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"Education is a liberating force, and ill our

age it is also a democratising force, cutting
across the barriers of caste and class,
smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth
and other circumstances."
- Indira Gandhi
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MES-081
~ignou
~ THE PEOPLE'S
. Introduction to
UNIVERSITY Pre-School Education
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Education
Block
3
Transforming Educational Theory into Practice
..
.UNIT 10
Major Schools of Philosophy 5
UNIT 11
Educational Principles of Great Educators 17
UNIT 12
Globalization and Education 37
UNIT 13
Education in the 21st Century 45
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f
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Y.N. Rajasekharan Pillai Mrs. Chandini Shaji
Vice Chancellor, IGNOU Principal
MES Training College, Edathala
Prof. A. Sukumaran Nair
(Former Vice Chancellor Mrs. (Prof.) G. Saratchandra Raj
MG University) Rtd. Principal
NSS Training College
Prof. M.L. Koul Changanacherry
Former Director
School of Education Sr. Philomina Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi Principal
Mount Carmel College of
Prof. Vijayalakshmi Ramachandran Teacher Education, Kottayam
Principal
Cochin Public School Dr. K.S.D. Nair
Thrikkakara RD, IGNOU RC, Cochin
COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit Writers
Unit 1,2,3- Swapna Sankar (Sahodaran Ayyappan Unit 9- Sreeni Vasan Syama (ARD Consultant, IGNOU
Mernorial College of Education, Poothotta, Regional Centre, Cochin -17)
Ernakulam)
Unit 15- Soosamma P.A. (Jyothis villa, Vakathanam
Unit 4,5,10-14&16- Anish P. Chirackal (Lecturer, SN P.O. Kottayam 686538)
College of Education, Muvattupuzha, EKM DT,
Unit 17- Dr. Sr. Alice Mathew (Mt. Carmel College of
Chirackal House, NR City, P.O. Rajakad, Idukki DT,
685566) Teacher Education for Women, Kottayam, Kerala)
Unit 6,7,8- Dr. K. Karunakaran (P.G. Dept. of

Education, SN College of Teacher Education,
Chelannur, Kozhikode - 671616)
Content Editing
Prof. C.L. Anand, (Ex PVC.IGNOU)
Transformation of Units
Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor, SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi-68 ( Major transformation of units-S, 9 & 13)
Language Editing & Proof Reading

Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor. SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi-68
Unit Designing and Format Editing

Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor, SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi-68
Course Coordinator
Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor, SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi-68
Acknowledgement
Sketch on Cover Page by Archishrnan Ghosh
PRODUCTION
,
I
Prof. Vibha Joshi Sh. S.S. Venkatachalam Smt. M. Sumathy Nair
Director Asstt. Registrar (Pub.) Section Officer (Pub.)
School of Education School of Education School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
September, 2011
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 201I
ISBN:978-81-266-5609-7
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School
of Education. '
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/
BLOCK 3 TRANSFORMING
EDUCATIONAL THEORY INTO
PRACTICE ~
Introduction
This block is about the contemporary educational practices, education in the globalized
world and mainly about the theoretical bases of education. It is important to have an
understanding of the ideas, views and thoughts that shape our educational aims, curriculum,
role of teachers, teaching methods and the like and hence discussion on these aspects
comprise the units of this block. This block thus acquaints the learners with the base on
which rests the contemporary educational system.
Unit 10: Major Schools of Philosophy: We need directions for imparting education.
We need to determine the aims of education, the nature of curriculum, the role of teachers
in the teaching-learning process, and the like. In other words there should be a perspective
for education with norms for shaping our educational system. The norms that guide the
educational endeavours are provided by educational philosophy. The philosophy or in
other words the prevailing outlook of the society guides the educational endeavours of
the society. In this unit we shall discuss the major philosophies and their view points on
important aspects of education
Unit 11: Educational Principles of Great Educators: In this unit we shall discuss
the views of some of the well known educators who have contributed towards education
in general and many of whom have contributed towards the field of education imparted
during early childhood. The thoughts of some of the educators from India as well as
those from abroad have been included in this unit.
Unit 12: Globalization and Education: This unit gives you an idea of globalization and
its influence on education and especially on preprimary education. Another aspect that
we have discussed in this unit is the training of preschool teachers in the globalized
world.
Unit 13: Education in the 21 st Century: The aims of education are drawn from the
societal needs. As societal needs are dynamic, educational aims cannot remain unchanged.
In this unit we have discussed the needs of the emerging 21 st century society, and the
value based education required for fulfilling these needs.
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UNIT 10 MAJOR SCHOOLS OF ~
PHILOSOPHY
True education is practicable only through true philosophy.
Structure ~
10.1 Introduction
•
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Philosophy and Education
10.4 Idealism
10.5 Naturalism
10.6 Pragmatism
10.7 Existentialism
10.8 Realism
10.9 Summary
10.10 Unit End Activities
10.11 Clues to Check your Progress
10.12 Reference and Suggested Reading
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the units of the second block of this course you have read about the societal bases
of education in general and of preschool education in particular. When we impart
education, we face questions like why provide education or in other words, what are
the aims of education? We also have to decide on the nature of curriculum to determine
the type of experiences we would like our learners to have. We also have to decide
the role of teachers, the way discipline is to be maintained and other such things. From
where do we get answers to these questions? The prevailing outlook on these aspects,
i.e. philosophy guides us in these matters and shapes the educational endeavours of
the society. In this unit we shall discuss the major philosophies and their view points on
iinportant aspects of education. Philosophy stated in simple terms implies an outlook.
It is basically a search for knowledge. As there are many schools of philosophy, we
have at times even divergent viewpoints on an issue. In this unit we shall introduce
you to the major schools of philosophy. Our discussions shall however be in the context
" of education.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• describe the role of philosophy in guiding education;
• describe the viewpoint regarding aims of education, nature of curriculum,
,- methodology, role of teacher, etc. as given by various schools of philosophy.
10.3 PIDLOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Teaching requires the careful blending of theory and Il.ra~tice.Theory without practice
is insufficient; practice unguided by theory is aimless. Blending theory and practice is
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Transforming Educational therefore necessary. Teaching has both a reflective and an active dimension. Reflection
Theory into Practice transcends the immediate instructional episodes of the classroom. When the teacher
begins to reflect on the conception of reality, human nature, and of society he or she is
philosophizing about education because she is pond-ring on the curriculum, the learners,
the goals of education and so on (Gutek, 1997). T(I facilitate this, the sections that
follows provide an introduction to some of the well known philosophies of education.
Philosophy and education

In its most general terms, philosophy comprises attempt to think speculatively,
reflectively, and systematically about the universe and the relationship of human beings
with universe. Metaphysics, the study of tlie nature of ultimate reality involves
speculation about the nature of existence. Metaphysics relates to educational theorizing
and practice in many ways. The subjects, experiences, and skills in the curriculum
reflect the conception of reality held by the society. For example subjects such as
history, geography, chemistry, and so on, describes certain dimensions of reality as
held by the society to students.
Epistemology, the theory of knowing and knowledge, is of crucial importance to
educators. Defining the foundations of knowledge, epistemology considers such
important questions as, l ) how do we know what we know? 2) On what process of
knowing do we,base our knowledge of the world and society? 3) What is the authority
on which we base our claims to truth? 4) What is the source of our knowledge -divine
revelation, empirical evidence, or personal and subjective experience? Epistemology
deals with the general and basic conceptions of knowing, and is closely related to
methods of teaching and learning.
Axiology is concerned with value and attempts to prescribe what is good and right
conduct. The subdivisions of axiology are ethics and aesthetics. Ethics refers to the
philosophic study of moral values and conduct. It prescribes moral behaviour. Aesthetics
is concerned with the study of values in the realm of beauty and art whereas
metaphysics is concerned with attempts to describe the nature of ultimate reality.
Logic is concerned with the rules or patterns of correct and valid thinking. It examines
the rules of valid inference that enable us to frame correctly our propositions and our
arguments. Deductive logic refers to reasoning that moves from general statements
or principles to particular instances and applications. Inductive logic is reasoning that
moves from particular instances to generalizations.
Education in a more formal and deliberate sense, takes place in an educational institution
like a school, which is a specialized social agency, established to cultivate preferred
skills, knowledge and values in the learner. The educational institution is .staffed by
teachers who are regarded by the society as experts in the learning processes and has
a program of instruction, curriculum and methods that are in the context of the social
outlook towards these aspects. Learning experiences comprising the curriculum are
also based on the societal views on reality, knowledge and values. Decision making in
curricular matters involves considering, examining and formulating the ends of education.
Those concerned with curriculum planning and organization ask such questions as:
What knowledge is of most worth? What knowledge should be introduced to the
learner? What are the criteria for selecting knowledge? What is valuable for the
learner as a per~()I1and as a member of society? The answers to these questions not
only determine what is included and what is excluded from the school's instructional
program, but also rest ultimately on assumptions about the nature of the universe, of
human beings, of society, and of good life. The study of educational philosophy helps
an educator to critically evaluate his/her own practices and make necessary changes
in his practice. The major schools of philosophy are: Idealism, Naturalism, Realism,
Pragmatism, Existentialism, which we shall discuss briefly. While philosophy provides
the theoretical aspect, education is its practice.
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Major Schools of Philosophy
10.4 IDEALISM
We have introduced the concepts of metaphysics, epistemology and axiology. We
shall now discuss idealism briefly along these aspects.
Idealism asserts the primacy of the mental, the spiritual and the ideal as the basis of
. reality. It affirms that reality is essentially spiritual or mental and denies the possibility
cifknowing anything except ideas, In explaining the universe, idealism posits ultimate
reality is solely in the mind and argues that the universe is an expression of a highly
generalized intelligence and will (Gutek 1997).
In explaining human nature, the Idealist holds that the human being's spiritual essence
is its essential and permanent characteristic. The mind provides the elemental life
force that gives the person vitality and dynamism. Mind is evidenced by doubting;
doubting is thinking, thinking gives evidence of the presence of intellect or of mind.
Idealist epistemology
Mind is important as it helps us to think. In Idealism, knowing is recognition or
reminiscence of latent ideas that are preformed in the mind. By reminiscence, the
•
human mind may discover the ideas of the macrocosmic mind in its own thoughts.
Through intuition, introspection, and insight, the individual looks within his or her own
mind and therein finds a copy of the absolute. What is to be known is already present
in the mind. The challenge of teachingand learning is to bring this latent knowledge to
consciousness (Gutek, 1997). Therefore, knowledge exists in mind and hence, knowing
is subjective as one would know as per his/her thinking. Ideas are supreme and they
exist in our thinking, in the mind and not outside it.
Idealist epistemology and the educative process

According to Idealist epistemology, education's major goal is to stimulate learners to
achieve a more vital and fuller identification with the absolute mind, or the macrocosm.
Learning is a process by which students come into a gradually expanding mental
awareness that leads to self definition based on a comprehensive understanding or
perspecti ve of the universe. As a highly intellectual process, learning is the recalling of
and the working with ideas. Because reality is mental, education also is concerned
with concepts or ideas. People become educated as they systematically bring ideas to
consciousness and arrange them into a system in which the part, or the individual, is
related to the whole.
Aims of education as per idealists are as follows

Self realization is the ultimate aim of idealistic education. It means to realize the highest
potentialities of self in social and cultural environment and to enrich human personality.
The other aims are the following:

• To ensure spiritual development of the individual
• To preserve, enrich and transmit the cultural heritage of man
• To explore and realize universal values such as truth, goodness and beauty of life
• To emancipate or liberate human spirit.
Idealists support the subject matter curriculum in which various ideas, or concepts,
are organized in their relationship to each other. Disciplines or subjects contain necessary
concepts that are related to each other and that are referred to through symbols. For
example the word pen is the symbol for the ideaJcon~ep~ of a pen. Symbols refer to or
point to concepts. Learning is an active process that occurs when the leaner recalls
the concept to which the symbol refers.
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Transforming Educational Nature of Curriculum as per idealism can be summarized as:
Theory into Practice
• The idealist curriculum is based upon the spiritual nature of man.
• Cuciculum may include any subject that can fo~ter spiritual development and
create an ideal self.
• It should reflect the experiences of the human race as a whole.
• Idealism attaches great importance to humanities, culture, art, history, philosophy
literature and religiort
• Curriculum should contain such subjects which will bring about intellectual,
aesthetic and moral development of man.
Method of teaching
Different idealistic educationists have adopted different teaching methods. The major
methods are the following.
• Socrates used dialectics (question - answer) meurod. Dialectics is a method of
discovering the truth of ideas by discussion and logical argument and by considering
ideas that are opposed to each other.
.. • Conversation or discourse method, deductive method, inductive method, lecture
method, analytical method, etc.
Idealist axiology
As per Idealist axiology, values are more than mere human preferences; they exist
and are inherent intrinsically in the universe. Value experience is essentially an imitation
of the good, which is present in the absolute. As such, values are absolute, eternal,
unchanging, and universal. In our search for value, idealists tell us to look to the ethical
core found in the wisdom of the human race which has persisted over time. Ethical
conduct grows out of the permanent aspects of a social and cultural tradition that in
reality is the wisdom of the past functioning in the present. Rich sources of value
education can be found in history, literature, religion, and philosophy.
Idealism, a philosophy proclaiming the spiritual nature of the human being and the
universe, asserts that the good, true and beautiful are permanently part ofthe structure
of a related, coherent, orderly and unchanging universe. Idealist educators prefer a
subject matter curriculum that emphasizes truths gained from enduring theological,
philosophical, historical, literary and artistic works. The following concepts, rooted in
Idealist philosophy, have a special relevance for educational practice:
• Education is a process of unfolding and developing of the inherent potential
• Learning is a discovery process in which the learner is stimulated to recall the
truths present within the mind.
• The teacher should be a moral and cultural exemplar or model of values that
represent the highest and best expression of personal and human. development.
Role of Teacher
Idealism gives prominent place to the teacher. The important roles of a teacher are
the following:
• Idealism considers teacher as a spiritual guide who leads the child from darkness
to light.
• Teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide.
• Teacher is the embodiment of all virtues _and ideals and should present high
standards of behaviour and conduct before pupils.
• The teacher should encourage the pupils to think for themselves
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• The teacher should have a deep knowledge of his/her subject. Major Schools of Philosophy
ft The teacher should aim at inculcating right values in pupils.

