colorado, USA, and is responsible for
processing satellite-tracking information received from the five Monitor Stations.
The Control Segments monitor the total system performance, corrects satellite
position and re-calibrates the on-board atomic time standards as necessary. The
Monitor Stations are located to provide continuous "ground" visibility of every
satellite. Three of the five monitor stations have ground antennas, which are
used to upload data to the satellites. Figure 120 shows the location of the Control
Segment.
COLORADO
SPRINGS
HAWAII
KWAJALIEN
ASCENSION
DIEGO
GARCIA
MASTER CONTROL MONITOR STATION GROUND ANTENNA
GPS Control Segment

Figure 120

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.3 Operation
GPS operates by measuring the time it takes a signal to travel from a satellite to a
receiver on-board the aircraft. This time is multiplied by the speed of light to
obtain the distance measurement. This distance results in a Line Of Position
(LOP). Figure 121 shows GPS LOP.
LINE OF
POSITION
(LOP)
GPS Line of Sight (LOP)

Figure 121
The satellites transmit a signal pattern, which is computer generated, in a

repeatable random code. The receiver on the aircraft also generates the same
code and the first step in the process of using GPS data is to synchronies these
two codes. The receiver will receive the LOPs from three different satellites and
uses this information to establish synchronization. The receiver is programmed
to receive signals that intersect the same point, if they don’t, then the two codes
are not synchronized. The receiver will now add or subtract time from its code to
establish the LOPs intersecting the same point and thus synchronize its code with
the one from the satellite.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 122 shows the principle of code synchronisation.
R EC EIV ER C OD E N OT
SY NC H R ON ISE D
W IT H T HE SA T ELL IT E CO DE
W ILL GIV E T W O/T H R EE
PO SSI BLE POS IT ION S
R EC EIV ER AD D S/ SU BT R AC T S
T IM E F R OM I TS C OD E T O
ES T ABL ISH T H E LOP S
IN T ER SE CT I NG T H E SA ME PO IN T
Code Synchronisation
Figure 122

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.4 Signal Structure
GPS satellites transmit on 2 frequencies in 2 modes in the UHF band. The 2

modes are:
1. Precision Mode (P).
2. Coarse/Acquisition Mode (C/A).
The P code is for military use only. Both codes transmit signals in a "Pseudo
Random Code" at a certain rate.
2.52.5 Time Measurements
Once the GPS receiver has synchronized with the satellite code, it can then
measure the elapsed time since transmission by comparing the phase shift
between the two codes. The larger the phase shift, the longer the length of time
since transmission. The length of time since transmission times the speed of light
equals distance.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 123 shows code synchronization and time measurements.
SIGNAL RECEIVED
FROM SATELLITE
SIGNAL TRANSMITTED
FROM SATELLITE
TIME DELAY = RANGE
Code synchronization and Time measurement

Figure 123

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.6 Position Fixing
If we know our distance from a specific point in space (satellite), then it follows
that we are located somewhere on the surface of a sphere, with its radius of that
distance. The addition of a second satellite and a second distance measurement
further refines the position calculation as the two LOPs intersect each other. The
addition of a third distance measurement from a third satellite further refines the
position calculation as we now have three LOPs intersecting at a specific point in
space. This point in space represents the distance measured between the
aircraft and the three satellites. Figure 124 shows the process of position fixing.
AIRCRAFT’S
VERTICAL
POSITION
AIRCRAFT’S
HORIZONTAL
POSITION
GPS Position Fixing

Figure 124

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.7 Ionospheric Propagation Error
The ionosphere refracts UHF satellite transmission in the same way it refracts
VLF, L.MF and HF transmissions, only to a lesser degree. Since a refracted
signal has a greater distance to travel than a straight signal, it will arrive later in
time, causing an error in the distance measurement. The ionosphere refracts
signals in an amount inversely proportional to the square of their frequencies.
This means that the higher the frequency, the less the refraction and hence the
less error induced in the distance measurement.
Since the GPS satellites transmit two different UHF frequencies (1575.42 MHz
and 1227.60 MHz), each frequency will be affected by the ionosphere differently.
By comparing the phase shift between the two frequencies, the amount of
ionosphere distortion can be measured directly. By knowing the amount of
distortion that is induced, the exact correction factor can be entered into the
computer and effectively cancel ionosphere propagation error. Figure 125 shows
the principle of Ionospheric Propagation Errors.
Ionospheric Propagation Errors

Figure 125

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.8 Derived Information
Although the GPS is primarily a position determining system, it is possible to

derive certain data by taking into account the change in position over time.
Actual track can be obtained by looking at several position fixes. Ground speed
can be calculated by measuring the distance between two fixes. Drift angle can
be obtained by comparing the aircraft’s heading, with the actual track of the
aircraft. GPS is able to produce all the derived data commonly associated with
existing long-range navigation systems such as INS.
2.52.9 Navigation Management
A typical GPS provides Great Circle navigation from its present Position direct to
any waypoint or via a prescribed flight plan. When necessary, a new route can
be quickly programmed in flight.
Up to 999 waypoints and up to 56 flight plans are retained by the GNS-X when
power is turned off or interrupted. Selection of waypoints or of the leg to be flown
is not necessary to determine aircraft position; however, when these are
provided, the GNS-X computes and displays on the Colour Control Display Unit
all pertinent navigation data including:
Greenwich Date and Mean Time. Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA).

Present Position Coordinates. Wind Direction and Speed.
Magnetic Variation. Desired Track.
Stored Waypoint Coordinates. Drift Angle.
Stored Flight Plans. Ground Speed.
Departure Time/Time at last Waypoint. Track Angle.
Bearing to Waypoint. Crosstrack Distance.
Distance to Waypoint. HSI/CDI/RMI Course Display.
Estimated Time to Waypoint (ETE).
The computer determines the composite position based on sensor

position/velocity. Plotting multiple moving position points allows determination of
Track Angle and the rate of change of position equals groundspeed. Drift Angle
becomes available with the Heading input, and with a True Airspeed (TAS) input
allows calculation of the Wind direction and speed.
The computer is constantly processing all available inputs. The displays of

Present Position, Distance-to-Go, and Crosstrack as well as the displays of Track
Angle, Drift Angle, Groundspeed, Wind, and Estimated Time Enroute are updated
at periodic intervals.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 126 shows the block schematic of a GNS-X system.
GP S
A N TE N NA
E FIS
N AV I G A TIO N
A DC PR OC ESSOR A UT O P IL O T
U NI T
C OM PA SS
A UT O P IL O T
M O D E S E L E CT
M U LT IF U N C T I O N
C O N TR O L
D IS P L A Y U N IT
D EP
R TE LE GS ARR H OLD PR OG VN A V A TC
T IT L E F IEL D
L EF T R IGH T
F IE LD F IE LD
SC R A T CH PA D
BRT
D IM
C LR / PR E V N EX T M EN U D A TA EX EC
1 2 3 A B C D E F G
4 5 6 H I J K L M N
7 8 9 O P Q R S T U
+
0 / V W X Y Z SP
GNS-X CONTROL & DISPLY UNIT
GNS-X System
Figure 126

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.52.10 Boeing 777 GPS
The Boeing 777 has two independent GPS, which are used to calculate the
following:
1. Aircraft’s Latitude.
2. Aircraft’s Longitude.
3. Aircraft’s Altitude.
4. Aircraft’s Groundspeed.
5. Accurate Time.
Figure 127 shows the system layout.
LEFT GPS RIGHT GPS

SENSOR UNIT SENSOR UNIT
LEFT GPS
ANTENNA
GPWC RIGHT GPS
ANTENNA
CHR DATE
AIR DATA 60
DAY. MON . YR
INERTIAL 50 23 : 59 10
REFERENCE GMT
DIGITAL
UNIT ET/CHR
CLOCK X2 45
ADIRU X 3 99 : 59 20
RUN 30 RUN
HLD HLD
ET
SS MT
G
M
RESET FS D
629 DATA BUS X 3

AIMS CABINET X 2
Boeing 777 GPS

Figure 127

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The two sensor units receive GPS satellite signals from their respective antennas
and calculate the aircraft’s position and accurate time. This data is sent to the
Aircraft Information Management System (AIMS) cabinets and the Ground
Proximity Warning Computer (GPWC). The Flight Management Computing
system uses the AIMS GPS data to calculate the aircraft’s position for use in its
navigation calculations.
The AIMS cabinets also send GPS data to the Air Data Inertial Reference Units
(ADIRU) which is used to calibrate the inertial sensors, thus decreasing any
inertial reference drift.
GPS time goes to the Universal Time Co-ordinated function (UTCF) within the
AIMS, the AIMS also outputs time data to the flight deck clocks.
2.52.11 GPS Modes of Operation
The Boeing 777 GPS operates in the following modes:
1. Acquisition Mode.
2. Navigation Mode.
3. Altitude Aided Mode.
4. Aided Mode.
2.52.12 Acquisition Mode
The GPS sensor units look for and lock onto the satellite signals. The sensors
must find at least 4 satellites before it can start to calculate GPS data. Whilst the
sensor is in the acquisition mode, itreceives the following data from the Flight
Management system:
1. Aircraft’s Present Position.
2. Aircraft’s Velocity.
3. Time & Date.
The GPS sensor unit uses this data to calculate which satellites are available at
the current aircraft’s position, allowing the sensor unit to receive the signals from
those satellites available and which ones may be used for navigation calculations.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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2.52.13 Navigation Mode
Once the GPS sensor has acquired and locked onto at least 4 satellites it will
enter the navigation mode. In this mode the sensor unit it will compute the GPAS
data. If during the Navigation mode the GPS accuracy is not within 16NM of the
actual aircraft’s position, the sensor output will go into “None Computed Data”
(NCD).
2.52.14 Altitude Aided Mode
With 4 satellites available, the GPS sensor stores the difference between the Air
Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU) altitude and the GPS altitude. When the
GPS sensor is only receiving signals from 3 satellites, it will use this stored data
so that it can estimate the GPS altitude. During this phase the GPS sensor will
use the aircraft’s altitude from the ADIRU and the length of the earth’s radius as
the fourth range required for GPS altitude calculations. Figure 128 shows the
Altitude Aided Mode.
Altitude Aided Mode

Figure 128

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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2.52.15 Aided Mode
The GPS sensor enters the “Aided Mode” during short periods (Less than 30
seconds) of bad satellite coverage. An example of bad satellite coverage is poor
satellite geometry, where at least 4 satellites are available but they are not spread
out far enough so the GPS sensor unit can make an accurate position fix.
In the aided mode, the GPS sensor unit receives altitude, heading and
groundspeed from the Flight Management System (FMS). The GPS sensor unit
uses this data to go back into Navigation mode when there is good satellite
coverage again. During the Aided Mode the GPS sensor unit output is once
again “Non Computed Data (NCD)

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AEROPLANE
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Figure 129 shows the Boeing 777 GPS modes of operation.
YES
COVERAGE?
NO
AVAIL?
SATS
BAD
SAT
ARE
4
A
C
YES
YES
NO
ALTITUDE AIDED
PASSED?
NO
AVAIL?
SATS
AIDED
MODE
MODE
ARE
SEC
30
4
NO
YES
YES
A
ACQUISITION
COVERAGE?
NAVIGATION
POWER-UP
YES
AVAIL?
ONLY 3
AVAIL?
THERE
MODE
MODE
SATS
SATS
BAD
SAT
ARE
ARE
4
NO
C
NO
NO
B
GPS Modes of Operation

Figure 129

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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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2.52.16 Receiver Autonomous Integrity (RAIM)
The purpose of the RAIM is to monitor the status of the satellites that the GPS
sensor unit is using for its navigation calculations. The output of the RAIM
function is an estimate of the GPS position error. The RAIM value goes to the
Flight Management System (FMS) and is used by the FMS to determine if the
GPS data can be used for navigation. Figure 130 shows the operation of RAIM.
5
SATELLITE 2
CURRENTLY
MONITORED
4
3
RAIM Operation
Figure 130

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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2.52.17 Differential GPS
The accuracy of the GPS is typically 15 – 25 metres in 95% of the position fixes
available. The USA Department of Defence degrades this accuracy for security
reasons to 100 metres in 95% of the position fixes. However, this error can be
further reduced to almost zero by the use of “Differential GPS”.
If GPS receivers are placed on the ground in known locations (Latitude

Longitude), the exact errors of the GPS satellites can then be calculated by
comparing the known position of the receivers against the GPS satellites
calculated position. This error is then transmitted to other receivers who use it to
correct the GPS errors and thus have a more accurate position fix. Figure 131
shows the operation of differential GPS.
ERROR CALCULATION
ERROR TRANSMISSION
Differential GPS
Figure 131

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53 COMPASS SYSTEMS
2.53.1 Direct Reading Compass
This type of compass comprises a magnet system in a liquid filled bowl. In this
type the compass card is attached to single angular cobalt steel magnet which is
suspended in a sapphire cup by an iridium tipped pivot. Figure 132 shows a
common type of direct reading compass.
MOUNTING
PLATE
HORIZONTAL
(“B” & “C”)
CORRECTORS
FILLER
PLUG
BELLOWS
BOWL
STEM & BRACKET MAGNET

ASSEMBLY SYSTEM
Direct Reading Compass

Figure 132
Damping is achieved by filling the compass bowl with a mineral liquid or alcohol,
which has a low viscosity, low freezing point, high resistance to corrosion and
does not discolour. The compass is also given buoyancy by the liquid and this
reduces wear on the pivots. The compass liquid expands and retracts with
changes in temperature and this has undesirable effects. To compensate for this,
a bellows or corrugated diaphragm is fitted.
Note: B and C correctors are for East-West, North-South errors respectively.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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On some modern aircraft the direct reading compass is stowed on the center
windscreen strut, only being used in an emergency. They also have to have
some sort of lighting; this lighting is operated by dc and does not effect the
compass operation. Figure 134 shows two types of compass fitted to modern
aircraft.
FIXED
COMPASS
HINGED
COMPASS
Direct reading Compass

Figure 134

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.2 Remote Reading Compass (Magnet Gyro)
The (magnetic gyro) compass system provides the flight crew with magnetic
heading information. A compass card in the radio magnetic indicators (RMI's) on
the instrument panel displays the heading, which must be read against a
reference point or a lubber line.
The compass heading is controlled by a directional gyro, which has a stable

direction. For proper orientation of the system with the earth’s magnetic field and
to correct for gyro drift, a flux valve is used. The flux valve senses the direction of
the earth magnetic field. Figure 135 shows the layout of a basic system.
115v 400 Hz
B C
+ _ + _
N 3
33
0
6
W 3
A A
24
12
D D
F 21 15 F
S
VOR VOR
SLAVED
DG SYNC
VOR/ADF
Remote Reading Compass System

Figure 135

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.3 Flux valve (Detector Unit)
A flux valve, or detector unit, senses the angle of the horizontal component of the
Earth's magnetic field with respect to the aircraft's heading, and gives a long-term
stable signal to monitor the gyro controlled master shaft. The detector unit can
best be described as a North sensing device which is capable of detecting the
direction of the horizontal component of the Earth's field and transmitting it to
other components. It is similar to a CX in a synchro control system.
Figure 136 shows a Detector Unit and internal circuit.
SIDE
VIEW
LAMINATED
COLLECTOR A
HORNS
A
AC POWER
EXCITER B
COIL
C B
TOP SECONDARY
C
VIEW PICK-OFF
COILS
DETECTOR UNIT CIRCUIT
Flux Valve Construction

Figure 136

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.4 Control Panel
The control panel consists of the following:
1. Synchronisation Annunciator.
2. Synchronisation Knob.
3. Slaved/DG Switch.
2.53.5 Synchronisation Annunciator
This indicates the synchronisation between the DU heading and the gyro
heading. If there is a discrepancy between the two headings then the indicator
will show either a “DOT” or a “CROSS”.
2.53.6 Synchronisation Knob
This allows for manual synchronisation of the DU/gyro headings. The

Synchronisation Knob has two directions (DOT & CROSS), moving the
synchronisation knob in the direction indicated by the synchronisation indicator
will ensure the system will indicate the correct heading.
2.53.7 Slaved/DG Switch
The compass systems normal operation mode is the slaved mode, where the
DU/gyro headings are slaved together (DU will precess the gyro when an error
occurs between the two detected headings. In the DG mode, the DU is removed
from the system and the compass operates as a “Directional Gyro”. This mode is
used more in maintenance when aircraft heading is required. If used in flight
there is a possibility that the heading indication will drift due to gyro drift.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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AEROPLANE
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Figure 137 shows the Compass Control Panel.
SYNCHRONISATION
SLAVED/DG ANNUNCIATOR
SWITCH
COMPASS
DG
HDG
SLEW
COMPASS
SLAVE
SLAVED
SYNCHRONISATION
SWITCH
Compass Control Panel

Figure 137
The synchro transmitters in the RMI and in the directional gyro unit are used to
"transmit" the heading information to the following systems:
1. Autopilot.
2. Flight director system (if installed).
3. Horizontal situation indicators (HSI's).
4. Flight data recorder system (if installed).
5. VHF NAV receivers.