•• The teacher should ensure the spiritual development of pupils.
Check your progress 1

Answer the following questions:
r
1. What are the areas of philosophy?
2. What is the base of idealistic curriculum?
3. What is the ultimate aim of idealistic education?
4. What are the different methods of teaching according to idealists?
5. Explain the different roles of teacher in idealism.
10.5 NATURALISM
For the naturalists nature is the key element. The important aims of education as per
Naturalism are as follows.
,
• Self preservation: The child must be able to preserve and protect hisfher body
since it is as important as his/her mind.
• Securing necessities of life: the aim of education should be to equip the individual
to struggle for existence and thus to ensure his/her survival.
.t Maintenance of social and political relations: Education should enable the child to
adjust himself/herself to the environment.
et Enjoyment of leisure
• Personality development
Nature of Curriculum
During the earlier stage of development of a child the curriculum should preferably be
such that sensory training is imparted as naturalists believe that senses are the gateways
of knowledge. At the later stage of development, subjects like physiology, physical and
natural sciences, mathematics, anatomy, etc. are to be studied.
The important characteristics of curriculum as per this school of philosophy are the
following:
• The curriculum is based on the nature of the child and his/her interests.
• The curriculum lays stress on subjects that are helpful in self preservation.
• The curriculum stresses basic sciences
• The curriculum emphasises physical and health education
Methodology of Instructions
Naturalism is against all rigid, uniform, traditional and stereotype techniques of teaching.
The important methods are:
• Play way method: Play is the natural activity of the child and natural mode of
education.
• Learning by doing: It is based on principles of self activity and participation.
• Learning by experiencing: The child learns through his/her personal experiences
with nature (auto education)
• Learning through observation: Observation and experimentation are recommended
b~aturalists for learning science subjects. 9
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'lransfonning Educational • Heuristic method: Naturalism advocates heuristic method for learning science
\ Theory into Practice •
and mathematics. This involves learning through discovery method. The child is
allowed to seek facts on her own without the teacher dictating facts to the child.
Role of Teacher
In naturalist educational system, teacher's role is subsidiary. Naturalism assigns the
following roles to the teacher.
• According to naturalists, nature is the supreme teacher.
• The teacher should facilitate the process of natural development of the learner.
• The teacher's responsibility is to create an ideal environment for the natural
development of the child.
We thus see that Naturalism is a philosophical theory that affirms that all beings and
events in the universe are natural and therefore can be fully known by the methods of
scientific investigation. The word 'nature' gives two meaning a) external world b) the
nature of man. Naturalists believe that material world is the real world and nature is
the whole reality. They believe that nature alone can answer the problems of human
"
beings. They say that senses are the gateways of knowledge.

1. What are the educational aims for naturalism?
2. Explain the nature of curriculum in naturalism
3. State an important method of instruction suggested by naturalism.
4. Explain the different roles of teacher in naturalism.
10.6 PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism views the world to be dynamic with constant flux, change, and movement.
Pragmatism appeared at time when science and industry were creating a new
technological society, As the nineteenth century yielded to the twentieth, scientific
temperament was sought for making life better.
Aims of Education
Pragmatism does not believe in fixed, pre-determined, ultimate and general aims of
education. Aims according to this- school of thought are dynamic and change with
changing times and needs. There can only be suggested aims. Aims and hence the
curriculum are therefore based on utility, which is dynamic rather than on fixed notions
of ideals and universal truths. Some of the suggested aims are the following:
• To cultivate a dynamic and adaptive mind that is resourceful and enterprising in
all situations.
• To bring about all round harmonious development of the individual by directing
his/her impulses, interests and abilities towards the satisfaction of his/her felt
needs in his/her environment.
• To enable the learner to reconstruct his/her experiences continuously in the light
of new situations so that s/he becomes able to control his/her environment and
fulfill his/her aim.
• To produce socially competent, economically efficient and cultured persons.
• To enable the child to create new realities and values for optimum personal and
social adjustment in a creative manner.
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Nature of curriculum Major Schools of Philosophy
Pragmatism stresses experience-based curriculum (activity-based curriculum). It is

developed on the basis of four principles.
• Principles of Utility: It regards utility as the prime mover in the determination of
curriculum. Accordingly only those subjects, activities and experiences should be
. included in the curriculum which are useful for hieeting the present and future
needs of the child.
• Principle of interest: The interests of children/learner are of paramount interest
in designing the curriculum.
• Principle of experience: the curriculum should have experiences that lead to
learning.
• Pragmatism lays emphasis on practical work, child's activity, vocation and
experience. Learning should be by doing.
• Principle of correlation: Pragmatism advocates correlated teaching of different
subjects for effective learning. Interdisciplinary approach rather than individual
subjects bound in water tight compartments is required. For instance, while
teaching languages, we may include topics on environment, road safety, living
beings and the like.
Methods of teaching
Interests of the child, practical work, constructive activities, productive experiences,
etc. are the basics of pragmatic methods of teaching. Following are the important
contributions to the method of teaching:
• Pragmatism emphasizes purposive learning: learning is made purposeful by
providing real life situations according to the natural interests, aptitude, abilities
and experience of the learner.
• Pragmatism advocates learning by doing.
.• Learning experiences should be imparted to the learner thorough activities and
practical experiences.
• Pragmatism requires correlated teaching i.e. teaching by linking subject areas
and adopting an interdisciplinary approach.
• Provide experiences to the learner by employing correlation and integration of all
subjects, activities and experiences.
• Pragmatism recommends project method and problem solving method.
• Project method is a contribution of pragmatist philosophy in education.
Role of Teacher
The chief function of pragmatic teacher is to suggest problems to his pupils and to
stimulate them to find by themselves, the solutions which will work. The important
roles of teachers are the following:-
• Pragmatism regards teacher as a facilitator and guide.
• It considers teacher as an arranger of experience, stage setter, director, facilitator,
motivator, etc.
• S/he is a good guide, friend and philosopher
• Pupils should think and act for themselves, do rather than to know, originate or
generate rather than repeat.
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Transforming Educational
Theory into Practice Check your progress 3
1. Which type of curriculum is advocated to Pragmatism?
2. What are the principles on which the curriculum should be developed as per
Pragmatism? ~
3. What are the bases of Pragmatic methods of teaching?
10.7 EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism's basic premise that 'existence precedes essence' asserts that human
being first arrives on the world scene and then begins the efforts of self-definition. All
philosophizing begins with an existing being who is aware of his or her own existence.
This awareness of existence puts the person in a situation of being his or her own
"essence-maker" through individual. personal, and subjective choice making, The
Existentialist situation, how~ver, is paradoxical. Each individual is unique, and this
uniqueness is of value in the world. However, at the same time, each person lives in a
universe that is indifferent to human existence. The awareness of one's own existence
also implies a coordinate awareness of eventual nonexistence. The eventuality of
nonexistence is a source of profound anxiety, dread, and concern. Despite the fact
that existence also carries with it the ever-present threat of nonexistence, each person
must work out his or her own definition in a meaningless universe (Gutek ,1997).
Thus, the basic thrust of Existentialist philosophizing is to portray the human struggle
to achieve self-definition through choice. These views define the person as part of a
system and categorize him or her as a constituent element in a structure that provides
the purpose for existing. Existentialism asserts that human purpose is not automatically
prescribed in the metaphysical or theological structure of the universe or in the
sociological or ideological structure of society. Each person is responsible for creating
his or her own purpose. For Existentialists, the basic philosophical issue is that of
valuing and choosing. Values are not embedded in some conception of a metaphysical
or sociological antecedent reality, but are created by personal choices. No external
universal criterion can be used to estimate values. A person cannot escape fro.n choice.
The quest of an Existentialist education is to cultivate an authentic person who is
aware of freedom and that every choice is an act of personal v.,', le creation.
Existentialist epistemology
Existentialism sees the human being in more imprecise but also in more varied terms.
The human person is rational but also irrational, thinking but also feeling, cognitive but
also affective. Existentialist epistemology assumes that the individual is responsible
for constructing his or her own knowledge. Knowledge originates in and is composed t;
of what exists in the individual's consciousness and feelings as a result of one's I

experiences. Human situations are built of both rational and irrational components.
_ The validity of knowledge is determined by its value and meaning to the individual: An
Existentialist epistemology emerges from the recognition that human experience and
knowledge are subjective, personal, rational, and irrational. Existentialists prefer to
probe human aesthetic, moral, and emotional concerns as well as cognitivecries.
Aims of Education
According to existentialism, the primary aim of education is the making of a human
person as one who lives and makes decision about what s/he will do and be. The aims
are the following.
• The aim of education is to lead an authentic life. i.e., life, which is based on
harmony and rcxponsibility.
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• Education for life Major Schools of Philosophy
• }Education is the preparation for the state of being

• Enable one to take decisions about himlherself
• To make the individual a person who is humane. This philosophy follows a

humanistic approach.
•
Following are the important features of existentialist curriculum:
• It is focused on the individual student. Students freely choose parts of the
curriculum
• It is not very favourable towards the study of science subjects which impart
objective knowledge.
• It attaches importance on subjective knowledge rather than objective knowledge
because objective truths displace man away from his/her own self.
• To encourage self realization, existentialists particularly favour religious and moral
education.
• Strongly recommend the teaching of humanities, ethics, art, literature, drama,
music and social studies.
• Mastering of.three 'R's at elementary stage and teaching of foreign language,
logic, sociology, anthropology, music and art, mathematics and philosophy at higher
level is proposed by existentialists.
Method of Teaching
Existentialism encourages child-centered education. Existentialist educators want the
educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for self direction and self
actualization. The important features of teaching are:
• Socratic Method in classroom teaching. In Socratic method, the teacher seeks to
draw the information from learners by means of skillfully directed questions
• Learning is self- paced, self directed and includes a great deal of individual contact
with the teacher.
• It includes asking questions, refining answers, asking more questions and probing
the issue until some acceptable conclusion is reached.
• A kind of inward - questioning or self questioning is encouraged by the teacher
to awaken awareness in the learner.
• It allows the student the freedom of choice and provides himlher with experience
that will help himlher to know himlherself and recognize his/her being.
Role of Teacher
/'
The existentialist teacher attempts to inculcate in pupils a sense of autonomy, as well

as giving them tools they can use to forge their own set of moral principles and define
their own destiny.
The following are the important roles of teachbr.
• To help students define their own esse'ce by exposing them to various paths
they may take in life. I
• To help the students to be original and authentic in developing values, instead of

imposing the values of the teacher upon ,students. it •
• The existentialist teacher should develop the ability to choose i.e. make good
choices in the learner.
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Transforming Educational • To educate the student to learn to face the consequences of hislher own choice.
• to guide and counsel the students to attain realization of inner self through hislher
free existence.
• Existentialist teachers should not influence students. Teachers are only resource
that the students may choose to use for assistance.
10.8 REALISM
Realism's essential metaphysical proposition is that we live in an objective order of
reality that exists independent of and external to our minds. Objects, that are, material
things, exist in time and in space, and we can come to know something about them
through our knowing process that involves sensation and abstraction. An object then
is outside of us and consists of two dimensions - matter and form. Matter, the material
substratum of an object, has the potential of becoming something. To become an
object, matter has to be organized according to some design or structure. By way of
analogy, we might think about the carpenter using wood (matter) according to a blueprint
or design (form). Wood has the potential of becoming a chair, a desk, or a house. To
.. build one ofthese objects, the builder has to fashion the material (the wood) according
to the blue print. The dualistic nature of reality should be noted. Matter and form are
both necessary to an object (Gutek1997).
Nature of curriculum
• Realism lays emphasis on finding out the truth. It implies that in the curriculum,
science should be given a prominent place.
• Realism stands for the diversification of courses which are related to life
• Realism includes contemporary events in the curriculum.
• Realism lays stress on the inclusion of vocational courses in the curriculum.
• Realism insists that practical'.utillityof

I.
the subjects should be the main consideration
in the inclusion of subjects in the curriculum
Realist epistemology
For the Realist, knowing is to have knowledge about an object. Cognition, or knowing,
involves an interaction between the human mind and the world outside of the mind.
Sensation concerns the material component of an object or matter. While sensation is
the beginning of knowing, it is not the end of knowledge. Our knowledge about an
object originates with sensations such as of light, sound, pressure, heat cold, taste, etc.
that comes from the object. Each of our senses has a definite function. Touch, for
example, tells us about roughness/smoothness, temperature; ability to smell, informs
us of odours; ability for hearing is for sound; sight, the most useful sense, tells us about
size, shape, colour, etc. Sensation, thus first involves the physical action of something
impinging on our sensory organs, which is then perceived and meaning is attached to
it by the mind.
The realist theory of knowledge is also referred to as the "correspondence theory".
Our ideas are true when our concepts correspond with the object in reality. Because
knowledge is to conform to reality, what is taught should also conform to reality. Only
that which is true should be both transmitted and perpetuated.
Method of teaching
Realism believes that all knowledge is derived from experiences. So it advocates
methods which give experience to students.
14
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Realist axiology , Major Schools of Philosophy
Realists encourage us to shape our values in terms of the structures of reality. By

knowing the structures of physical, natural, social, and human reality, we can frame
realistic and viable alternatives. Through knowledge, we can rationally frame choices
. about life. The ability to develop such choices is at the core of a liberal or liberating,
education. It is of the view that:
• One must look to nature and to human nature, as partof the natural order for the
purpose of education
• The key to understanding nature is through the senses; sensation is the basis of
our knowledge of reality.
• Because nature's processes are slow, .gradual and evolutionary, our education
also should be unhurried.
Aims of education as per realism are:
• Child should be prepared for a happy-and successful life
• Education should be planned in such a way that it prepares the child for real life.
• Mental and physical faculties of the child should be developed.
• The senses of the child should be developed through appropriate experiences
• Education should provide the child with the knowledge of both the society and
external nature.
• Child should be trained for a vocational pursuit.
Role of Teacher: Realism does not attach as much importance to the personality of
the teacher as an idealist does. A teacher may be only a facilitator who can facilitate
learning.

1. What are the aims of education for realists?
2. Explain the different roles of teacher as given by realism.
10.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have explained that philosophy guides the nature of education and its
path. Therefore philosophy underlies educational endeavours and processes. Hence,
an introduction has been given to the views held by major schools of philosophy on
various aspects of education. We have discussed in this unit the view held by different
schools of philosophy on the aims of education. We 'also stated the roles of teacher as
assumed by different schools of philosophy. We have alsodiscussed the nature of
curriculum and the method of teaching as given by different schools of philosophy.
10.10 UNITENDACTIVITIES
1. Study the curriculum of five preschools. Explain the impact of pragmatism on the
curriculum.
2. "The role of the teacher in idealism is pivotal." Explain in this context how a
teacher can play his/her role effectively in achieving the aims of preschool
education.
15
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Theory into Practice IU.II· LLlJ~~ TU LH~Ll\ r UlJK YKU\jllli~,~
Check Your Progress 1

1. Mainly metaphysics, epistemology and axiology.
2. Self - realization and Spiritual development
3. An exalted mind
4. Dialectic (Question "i answer) method, lectures, etc.
5. Spiritual guide, friend, philosopher,

1. . Self preservation and persona,1i~~development.
2. It is based on the nature of chile! and his interest.
3. Play - way method
4. teacher as an observer, facilitatorand stage setter.

1. Experience based or activity based curriculum
2. Utility, interest, experience and correlation.
3. Interest of the child, practical work, constructive activities and productive
experiences; learning by doing.