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2.53.8 System Test
Three items can be tested in the compass system:
The sensitivity of the cross-dot annunciator. When the card is moved 5° away
from the synchronised position with the manual synchronisation knob the cross or
the dot must be completely visible.
The slaving speed when the card is moved 10° away from the synchronised
position the automatic slaving system should move the card to the synchronised
position within 10 minutes (min. slaving speed 1°/min).
The directional gyro drift with the slaving cut-out switch in DG the gyro drift should
not exceed (3.75 x sine attitude + 1.75° per 15 minutes).
2.53.9 Gyro Unit
The basic element of this compass system is a directional gyro. When the
system is supplied with 115-V AC the gyro starts to rotate and becomes a stable
element, which means that its direction (heading) in space is fixed.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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2.53.10 Servo System
A servo loop between the gyro and the compass card in the RMI ensures that any
change of aircraft heading causes a corresponding rotation of the compass card,
but in the opposite direction. The servo loop comprises a synchro transmitter
(Tx), a control transformer (CT), a servo amplifier and a servomotor.
The rotor of the synchro transmitter points in the same direction as the gyro.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
The rotor is powered with a 400-Hz signal, which causes a 400-Hz magnetic field.
This magnetic field produces 3 voltages in the stator windings of the synchro
transmitter. The 3 voltages in the control transformer cause a resulting magnetic
field.
The rotor of the control transformer produces an error signal any time the rotor of
the control transformer is not perpendicular with the direction of the resulting
magnetic field.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
If the aircraft changes heading, the direction of the 400-Hz magnetic field in the
synchro transmitter changes with respect of the stator windings and therefore the
direction of the resulting magnetic field in the control transformer changes too.
An error signal is now present and after amplification the "heading" of the
compass card and the rotor of the control transformer changes accordingly and
the compass card reads the new aircraft heading.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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AEROPLANE
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Figure 138 shows the Compass System Schematic.
26V AC
INNER
400 Hz
RING
CX
GYRO
OUTER
RING
GYRO CASE
TORQUE
MOTOR
TM
GENERATOR
TACHO
TG
COMPASS
ANNUNCIATOR
CARD
VELOCITY FEEDBACK
M
SERVO
HEADING SHAFT
AMP
SLAVING
AMP
EXCITATION
(AC)
DU
CT
CT
(FLUX VALVE)
DETECTOR
UNIT
SYNCH
KNOB
Compass System Schematic

Figure 138

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.53.11 Slaving loop
To obtain a common reference for all aircraft, use is made of the earth magnetic
field the direction of which is detected by a flux valve. A second control
transformer in the RMI compares the compass card reading with the direction of
the earth magnetic field.
Any difference between these two causes an error signal at the output of the rotor
of the control transformer. The error signal is amplified in a slaving amplifier and
this signal drives a torque motor in the directional gyro unit. The torque motor
changes the position of the stable element and of the rotor of the synchro
transmitter. As described for the servo loop, the compass card and rotors of both
control transformers rotate accordingly until the error signals have been reduced
to zero.
The amplified error signal at the output of the slaving amplifier also drives a
cross-dot annunciator. Either a cross or a dot indicates any unsynchronised
condition of the compass system. The cross-dot annunciator can be used to
manually synchronise the compass system by turning the manual synchronising
knob on the control panel in the cross or dot direction until the cross or dot has
disappeared.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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2.54 RADIO ALTIMETER
Radio altimeters are carried in virtually all aircraft outside the general aviation
sector. The outputs from the system play a vital role in the operation of automatic
landing and ground proximity warning systems. Because the radio altimeter
comes into play at a critical part of the flight, when the aircraft is close to the
ground, the serviceability and accuracy are perhaps more important than with any
other radio system.
Barometric altitude is the altitude of the aircraft as a function of change in air

pressure. Since it involves a measure of the change in pressure it is the altitude
of the aircraft above the level at which a certain air pressure exists. For aircraft
flying above about 3000 feet the usual reference pressure is 1013.25 millibars
(mb) or 29.92 inches of mercury (in Hg). This is known as the mean sea level
(msl) pressure. The actual pressure at sea level is unlikely to be exactly 1013.25
mb; hence the altimeter will not be reading the aircraft's height above sea level,
let alone the ground.
Radio altitude, on the other hand, is always the height above the ground
regardless of air pressure or indeed the terrain the aircraft is flying over. It follows
that radio altitude is more useful at low levels, in particular when in the landing
phase or to give ground collision warning.
2.54.1 Basic Principles
Radio altimeters are primary radar systems that transmit RF energy and time how
long it takes before an echo is received.
The radio altimeter target is always the ground immediately below the aircraft.
The transmitted beam is broadly directional, pointing straight down, so for
moderate bank and pitch angles part of the beam will be vertical. Figure 139
illustrates the idea showing dual aerial working.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AEROPLANE
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MODULATOR BEAT FREQUENCY

COUNTER
INDICATOR
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER/MIXER
Radio Altimeter Operation

Figure 139
The system transmits a continuous wave, constant amplitude; frequency

modulated carrier at 4,300 MHz. The depth of modulation is 50 MHz, so the
transmission is continuously varied between 4,250 MHz and 4,350 MHz. With an
aircraft flying over the ground, there is a difference in the frequency of the
reflected signals seen by the receiver and the transmitted frequency at the same
instant. This difference is due to the distance the radio wave has had to travel
from the transmitter antenna to the ground and back to the receiver antenna.
For each foot of transmitted distance, there is a frequency change of

approximately 10 cycles. Since the transmission must travel to the ground and
back again to the receiver, the frequency change per foot of aircraft altitude is
approximately 20 cycles. For example, if the aircraft is 1,000ft above the ground,
there will be 20,000 cycles of frequency difference between the transmitter
frequency and the received frequency.

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In the receiver mixer, the transmitted and received frequencies are mixed and the
beat frequency (difference) is counted in the counter. The beat counter converts
the frequency difference to an analog dc voltage whose amplitude is a function of
aircraft altitude above the ground. A servo system in the indicator drives the
indication to a position corresponding to the amplitude of the dc voltage received
from the beat counter.
Figure 140 shows two types of indicator used.
DIAL
INDICATOR
RIBBON
INDICATOR
Radio Altimeters
Figure 140
On the ribbon type indicator, the aircraft reference symbol remains fixed in the
centre while the tape is driven behind it. Different tape colours are used to give
an instant indication of the approximate height. The flag, when activated, partially
obscures the aircraft symbol.
A manually set altitude trip (decision height) is provided. By means of a DH Index

control a marker or bug can be set to any desired height. If the aircraft is flying
below the DH bug setting the DH lamp will be illuminated to give a warning.

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2.54.2 Radio Altimeter Antenna
The antennas are so designed so that as long as the roll angle does not exceed
30q, and the pitch attitude is not more than 20q, the altitude indication remains
correct. If these limits are exceeded, then the altitude indications would be
excessive. These high values would not be maintained very long, so do not
present a problem. Figure 141 shows the effects of aircraft roll on the operation
of the Radio Altimeter system.
FAN BEAM
30° 30°
TRANSMISSION
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
30°
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
Roll Angle Effect on Radio Altimeter System

Figure 141

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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
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AEROPLANE
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Radio Altimeter systems are called “Low Range” because they are not intended
to operate at aircraft altitudes above the ground greater than 2,500ft. It is used
mostly during final approach. When making a CAT II approach, the radio
altimeter notifies the crew when the aircraft is 100 feet above the extended
runway. This is the point at which the flight crew must be able to see the runway
to land and is called the “Decision Height”. The decision height may be selected
above 100ft as required.
Figure 142 shows a Radio Altimeter antenna and its location.
TX
ANTENNAS
RX
ANTENNAS
HORN ANTENNA
Radio Altimeter Antenna & Location

Figure 142

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.54.3 Testing
The Radio Altimeter system may be tested from the transceiver or other areas
depending on aircraft type. When the test switch on the transmitter/receiver is
operated, the integral test lights are tested. A test altitude of 40 ft is given and
lights displayed, 'SYS OK' for serviceable, 'RT' or 'ANT' for a fault, give test
results. Figure 143 shows a radio Altimeter Transceiver.
TEST
SYSTEM OK
R/T UNIT
ANT
IND
Radio Altimeter Transceiver