1. i) Mental and physical development of child.
ii) Development of senses of child.
iii) Training for a vocational pursuit.
2. A teacher may be only a facilitator who can facilitate learning
10.12 REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READING-

Aggarwal J.C.(1998). Theory and Principles of Education: Philosophical and
Sociological Bases of Education. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House"
Aggarwal J.C.(2005).Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education.
NewDelhi:Vikas Publishing House.
Gupta. (2005).EducQ.tion in Emerging India. NewDelhi: Shipra Publshing House ..
Gutek,G.L.(1997).Philosophical and Ideological Perspectives on Education
(second ed.)Chicago:Loyola University.
Rao,Digmurthy,Bhaskara(ed.).(2003).International Studies in Education(vol 1-3).
Newfrelhi.Discovery Publishing House.
Sharma,S .R.( ed.) 1996.Philosophy of Education(Vol.l-l O)Practice of Philosophy
of Education. NewDelhi:Mohit Publication.
16
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UNIT 11 EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES' OF
GREAT EDUCATORS
. 'A good education consists in giving to the body and to the soul all the
beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable'
•
-Plato
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Indian Educators
11.3.1 Mahatma Gandhi
11.3.2 Tagore
11.3.3 Aurobindo
11.4 Western Educators
11.4.1 Rousseau
11.4.2 Pesta1lozzi
11.4.3 Froebel
11.4.4 Comenius
11.4.5 Dewey
11.4.6 Montessori
11.4.7 . Piaget
11.4.8 Bruner
11.4.9 Susan Isaacs
11.4.10 Vygotsky
11.5 Summary
11.7 Clues to Check your Progress
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have read about major schools of philosophy and their view
points on important aspects of education. In this unit we shall discuss the views of
some of the well known educationists and philosophers who have contributed towards
education in general and many of whom have contributed towards the education
imparted during early childhood. We shall center our discussion on the thoughts of ,
some of the educators from India as well as those from abroad.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• explain the contributions of great educatorsfrom India to the field of education;
and
• explain the contributions of great educators from abroad to the field of education.
17
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Theory into Practice 11.3 INDIAN EDUCATORS
In this section we shall discuss the contributions of some of the Indian educationists.
11.3.1 Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi (1869 -1948) , developed a system of education for
attaining self-realizatio~, spiritual development, guarantee against unemployment,
development of morality, etc. The major aims of education according to the Gandhian
system of education are the following:
• Harmonious development of one's personality
• Preparation for life through labour leading to self-sufficiency
• Character building
• Cultural development
• Social welfare with citizenship for a society free from exploitation and class
distinction so as to attain Rarnrajya, i.e.·an ideal state.
.
, • Education for equality, brotherhood, co-operation, world peace, etc.
Gandhiji proposed Basic Education, with a life-centered and activity oriented curriculum
with emphasis on self-supporting and productive craft such as agriculture, spinning,
weaving, carpentry, and other cottage industries.
The following are the important features of the curriculum.
• It is life- centered and activity- centered.
• Knowledge and skills obtained through manual work and productive crafts having
utility value.
• It is based on the concept of learning by doing and learning while earning
• Emphasis on mother tongue as medium of instruction and importance of craft,
arithmetic, social studies, general science, art, music, etc. as subjects of study.
• He suggested study of domestic science for girls.
The Nai Talim Sangh, known as the Hindustani Talim Sangh, was set up in 1938 at
Sevagram Ashram, Wardha by Gandhiji to implement the concept of 'basic national
education' to create generations of youth who would 'contribute to building a truthful
and non-violent society' and would learn 'through the intelligent scientific practice of
a useful productive craft.
Method of teaching
The following are the important features of the method of teaching advocated by
Gandhiji.
• Emphasis on activity method and learning by doing.

• Relation should be established among different academic subjects and learning
experiences and daily life.
Role of Teacher
Gundhiji taught people by leading an exemplary life. The following are the important
views of Gandhiji on teachers:
• Teachers must be well trained, proficient, persons of knowledge and faith, zeal
and enthusiasm, persons of action and devotion, character and nationalistic feelings.
18 • Teachers must be persons of high moral character.
/
• The teacher should set an ideal example of simple living and high thinking. Educational Principles
of Great Educators
• S/he should teach from life and not from text books to impart originality to his
pupils.
• S/he should not resort to corporal punishment
For children under seven he suggested that education has to develop their faculties
and teachers in cooperation with parents and the commugity should do this. It includes
nurture for physical well being, medical care, personal cleanliness and health, community
cleanliness and health, self-help, social training, creative activities in work and play for
the acquisition of basic concepts, speech training, development of numerical abilities
, nature study, art and music and spiritual development. He emphasized the need for
parental education for the well being of young children.
11.3.2 Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore(l861- 1941), Asia's first Nobel Laureates, was born in Calcutta.
Tagore, popularly known as Gurudev, was a poet, patriot, educationist, artist, a social
reformer and a religious reformer. According to Tagore, education is the instrument
fashioned by men to achieve life's goals. It is a means to develop the personality of the
child to the fullest so as to enable him to live in harmony with all existence (Sharma,
2002).
/
Aims of education according to Tagore:
The aim of education, according to Tagore, is to give one a sense of one's identity as
a total human being, and to provide education, which is in harmony with life. The
other aims of education are:
• To ensure all-round development of the individual personality through harmonious
interaction and union of the spirit with environment.
• To help the individual to realize the essential unity of an individual with the universe.
• To develop child's aesthetic nature and creativity in addition to ensuring his/her
physical, mental, moral and spiritual development.
• To draw out the latent faculties of the child optimally.
• To develop attitude needed for international understanding and universal
brotherhood in children.
• To achieve the highest ideals of life: truth, beauty and goodness
According to Tagore the curriculum should be broad based. It should cater to the
.needs of the individual and the society. Following are the features of curriculum
suggested by Tagore.
• Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction.
• Curriculum should make use of the educational values of crafts, fine arts, music,
dancing, field study, etc.
• Languages and literature, mother tongue, other Indian languages, foreign
languages, etc. should be included in the curriculum. .
• Science subjects, Mathematics, History, Civics, Geography, Economics, Sociology,
Religious studies, Philosophy, Psychology etc. as core subjects.
• Arts, music, dancing, sculpture, painting, designing, etc. should be made essential
parts of the school experience.
• Study of technical and vocational subjects, agriculture, horticulture and gardening
etc.
19
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Transforming Educational Method of Teaching
Tagore based the methods of teaching on three principles:
1) freedom
2) creative self-expression
3) active communion between natur.e 'and man
Tagore emphasized the following methods of teaching:
• Learning by doing is suggested as best method as it keeps the mind awake and
gives direct experiences.
• Discussion and question-answer method was advocated by Tagore to promote
logical thinking and problem solving ability.
• Activity method such as craft, dramatization, projects, physical activities and
creative production was suggested as effective method for supporting physical
as well as mental development.
• Heuristic method was advocated as a means for inculcating spirit of inquiry in
children while teaching Science and Mathematics.
• Social service was accepted and practiced as a method of teaching
Role of Teacher
Tagore wanted teachers to be like a gardener, to help young children to grow. The
following are his views on teacher.
• A true teacher should be sympathetic, tolerant and patient.
• A teacher must have a receptive mind and openness for learning.
• A true teacher should be continuous learner. A teacher can never truly teach
unless s/he is still learning him/herself.
• The teacher should provide conducive environment to the child so that s/he engages
himlherself in useful and constructive activities and learns by his/her own
experiences.
11.3.3 Sri Aurobindo

Sri Aurobindo Ghosh (1872 - 1950), the well known mystic or spiritual thinker, patriot,
poet, political leader, social reformer and educationist was born in Calcutta on 15th
August 1872. His approach to education was that it should lead to an integrated
development of body, mind and spirit for a divine life. .
Aims of Education
According to Aurobindo, the major aims of education are the following.
• To help the individual to realize him/herself, i.e. attain self realization
• Spiritual development
-.
-.""
• To help the individual in the harmonious development of different levels of his/
her conscience (Chitta, Manas, Intelligence and Intuition)
,..
• To help the child to develop his/her moral senses to the maximum.
• To build the powers of human mind and spirit to their perfection.
• To train the senses so as to achieve their full development.
According to Aurobindo, the curriculum should include all those subjects which promote
mental and spiritual development of the learner. It should be flexible, interest based
/
and should be planned accordin£ to individual difference. He emphasized the importance Educational Principles
of mother tongue, science, social science, arithmetic, art, health education, fine arts, of Great Educators
etc.
Method of Teaching
Aurobindo's view were the following on method of teaphing:
• Impart education through the mother tongue of the learner
• Skills and knowledge should be imparted through the co-operative activities of
the teacher and learners.
• Learning by doing is the best method of learning
• He emphasized Montessori Method for infant classes.
• He attached great importance to experiential learning.
Role of Teacher
Aurobindo assumed the role of the teacher as friend, philosopher and guide. The
.. following are the views of Aurobindo about the role and quality of teachers
• The teacher should be a representative of the supreme knowledge, the supreme
truth and the supreme law.
• The teacher should act as an aid, a means and a channel.
• To be a good teacher one must be a saint, a hero and a great yogi.
• A teacher is not an instructor or task master; s/he is a helper and a guide.
• According to Aurobindo, the task of the teacher is to suggest and not to impose.

1) What are the ultimate aims of education according to Gandhiji?
2) Explain the features of curriculum suggested by Tagore.
11.4 WESTERN EDUCATORS

In this section we shall discuss the thoughts of some of the western educators
11.4.1 Rousseau
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712- 1778) was born in Geneva on 28th June, 1712, but
became famous as a French political philosopher and educationalist. His political
philosophy influenced the French revolution and the development of modern, political
and educational thought. Rousseau is known as the back-to-nature theorist in education
and is considered as the originator of child-centered natural means of education (Sharma,
2002). His important works are, Discourse on the Arts and Science, Discourse on
Inequality, the Social Contract, Emile: or, On Education, Julie, The Confessions
(Autobiography).
Aims of Education
The goal of education, according to Rousseau, is to cultivate our natural tendencies.
He recommended the following aims of education.
• To develop the child's abilities freely as nature intended.
• To create a natural man free from the artificialities of the society.
• To guide the child to prepare for struggle for existence, to ensure autonomous
development of individuality, and to assist in self- expression. 21
/
Transforming Educational • To perfect the child's organs and the senses that are instruments of acquiring
Theory into Practice knowledge and to develop his/her natural powers before knowledge is actually
received.
• To shape the heart by teaching to live for others and to live together in social
relationships.
Nature of curriculum ~
Rousseau believed that education should differ at different stages of life starting from
infancy to adulthood. The important features of curriculum as given by him are the
following.
• Infancy (0-6 years) only physical education for making children healthy and self
sufficient.
• Boyhood (7-9 years) this is chiefly the period of sense education. Apply the
principles of negative education.
• Pre adolescence (l 0-12 years) this is the period of intellectual education. At this
stage the child is ready to receive knowledge.
• Adolescence (13-19 years) this is a period of moral and social education. Teaching
of moral and religious subjects is suggested.
• Rousseau prescribed a separate curriculum for the education of girls. He
prescribed bodily exercise for acquiring physical charm.
Method of Teaching
Rousseau criticized verbal lessons and suggested that education should be practical
rather than by talking. The following are the important methods of teaching advocated
by Rousseau.
• Direct self-experience
• Learning by doing
• The heuristic method
• Social participation
Role of Teacher
According to Rousseau, nature is the supreme teacher, in whose close contact the
child develops normally and naturally. Nature is the primary teacher and the job of the
tutor is to direct the child to necessary realization.
He~nsidered the following as the important roles of the teacher.
• The teacher is merely an observer of the natural development of the child.
• The teacher is only to set the stage and allow the child to act freely according to
his/her inherent capacities
• The teacher is only to act as a sympathetic observer and guide.
11.4.2 Pestalozzi
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi(1746 - 1827), was born in Zurich, Switzerland (Sharma
2002). He argued against verbalization for teaching children and was of the view that
children should learn through activity and experiences. They should be free to pursue
their own interests and draw their own conclusions.
Aims of Education
Pestalozzi presented two general purposes of education; the development of the
indi vidual and the development of society. According to him education is to ensure all
round harmonious development. The specific aims of education are:-
/
• To ensure all round harmonious development of the learner; Educational Principles
of Great Educators
• To develop natural power and faculties of the child;
• To optimally develop the power of head, heart and hand.
• To create a moral human being;
• To cultivate human nature and build a moral and r~ligions nation and society.
The important features of the curriculum suggested by Pestalozzi are:
• The curriculum should be activity and experienced based.
• Expanded elementary school curriculum to include geography, natural science,
geometry, history, music, fine arts, and ethics in addition to reading, writing,
arithmetic and Latin grammar.
• Students were taught by him agriculture and other manual skills, as well as
traditional subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic
• He said that students should learn counting, adding, subtracting and multiplying,
etc through real objects.
• He emphasized the importance of tactile objects such as plants and mineral
specimens in the teaching of natural science to youngsters.
Method of Teaching
Pestalozzi established a method of instruction that had a psychological basis. He
emphasized on direct experience. The important features of his method of teaching
are the following.
• He devised simultaneous instruction, a group method to teach reading, writing
and arithmetic.
• Emphasizing sensory learning Pestalozzi suggested a special method of direct
concrete observation called Anschauung. His doctrine of Anschauung - direct
concrete observation was to get rid of the 'verbosity' of meaningless words
• He designed lessons in which children, guided by teachers, examined the form,
shape, number, quantity and weight of objects, and named them after direct
experiences with them.
• He suggested guided field trips for teaching natural science.
• In early education he recommended that children use no books, but rather learn
through direct sensory experience.
Role of teacher
The teacher, according to Pestalozzi, should be an embodiment of unconditional love,
care and sympathy for his/her pupils. The following are some of his views on the role
of teacher:
• The teacher must take the place of parents and exhibit love and sympathy for
children.
• The teacher should be a reflective practitioner, helping children to make sense
out of their experiences and situations.
• The responsibility of the teacher is to develop the individuality of the child rather
than impart knowledge.
• The teacher should not teach through words, but allow children to discover answer
themselves.
23
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Transforming Educational 11.4.3 Froebel
Freidrich WilhelmAugustFroebel(1782-1852), the German educator and psychologist,
is best known as the founder of the Kindergarten system. He was greatly influenced
by Pestalozzi's concept of elementary education. Froebel believed that humans are
essentially productive and creative and that fulfillment comes through harmony with
God and the world. His important works .are, Education of Man, Pedagogies of
Kindergarten, and Education by Development, Mother Play and Nursery Songs, etc.
(Sharma 2002).
Aims of Education
In the words ofFroebel, the object of a Kindergarten is to give the children employment
in agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies, to exercise their
senses, to engage their awakening mind and through their senses, to make them
acquainted with nature and their fellow creatures.
Method of Teaching
Froebel used play for the development and growth of the child in the Kindergarten
established by him. This method came to be known as the play way method.
Role of the Teacher

The teacher plays the role of a gardener who looks after the tender plants. Slhe
provides an environment of life and freedom. Slhe plans hislher work carefully and
teaches through the play way and activity based methods ..
Important Contributions of Froebel

In the form of Kindergarten, Froebel has made an important contribution to the theory
and practice of early childhood education. Kindergarten is a German word, which
implies children's garden. Froebel conceived the school as a garden, the teacher as
the gardener and the students as tender plants. The teacher, like a gardener, is to look
after young children who are like plants and water them to grow to beauty and perfection.
The main features of Kindergarten are the following.
• Self activity: A child should be given full freedom to carry out his own impulses
and decisions. The three steps in self activity are:
a) formulating a purpose
b) planning out that purpose
c) .acting on that plan until the purpose is realized
• Play: According to Froebel, play is the purest and most spiritual activity of man at
this stage and it gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment, peace with the world,
etc.
• Songs, Gestures and Construction: He regarded these as three co-ordinate forms
of expression in the child. What is to be learnt by the pupil is first expressed in a
song. Then it is dramatized or expressed in gesture or movement and lastly
illustrated through some constructive work such as paper or clay. He has given
songs in his book, Mother and Nursery Songs. These are fifty play songs. The
idea of teaching songs is to enable the child to use his senses, limbs and muscles
and also to familiarize himlher with the surroundings. Each song is accompanied
by a game such as 'Hide and Seek'.
• Gifts and Occupations: Froebel designed a series of instructional materials that
he called 'Gifts and Occupations; which led children to activities like making
comparison, testing and creative exploration. The gifts suggest some form of
24 activity, and occupations are the activities suggested by gifts. The first gift consists
/
of six colored balls contained in a box. The balls are of different colors. The child .Educational Principles
is to roll them about in play. The occupation consists in rolling them. The balls are of Great Educators
intended to give the students an idea of color, materials, motion and direction.
The second gift consists of a sphere, a cube and cylinder made of hard wood.
These are contained in a box. The child plays with them and notices the difference
. between the stability of the cube and the mobilit¥ of the sphere and the features
of the cylinder. The third gift is a big wooden cube, subdivided into eight wooden
cubes. The child can have an elementary idea of addition and subtraction through
these.
• Place of the teacher: The teacher has to suggest the idea of occupation when
gifts are offered to children. S/he is also required to demonstrate certain activities
to them. S/he also sings a song with a view to help the child to form appropriate
ideas.
• Free self-directed activity, creativity, social participation and motor expression
are the basic components of Froebel's Kindergarten. Motor expression refers to
the method of learning by doing instead of following role instruction.
.. • Discipline through love: Control over the child is to be exercised through knowledge
of his/her interest and by the expression of love and sympathy.
There is no doubt that all the tendencies in the modem education thought and practice
find their roots in Froebel's conceptions. The chief fields in which he influenced the
modem education are as under.
• Emphasis on preprimary or pre basic education
• new conception of school kindergarten system
• Respect for the child's individuality
• Stress on the study of the child
• Education through play, sense training activity and nature study.
• Women teachers must teach and care for children at the nursery stage
11.4.4 Comenius
John Amos Comenius (1592 - 1670) was a Czech teacher, educator, and writer. His,
important works are, The Great Didactic, The School of Infancy, The Palace of Anthors,
The world of Sensible Things Pictured, etc. (Sharma 2002).
Aims of Education
Comenius believed that education aims at man's reason, at man's character and
independence and piety i.e. understanding of God. He believed education has the
power to regenerate human life and regarded it as the indispensable process by which
the children are made human. He wanted that education should begin from a very
early stage in life.
Nature of the curriculum

As regards language, Comenius wanted less attention to Latin, Greek and Hebrew
and more to the Vernacular. He advocated the study of modem foreign language for
facilitating communication. He required the study of grammar, rhetoric, dialectic,
arithmetic, geometry, geography, music, physics, chronology, geography, history, religion
and morals. He insisted that martial arts and industry should be included in the curriculum
of the vernacular school. Comenius has also favoured plenty of physical activity and
play for the sake of happiness and health of children. This was a revolutionary suggestion
during that period. Comenius also advocated the role of humour in education for
sharpening the intellect of the child and making learning fun.
25
/
tr~nsforming Educational Methodology of instruction and role of teacher
theory into Practice
Comenius is regarded as the founder of the modern methods of instruction. Before
Comenius the system of class instruction was not in vogue. Teachers did not teach a
number of children in a class at the same time as individual students were taught
separately. He has explained the method ofclass (group) instruction through a series
of methodical directions. He advocated separate teachers for different classes.
~
11.4.5 John Dewey

John Dewey (1859-1952), is closely associated with the philosophical school of
pragmatism. He was an American philosopher and educational reformer who made
significant contributions to the establishment of the school of functional psychology.
He is recognized as the father of modern education. He wrote the first American
psychology text book, titled Psychology in 1886. His important works are, My pedagogic
creed, The school and society, Democracy and education, Human nature and conduct,
Experience and education, Freedom and culture.
.. Aims of education
According to Dewey, there are no fixed and ultimate goals of education. Aims of
education should grow out of the existing situations. He recommends the following
aims of education.
• To develop child's powers and abilities.

• To create social efficiency and social skills in the child
• To instill democratic values and ideals in children
• To prepare the individual for future life
There is no fixed curriculum in Dewey's educational plan. According to him, the
curriculum should be developed on the basis of the following principles.
• Principles of Utility: Curriculum must include those subjects, activities and
experiences which have some utility and serve useful purposes.
• Principle of flexibility: It should be flexible enough to meet the diverse needs and
interests of different categories of children and it should not be rigid, fixed and
predetermined.
• Principle of experiential knowledge: The curriculum should be related to the child's
contemporary experiences and it must be organized around child's activities and
••
not subjects
• Principles of integration: The different subjects, activities and experiences involved
in the curriculum should be integrated into one whole. ,
Methods of Teaching
In Dewey's pedagogy, direct experien~e forms the basis of methods of instruction.
He advocated the following methods of teaching.
• Project Method: A project is a purposeful activity proceeding in a social
environment. Project method puts emphasis on pupil's purpose, needs, interest,
self-activity and participation in the entire process of teaching.
• Problem Solving Method: Dewey suggested the problematic situations should be
provided to children in the classroom so that they make purposeful effort to solve
it by reflective thinking.
26
/
• Experimental method: Dewey implied that the learners must be placed in the Educational Principles
position of discoverers and inventors and learn things for themselves by testing of Great Educators
and experimenting.
• Learning by Doing: According to Dewey, the child learns best when s/he himself
performs actions related to particular subject. So the school must provide an
environment and improvise activities for facilitating learning by doing.
~
Role of Teacher
Pragmatic education considers teacher's task is to create in the school an environment
which will help in the development of the child's social personality and enable the child
to-become a responsible democratic citizen. The specific roles of the teacher are the
following
• The teacher has to observe, plan and encourage pupil's activities, environment
and experience. I
• A teacher should be a friend, a guide and a facilitator rather than a task-master.

S/he has to guide the youngsters through complexities of life.
• The teacher should have empathy for the child. S/he must consciously abstain
from imposing his/her own ideas, interests, views and tendencies on the children.
• The teacher has to guide the child not only in the habit of democratic co-operation
but also towards the highest intellectual pursuits and the fullest aesthetic experience.
11.4.6 Maria Montessori

Maria Montessori(l870 - 1952), internationally renowned child educator and the
originator of Montessori Method, was an Italian doctor who brought the scientific
methods of observation, experimentation and research to the study of children, their
development and education. She was the first Italian woman to get degree of Doctor
of Medicine. She started the Montessori Method of Education based on certain /
philosophical, psychological and pedagogical principles and a vast range of auto-didactic

, i.e. self teaching materials (Sharma, 2002).·
Method of Teaching- The Montessori Method

The Montessori Method is a child-centered alternative educati~mal system developed
by Maria Montessori. It is designed to aid the development of intelligenee and
independence in children. She believed that each child is born with a unique potential
to be revealed, rather than as a blank state waiting to be written upon. The Montessori
Method is based on the fact that children learn directly from their environment and
relatively little from listening to a teacher talking to a class. The Montessori system
provides a stimulating, child oriented environment in which children can explore, and
learn without fear. The method is designed to impart conceptual frameworks or skills.
It is applied primarily in preschool and elementary school settings.
The Montessori Method is characterized by an emphasis on self- directed activity on
the part of the child and clinical observation on the part of the teacher (directress or
guide). The other important characteristics of Montessori Method are the following.
• Education in Montessori system is self activated

• Children learn at their own individual pace and according to their own choice of
materials and activities.
• It is based on profound respect for the child's personality as an individual.
• It is based on the child's need to learn by doing
• The learning environment is positive, non threatening, and non competitive
• Children learn through activities that involve exploration, manipulation,
communication, etc. 27
/
.
Th.eory into Practice ,-
.'
• Children are taught through all the senses, with a special emphasis on the
kinesthetic .
• In Montessori Schools the role of the teacher is that of guide; observer, coach,
facilitator and overall manager.
• The MontesSbri Method facilitates learning by discovery rather than by mere

instruction.
• Montessori system teaches individuals instead of groups.
• It utilizes autodidactic (self- correcting) eqnipment for introduction and learning

of various concepts.
Role of the Teacher

• Care for the soul of the Child: Madam Montessori assigned a unique role for the
teacher whom she called a 'Directress'. She emphasized that since the soul of
the child is pure and very sensitive, it requires utmost care from the directress.
• Replacement of the word teacher by directress: She has .replaced the word
'teacher' by the word 'directress' as she considered that the primary duty of the
.
, person in authority is to direct and not to teach.
• Intimate knowledge of the child: The teacher should have an intimate knowledge
of the mind and character of each individual.
• Doctor-cum-scientist-cum-missionary: According to Montessori, the directress
should be partly doctor, partly scientist and completely religious. Like a doctor
she should avoid scolding or suppressing the patient. Like a scientist she should
wait patiently for the results and should conduct experiments. Like a missionary
she should be there to serve the child.
• Teacher as a gardener: a teacher should care for the child like a gardener who
cares for the plants so that the natural growth of the child is properly guided and
aided in the process of unfolding itself.
• Provision of suitable environment: The directress should allow the child to grow
according to his/her own pace. Her task is to provide for suitable environment.
She should provide children with appropriate opportunities to think for themselves.
• Moral values: Virtues and not words are the main qualifications of the directress.
She must banish anger which is a great sin and which prevents from understanding
the child.
Contributions of Montessori
Maria Montessori is recognized as one of the pioneers in the development of early
childhood education. She is also credited with promoting important educational reforms
in childhood education. The following are her important contributions to education.
• She developed a unique system of early childhood education named Montessori
System which has been used effectively with mentally retarded, physically
handicapped, normal and gifted children in different countries around the world.
• The idea of providing a specially prepared environment called Children's House
(Casa dei Bambini) that initiates and facilitates auto-education is.another
contribution of Montessori.
• Montessori developed a series of standardized sensorial materials called 'didactic
apparatus' which have been widely used for the kinesthetic training and sense
training of preschool children.
• She discovered that children have basic needs and natural tendencies, and when
these are met the children progress rapidly.
28
/
• Montessori discovered that there are 'planes of development' during which Educational Principles
children have different focuses and learn in different ways, So she designed her of Great Educators
schools to catc, ~_ rnese natural patterns.
• Modern educational technology suggests many extension of Montessori's idea
of prepared environment. For example, she said active materials could be expanded
through programmed instruction or optimum learning environments could be
devised for particular group of learners. ~ .
• Montessori's major contribution to educational psychology was her recognition
of the significance of early stimulation on later learning, especially its implications
for culturing disadvantaged child.
• Other contributions of Montessori to Educational Psychology include the
recognition of multiple pathways to learning, the importance of concrete or hands-
on learning, the stages of cognitive development in children, and the link between
children's emotional development and their ability to learn at an optimal rate, etc.
• Montessori observed that young children learn best through the use of their senses.
They need to touch, feel, move, see, hear, smell, and taste. This discovery opened
the new era of sensory learning in the field of preschool education.
• Montessori's educational theory brought some other radical changes in the field
of education. These include:
a) The construction of curriculum becomes oriented to the actual need of life;
b) it is necessary to provide good environment in the school;
c) The aims of education become oriented to the individual development of
each child;
d) Proper training of teachers is necessary.
11.4.7 Pia get

Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, had interest in epistemology; a branch
of philosophy concerned with the nature of know ledge. He was trained as a Zoologist.
He was basically interested in the question of how animals adapt to their environment.
It was in this context he became involved in the study of human intelligence. Later he
combined the two areas of interest in genetic epistemology, the study of how knowledge
develops in human beings. He had a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology.
Piaget worked in Binet's (Alfred Binet who developed the first intelligence test)
Experimental Laboratory for standardizing some intelligence tests and became
interested in the child's reasoning processes that led him/her to his/her response,
especially to incorrect responses. Piaget was not concerned with the number of right
and wrong responses of children, but particularly focused on how children made
responses.
According to Piaget, knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be
constructed and reconstructed by the learner. Piaget asserted that for a child to know
__and construct knowledge of the world the child must act on objects and it is this action
-- which provides knowledge of those objects; the mind organizes reality and acts upon
it. Piaget's approach to learning is a readiness approach. Readiness approaches in
developmental psychology emphasize that children cannot learn something until
maturation gives them certain prerequisites for learning. The ability to learn any
cognitive content is always related to their stage of intellectual development. He believed
that everyone passed through an invariant sequence of four qualitatively distinct stages.
Piaget discovered that children think and reason differently at different periods of
their lives. Children who are at a certain stage cannot be taught the concepts of a
higher stage (Crain 1980).
29
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Transforming Educational Stages of Development
Although every normal child passes through the stages in exactly the same order,
there is some variability in the ages at which children attain each stage. The four
stages in cognitive development identified by Piaget are:
1. Sensory-motor stage(Birth - 2 years): The important cognitive accomplishment
at this stage are .
~
• Differentiates self from objects
• Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally.
• Achieves object permanence
2. Pre-Operational (2-7 years) : The important accomplishments are:
• Learning to use language and to represent objects by images and words.
• Thinking is still egocentric
• classifies objects by a single feature
3~ Concrete Operational Stage (7- 11 years) : The important accomplishment are:
• Can think logically about objects and events.
• Achieves conservation of number, mass and weight
• Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series
along a single dimension such as size.
4. Formal Operational Stage ( 12- 15 years): The important accomplishments are:
• Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypothesis
systematically.
• Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future and ideological
problems.
According to Piaget, intellectual growth involves three fundamental processes:
1. Assimilation
2. Accommodation
3. Equilibrium
The leamer transforms incoming information so that it fits within hislher existing schemes
or thought patterns (incorporation of new events into pre-existing cognitive structures)
and is thus assimilated with previous know ledge. In accommodation, the learner adapts
his/her thought patterns to include incoming information (modification of existing
cognitive structures to hold the new information). This dual process, assimilation-
accommodation, enables the child to form schema. Equilibration involves the person
striking a balance between himself/ herself and the environment, between assimilation
and accommodation. When a child experiences a new event, disequilibrium sets in
until s/he is able to assimilate and accommodate the new information and thus attain
equilibrium.
Teacher should create disequilibrium in children cognitively- by making them confront
challenging and stage appropriate situations and thus motivate them to learn. Slhe
should help the learners to assimilate information in existing and related schema and
assist them to accommodate information in new schemas in the cognitive structure.
11.4.8 Bruner
Jerome Bruner was born in New York in 1915. He was one of the key figures in the
cognitive revolution. According to Bruner, learning is an active, social process in which
students constructs new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. The
learner selects the information, forms hypothesis and then integrates new knowledge
30 into their own existing knowledge and mental constructs (cognitive structures). This is
/ I
a continual process. Learning according to Bruner occurs in three stages (Mayer Educational Principles
1987), which are: of Great Educators
Enactive: In which children need to experience the concrete in order to understand.