Figure 143

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55 WEATHER RADAR
Weather Radar is designed to detect turbulent conditions so as to allow the pilot

to avoid areas, which could cause an uncomfortable flight for the passengers and
even the possibility of structural damage to the aircraft. At present there is no
direct method of detecting turbulence. The Weather Radar, therefore, relies on
detecting the conditions associated with turbulence. A vast amount of water
exists in the air in one of three forms: vapour, liquid or solid, the form taken
depending, most importantly, on the temperature, and the number of microscopic
particles in the air.
Calm conditions mean that the water droplets in the air are very small and float
gently around, their weight being balanced by air resistance so that they do not
fall to the ground. In turbulent conditions the water droplets or ice particles are
thrown around, collide and stick together. Eventually they become large and
heavy enough to fall to earth.
The more violent the turbulence the larger the droplets will become before falling,
particularly so where there is an updraft of air. If a water droplet is large enough
it will scatter incident electro-magnetic waves, with some of the scattered energy
being in the direction of the transmitter-receiver.
Primary radar, therefore, can be used to detect water droplets and ice particles.
The smaller the wavelength of the incident waves the smaller the water droplets
that will scatter energy.
This also applies to ice particles but the situation is complicated by the form of the
ice i.e.: snowflakes, hailstones or sleet. The larger the droplet, the more energy
is scattered and a cloud mass with large droplets will give rise to strong signals.
Strong signals from a cloud, therefore, suggest turbulent conditions.
Sometimes strong signals are received from one region of a cloud and small
signals from an adjacent region. In this case a high rainfall gradient exists with
strong clearly defined updrafts in the region of the strong signals.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 144 shows the operation of weather radar.
RFLECTED
ENERGY
SCAN ANGLE
TRANSMITTED
ENERGY
SELECTED
RANGE
Weather Radar Operation

Figure 144

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The part of a cloud, which gives the strong radar returns, is known as the storm
cell. The closer the storm cell is to the edge of the detected cloud, the higher the
rainfall gradient and the worse the conditions are likely to be.
The function of Weather Radar is to detect and display conditions involving storm
cells and rainfall gradients in such a way as to allow the operator to assess the
probability of turbulence associated with such conditions. Figure 145 shows a
typical weather radar scanner.
AZIMUTH
REFLECTOR GEAR
ELEVATION
GEAR
AERIAL
GIMBAL
WAVEGUIDE
Weather Radar Scanner

Figure 145

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.1 Principle Of Operation
The radar antenna is installed in the nose of the aircraft behind a radome. The
radar transmitter/receiver transmits high-energy pulses via the antenna to the
area in front of the aircraft. The weather radar system moves the antenna from
the left to the right and back again so pulses are transmitted in a wide area in
front of the aircraft.
The weather circumstances in front of the aircraft (rain density in the clouds)
reflect the transmitted pulses back to the weather radar system. The weather
radar antenna receives the reflected pulses. The weather radar receiver converts
the received pulses into a picture, which represents the weather circumstances.
To produce this picture the weather radar system makes use of:
The strength of the reflected pulses which depends on the amount of rain in the
clouds. (The weather radar system converts the strength of the reflected pulses
into a colour).
The time delay between the transmission and reception of the pulses. (The
weather radar system converts the time delay into the distance between the
aircraft and the weather circumstances).
The azimuth angle of the antenna. (The weather radar system uses the azimuth
angle of the antenna to position the weather information on the display.
A secondary function of the weather radar system is to show a ground terrain

map of the area ahead of the aircraft. Therefore the crew tilts the antenna down
with help of the tilt knob on the weather radar control panel. Because the cloud
returns are different from the ground returns the weather radar system is
switched over to the MAP mode for the correct interpretation of the ground
returns.
The radar must display three things: the range, the bearing and the signal
intensity of the cloud.
The display device best suited to showing all three of the above in an easily
assimilated form is the cathode ray tube (CRT) used as a plan position indicator
(PPI).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 146 shows a typical weather radar display unit.
GAIN TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN MAX
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
DISPLAY MARKER
OFF MAX OFF MAX
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
Weather Radar Display Unit

Figure 146

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.2 Scanner Stabilization
As the aircraft pitches and rolls, the scanner will also pitch and roll. The weather
radar is designed to scan directly in front of the aircraft, so as the aircraft pitches
and roll; the scanner must pitch and roll in the opposite direction to that of the
aircraft. The scanner is therefore mounted on a stabilized platform, which is
maintained at a constant attitude with respect to the horizon. Stabilization is
derived from the Inertial Reference System (IRS).
The pitch and roll stabilization is completely independent system. Each having a
separate motor, giving freedom of rotary movement in both pitch and roll. There
must also be a freedom of movement in azimuth for scanning to port and
starboard. Therefore three rotating joints are required in the scanner waveguide
assembly. Figure 147 shows stabilization for pitch and roll.
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 0°
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90°
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
ROLL PITCH
ANGLE ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90°

AZIMUTH ANGLE 90°
WITH NO STABILIZATION
WITH NO STABILIZATION
ROLL
PITCH
ANGLE
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90° AZIMUTH ANGLE 90°
STABILIZED STABILIZED
Roll/Pitch Stabilization
Figure 147

IRS
ANTENNA
PITCH ROLL ASSEMBLY
115V A.C.
POWER
SUPPLIES 28V D.C.

WAVEGUIDE
POWER
PART 2
TRANSMITTER
AEROPLANE
Figure 148
GAIN TILT -RECEIVER
UP
CONTROL STAB
AERODYNAMICS,
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP

DWN
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
MIN MAX
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC

POWER
Radar System Schematic

DISPLAY MARKER
Figure 148 shows a block schematic of a radar system.
OFF MAX OFF MAX

VIDEO
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
SWEEP
Page 2-193
INDICATOR
CONTROL
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.3 Weather Radar Installation
Figure 149 shows the type of weather radar fitted to modern aircraft.
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 3
RX/TX
WX
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 1
WAVEGUIDE
PEDESTAL
ANTENNA
SECTION 2
ANTENNA
30" FLAT
PLATE
Weather Radar Installation (B737)

Figure 149

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The weather radar system has a dedicated control panel for selection of the
required mode of operation. This type of system uses the EFIS ND to display the
weather information. Figure 150 shows the weather display on the EFIS ND on a
Boeing 737 aircraft.
WX
WEATHER +10
RETURN MODE
14 ANNUNCIATION
13
40 TILT ANGLE
1/2 RANGE
INDICATION
EFIS ND Weather Display (B737 Aircraft)

Figure 150

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The display is controlled via the EFIS control panel. Figures 151 and 152 shows
an EFIS control panel and a weather radar control panel.
HSI RANGE
EXP
ADI VOR/ 80 160 320
NAV
DH REF ILS 40
VOR/
ILS MAP
20
150 FULL
CTR
NAV MAP 10
PLAN WXR
RST ON
MAP
BRT VOR/ADF NAV AID ARPT RTE DATA WPT
ON ON ON ON ON
EFIS Control Panel

Figure 152
MODE
TEST WX WX+T MAP
-7 -6 10
MIN -5 5 15
-4 UP
GAIN 0 TILT
-3 DN
CAL -2 5 15
MAX -1 10
IDNT STAB
Weather Radar Control Panel

Figure 153

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.4 Test Mode
With the mode selector on the control panel in the TEST position the transmitter
is on for 1 second for a transmitter test. For the remainder of the test the
transmitter is off. A test picture is 'painted' on the EFIS.
A test sweep of + 15° up and -15° down is carried out by the antenna. At the end
of the test the antenna centralizes at 0°.
The following precautions are to be observed for Boeing 737 weather radar
ground operation:
If the radar system is to be operated while the aircraft is on the ground, direct the
nose of the aircraft such that a 240-degree forward sector is free of large metallic
objects (hangars, other aircraft).
Tilt the antenna upward 15 degrees and prevent personnel from standing closer
than 10 feet to the 240-degree forward section of the aircraft. The receiver may
be damaged as a result of strong returns from nearby metallic objects.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 154 shows safety areas and boundary marks to be displayed during
ground operation of weather radar.
WARNING
SIGN
RED/WHITE ROPE
120°
120°
R = 6 MTRS
Safety Areas and Boundary Marks

Figure 154

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.55.5 Radome
The radome is an aerodynamically shaped nose cone made of a dielectric

material, which can have an overriding effect on the weather radar system’s
performance. The radome should transmit 90% of the incident energy, posses
structural strength, protect against erosion, prevent spark discharge of static and
protect against lightning strikes.
Structural strength comes from how the radome is constructed. Normally they
are of the sandwich type, consisting of a honeycomb structure supported on each
side by a thin skin of laminated glass fibre.
Anti static/erosion is overcome by coating the nose area with a polyurethane

material. This material is bonded onto the radome, but must not be too thick so
as to effect the transmission of energy. The radome is also coated with an anti
static paint containing small graphite particles.
Lightning strike protection takes the form of metal strips bonded to the surface of
the radome and painted over. The strips run from the nose of the radome to the
bulkhead, where good electrical bonding must be achieved so that any lightning
strikes are dissipated in the airframe with minimum damage. Figure 155 shows
the construction of a radome.
Radome Construction
Figure 155