Iconic: Students are able to represent materials graphically or mentally
Symbolic: Students are able to use logic, higher order thinking skills and symbols.
Learning by discovery
Bruner is the exponent of discovery approach to learning. The discovery approach
considers learners as inquirers of knowledge, who should acquire knowledge in the
exact manner in which it is generated. According to the discovery model, learners
should be presented a problem situation to which they would have to seek alternative
solutions. Learning in a problem solving situation has three aspects -. activation,
maintenance and direction. Activation means a stimulus which could generate action,
maintenance could imply that the action should be sustained and direction would mean
movements which promote realization of a goal.
In a problem solving situation, the problem is a stimulus which initiates action; exploring
various alternatives maintains the activity; and the learner would need feed back to
select the movements, which would lead to the solution of the problem and prevention
of random movements. Feedback would indicate the relevance of tested alternatives
for the achievement of the goal. Such feedback should come exactly at the time of the
problem solving episode.
Regarding educator, Bruner advocated that if students were allowed to pursue concepts
on their own they would gain a better understanding. He urged discovery learning
which involves the teacher providing guidance or scaffolding, organizing the curriculum
in a spiral manner so that the students are continually building upon what they have
already learnt. .
Designing and operating educational structure

This requires the following:
• Maintain the spirit of discovery so that the learner has to take up the responsibility
of acquiring knowledge.
• Ensure readiness to learn by arousing curiosity.
• Adopt the spiral approach by grading the learning material. Grade learning tasks
and experiences and provide appropriate ones suited to the level
• By ensuring the mastery of each concept by grading the experiences leading to
categorization and definition
11.4.9 Susan Isaacs

Susan Sutherland Isaacs (1885-1948) was an English educational psychologist and
psychoanalyst. She published studies on the intellectual and social development of
children. She is known for her work in the filed of preschool education. She promoted
the nursery school movement. For Isaacs developing a child's independence, which is
best achieved through play, was the best way for children to learn and the role of
adults and early educators was to guide children's play (Wikipedia,201O~ After studying
at the universities of Manchester and Cambridge, she became a lecturer in early
childhood education. Isaacs was among the first to bring together education, psychology
and psychoanalysis. She argued that it is important to develop children's skills to think
clearly and exercise independent judgment. Parents were vie~ed as the main educators
of their children and institutionalized care for children before the age of seven being
potential damaging.
31
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Transfonnlng Educational She was of the view that children learned best through their play. Play should be
Theory Into Practice viewed as children's work and social interaction is an important part of play and
learning. The emotional needs of children are also very important and symbolic and
fantasy play could be a release for a child's feelings as "what imaginative play does, in
the first place is to create practical situations which may often then be pursued for
their own sake, and this leads on to actual discovery or to verbal judgment and
reasoning". The role of the adults, is to guide children's play, but on the whole they
should have freedom to explore.
Between 1924 and 1927, Isaacs was the head of Malting House School in Cambridge,
which was an experimental school. The school fostered the individual development of
children. Children were given freedom and were supported in their actions. The teachers
were seen as observers of the children. Her work had a great influence on early
childhood education and made play a central part of a child's education,
11.4.10 Vygotsky
Len Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) studied at the University of Moscow to
become a teacher of literature. The theory of social constructivism involving the
.. application of the Marxist social theory to individual psychology was proposed by him-
(Crain, 1980). The social constructivist theory, proposed by Vygotsky, considers learning
as a social communicative process whereby knowledge is shared and understandings
are constructed ~n culturally formed social settings. It emphasizes the importance of
culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge
based on this understanding.
Vygotsky's social constructivism is based on the following four basic principles.
• Children construct their knowledge
• Development cannot be separated from its social context.
• Learning can lead to development
• Language plays a central role in the mental development.
The major components of the social constructivist theory proposed by Vygotsky are
discussed under different sub-heads.
1. Construction of knowledge occurs only when the learner interacts in a social
context. According to Vygotsky, social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
learning, which actually leads to cognitive development. All fundamental cognitive
activities take shape in a matrix of social history and form the products of socio-
historical development. Vygotsky believed that social interaction will lead to
constant changes in a child's thought and behaviour.
•
2. Learning occurs through the internalization of a socially negotiated mental function.
According to Vygotsky, all cognitive functions originate in social context, and
must therefore be explained as products of social interactions. Every function in
the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level (intermental
or inter psychological), and later on the individual level (instrumental or intra
psychological) Instrumental ability exists within the child while intermental ability
occurs in the relationship between people. According to Vygotsky, construction
of knowledge necessarily goes through an external stage in its development
because it is initially a social function. Once a mental function has been culturally
and socially negotiated, it becomes available to be internalized. Internalization is
a process of learning whereby the child incorporates a rich body of knowledge
and tools of thought that first exists outside the child, through social adaptation.
3. Language is a tool for understanding outer world and constructing knowledge.
Vygotsky considered language as a psychological tool for constructing knowledge.
It provides the framework through which individuals experience, communicate,
32
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/
and understand reality Since advanced modes of thought are transmitted to the Educational Principles
child by means of words, language is a powerful tool in learning 'how to think' . of Great Educators
The lingui 'tIC aoilities enable man to overcome the natural limitations of his
perpetual field by imposing culturally defmed sense and meaning on the world.
As a result, human cognitive structures are Vygotsky believed, essentially socially
constructed.
4. . Intermentallearning is limited to the Zone of proxirnal development. The Zone of
proximal development (ZPD) is the difference between the child's capacity to
solve problems on his/her own, and his capacity to solve them with assistance of
others. In other words, ZPD is the gap between what a given child can achieve
alone (actual development) and what s/he can achieve through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (potential
development). Vygotsky held that the range of skill that can be developed with
adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. He
claimed that learning occurs in this zone. The full development during the ZPD
depends upon full social interaction and the more the child takes advantages of
an adult's assistance, the broader is its 'Zone of Proximal Development'.
.
, As per Vygotsky's view peer interaction, scaffolding and modeling are important ways
to facilitate individual cognitive growth and knowledge acquisition. ZPD can include
different levels of expertise of individuals (students and teachers) and can also include
artifacts such as books, computer tools, and scientific equipments. The purpose of
ZPD is to support intentional learning (Figure 1).
Vygotskian concept of ZPD
Figure 1 : ZPD to Support Intentional Learning
Designing and operating the educational structure

1. According to Vygotsky's theory, learning takes place as a result of the interaction
of the learner in a social context. Hence interaction is necessary for learning.
2. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the need for students to construct their own
understanding of each concept, so that the primary role of teaching is not to
lecture, explain, or otherwise attempt to transfer factual knowledge, but to create
situations for students that will foster necessary mental constructions.
3. Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in
constructing knowledge. Hence the educational process should be framed in
tune with the culture of the soeiety.
4. According to Vygotsky, knowledge is not simply constructed, it is constructed
when the learner interacts with more knowledgeable adults or peers in a social
situation. As such, social constructivism considers the teacher as a co- learner
who may guide students as they approach problems, may encourage them to
work in groups to think about issues and questions, and support them with
encouragement and advice. This calls for a change in the conventional role of
the teacher from a giver of knowledge to a facilitator, organizer and mentor of
learning.
33
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Transforming Educational 5. Social constructivism argues that students can, with help form adults or children
Theory into Practice who are more advanced, grasp concepts and ideas that they cannot understand
on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding (a process where the teacher continually
adjusts the level of his/her help in response to the learner's level of performance
and thereby facilitate performance) is,an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding
not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for
independent problem solving in the future.
6. Vygotsky felt that the students need to be guided by adults, but he also thought
that it was very important for the student to be influenced by their peers as well
as discover things on their own. As such the theory advices peer instruction, co-
operative learning, social negotiation and collaborative learning as specialized
methods of teaching and learning.
7. The physical classroom, based on Vygotsky's theory, would provide clustered
desks or tables and work space for peer instruction, collaboration (team-work)
and small group instruction. Like the environment the instructional design of
material to be learned would be structured to promote and encourage student
interacting and collaboration. Thus the classroom becomes a community of
.. learning .
8. Scaffolding, guided instruction and reciprocal teaching (mutual discourse) are
effective strategies to access the zone of proximal development. Scaffolding
requires the teacher to provide students the opportunity to extend their current
skills and knowledge. The teacher must engage student's interest, simplify tasks
so that they are manageable, and motivate students to pursue the instructional
goal. In addition, the teacher must look for discrepancies between student's efforts
and the solution, control for frustration and risk, and model and idealized version
of the act.
9. Assessment methods must take into account the zone of proximal development.
What children can do on their own is their level of actual development and what
they can do with help is their level of potential development. Two children might
have the same level of actual development, but if one be given appropriate help
from an adult, s/he might be able to solve many more problems than the other.
Assessment methods must target both the level of actual development and the
potential development.
10. Children can differ substantially in the ZPDs. Therefore knowledge of the ZPD
will help the teacher to identify each child's readiness to benefit from instruction.

1) What are the aims of education according to Rousseau?
2) Discuss the importance of play as emphasized by Pestalozzi.
3) Briefly explain the role of teacher in education as emphasized by Froebel.
4) According to John Dewey's philosophy, what are the principles on which
education is to be based?
5) Explain the important contributions of Montessori towards childhood education.
6) What were the views of Susan Issac on play?
7) What is ZPD?
11.5 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have brought to you educational principles suggested by several great
educators from India and abroad. The views of many educationists and philosophers
34 like Gandhi, Tagore and Aurobindo on education and early childhood education have
/
been presented. You must ila\ _ noticed that none of these educators were in favour Educational Principles
of cognitive develonmev; ::45 the sole aim of education. We have also presented in this of Great Educators
unit the views 0:
several well known educators from western countries. Their views
and suggestions on methodology of instruction, role of teacher, and education in general
have been presented.
11.6 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1. Read the autobiography and! biography of Gandhiji and write an essay on his
contribution to education.
2. Read books on the Montessori method of education and compare it with the
method advocated by Froebel.
3. Read about integral education of Sri Aurobindo.
11.7 CLUES TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

..
1. Self realization; Harmonious development of one's personality
2. It should cater to the needs of the individual and the society; it should make use
of the educational values of crafts, music, arts etc.; Freedom, creative self-
expression, active communion with nature and man.

1. Cultivate natural tendencies.
2. Pestalozzi considered physical education and outdoor activity to be importannt
for general, moral, and intellectual education and for his ideal of harmony and
human autonomy.
3. To tend young children like young plants in a nursery
4. (i) Principle of utility .
(ii) Principle of flexibility
(iii) Principle of experiential knowledge
(iv) Principle of integration
5. A child-centered alternative educational system (Montessori Method); Emphasis
on self-directed activity on the part of the child and clinical observation on the
part of the teacher.
6. Essential for healthy development of body and mind
7. Zone of proximal development- distance between the abilities displayed
independently and with social support by the learner while learning.
11.8 REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READING

Chaube, S.P. (1988).Indian and Western Educational Philosophies. Agra: Vinod
Pustak Mandir.
Chaube, S.P. (1997). Philosophical and Sociological Foundation of
Education:Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir.
Crain,W.(l980).Theories of Development-concepts and applicatiord S'" ed).New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gupta.S.(2005). Education in Emerging India. New Delhi: Shipra Publication.
35
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Transforming Educational Mayer,R.(1987).Educational Psychology. A Cognitive Approach.Boston.Little.Brown.
Sharma, R. N. and Sharma, R.K. (1994). History of Education in India. New
Delhi:Atlantic Publishers.
Sharma, Y. K. (2002).The Doctrines of the Great Western Educators.
New Delhi :Kanishka Publishers.
t
Vygotsky,L.(1986).Thought and Language ,Cambridge: MIT Press.
www.wikipedia.org Retrieved on 30-03-2010.
"
36
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UNIT 12 GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION
I do not want my house to be walled on all sides and my windows to be
stuffed. 1 want the culture of all the lands to be blown about my house as
freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet by' any.
~ -Mahatma Gandhi
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Globalization and its Impact on Education
12.4 Preschool Education and Globalization
12.5 Teachers' Role in the Globalised World
12.6 Summary
12.8 Clues to Check Your Progress

12.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit gives you an idea of globalization and its influence on education and especially
on preprimary education. Another aspect that we have discussed in this unit is about
the competencies teachers need in the globalized world.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of globalization,
• discuss the impact of globalization on education and especially on preschool
education;
• discuss the competencies needed by teachers in the globalised world.
12.3 GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON

EDUCATION
Globalization has been defined as "a set of process by which the world is rapidly being
integrated into one economic space via increased 'international trade, the
internationalization of production and financial markets" (Azad, 2004). Globalization
transcends socioeconomic and political barriers that the countries of the world may
build around themselves. It is not only a process integrating just economies, but also
culture, technology and governance. It is giving rise to new markets, foreign exchange
and capital markets linked globally, new tools, internet links, cellular phones, media
network, new actors, the world trade organization with authority over national
governments, the multinational cooperation with more economic power than many
states, new rules, multi national agreements and intellectual property, multilateral
agreements on trade (Human Development Report, 1999,UNDP).
Globalization thus refers to the increasing unification of the world's economic order
through reduction of barriers to international trade as tariffs, export fees, etc. The 37
/
Transforming Educational integration of natio al economies into the international economy is through trade,
Theory into Practice foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, the spread of technology and military
presence (Jagdish, 2004, quoted in Wikipedia). This results in stronger and closer
international relations. Due to removal of barriers the competition gets stiff and hence
there is more demand for manpower with knowledge, skills and specialization.
Globalization is facilitated by Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and
the world is getting networked. .
As a consequence of glob:lisation and free flow across borders of business and human
beings not only economies but also societies, and cultures become integrated with
higher levels of communication, transportation, migration and trade. Globalization is
driven by a combination of economic, technological, sociocultural, political, and biological
factors and there is more of exchange of ideas, information, knolwdege and culture
(Sheila,2004, quoted in wikipedia).
Globalization and education