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56 GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM
The purpose of the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is to alert the
flight crew to the existence of an unsafe condition due to terrain proximity. The
various hazardous conditions that may be encountered are divided into 7 Modes.
These are:
1. Mode 1 - Excessive Descent Rate.
2. Mode 2 - Excessive Closure Rate (with respect to rising terrain).
3. Mode 3 - Excessive Altitude Loss (during climb-out after take-off).
4. Mode 4 - Insufficient Terrain Clearance (when not in landing

configuration).
5. Mode 5 - Excessive Deviation below the Glideslope (ILS Landing).
6. Mode 6 - Descent Below selected Decision Height.
7. Mode 7 – Windshear.
Figures 156 - 162 show schematics of each of the above modes.
“SINK RATE”
WHOOP!
WHOOP!
PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 1
Figure 156

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
“TERRAIN”
“TERRAIN”
WHOOP!
“TERRAIN” WHOOP!
“TERRAIN” PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 2
Figure 157
“DON’T SINK”
GPWS Mode 3
Figure 158

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
“TOO LOW
GEAR…...”
GPWS Mode 4
Figure 159
“GLIDESLOPE”
“GLIDESLOPE
GPWS Mode 5
Figure 160

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
“MINIMUMS”
“MINIMUMS”
DECISION HEIGHT
GPWS Mode 6
Figure 161
STRONG DOWNDRAFT
HEADWIND TAILWIND
“WINDSHEAR”
“WINDSHEAR”
GPWS Mode 7
Figure 162

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.1 System Operation
The main component of the system is the GPWS computer. It receives

information from other aircraft systems (Baro/Rad Alt Ht, speed, etc.). From
these inputs, the computer makes calculations to determine if the aircraft is in
danger of contacting the terrain below. GPWS only operates within the Rad Alt
range (50' to 2,500'). Figure 163 shows a block schematic diagram of a typical
GPWS.
EFIS
SYMBOL
GENERATORS
PULL UP
EADI EADI
PFD PFD
DATA &
LOGIC GROUND
INPUTS BELOW G/S CAPT F/O
PROXIMITY
P - INHIBIT
WARNING
SYSTEM COMPUTER
TEST
GPWS
INOP CONTROL
PANEL
RADIO
ELECTRONICS
UNIT
GPWS Block Schematic

Figure 163

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.2 Ground Proximity Warning Computer
The GPWC establishes the limits for the GPWS modes and compares the
aircraft’s flight and terrain clearance status against established mode limits. If the
aircraft is found to have entered a GPWS mode, the computer issues appropriate
warning or alerting signals. The computer also stores failure data in a non-
volatile memory for display on a front panel window on the GPWC.
Figure 164 shows a GPWC and Control panel.
STATUS/HISTORY GROUND PROXIMITY

PRESENT FLIGHT
STATUS HISTORY
INOP FLAP/GEAR
INHIBIT
CAUTION
OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS NORMAL
FOR HANDLING
ELECTROSTATIC SYS TEST
SENSITIVE
DEVICES
CONTROL PANEL
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING

COMPUTER
GPWC and GPWS Control Panel

Figure 164

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.3 GPWS Control Panel
The GPWS control panel provides the flight crew with visual indications of GPWS
operation; self-test capability and flap/gear inhibit capability.
INOP Light
Amber “INOP” light is illuminated when a computer or input signal malfunction is

detected, or a GPWS self-test is being performed.
Flap/Gear Inhibit
This switch is a two-position toggle switch; guarded and safety-wired in the

“NORMAL” position. When it is placed in the “INHIBIT” position, Modes 2,3 and 4
are inhibited.
Self Test Switch
This switch is used to initiate a GPWS self-test. A self-test can be conducted on

the ground or in-flight.
2.56.4 Warning Lights
Two warning lights are provided to give visual indication of ground proximity
warnings. These are:
1. PULL-UP.
2. BELOW G/S.
A “WINDSHEAR” warning message (displayed on the EFIS PFD) provides visual

indication of a Windshear condition.
The red PULL-UP light illuminates when Mode 1,2,3 or 4 flight path is detected.
The amber BELOW G/S warning light illuminates when glide slope deviation
becomes excessive. Pressing the BELOW G/S switch inhibits the warning.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 165 shows a PFD with Windshear annunciation.
MCP SPD CLMB HDG SEL V NAV
10
180 10
160
150
140
10
10
120
WINDSHEAR DH 350
GS RA 1620
173
Primary Flight Display (Windshear)

Figure 165

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.56.5 GPWS Bite Operation
The purpose of the BITE is to perform an internal check of the GPWC functions,
to record past faults that occur during the last ten flights, and to annunciate
system status information.
2.56.6 BITE Tests
The BITE function carries out three BITE tests:
Continuous Test – Performed during each program loop. This checks the CPU
operation and data input integrity for shorts to ground or open circuits. The ADC,
IRS, ILS and RAD ALT systems and internal power supplies are also monitored
for valid data.
Periodic Test – Tests requiring excessive processing time are subdivided into
small segments. Tests on the individual segments are performed sequentially,
one segment during each program loop. Periodic tests include checks on the
processor instruction sets, program memory contents, RAM addressing and
storage functions, voice memory addressing and contents, parity of received data
and the ability to read the data.
Event-Initiated Tests – These are performed during or after a specific event has
occurred. They include resetting the program a fraction of a second prior to a
power supply failure. Checksumming the data stored in the non-volatile fault
memory at power up. Checksumming the data written after entering data and
sampling and storing program pin status at power up. Restarting the CPU at a
known location in the program after loss of CPU.
2.56.7 Fault Recording
Faults are recorded in a non-volatile fault memory by flight segments. The

beginning and the end of each flight segment are identified using radio altitude,
IAS and Mode 3 – 4 transitions. Up to 24 faults may be recorded during each
flight segment.

CAPT F/O
ILS LS LOC/GS
WINDSHEAR PFD PFD
RAD ALT RAD ALT HT

GPWS
WARNING
IAS/ALT PULL UP PULL UP

ADC LS
ALT RATE G/S

INHIBIT
G/S BELOW G/S BELOW G/S
PP/TKE/ROLL WARNING P - INHIBIT P - INHIBIT
IRU HS
PITCH/ACCL
PART 2
AEROPLANE
Figure 166
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
STALL MONITOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
HS FLAPS/AOA INOP
WARNING
G/S
GPWS Block Schematic (B737)

GPEW FDAU
W/S
MODE COURSE
LS FLAP
CONTROL SELECT POSITION
FLAP INHIBIT
SWITCHES
Figure 166 shows GPWS block schematic for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
POS
GEAR
PP/TKE GEAR
FMC LS POS NORMAL
Page 2-209
POSITION
SWITCHES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57 ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM
The EGPWS contains all the modes as with the standard GPWS with some
additional features. The system contains a worldwide terrain database, an
obstacle database and a worldwide airport database, and using this extra data
enables the system to give an Enhanced GPWS. The additional features are as
follows:
Terrain alerting and display (TAD) - This provides a graphic display of the
surrounding terrain on the Weather Radar Indicator, EFIS or a dedicated GPWS
display. Based on the aircraft’s position and the internal database (terrain
topography), all terrain that is above or within 2000 feet below the aircraft’s
altitude is presented on the system display. This feature is an option, enabled by
program pins during installation.
Peaks – Is a TAD supplemental feature providing additional terrain display

features for enhanced situational awareness, independent of the aircraft’s
altitude. This includes digital elevations for the highest and lowest displayed
terrain, additional elevation (colour) bands, and a unique representation of 0 MSL
elevation. This feature is an option enabled by program pins during installation.
Obstacles – This feature utilizing an obstacle database for obstacle conflict

alerting and display. EGPWS caution and warning visual and audio alerts are
provided when a conflict is detected. Additionally, when TAD is enabled,
Obstacles are graphically displayed similar to terrain. This feature is an option,
enabled by program pins during installation.
Terrain Clearance Floor – This feature adds and additional element of protection
by alerting the flight crew of possible premature descent. This is intended for
non-precision approaches and is based on the current aircraft position relative to
the nearest runway. This feature is enabled with the TAD feature.
Geometric Altitude – Based on the GPS altitude, this is a computed pseudo-

barometric altitude designed to reduce or eliminate altitude errors resulting from
temperature extremes, non-standard pressure altitude conditions, and altimeter
miss-sets. This ensures an optimal EGPWS alerting and display capability.
Note; Some of these features have been added to the EGPWS as the system
evolved and are not present in all EGPWS part numbers.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
Because the overwhelming majority of “Controlled Flight Into terrain” accidents

occur near to an airport, and the fact that aircraft operate in close proximity to
terrain near an airport, the terrain database contains higher resolution grids for
airport areas. Lower resolution grids are used outside airports areas where
aircraft enroute altitude make CFIT accidents less likely and terrain feature detail
is less important to the flight crew.
With the use of accurate GPS and FMS information, the EGPWS is provided
aircraft’s present position, track, and ground speed. With this information the
EGPWS is able to present a graphical plan view of the aircraft relative to the
terrain and advise the flight crew of any potential conflict with the terrain or an
obstacle.
Conflicts are recognised and alerts are provided when terrain violates specific
computed envelope boundaries on the projected flight path of the aircraft. Alerts
are provided in the form of visual light annunciation of a caution or warning, audio
enunciation based on the type of conflict, and colour enhanced visual display of
the terrain or obstacle relative to the forward look of the aircraft. Figure 167
shows Terrain/Obstacle database.
OBSTACLES
SURVEY POINTS
ABOVE SEA LEVEL
MEAN SEA LEVEL
Terrain/Obstacle Database
Figure 167

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 168 shows a graph on when caution and warning alerts are triggered.
50% YELLOW
25% YELLOW
16% GREEN
50% GREEN
50% RED
MAX ELEVATION No
MIN ELEVATION No
REF ALTITUDE -250/500
REF ALTITUDE +2000
REF ALTITUDE +1000
REF ALTITUDE -1000
REF ALTITUDE -2000

REFERENCE
ALTITUDE
Terrain Caution/Warning Graph

Figure 168

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Table 3 shows the different Terrain/Obstacle threat levels and the colour
indication present with TAD and Peaks selected.
Colour Indication
Solid Red Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
Solid Yellow Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
50% Red Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is more than 2000 feet
above the aircraft.
50% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is between 1000 and 2000
feet above the aircraft’s attitude.
25% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 feet above the
aircraft’s altitude.
Solid Green Shown only when no red or yellow
(Peaks Only) Terrain/Obstacle areas are within range on the
display. Highest terrain/obstacle not within 500
(250 with gear down) feet of the aircraft’s
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 below the aircraft'’
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is in the middle elevation
(Peaks Only) band when there is no red or yellow terrain
areas within range on the display.
16% Green Terrain/Obstacle that is 1000 to 2000 feet below
the aircraft’s altitude.
16% Green Terrain/Obstacle that is the lower elevation band
(peaks Only) when there is no Red or Yellow terrain areas
within range on the display.
Black No significant Terrain/Obstacle
16% Cyan Water at Sea Level Elevation (0 feet MSL)
Magenta Dots Unknown terrain. No terrain data in the
database for the magenta area shown.
Terrain/Obstacle Threat Levels

Table 3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 169 shows a Weather Radar Display used for EGPWS displays.
40 DIM
20 80
10 160
320
OFF
CAUTION TERRAIN RANGE WARNING TERRAIN
(RED)
(YELLOW)
RNG 20
TERRAIN
(GREEN)
TERR
EGPWS Display
Figure 169
2.57.2 Terrain Alerting & Display (TAD)
With a compatible EFIS or Weather Radar display, the EGPWS TAD feature
provides an image of the surrounding terrain represented in various colours and
intensities. There are two types of TAD display depending on the options
selected:
Standard TAD – Provides a terrain image only when the aircraft’s altitude is 2000
feet or less above the terrain.
Peaks – Enhances the standard display characteristics to provide a higher

degree of terrain awareness independent of the aircraft’s altitude. In either case,
terrain and obstacles (if enabled) forward of the aircraft are displayed.
Note; Obstacles are presented on the display as terrain, using the same colour
scheme. Peaks and Obstacle functions are enabled by EGPWS program pin
selection.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 170 shows the “Peaks” function of EGPWS.
SOLID GREEN WHEN NO RED OR YELLOW
50% UPTO 1000 FEET
16% BETWEEN 1000 - 2000 FEET

> 500 Ft
REF
ALT
EGPWS “Peaks” Function

Figure 170

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.3 Envelope Modulation
This special feature utilizes the internal database to tailor EGPWS alerts at
certain geographical locations to reduce nuisance warning and provide added
protection. Due to terrain features at or near certain specific airports around the
world, in the past, normal operations have resulted in nuisance or missed alerts
at these locations. With the introduction of accurate position information and a
terrain and airport database, it is possible to identify these areas and adjust the
normal alerting process to compensate for the condition.
An EGPWS Envelope Modulation feature provides improved alert protection and

expanded alerting margins at identified key locations throughout the world. This
feature is automatic and requires no flight crew action.
Modes 4,5, and 6 are expanded at certain locations to provide alerting protection
consistent with normal approaches. Modes 1,2 and 4 are desensitized at other
locations to prevent nuisance warnings that result from unusual terrain or
approach procedures. In all cases, very specific information is used to correlate
the aircraft position and phase of flight prior to modulating the envelopes.
Figure 171 shows the Envelope Modulation function.
ENVELOPE
MODULATION
AREA
Envelope Modulation
Figure 171

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.4 Terrain Look Ahead Alerting
Another enhancement provided by the internal terrain database, is the ability to

look ahead of the aircraft and detect terrain or obstacle conflicts with greater
alerting time. This is accomplished (when enabled) based on the aircraft position,
flight path angle, track and speed relative to the terrain database image forward
of the aircraft.
Through sophisticated look ahead algorithms, both caution and warning alerts are
generated if terrain or an obstacle conflict with “Ribbons” projected forward of the
aircraft. Figure 172 shows the Terrain Look Ahead Alerting function.
WARNING
(TYPICALLY 30 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
CAUTION
(TYPICALLY 60 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
Terrain Look Ahead Alerting

Figure 172

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
laterally (more if turning). The look-ahead and up angles are a function of the
aircraft flight path angle, and the look-ahead distance are a function of the
aircraft’s altitude with respect to the nearest runway. This relationship prevents
undesired alerts when taking off and landing.
The look-ahead distance is a function of the aircraft’s speed and distance to the
nearest runway. A terrain conflict intruding into the caution ribbon activates the
EGPWS caution lights and the aural message “CAUTION TERRAIN, CAUTION
TERRAIN” or “TERRAIN AHEAD, TERRAIN AHEAD”. The caution alert is given
typically 60 seconds ahead of the terrain conflict and is repeated every seven
seconds as long as the conflict remains within the caution area.
When the warning ribbon is intruded, typically 30 seconds ahead of the terrain,
EGPWS warning lights activate and the aural message “TERRAIN, TERRAIN,
PULL UP” is enunciated with “PULL UP” repeating continuously while the conflict
is within the warning area.
Note; the specific aural message provided is established during the initial
installation of the EGPWS and is a function of whether or not the terrain features
are enabled and the selected audio menu (via program pins).
2.57.5 Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF)
The TCF function enhances the basic GPWS Modes by alerting the flight crew of
a descent below a defined “Terrain Clearance Floor” regardless of the aircraft’s
configuration. The TCF alert is a function of the aircraft’s RAD ALT and distance
(calculated from Lat/Long position) relative to the center of the nearest runway in
the database.
TCF alerts result in the illumination of the EGPWS caution lights and the aural
message “TOO LOW TERRAIN”. The audio message is provided once when
initial envelope penetration occurs and again only for an additional 20% decrease
in RAD ALT altitude. The EGPWS caution lights will remain on until the TCF
envelope is exited.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
The TCF envelope is shown in Figure 173
½ R U N WA Y
LE NG TH
EN V ELOP E
B IA S FA C TOR
15N M
12N M
4N M
15 N M
12 N M
4 NM
E N V E LO P E
B IA S
“TO O LOW TE RR A IN ” F AC T O R
“TO O LOW TE RR A IN ”
4 0 0 ' - 7 0 0 ' ft 0 ' - 4 0 0 ' ft
T E R RA IN C L E A RA N C E F L O O R
Terrain Clearance Floor

Figure 173

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.6 TCF/TAD Control
The EGPWS TCF and TAD functions are available when all required data is
present and acceptable. Aircraft position and numerous other parameters are
monitored and verified for adequacy in order to perform these functions. If
determined invalid or unavailable, the system will display “TERRAIN
INOPERATIVE” or unavailable annunciation’s and discontinue the terrain display
if active. TAD/TCF functions may be inhibited by manual selection of a cockpit
“TERRAIN INHIBIT SWITCH”.
Note; neither loss nor inhibited TAD/TCF effects the basics GPWS functions
Modes 1 –7.
Figure 174 shows EGPWS control switches and annunciations.
GND
PROX
G/S FLAP GEAR