Globalization is expected to have a positive influence on the volume, quality and spread
of knowledge through increased interaction among the various states. Technology is
the main catalyst of globalization as it facilitates wider dissemination of knowledge
and skills. Knowledge assumes a powerful role in production. Therefore, its possession
is essential to nations, for successfully pursuing economic growth and remaining
competitive. Education, being the most potent instrument of creation, assimilation and
transmission of knowledge, and also for using technology for these purposes, it is of
great importance in the globalised world.
Globalisation has made the world market oriented and competitive and this is true also
for the field of education. Hence, education has to assume a somewhat different role.
It cannot afford to be conventional, rigid and impervious to change. Curriculum
developers and teachers have to keep themselves abreast of the latest developments
in various fields and be capable of creating, absorbing and transacting education through
new technology and information systems There has also to be a paradigm shift in the
contents of education with substantial emphasis on productivity aspect, which has to
be reflected in the curriculum and teaching. There is also the need for emphasis on
research and development.
Education is an important investment in building human capital. It is a driver for
technological innovation and economic growth. It is only through improving the
educational status of a society that development of its people can be ensured. Education
as a service industry is part of globalization process under the umbrella of General
Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). There is, however, distinct possibility that
this might force countries with quite different academic needs and resources to conform
to structures inevitably designed to service the interest of the most powerful academic
systems and corporate educational providers, breeding inequality and dependence
(Sagar, 2005). We need to be cautious also because globalization can lead to unregulated
and poor quality higher education provided by foreign education providers, and fraudulent
degree providers entering the educational markets (World Bank's Task Force, 2000).
India is likely to turn into an increasingly attractive market for foreign universities and
hence other nations are going to use GATS provision to their advantage
(Nigvekar, 2002). While these are obvious problems, globalization can also have
advantages, particularly for India, which has a large educational system and
infrastructure and diverse human capabilities and it can offer and get the best
educational opportunities.
Globalization will mean many different things for education. But it will definitely lead
to a more competitive and deregulated educational system modeled after free market
that attaches premium to educational courses that cater to manpower needs of the
job market of 21"1 century. Since the powerful educational systems with their
38 technological and financial resources of developed world may dominate those of the
/ I
developing nations, hence educational systems of the developing countries like India Globalization and Education
will have to be prepared to compete with the best. There will also be the need for
educational systems to balance in the curriculum, national needs, aspirations, culture
with international ones.
Implicit in the system of globalization is the inevitability of internationalization of the
educational system, particularly at the higher education stage. This is. not peculiar to
India but it has become a world wide phenomenon~ The entry of the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and the inclusion of educational services under General Agreement
on Trade in Service (GATS) have given a boost to the internationalization of education.
Globalization has a multidimensional impact as the system of education. Knowledge
is the driving force in the rapidly changing globalised economy and society. Quantity
and quality of specialized human resources determine their competence in the global
market.
The following are the elements where educators have to take care while designing
educational programmes.
• Globalization increases demand for knowledge intensive education. Globalization ..,,-
necessitates global sharing of knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets that are
" necessary to multiple developments at different levels.
• Globalization increases pressure to improve the quality of schooling so as to
make it more productive.
• Globalization increases competition and in the globalized market there is the need
for skilled labour. There is therefore need for educating not only men but also
women to meet the demand for a huge skilled workforce. Also the idea of
liberation of women is now sweeping across many conservative societies.
Therefore, there are efforts to expand women's educational opportunities in
many countries. .
• Globalization resulted in increased investment in educational sector in many
developing nations including India.
• Globalization resulted in the expansion of university education in most of the
countries.
• Globalization led to increased public spending on education and has pushed
countries throughout the world towards higher education expansions by allowing
for the rapid growth of private universities.
• Globalization resulted in multicultural education.
• Online distance education became popular.
• Globalization reduced the gap in the quality of education imparted in different
countries and made it comparable to standards set internationally.
The changes due to globalization are visible in education, especially in higher education.
It indicates the precautions to be taken in education to meet internationalization (Azad,
2004). Globalization as you have read has a multi-dimensional impact on the system
of education. Thoughtful efforts are needed in the field of education in this situation.
When allowing foreign universities to enter India, care must be taken to ensure that
quality education is provided and that only institutions having credibility are allowed to
enter.
Impact of globalization on education

'.
Education as you have read is a part of globalization process under the General
Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The present education system is modeled
after the free market. An international outlook has come into the field of education
(Nigvekar, 2001). The impact of globalization on education is surely there and we
have to be prepared for it. This has been discussed under two heads- the merits and
/
Transforming Educational demerits of globalization and the reforms needed within the educational system (Sharma,
2001) to cope up with globalisation.
Merits and demerits of globalization

There are some merits of globalization of education. They are as follows:
• globalization will provide global opportunities and promote international goodwill;
~
• globalization will encourage exchange of knowledge, scholars and teachers and
thus of educated manpower.
• Students can access the best educational facilities and study courses of their
choice.
Some bf the demerits are as follows:
• Education is considered as a commodity for sale, with commercialization of
education
• Rate of return approach of education is getting dominant, i.e. education provided
should lead to economic benefits is often the stand taken for higher education.
• Reducing public investment in higher education
Reforms needed within educational system to cope up with globalization

We shall discuss it first in the context of content of education.
Curriculum content and transaction: To meet the demands of globalization,
curriculum up gradation is needed on a regular basis. The modern advances in information
technology and their role in educational transaction are also important considerations.
So skills for teaching and learning with advanced Information Technology (IT) are
needed. The curriculum should also give importance to mechanisms that promote
abilities needed in a globalised world like problem solving, learner autonomy, collaborative
learning, lifelong learning and so on. Hence, projects, problem solving and the like
need to be emphasized rather than lecture based passive learning.
Productivity orientation: The basic objective of globalization is to enhance
productivity and hence there is a need to make the educational system an instrument
of preparing students, who can compete in the world markets as productive members
of the society. This would necessitate making skill training as an integral part of the
curriculum besides making attitudinal changes so that the students do not consider it
beneath their dignity to acquire training for vocational skills.
Value education should find a place as in the age of globalization there is need for
co-operation, sharing of experiences, learning to co-exist peacefully, etc.
Research and development are needed in order to attain excellence in different
fields and maintain lead over other competing systems.
Reform is also needed for ensuring equity and excellence
Higher quality manpower is needed for competing 'in the world market. It points out
the need of academic resources, qualified teachers and adequate physical infrastructure
in educational institutions. The educational facilities of India especially in the rural
areas need to be upgraded.
12.4 PRESCHOOL EDUCATION AND

GLOBALIZATION
Globally, many events have contributed to the realization of the significance of the
preschool years for a country's economic progress. The beginnings of the change
started with the United Nations Convention of the Rights ofthe child in 1989. For the
40 first time, there was a set of international standards and measures intended to protect
/
and promote the well being of children in society. The second major event that drew Globalization and Education
attention to the issue of early childhood was the publication of Human Development
Index with a summary measure of human development, by the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP). The Human Development Index measures the
achievements of countries on three basic dimensions of human development. (Human
Development in South Asia, 2000). They are:
1. A long and healthy life
2. .Knowledge ~
3. A decent standard ofliving, it includes indicators that specifically relate to children,
namely mortality, education and child labour.
The third im~rtant event in the international arena was the World conference on
Education fr All (EFA), held in Jomtien,Thailand in 1990, where a global commitment
to edu~ati9n was made in a document beginning with the famous words 'learning
,/ begins at-birth'. In addition the World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal in April
2000, reiterated the importance of early childhood care and education through the
involvement of the state, the family and the community. India is a signatory to all these
agreements .
•f The process of globalization has made it possible to draw international attention to
issues of children across countries. Issues of child labour, child malnutrition and education
~e now being addressed trans-nationally and resources are being put together. South
Asian countries, too have achieved important milestones in their commitment to children
and have identified common issues to be addressed in relation to protection of children's
health, nutrition, education and protection of children from exploitation, violence, abuse,
trafficking and labour.
You have read in a earlier unit about many educationists from various parts of the-
world. Integration of thoughts of educationists of different countries is also a kind of
globalization.
j<\smentioned earlier, in the period of globalization we need the restructuring of our
educational system. For this the starting point must be the preprimary stage. The
preschool stage is the one which lays foundation of one's entire education. For this we
<,
need a systematic approach of curriculum designing, which takes care to create open
minds free of prejudices, team spirit with tendencies for sharing, caring and living in
peace and harmony. Quality education of international standard is the necessity of the
h our, This is required to make preschoolers capable of living and competing in a
globalised world.
Tl~ACHER'SROLE IN THE GLOBALIZED

W.ORLD
Globalization is affecting the economy, culture, ways for accessing, processing and
sharing information, etc. It is leading to the internationalization of relations and the
increasing mobility of individuals. It is closely related to the revolution in communication
and the massive advent of communication technologies into daily life and into the.
world of work. All these represent both a challenge and an opportunity to the education
sy stems. At the same time, many societies and education systems are experiencing
serious problems. Increasing globalization may weaken nationalistic feelings and social
integration. These forces influence particularly the young people and if misdirected
may lead to a olecline in moral values, the weakening of social norms, traditions, and
t~nfluence of family on the upbringing of children. Family and society may not be as
cohesive as they used to be. Also there would be loss of cultural identities due to the
impact of globalizing forces that homogenize cultures.
41
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.
I
Transforming Educational As discussed in the units of the second block, society and education are intricately
Theory into Practice related. If globalizing forces impact the society, education too will be affected. While
education is being transformed as a result of these changes, it is expected that teachers
will also demonstrate their capacity to prepare themselves, to participate in modernizing
the school and to make it more proactive and receptive to change. They should not
only facilitate learning, but should also promote citizenship training and social integration.
. )
They also have to develop the abilities for critical thinking and creativity, initiative and.
self-determination so that l~arners can critically evaluate the traditions and practices
before giving them up or before accepting new ones.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is facilitating globalization and in
the globalised world ICT use is becoming common in educational processes. With the
increasing use of ICT in educational processes, the role of the teacher will increasingly
become that of a facilitator of learning. Furthermore, confronted with the increasing
role played by other information providers and socialization agents, like media, it is
expected that teachers will assume the role of moral and educational guide enabling
learners to sift through the mass of information and values and select the sound ones.
Thus modern teachers need to be effective agents of change in the community and
also facilitate modern educational practices.
I
Teacher's Role
Some of the important roles to be played by teachers in the globalized world are the
following:
• promote sensitivity for the environment and harmony between the school and its
community;
• help the development of basic skills and attitudes for proper and continued
development of cognitive, social, moral and emotional development;
• transmit culture and knowledge, and help students become aware of the cultural
heritage;
• develop nationalism in students;
• prepare students for internationalization and living in the world community by
developing awareness of various cultures and ways of living and by developing
respect for differences and diversities;
• nurture creativity and critical thinking abilities;
• encourage adaptability for developing the ability to live in a dynamic and ever-
changing society;
• help each individual achieve self actualization to become a fully functional member
of society;
• be involved actively in the affairs of the local community and society;
• as a teacher be a role model for the students and the community;
• undertake life long learning with continuous upgrading of knowledge and teaching
skills;
• effectively manage the learning environment and resources;
• develop curriculum in the context of local as well as global needs;
• be skilled in counseling individual children and their parents;
• be skilled in the use and choice of a variety of teaching methods, especially those
that lead to team based active learning as a globalised world needs vorkers who
can work as a team and network;
• be skilled in working with parents and other members of the community on issies
related to health, hygiene, need for elementary education and so on;
42
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Globalization and Education
Check Your Progress
Answer the followir ; 'l.Uestions:
I) Explain any two roles of teachers in the globalised world.
2) Discuss the impact of globalization on education.
12.6 SUMMARY
This unit gives a short account of globalization and its impact on education. The age of
globalization, requires equity and excellence, hence all children are to be prepared for
future education through good preschools. We have to redesign educational system in
response to the changes brought about by education. For the actualisation of a change
in education, it should start from grass root level. For this preschool education is the
first point from which a change is to begin. Also for betterment of preschool education
we have to redesign the preschool curriculum in keeping with the needs of the globalised
world and the maturity level of children.
.
,
• Design some activities for developing respect for diversity in preschool children.
• Collect photographs, videos, etc. for developing in children awareness of different
cultures and traditions.

I. Foster feelings of nationalism; prepare children for a global culture
2. Homogenisation of culture; increased competition among education providers
12.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Aggarwal,J.C. (1997). Major Recommendations of International Commission on
Education for the Twenty first Century and their Implications. Delhi: Doaba House.
Aggarwal,J.C.(2006). Educational Reforms in India for the Zl" Century. NewDelhi:
Shipra Publications.
Arora,Guljit,(2002) Globalisation, Federalism and Decentralization, Implications
for India:Bookwell.
Azad J.L., (1993) Financing of Secondary School Education, Aravathi Publications.
Azad,J.L.(2004). Globalisation and its impact on education, Basu Memorial Lecture.
htpp.cie.du.ac.in. Retrieved on February 2008.
Hallak, Jacques (1999).Globalisation ,Human Rights and Education, UNESCO,
IIEP, Paris.
Human Development in South Asia (2000).Oxford
Jagdish, B. (2004). In Defense of Globalization. Oxford, New York: Oxford University
Press.
Kerala Curriculum Framework (2007).SCERT.
Nigvekar,A. (2001).GATS and Higher Education. University Grants Commission.
National Curriculum Framework (2005).NCERT.
National Policy on Education: Govt. of India, Ministry of Education, 1986.
43
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Transforming Educational Sagar,K.Y. (2005). Globalisation of education. Countercurrents.org Retrieved from
Theory into Practice http://www.countercurrents.org/gl-sagar230905.htm
Sharma,G.D.(2001). Internationalization of Higher Education. Status and Policy
Suggestions. New Delhi :NIEPA.
Sharma ,G.D.(2001)Trade in Education Service: An Indian Response. New Delhi:
NIEPA. .
~
Sheila L. Croucher (2004). Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity
in a Changing World. Rowman & Littlefield In Tromquist,Nelly
P.(ed.)2000.Globalisation and Education.
International Association of Universities (2001). Issues in higher Education, The
OECD Globalisation and Educational Policy, Pergamon.
World Bank (2002).Higher Education in Developing Countries, Peril and Promise,
The Report of the Task Force on Education and Society, Washington.
Human Development Report, 1999,UNDP, Oxford
http://en.wikipedia.orglwikilGlobalization#cite_note-1
/ I
UNIT 13 EDUCATION IN THE 21st CENTURY
Mission of Education is the foundation to ensure the creation of enlightened
citizens who will make a prosperous, happy and strong nation.
-APJ Abdul Kalam
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Emerging Society and Education
13.4 Four Pillars of Education
13.5 Values for the 21't Century
13.6 Life Skills Education
13.7 Summary
13.9 Clues to Check Your Progress ,/
13.10 Reference and Suggested Reading \.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
; ..
In the previous unit we discussed the impact of globalization-on education. In this unit
we shall discuss some of the aspects that are basic to edticational endeavours of the
21 st century societies. We have discussed in the secotid block of this course that the
aims of education' are drawn from the societal n5fds. As societal needs are dynamic,
educational aims also change. In this unit we sh~ first discuss the needs of the emerging
21 st century society. Thereafter we shall discu~ the basis on which educational initiatives
of the society are to be based. We s~{«lalso discuss the values needed in the
contemporary world and the activitiesthrough which these can be inculcated.
:r" .
13.2 OBJECTI)VE§
After studying thisynit, you should be able to:
y'
• explai~}h{aims of education in the emerging knowledge society;