INHIBIT OVRD OVRD
G/S INHB OVRD OVRD
GND PROX
TERR
OVRD
OVRD
EGPWS Control Switches & Annunciation

Figure 174

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.7 EGPWS Interface
The EGPWS uses various input signals from other on-board systems. The full
compliment of these other systems depends on the EGPWS configuration and
options selected. The basic enhanced facilities require:
1. Altitude (RAD ALT/GPS/IRS).
2. Airspeed (IAS/TAS).
3. Attitude (IRS).
4. Glideslope (ILS).
5. Present Position (FMS/IRS/GPS).
6. Flap/Gear Position.
7. The Windshear function requires additional information of:
a) Accelerations (IRS).
b) Angle of Attack.
c) Flap Position.
Inputs are also required for discrete signals. These discrete inputs are used for
system configuration, signal/status input and control input functions. EGPWS
program pins are utilized to inform the system of the type of aircraft and interface
that is in use. These are established during EGPWS installation.
Discrete signals also include signals for “Decision Height”, Landing Flaps”
selected, display range and status discrete such as RAD ALT/ILS valid.
EGPWS provides both visual and audio outputs. The visual outputs provide
discrete alert and status annunciations and display terrain video on a compatible
CRT screen. Audio enunciations are provided (via the aircraft’s interphone
system) at specific alert phases.

Page 2-222
GPWS
ALGORITHMS
AUDIO
O ALERT
CONTROL I
AURAL U
DISCRETE N MESSAGES
CALLOUTS T
INPUTS P
P
U
U
T
T
P
TERRAIN AWARENESS & WARNING/
P
AIRCRAFT R OBSTACLE ALERTING & CAUTION
R
O DISPLAY ALGORITHMS
SENSORS O LAMPS
C
PART 2
Figure 175 shows EGPWS system schematic.
Figure 175
C
E
AEROPLANE
EGPWS System
DADC S
AERODYNAMICS,
S
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
S TERRAIN CLEARANCE
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
IRS S
GPS I FLOOR ALGORITHMS I TERRAIN

N
FMS N DISPLAY
G
RAD ALT G
DATA
WINDSHEAR
DETECTION &
ALERTING ALGORITHMS

EGPWC
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.57.8 System Activation
The EGPWS is fully active when the following systems are powered and
functioning normally:
1. EGPWS.
2. RADIO ALTIMTER.
3. AIR DATA SYSTEM
4. ILS (Glideslope).
5. GPS/FMS or IRS (PP).
6. GEAR/FLAPS.
7. WEATHER RADAR/EFIS DISPLAY.
In the event that the required data for a particular function is not available, then
that function is automatically inhibited and annunciated (e.g. if PP data is not
available or determined unacceptable, TAD/TCF is inhibited, any active terrain
display is removed and “TERR INOP” indicated on CRT display.
2.57.9 Self Test
The EGPWS provides a Self-Test Capability for verifying and indicating intended
functions. This Self-Test capability consists of six levels to aid testing and
troubleshooting the EGPWS. These six levels are:
Level 1 - GO/NO GO Test. Provides an overview of the current operational

functions and an indication of their status. The flight crew as part of their “Pre-
Flight test” carries out this test.
Level 2 - Current Faults. Provides a list of internal and external faults currently
detected by the EGPWC.
Level 3 – EGPWS Configuration. Indicates the current configuration by listing

the EGPWS hardware, software, databases and program pin numbers detected
by the EGPWC.
Level 4 – Fault History. Provides an historical record of the internal and

external faults detected by the EGPWC.
Level 5 – Warning History. Provides an historical record of the alerts given by

the EGPWS.
Level 6 – Discrete Test. Provides audible indication of any change to a discrete

input state.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Note: Level 2 – 6 tests are typically used for installation checkout and
maintenance operations.
Figure 176 shows TAD/TCF display test pattern.
40 DIM
20 80
10 160
320
OFF
RANGE
RNG 160
TERR ST
TAD/TCF Test Display

Figure 176

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 177 shows a EGPWS computer as fitted to the Boeing 777.
EGPWS Computer (B777)

Figure 177

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58 AIR DATA SYSTEM (ADS)
Air Data systems depend upon Pitot and Static pressure sensing, as well as
temperature sensing. Static air pressure is the pressure of the outside air at the
location of the aircraft. Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure caused by the
forward motion of the aircraft. Temperature sensing is required to calculate the
Total/Static Air Temperature (TAT/SAT), and for calculating True Air Speed
(TAS). Figure 178 shows a Pitot/Static probe.
STATIC
LINE NO1
PITOT
LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
STATIC
LINE NO2
PITOT
STATIC
PORTS
Pitot/Static Probe
Figure 178
In a parked aircraft, the pitot and static pressures are equal. In a moving aircraft,
the pitot pressure is greater because additional pressure is developed at the
forward end of the tube by its motion through the air. Altitude is calculated on the
basis of static air pressure, and airspeeds are calculated on the basis of the
difference between pitot and static pressures.
Since a pitot/static probe is, under certain conditions, subjected to icing, it is

necessary to have available a heater to melt the ice which would block the ports.
Flush static ports may also be heated, if required.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.1 Total Air Temperature Probe
Total Air temperature (TAT), is the static air temperature plus the rise in
temperature created due to the pitot effect. TAT is of great importance in setting
the operating conditions of a jet engine, since the temperature of the air entering
the engine is static air temperature increased by the pitot factor. It is also
possible to derive Static Air Temperature (SAT), from TAT and pitot pressure
information. Figure 179 shows a basic Total Air Temperature (TAT) probe.
AIR FLOW
SENSING METERED
ELEMENT ORIFICE
(VERY SMALL)
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL OF
TEMPERATURE
Total Air Temperature Probe

Figure 179
The TAT probe is constructed similar to a pitot probe. It is however, more

complicated due to the need for providing de-icing heat. The air entering the TAT
probe must be shielded from the de-icing heat. The TAT probe has metered
orifices to allow the air to flow through the sensing element.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.2 Location Of Probes And Static Vents
The choice of probe/vent locations is largely dependent on the type of aircraft,

speed range and aerodynamic characteristics, and as result there is no common
standard for all aircraft. On larger aircraft it is normal to have standby probes and
static vents. These are always located one on each side of the fuselage and are
interconnected so as to balance out dynamic pressure effects resulting from any
Yawing or side-slip motion of the aircraft. Figure 180 shows the location of the
pitot/static sensing elements on a Boeing 737 aircraft.
Boeing 737 Pitot/Static Locations

Figure 180

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosion-
resistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings are required. In
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
provision must also be made for the elimination of water that may enter the
system as a result of condensation, rain, snow, etc. This will reduce the
probability of “Slugs” of water blocking the lines.
This provision takes the form of drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves
in the system’s pipelines. The drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as
not to introduce errors into the system. Methods of draining the pipelines varies
between aircraft types and are designed to have a capacity sufficient to allow for
the accumulation of the maximum amount of water that could enter the system
between maintenance periods. Figure 181 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
FLOAT
TRANSPARENT
INDICATOR
PLASTIC PIPE
DRAIN
VALVE BAYONET
FITTING
CAP
(SELF SEALING)
Water Drain
Figure 181

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 182 shows a typical air data system for a large aircraft.
REC
FLT
ADC 1
ADC 2
MS 2
A/S 1
PRESS
DIFF
MS 1
A/S 2
PC
LOWER
LOWER
PRESSURE HEADS
PRESSURE HEADS
UPPER
UPPER
PITOT PITOT
STATIC STATIC
ALT
ALT
IAS
IAS
VS
VS
CAPT
F/O
Air Data System

Figure 182

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.3 Air Data Computer (ADC)
The ADC receives Pitot/Static pressure and an electrical signal representing

temperature. It uses these inputs to calculate the following parameters:
1. Indicated Air Speed (IAS).
2. True Airspeed (TAS).
3. Speed of Sound (Mach).
4. Altitude.
5. Rate of change of Altitude.
6. Total Air Temperature (TAT).
7. Static Air Temperature (SAT).
The system supplies air data information to any system in either digital or analog
form.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 183 shows a block schematic of an Air data Computer.
ALT HOLD (AUTOPILOT)

ALT RATE (AUTOPILOT)
ATC TRANSPONDER
CABIN PRESSURE
STATIC AIR TEMP

AUTO THROTTLE
AUTO THROTTLE
TRUE AIRSPEED
AIRSPEED HOLD
VSI, FDR
(AUTOPILOT)
(AUTOPILOT)
MACH HOLD
FDR
ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED
TRUE
MACH
INDICATED
AIRSPEED
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
TOTAL AIR
STATIC
PITOT
Air Data Computer

Figure 183
The four blocks within the computer represent modules, which are capable of
supplying the information and controls indicated with the information required.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.4 Altitude Module
The module contains a capsule for measuring the static pressure and an “E & I”
pick off. The “E & I” pick-off changes the capsule movement into an electrical
signal. This electrical signal is amplified and then fed to a motor servo system.
The motor will drive a gear train to move the output devices to give the correct
altitude reading. Figure 184 shows the altitude module of an ADC.
AC
EXCITATION
M
STATIC
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE
RATE
G
GEAR TRAIN
ALTITUDE
DIGITAL ATC
ENCODER TRANSPONDER
CT
ALTITUDE
0V +10V
Altitude Module
Figure 184
If the aircraft is parked, or on a holding altitude, the static pressure will be

constant. The servo motor will have driven until the force exerted by the spring
balances the force exerted by the evacuated bellows, and the “E” pick-off
armature has been moved to its null position. Any position other than the null
causes the servo-motor to run in one direction or the other. The tacho-generator
gives position feedback and also gives an output off altitude rate.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.5 True Airspeed/Indicated Airspeed Vs Altitude
True Airspeed (TAS) and Indicated Airspeed (IAS) are the same value at sea
level; however, as altitude increases, holding the same IAS results in an
increasing TAS. For example; 400kts IAS at sea level becomes 450kts TAS at
10,000ft, and approximately 550kts TAS at 20,000ft. Figure 185 shows the
relationship between IAS/TAS/Mack with an increase of altitude.
.90
50 .885
MACH NO
40
IAS
36,000ft
350
30
400
21,000ft
20
ALTITUDE
1,000ft
10
0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
TAS/IAS/Mach Vs Altitude
Figure 185
In the diagram above the Mach No lines are drawn on the basis of a standard day
temperature chart; It can be seen that .90 Mach at sea level would be 600kts
TAS. From above 36,000ft, .90 Mach equals only 525kts TAS. If an aircraft is
limited to Mach .885/IAS 390kts, it could fly at 390kts up to 21,000ft. Above this
height, the IAS would have to decrease to ensure that the maximum Mach No of
.885 is not exceeded.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.6 Air Data Computer (ADC)
Figure 186 shows the four modules of an ADC.
POT
TAT
MACH MODULE
M
POT
TAS MODULE
M
POT
(ALT MODULE)
POT
ALT
MACH
TAS
CT
POT
IAS MODULE
IAS
CT
PICK-OFF
E
PRESS
CABIN
(MACH MODULE)
ALT
ALT
RATE
ALT
ALT
CT
POT
MODULE
ALT
G
ENCODER
M
ATCRBS
PICK-OFF
ALT HOLD
E
CT
Air Data Computer Modules

Figure 186

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.7 Digital Air Data Computer (DADC)
The DADC uses digital computing and electronic circuits rather than the servo
motor system to calculate the outputs. Analog inputs are converted into digital for
computation. The outputs required are then either converted back to analog or
left as digital signals and output via the ARINC 429 or 629 data busses.
Figure 187 shows a DADC block schematic.
ANALOG
DIGITAL
O/Ps
O/Ps
D/AO/P
A/D
PROCESSOR
& MEMORY
CENTRAL
CCTS
I/P
& MULTIPLEXER
BRIDGE CCTS
TRANDUCER
TRANDUCER
STATIC
PITOT
ENGAGE
IAS HOLD
ALT HOLD
MACH HOLD
ENGAGE
ENGAGE
MILLIBAR
SET
STATIC
PITOT
TEMP
Digital Air Data Computer (DADC)

Figure 187

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
2.58.8 Definitions and Abbreviations
Static pressure (Ps) - Is the ambient atmosphere pressure, which acts on the
surface of a body in rest.
Total pressure (Pt) or pitot pressure - Is the sum of static pressure and the
impact pressure and is the total force which acts on the surface of a body in
motion.
Impact pressure - Is the force we need to stop moving air. It is the actual
pressure, which a body in motion feels. It is equal to total pressure minus static
pressure (Pt-Ps). The relation impact pressure - speed is not linear due to the
compressibility and changes in density of the air. The computer software has the
formula to change impact pressure into airspeed.
Pressure altitude - Is the altitude in a standard atmosphere. We do not take in

account the variations in pressure or temperature, which occur on earth when the
weather changes. A standard atmosphere is equal to 29.921 inches of mercury
(in Hg) or 1013.25 milibars (mB) at sea level.
Baro corrected altitude - Is the pressure altitude corrected for QFE or QNH
barometric correction signals (this requires a manual input for the computer from
an altimeter set panel).
Altitude rate - The change in altitude in ft per min. We also call this signal
vertical speed, vertical rate, rate of climb or baro rate.
Computed airspeed (CAS) - Is an air data function related to impact pressure.

The computer corrects the airspeed for instrument errors and installation errors.
Mach number (Ma) - Is the ratio between the true airspeed and the speed of
sound.
Maximum operational speed (Vmo/Mmo) - Vmo is the maximum safe airspeed

an aircraft can fly with no excessive stress on its structure. The Mmo is the
maximum safe mach number an aircraft can fly without the negative effects
caused by subsonic shock waves. The aircraft manufacturer specifies the
Vmo/Mmo and this value is pre-programmed in the ADC.
Overspeed warning - A discrete signal from the ADC, present at Vmo/Mmo.
Angle Of Attack (AOA) - Is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
and the flight path of the aircraft measured from the aircraft’s centre of mass.
Corrected angle of attack - Is the local AOA from the AOA transducers
corrected for errors as a function of machnumber.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
True airspeed (TAS) - Is the speed of the aircraft with respect to the ambient air
through which it flies. It is airspeed (impact pressure) corrected for
compressibility and density. This depends on altitude and temperature.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) - To measure the outside air temperature we install
a sensor outside the aircraft. When we fly the sensor is in an airstream. The
airstream hits the sensor, comes to a stop, rises in pressure and therefore rises in
temperature. The air temperature plus the temperature rise is called total air
temperature.
Static Air Temperature (SAT) - Is the temperature of the undisturbed ambient

air (TAT corrected for speed).

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Part 2 - Page 1

2.26.1 Carbon Microphone ...................................................... 2-37

Page 2 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

2.47.4 Mode C ......................................................................... 2-104

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Part 2 - Page 3

2.52.13 Navigation Mode ........................................................... 2-166

Page 4 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

2.58.7 Digital Air Data Computer (DADC) ................................ 2-236

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Part 2 - Page 5

Page 6 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

2.2 AUTOPILOT SYSTEM

For an autopilot to maintain this stability, it must:

1. Know what the pilot's desired aircraft attitude is.

2. Know what the actual aircraft attitude is.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-1

The autopilot is divided into four main parts:

2.2.1 Error Sensing

Page 2-2 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

Figure 1 shows a block schematic of a typical autopilot.

AUTOPILOT ROLL SERVO

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-3

2.3 AUTOPILOT INTERLOCKS

Before an automatic control system can be engaged with an aircraft's flight

Page 2-4 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

The number of interlocks incorporated in any one system varies considerably

Here is a review of the interlock switches.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-5

In general, servomotors operate on either electro-pneumatic, electromechanical,

Servomotors may utilise either direct current or alternating current, depending on

The closed loop servo technique can be applied as a means of achieving

Page 2-6 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

Inner Loop Stabilization

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-7

The number of control loops, or channels, comprising an automatic flight control

1. Single Axis System.

2.5 SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM

2.6 TWO-AXIS SYSTEM

2.7 THREE-AXIS SYSTEM

2.8 SENSING ATTITUDE CHANGES

Page 2-8 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

Three-axis Automatic Control System.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-9

2.9 AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

Figure 5 shows a schematic of a Flight Director/Autopilot System.

MODE SELECT PILOT’S

HEADING INPUT FEEDBACK

Flight Director/Autopilot System

Page 2-10 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

2.10 ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM

A simplified Altitude Hold system is shown at Figure 6.

Altitude Hold System

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-11

2.11 AIRSPEED HOLD

2.12 ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM

Page 2-12 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

2.13 CONTROLS AND SELECTORS

Figure 8 shows the controls from a BAe 146 aircraft.

BAe 146 Autopilot controllers

a) MODE SELECTOR : Is mounted on the glare-shield and contains the push

b) NAVIGATION SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield and contains a

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 2 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 2-13

c) ALTITUDE SELECTOR : Mounted on the glare-shield this contains a five-