• discuss the four pillars of education and their relevance;
• / 'list the values needed in the 21't century; and
• explain the concept of life skill education.
13.3 EMERGING SOCIETY AND EDUCATION

Education, as a planned endeavour, aims at making, the recipients productive and
caring members of society. Learners are made familiar with the various practices of
the community by the educational system. They are equipped with knowledge and
skill and thus prepared for fulfilling social needs.
We have discussed in the fourth unit of this course about aims of education. We know
that aims are dynamic in nature. They change with changing aims of the society that
provides education. Following independence, Indian society was primarily an agriculture
based society. After that we entered the industrial phase and passing through the
information stage we are now progressing towards a knowledge society. 45
/
Transforming Educational A knowledge society is characterized by knowledge as the driving force of all the
Theory into Practice major activities of the society. In this respect it can be argued that even in the past
there were activities that were knowledge based. However, the counter argument is
that most of the activities in the past capitalized on land, labour and capital but now
knowledge, an intangible resource rather than these assets, is to be the primary
investment. Hence, therp would be hardly any activity that can be carried out without
access to information. Also, a knowledge society has more knowledge workers, engaged
in know ;edge creation and utilization. Access to information, its optimum utilization
and sharing are therefore integral to any social activity and also its precondition in
such a society. Hence, social progress is dependent on the production, utilization and
dissemination of information (Bose, 2010).
For production, utilization and dissemination of information at a mass level, education
for the masses is the pre-requisite. Education therefore, has a great role in a knowledge
society. As preschool is the stage during which the foundation of subsequent educational
endeavours is laid, it is essential that preschool education is strengthened. In a knowledge
society, knowledge workers will need grounding in practices like reflection, innovation
.
,
and collaboration. Children need to be initiated into such practices from preschool
stage itself. Team work, making children think rather than memorize and solve problems
by trying to find answers through activities are needed.
13.4 FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION'

Education is the primary means for personal and social development. It is the means
for economic growth of a society and is mainly for creating manpower for various
economic sectors with emphasis on skill development. In this process, often holistic
development of personality is ignored. Value development is ignored as economic
considerations are more important and the emphasis is on developing abilities for winning
competition. This kind of education will neither lead to a sustainable development nor
peace, harmony and inclusion. In this context we shall discuss the major
recommendations of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-
First Century, (1993-96) (also known as Delors Commission). The four pillars of
education suggested by Delors Commission should serve as the foundation of
educational endeavours of the 21 st century. Education of this kind will prepare learners
with the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are necessary for meeting the emerging
social needs.
Learning the Treasure Within - Report to UNESCO of the International Commission
on Education for the Twenty-First Century is the result of three years of research and
debate by an international panel of fifteen educational specialists belonging to China, -.
France, India, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Poland, Portugal,
Senegal, Slovenia, United States, Venezuela and Zimbabwe (Aggarwal 2006).
In November 1991 the General Conference invited the Director-General 'to convene
an international commission to reflect on education and learning for the twenty-first
century. Jacques Delors was requested to chair the Commission, with a group of
fourteen other eminent figures from all over the world and from a variety of cultural
and professional backgrounds.
The aim of the Commission was to study and reflect on the challenges facing education
in the coming years and to formulate suggestions and recommendations in the form of
a report which could serve as an agenda for renewal and action for policy makers and
officials at the highest levels.
Some of the recommendations of the Report are for forceful encouragement for
education of girls and women; allocating 25% of development aid to education;
introducing new information technologies in all countries; and turning to the educational
potential of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and local communities to
46
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J
supplement international cooperation. One of the main proposals of the Commission is Education in the
education throughout life. "We used to think that life was divided into time for learning, 21't Century
a time for working and a time for resting in retirement but this would be overturned by
the world ahead," noted Jacques Delors, Chairman of the Commission.
The report suggests approaches to both policy and practice which are both innovative
and feasible to a great extent, while taking into account the wide diversity of situations,
needs, means and aspirations existing in countries and in regions. The report is
addressed primarily to governments but one of its purposes is to address issues related
to the role of international cooperation and assistance in general and the role of
UNESCO in particular. It also attempts to formulate recommendations which are
pertinent for international bodies.
The Commission focused its reflection on one central and all encompassing question:
What kind of education is needed for the society of tomorrow? It considered the new
roles of education and the new demands made on education system in a world of
accelerating economic, environmental and social change and tension. It studied the
implications for education of the major trends in the evolution of contemporary society.
It examined the state of knowledge and experience of the best educational practices
in various cultural, economic and political settings in order to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of contemporary policy. In doing so it attempted to keep at the heart of its
work, those most intimately involved in education, i.e., learners of all ages, first of all
and those involved in fostering learning, whether they be teachers, parents, members
of the community or other participants in education.
Initially the Commission attempted to identify a series of key questions which it was to
examine during its work, the answers to which would be the major recommendations
it would put forward for the perennial issues facing governments, societies and educators
and which may continue to be important during the coming years, questions raised by
new configurations of society and new developments in the physical and social world
implying new priorities, new needs and new action; universal questions based on
inevitable and indispensable responses to a changing world, regional or nation-specific
issues. It focused on the widely differing economic, cultural and social situations
prevailing in different countries.
The Commission took into account questions concerning education and education
systems falling broadly into two main categories. The first category includes those
questions relating to the purposes, goals and functions of education, including the aims
of individuals and each person's needs and desire for self-fulfillment. The second
covers self fulfillment issues concerning providers of education including the models,
structures, and contents and functioning of educational systems.
The Commission carried out a broad based analysis both of what is known about the
current situation and of forecasts and trends in national policies and reforms in education
in the different regions of the world over the last twenty years. On this basis the
Commission reflected in depth on the major turning points in human development on
the eve of the twenty-first century and the new demands these turning points will
make on education. It highlighted the ways in which education can play a more dynamic
and constructive role in preparing individuals and societies for the twenty-first century.
As observed by Jacques Delors, Chairman of the Commission, "Our Commission had
perhaps the impossible task of overcoming the obstacles presented by the extraordinary
diversity of situations in the world and trying to arrive at analyses that are universally
valid and conclusions acceptable to everyone. Nevertheless, the Commission did its.
best to project its thinking on to a future dominated by globalization, to choose those .
questions that everyone is asking and to lay down some guidelines that can be applied
both within national contexts and on a worldwide scale."
47
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Transforming Educational Background of the International Commission
UNESCO had on several previous occasions produced international studies reviewing
issues and priorities in education worldwide. In 1968, The World Educational Crisis:
A Systems Analysis, by Philip H. Coombs, the then Director of UNESCO's
International Institute for E£lucational Planning (IlEP), drew on the work of the Institute
to examine the problems facing education, and to recommend far-reaching innovations.
In 1971, in the wake of student upheavals in much of the world during the previous
three years, Rene Maheu (the then Director-General of UNESCO), asked a former
French Prime Minister and Minister of Education, Edgar Faure, to chair a seven-
person panel entrusted with defining 'the new aims to be assigned to education as a
result of the rapid changes in know ledge and in societies, the demands of development,
the aspirations of the individual, and the overriding need for international understanding
and peace', and putting forward 'suggestions regarding the intellectual, human and
financial means needed to attain the objectives set.' Published in 1972 under the title ~
learning to be, report of the Faure Commission firmly established the concept of life-
long education at a time when traditional education systems were being challenged.
The scope of the Commission's work included the concept of education in its broadest
sense, from pre-school and higher education, including both formal and non-formal
education and covering the widest possible spectrum of agencies and providers.
Guiding Principles
The Commission was expected to keep in mind some underlying principles which
included in the mandate proposed to it by the Director-General of UNESCO.
First, education is a basic human right and a universal human value: learning and
education are ends in themselves, to be aimed at by both individuals and societies, and
to be promoted and made available over the entire lifetime of each individual.
Second, education, formal and non-formal, must serve society as an instrument for
fostering the creation, advancement and dissemination of knowledge and science, and
by making knowledge and teaching universally available.
Third, the triple goal of equity, relevance and excellence must prevail in any policy of
education, and the search for a harmonious combination of these goals is a crucial
task for all those involved in educational planning and practice.
Fourth, renewal and any corresponding reform of education must be the result of
profound and thoughtful examination and understanding of what is known about useful
practice and policy, as well as understanding of the specific conditions and requirements
relevant to each particular situation; they must be decided upon by mutual agreement
through approp .ate facts among the parties concerned, as a medium-term process.
Fifth, while existence of a wide variety of economic, social and cultural situations
clearly calls for different approaches to educational development, all approaches must
take into account basic and agreed upon values and concerns of the international
community and the United Nations system: human rights, tolerance and understanding,
democracy, responsibility, universality, cultural identity, the search for peace, the
preservation of the environment, the sharing of knowledge, alleviation of poverty,
population control, health.
Sixth, education is the responsibility of the whole society, all persons involved and all
partnership in addition to those incumbent on institutions must be fully taken into account.
The task of the Commission was very difficult. The first and perhaps the main difficulty
confronting the Commission concerned the extreme diversity of educational situations,
conceptions and structures. Related to this difficulty was the sheer quantity of
information available and the obvious impossibility, for the Commission, of digesting
more than a small proportion of it in the course of its work. It was thus obliged to be
48 selective and to single out what was essential for the future, bearing in mind both
/
geopolitical, economic, social and cultural trends on the one hand and, on the other, the Education in the
part educational policies could play. 21st Century
The Commission chose six lines of inquiry which enabled it to approach its task from
both individual and societal aims of the learning process: education and culture; education
and citizenship; education and social cohesion; education, work and employment;
education and development; and education, research and science, Thes.e six lines
were complemented by three transverse themes relating more directly to the functioning
of education systems: communications technologies; t~achers and teaching; and
financing and management.
The Commission adopted a wide-ranging methodology of consultation. The Commission
held eight plenary sessions, and the same number of working-group sessions, to examine
both the major topics chosen, and concerns and issues particular to one region or
group of countries. Participants in the working-group sessions were representative of
a wide range of professions and organizations directly and indirectly related to education,
formal and non-formal: teachers, researchers, students, government officials, and people
active in governmental and non-governmental organisations at national and international
levels. A series of presentations by distinguished individuals enabled the Commission
.
,
to hold in-depth exchanges on a wide range of topics related in various degrees to
education. Individual consultations were carried out, face-to-face or in writing.
Information was collected from all the National Commissions for UNESCO. Non-
governmental organisations were similarly consulted.
This Report is organized around six lines of enquiry: education and development,
education and science, education and citizenship, education and culture, education and
social cohesion and education and work. This report has been guiding the policy
makers and implementers in the field of education at the national and international
levels.
The International Commission on Education for the 21st Century had mapped out six
main tensions as the central problems for the next century; the global vs. the local; the
universal vs. the individual; tradition vs. modernity; long-term considerations vs. short
term; the need for competition vs. the concern for equality; and the age-old tension
between the spiritual and the material. The Commission proposed four pillars for the
education of the future, which are the following:
The Four Pillars of Education

Education throughout life is based on four pillars: learning to know, learning to do,
learning to live together and learning to be.
Learning to know: Education should not just aim -at the acquisition of structured
knowledge but it should ensure the mastery of learning tools. People have to learn to
understand the world around them, at least as much as is necessary for them to lead
their lives with some dignity, develop their occupational skills and cominunicate with
other people. Learning to know encourages intellectual curiosity, sharpens the critical
faculties .and enables people to develop their own independent judgments on the world
around them. The broader our knowledge, the better we can understand the many
different aspects of our environment. This provides the pleasure that fan be derived
from understanding, knowledge and discovery. This is enjoyed by researchers, but
good teaching can help everyone to enjoy it.
Learning to do: to acquire not only an occupational skill but also, more broadly, the
competence to deal with many situations and work in teams.
Learning to live: by developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation
of interdependence - carrying out joint projects and learning to manage conflicts in a
spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and peace.
49
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I
1
Transforming Educational Learning to be: This is to develop one's personality and be able to act with greater
/ Theory into Practice autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility. In that connection, education must'
not disregard any aspect of a person's potential: memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense,
physical capacities and communication skills. Education should help an individual in
understanding one's own self and developing hislher own independent, critical way of
thinking and judgment so that individuals can make up their own minds on the best
courses of action in the different circumstances in their lives. This can lead to complete
development - mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic appreciation and
spirituality.
Formal education systems tend to emphasize the acquisition of knowledge to the
detriment of other types of learning; but it is vital now to conceive education in more
encompassing fashion. Such a vision should inform and guide future educational reforms
and policy, in relation both to contents and to methods.
Learning throughout Life

The Commission stressed on the concept of learning throughout life as essential in the
twenty-first century. It goes beyond the traditional distinction between initial and
continuing education. It links up with another concept that of the learning society, in
which there is an opportunity of learning and fulfilling one's potential. Continuing
education is basically upgrading competence through refresher training, retraining and
conversion or promotion courses for adults. It should open up opportunities for learning
for all, for many different 'purposes, offering them a second or third chance, satisfying
their desire for knowledge or their desire to surpass themselves, making it possible to
broaden and deepen strictly vocational forms of training, including practical training.
~,
From basic education to university level of education, the Commission had the following
view points:
• A requirement valid for all countries, albeit in various forms and with different
types of content is the strengthening of basic education. Hence the emphasis
on primary education and its traditional basic programmes - reading, writing
and arithmetic and also on the ability to express oneself in a language that lends
itself to dialogue and understanding.
• The need for basic education, is also because it creates receptivity to science
and the world of science, which opens the door to the twenty first century and its
scientific und technological upheavals.
• The adaptation of basic education to specific contexts, starting out with the
facts of everyday life, which affords opportunities for understanding natural
I
j
phenomena and for different forms of socialization. 1
• The pressing needs of literacy work and basic education for adults are to be kept
in mind.
• In all cases, emphasis is to be placed on pupil-teacher relations, since the most
advanced technologies can be ne more than a back-up to the relationship
(transmission, dialogue and confrontation) between teacher and pupil.
• Secondary education must be rethought in the general context of learning
throughout life. The key principle is to arrange for a variety of individual paths
through schooling, without ever closing the door on the possibility of a subsequent
return to the education system. •
• Universities would have four key functions:
1. To prepare students for research and teaching.
2. To provide highly specialized training courses adapted to the needs of
economic and social life.
3. To be open to all, so as to cater for the many aspects of lifelong education in
the widest sense.
4. International co-operation.
/ I
The universities should also be able to speak out on ethical and social problems as Education in the
entirely independent and fully responsible institutions exercising a kind of intellectual 21si Century
authority that society needs to help it to reflect, understand and act.
Relevance of four pillars of education to childhood education

Like other stages, even at preschool stage, education at the preschool stage also has
to be centered around the four pillars of education as emphasized in Delor's report to
UNESCO. Delor's four pillars of education namely learning to know, learning to do,
learning to live together and learning to be can be the nucleus about which the curriculum
of early childhood education is to be developed. Accordingly children should first learn
to know i.e. acquire the instruments of understanding and thus develop the abilities for
not only primary education but also for life long learning. Second, they should learn to
do, so as to be able to act creatively on their environment like protecting it, preserving
resources, working with the community, etc. Third, they should learn to live together,
i.e. co-operate and work as a team, have tolerance for divergence and have faith in
democracy. Fourth, children should learn to be i.e. have holistic development of
personality and abilities for independent and critical thinking and decision making in
their lives (Bose,2008).
13.5 VALUES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Values are judgments on what is desirable or valuable in one's life. Value means
"something that has a price, something that has worth, something precious, something
dear, something one is ready to suffer for, sacrifice for, and in some cases one is even
ready to die for. While according to idealists values are eternal and unchanging, for
pragmatists there is the need to reinterpret the values time to time. According to the
author, Gerald A. Laure, values, which must be deliberately chosen and not left to
chance, must be secular, global and familial. He says that the accepted human values
for the 21 st century must be embraced, taught, encouraged and supported internationally,
nationally, locally and the most personally. To achieve harmony and peace in the 21 st
century there is need for values for democracy, non- violence, co-operation and
peaceful living. Values should also teach children to recognize cultural and other
diversities and be tolerant and appreciative towards divergences. This is the basis fOT
globalisation and acceptance of plurality and fostering peaceful co- existence and co-
/
operation on a worldwide basis. Because humanistic values are pluralistic, a spirit of
tolerance is primary. Tolerance enables the recognition of the wide variety of human
expression and patterns of living. In the 21 st century values for sustainable development
are also important.
Education that develops values necessary for sustainable development is needed. This
kind of education as stated by UNESCO is fundamentally about values, with respect
at the centre for others, including for those of present and future generations, for
environment, for differences and diversity, for the resources of the planet we inhabit.
Certain values have been identified for sustainable development. These are a set of
core values- peace, human rights, democracy and sustainable development and related
values that support them (UNESCO).
Pre-school stage is not too early, rather the right stage to initiate this type of education.
In the early part of the 17111 century, Comenius had compared young children to molten
wax, which can be given the desired shape. Froebel, famed for his ideas of kindergarten
was of the opinion that young children are like young plants that need to be nurtured.
The relative ease of shaping young minds makes early childhood the best period for
bringing about affective development. Thus there is the need to 'catch them young'
during the preschool years that are the formative years in the life of an individual and
lays the foundation for future beliefs and values. These years are to be put to good use
for developing responsible and participating citizens, who could work for sustainable
5
/
- ..•
Transforming Educational .development. With ECCE becoming a Directive Principle of State Policy and with
Theory into Practice the current emphasis on early childhood education in India, more children are expected
I
to enroll in preschools. Hence it becomes the starting point for initializing value education
(Bose,2008).
Activities for inculcating values

At preschools different typespf activities are to be organized for developing values in
children. Some of the activities that may be organized are (Bose,2008):
Caring for the natural environment

Activities have to be planned so that children respect and cherish their natural
environment. In many nursery schools in India the practice is to confine children
within classrooms and teach them about plants and animals through textbooks. The
information is thus bookish that may not translate into knowledge and attitudes. Children
learn more by doing and exploring. Hence, there should be more opportunities for • I
them to come in direct contact with nature and explore it. Their inquisitive nature and
love for exploration could be put to use for informally educating them about the
.
, environment. They could help in planting trees, raising them and making them their
pets. In urban schools with lack of space, small earthen pots could be used They
could also help in looking after animals and birds at their school. Feeding fish in the
aquarium, birds, and animals in the vicinity could be encouraged. Books, recorded
videos, television programmes can also be powerful media for developing respect for
nature. However, these should be chosen with care. They should provide correct
information about the environment. Role play with children playing the roles of plants
and animals could be useful to make them empathise with them. Also, role playing as
the hero on a safari who does not shoot with a gun but with a camera , a vet who
cures animals, can influence the impressionable minds of young children. The elders
of the community could be invited to narrate folk tales and sing folk songs that speak
of close bondage between man, and nature. Thus children could be introduced to
traditional knowledge about healthy interactions between man and environment.
Reusing, recycling and reducing consumption

From the early childhood stage, children have to learn not to be wasteful. Storing
waste paper, broken glass, metallic things and sending them for recycling, donating
old books to libraries, using paper, colours, and other things economically, saying no to
polythene bags, switching off electrical appliances while leaving the room can become
a life long habit if practiced from childhood.
Developing values pertaining to the sustainable economic development and

socio political development (Bose,2008)
Addressing these concerns directly during early childhood education may not be
possible. However an indirect approach may be adopted in the following way:
Gender equality: The cultural biases against women need to be overcome through an
environment in the preschools where girls and boys are treated alike so that the influence
of the social patterns ingrained from home and society is neutralized. In preschools
girls are often given dolls to play with while boys get other kinds of toys. Girls are
entrusted with tasks like cleaning and tidying the classroom while boys arrange the
chairs and tables. Books also depict women cooking and cleaning while men go out to
earn. These types of stereotypes have to be avoided. Children could be told about the
women warriors and leaders and about women excelling in different fields.
Nurturing faith in democracy: Democracy has to be grounded in the way of life
right from childhood and this requires education, which can be initiated right from the
preschool level through participatory practices. To give a shape to this idea children
should be encouraged to work cooperatively in group situations. Instead of ordering
/
children, their opinion could be sought through dialogues on various issues. There is Education in the
also a need to train children in such away that they are aware from a young age about 21st Century
their rights and duties in group situations. In nursery schools children often play alone
and this is mainly because they are still in the stage of egocentrism. To initiate them
into socializing, group activities have to be organized so as to nurture values like tolerance
and respect for other members and their views, open mindedness, acceptance of
differences. Activities have to be designed so that children have shared goals, agree
on a strategy and work to achieve the goals cooperatively. Cleaning and tidying the
classroom together, playing games as teams, studying together, etc. could be carried
out.
Towards inclusiveness: For sustainable development it is crucial that the society is

inclusive. Therefore education, right from the preschool stage has to be inclusive.
Nurturing ability to think critically and solve problems: Right from the preschool
stage, children are encouraged to cram information and reproduce it. This does not
nurture the abilities to think critically and solve problems. But for life long learning
abilities and to be an active member of the knowledge society these abilities are needed.
Activities that require children to think and take decisions have to be designed. Jigsaw
puzzles, assorting pictures logically, asking children why and how, rather than what
questions could be some of the activities that foster thinking abilities.
Developing communication skills: At preschool level children are taught to read
and write but development of their verbal communication skills is often neglected.
But children need communication skills, so that they are free of hesitations while
expressing themselves in social processes later on. Narration of incidents and stories
by children, dialogues and discussions with them should be encouraged so that the
hesitation in verbal communication is eliminated.
Respecting cultural diversity: One of the points at the Johannesburg Declaration,
on Sustainable Development in 2002, adopted at the world summit on sustainable
development is a commitment to ensure that our rich diversity, which is our collective
strength, will be used for constructive partnership for change and for the achievement
of sustainable development, the common goal of all nations. Loss of cultural diversity
reflects intolerance among societies and leads to loss of indigenous and rich traditional
knowledge and culture. Education can help in preserving and transmitting cultural
richness and the various traditions Although songs and dances are not the only
constituents of culture but along with other activities like celebration of festivals of
different communities, they can be an effective means of conveying cultural differences
at the preschool level.

1) Which are the four pillars in Education?
2) Discuss three activities that may be used for inculcating values in young children.
13.6 LIFE SKILLSEDUCATION

UNICEF, UNESCO and WHO list life skills as: problem solving, critical thinking,
communication skills, decision making, creative thinking, interpersonal relationship skills,
negotiation skills, self-awareness building skills, empathy, and coping with stress and
emotions. With life skills, one is able to explore alternative options, weigh pros and
cons of actions and make rational decisions and solve problems faced in life. It also
enables one to establish healthy interpersonal relationships with others, communicating
effectively negotiate, say "no", to be assertive while not being aggressive and lead a
healthy and satisfied life.
53
I
Transforming Educational The World Health Organization defines life skill as
• Decision making (assessing options and what effects different decisions may
have)
• Problem solving ( as unresolved problems can cause tension)
• Creative thinking (looking beyond direct experience)
• Critical thinking (rationalizing, being open minded)
• Effective communication
• Interpersonal skills (to develop and nurture supportive networks)
• Self awareness ( recognition of our strengths and weaknesses)
• Empathy (being nurturing and tolerant).
• Coping with emotions and stress
WHO categorizes a core set of life skills into the following three components:
A) Thinking skills - include self-awareness, social awareness, goal-setting, problem
solving and decision-making. To be able to think critically, for making informed
decisions and choices. The consequences of decisions and especially that of
hasty, unplanned and rash decisions need to be clear.
B) Social skills - include appreciating/validating others; working with others and
understanding their roles; building positive relationships with friends and family;
listening and communicating effectively; taking responsibility and coping with
stress. Social skills enable better social adjustment.
"
C)"Negotiation skills - negotiating with others and also with oneself; It involves being
able to say "no" and withstanding pressure from peers and others to do something
not acceptable to the society.
Life skills thus are a group of psycho-social and interpersonal skills which are
interlinked; e.g., learning to say no will involve critical thinking about a proposition.
The skills are in the context of contemporary issues like HIV /AIDS/STD prevention,
suicide prevention, sexual abuse, etc. Skills acquisition can be better done through
interactions with peers and teachers than individually. This is especially true for
preschoolers who are too young to read and reflect to acquire skills. As per the UNICEF
life skills should lead to behavioural changes and hence, teaching through traditional
lectures may not be helpful. Rather, through experiences designed carefully like stories,
role plays, songs, drama and the like these skills may be developed in preschoolers.
Schools and especially preschools need to gear up for providing an education for life.
As far as preschool education is concerned, this is the stage of habit formation, and
hence this-is the starting point for life skills education. As per the Dakar Framework
for Action (2000), the learning needs of young people are met through equitable access
to appropriate learning and life skills programmes as a key goal, along with other
important objectives related to literacy/numeracy, gender equality and early childhood
education. Activities that lead to the development of abilities for critical thinking,
decision making, problem solving, communication, empathizing, negotiating, asserting,
refusing, reflecting, persuading, working in a team, etc. have to be thought out for
children from the early childhood stage itself (Bose,2008) and we have discussed
these activities in a unit on life skills in the fourth course.

1) Discuss the values required in a democratic society.
2) List the major Life Skills.
54
/
Education in the
13.7 SUMMARY 21sr Century
In this unit we discussed the kind of education needed in the emerging society. We
have discussed briefly the aims of education in the 21 SI century with the emphasis on
preparation for a knowledge society. We have also discussed how the foundation for
modem education system can be laid through the directions provided by the Delor's
Report submitted to the UNESCO. The four pillars of learning suggested by Delors
Report comprise the foundation for education to be imparted at all levels including the
preschool stage. We have also discussed the values that are considered to be important
today and that these values need to be provided right from the preschool stage. Finally
we have discussed the necessity for initiating life skill education and its importance
right from the early childhood stage.

• Suggest activities for developing in children the habit of appreciating differences.
• Develop a strategy for inculcating values for democratic citizenship in preschool
age children.

1. The four pillars of education are learning to know, learning to do, learning to live
together and learning to be.

1. Tolerance, team spirit, etc.
2. The major life skills are- decision making, problem solving, creative tlunking,
critical thinking, effective communication, inter personal skills, self awareness,
empathy, and coping with emotions and stress.
13.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

•
Aggarwal,J.C. (1997). Major Recommendations of International Commission on .
Education for the Twenty first Century and their Implications. Delhi:Doaba House.
Aggarwal,J.C. (2006). Educational Reforms in India of the Zl" Century. Shipra
Publications: New Delhi.
Bose, S. (2008). Addressing Agenda 21 through Early Childhood Care and Education:
Catching them Young. Teacher Education. Indian Association of Teacher Educators,
42(1& 2) 48-61.
Bose, S.(201O). ICT mediated life long education for alleviating marginality in a
knowledge society. In D. Singharoy (Ed.) Interrogating social development Global
perspectives local and initiated. Delhi: Manohar Publications.
Learning the Treasure within (1996). International Commission on Education for the
Twenty first Century, UNESCO.
Jacob,Mani(2002).Resource Bookfor Value Education. New Delhi: Institute of Value
Education.
NCTE (2000), Human Rights and Indian Values. New Delhi.
Ruhela, S.P. (1968). Human Values and Education. New Delhi: Sterling Publications.
55

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"Education is a liberating force, and ill our

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 6,7,8- Dr. K. Karunakaran (P.G. Dept. of

Language Editing & Proof Reading

Unit Designing and Format Editing

10.3 PIDLOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Philosophy and education

Idealist epistemology and the educative process

Aims of education as per idealists are as follows

The other aims are the following:

ft The teacher should aim at inculcating right values in pupils.

Check your progress 1

Check your progress 2

Pragmatism stresses experience-based curriculum (activity-based curriculum). It is

of what exists in the individual's consciousness and feelings as a result of one's I

• }Education is the preparation for the state of being

• To make the individual a person who is humane. This philosophy follows a

The existentialist teacher attempts to inculcate in pupils a sense of autonomy, as well

• To help the students to be original and authentic in developing values, instead of

• Realism includes contemporary events in the curriculum.

• Realism lays stress on the inclusion of vocational courses in the curriculum.

• Realism insists that practical'.utillityof

Realists encourage us to shape our values in terms of the structures of reality. By

Check your progress 4

Check Your Progress 1

Check Your Progress 2

Check Your Progress 3

Check Your Progress 4

10.12 REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READING-

11.3.1 Mahatma Gandhi

• Emphasis on activity method and learning by doing.

11.3.3 Sri Aurobindo

• To help the individual to realize him/herself, i.e. attain self realization

• To build the powers of human mind and spirit to their perfection.

• To train the senses so as to achieve their full development.

Check Your Progress 1

11.4 WESTERN EDUCATORS

Role of the Teacher

Important Contributions of Froebel

Nature of the curriculum

11.4.5 John Dewey

• To develop child's powers and abilities.

• A teacher should be a friend, a guide and a facilitator rather than a task-master.

11.4.6 Maria Montessori

philosophical, psychological and pedagogical principles and a vast range of auto-didactic

Method of Teaching- The Montessori Method

• Education in Montessori system is self activated

• The MontesSbri Method facilitates learning by discovery rather than by mere

• Montessori system teaches individuals instead of groups.

• It utilizes autodidactic (self- correcting) eqnipment for introduction and learning

Role of the Teacher

11.4.7 Pia get

Enactive: In which children need to experience the concrete in order to understand.

Designing and operating educational structure

11.4.9 Susan Isaacs

Vygotskian concept of ZPD

Figure 1 : ZPD to Support Intentional Learning

Designing and operating the educational structure

Check Your Progress 2

11.6 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

11.7 CLUES TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS