PROFESSIONAL TRAFFIC OPERATIONS ENGINEERS

CERTIFICATION PROGRAM REFRESHER COURSE

MODULE 5

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

July, 2016

Prepared by

Robert K. Seyfried, PE, PTOE

President
R.K. Seyfried and Associates, Inc.
Evanston, IL

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 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Success in the driving task depends on the drivers’ ability to receive and utilize information
from many sources. Deficient information increases the drivers’ chances of committing errors
and increases the potential for crashes. The purpose of the highway information system (traffic
control devices) is to aid and upgrade drivers’ performance. The principles of “positive
guidance” are based on the premise that if the driver can be given enough information when
it is needed in a useable form, the driver can perform more safely and efficiently.

Three levels of driver information needs

have been identified:
 Navigation level of driver
performance includes the planning
and execution of a trip. Information
at this level comes from maps, guide
signs, and landmarks.
 Guidance level of driver performance
refers to the task of selecting a safe
speed and path on the highway. This
is a decision process in which the
driver must evaluate the immediate

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 situation, make speed and path decisions, and translate those decisions into control
actions. Activities include lane positioning, car following, overtaking, and passing.
Information at this level comes from the roadway itself, and from pavement markings
and regulatory and warning signs.
 Control level of driver performance includes the physical manipulation of the vehicle.
The driver exercises lateral and longitudinal control of the vehicle through the steering
wheel, accelerator, and brake. Information at this level comes primarily from the
vehicle itself, and is received through most of the drivers’ natural sense mechanisms.

Positive Guidance deals mainly with driver information needs at the guidance level. A failure
occurs when the driver selects an inappropriate speed or path, and may result in a crash. A
high percentage (up to 90 percent) of driver guidance information (or mis-information) is
received visually. “Informal” sources of information include traffic, roadway design features,
tree lines, etc. “Formal” sources include signs, signals, and markings, and must be used to
supplement or compensate for the information (or mis-information) from the informal
sources. Driver navigation information needs must be considered as well. Although a failure
at the navigation level may not be catastrophic, the lost or confused driver is more likely to
make an error at the guidance level.

Drivers are usually able to handle highway guidance information and, given enough time, make
a decision and take proper action. Driver error and improper actions may result from one or
a combination of the following factors:
 Information overload occurs when too many sources of information compete and drivers
may miss key information.
 Defective information display occurs when the informal information sources provide
erroneous information.

 Missing information such as safe curve speed, hidden driveways, or control of intersection
right of way is not evident from the informal sources.
 Deficient traffic control devices may result in driver errors by providing too much
information, too little information, obsolete or inappropriate information, or non-
uniform displays.

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Design and placement of traffic control devices must consider human factors relative to:
 Timingdrivers can best handle
information at a steady rate, avoiding
“peaks” and “valleys” of information.
System design should provide for an
even pacing of information, relocating
or “spreading” lower priority
information.
 Primacydrivers respond to
competing information sources based
on the apparent urgency or
importance based on their survival in
the traffic stream. Devices with
insufficient target value may
contribute to driver error.
 Expectancydrivers respond more quickly and more predictably to situations that they
expect to encounter. One purpose of traffic control devices is to give advance notice
of an unexpected event or situation.
 Redundancyproviding the same information in more than one way may be critically
important to overcome driver inattention or at locations where the driver may miss
needed information.

UNIFORM TRAFFIC CONTROL

DEVICES

The purpose of the Manual on Uniform Traffic

Control Devices (MUTCD) is to promote
uniformity in the design and application of
traffic control devices.

The MUTCD contains five basic criteria for

any traffic control device:

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  It must fulfill a need
 It must command attention of road
users
 It must convey a clear, simple
meaning
 It must command the respect of road
users
 It must give adequate time for proper
response

These basic requirements should be applied

in the planning, design, placement, operation,
and maintenance of all traffic control devices. Traffic control devices should be planned and
implemented as a system, taking into consideration the functional classification of the roads,
which comprise the system. These basic requirements should be applied to the periodic review
of the existing system of traffic control devices as well as to the implementation of new
devices. Traffic control devices should be applied only on the basis of need, exercising
appropriate engineering judgment, and evaluating need relative to nationally recognized
standards, warrants, criteria, and available research results.

Uniform design and application of traffic control devices improves driver expectancy since
the driver will encounter signs and markings, which convey similar information under similar
circumstances throughout the country. By using uniform shapes, colors, and symbols, the
information is “coded” to help drivers process information more quickly and correctly.

MUTCD Definitions
The words “shall,” “should,” and “may” are
defined in the MUTCD as follows:
 Shall: a mandatory condition. Where
certain requirements in the design or
application of the device are
described with the “shall” stipulation,
it is mandatory that these
requirements be met when an
installation is made. This is a
“standard”.
 Should: an advisory condition. Where
the word “should” is used, the action
is advised; recommended but not mandatory. This is “guidance”.
 May: a permissive condition. No requirement for design or application is intended.
This is an “option”.

The MUTCD defines the following terms as well:

 Engineering judgment: “The evaluation of available information, and the application of
appropriate principles, standards, guidance, and practice as contained in (the MUTCD)
and other sources, for the purpose of deciding upon the applicability, design, or

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 installation of a traffic control
device. Engineering judgment shall
be exercised by an engineer, or by an
individual working under the
supervision of an engineer, through
the application of procedures and
criteria established by the engineer.
Documentation of engineering
judgment is not required.”
 Engineering study: “The
comprehensive analysis and
evaluation of available pertinent
information, and the application of
appropriate principles, standards, guidance, and practice as contained in (the MUTCD)
and other sources, for the purpose of deciding upon the applicability, design, or
installation of a traffic control device. An engineering study shall be performed by an
engineer, or by an individual working under the supervision of an engineer, through
the application of procedures and criteria established by the engineer. An engineering
study shall be documented.”

TRAFFIC SIGNS

Signs are classified as regulatory, warning,

guide, and motorist information signs.

Regulatory Signs
Regulatory signs inform the road user of a
law, regulation, or legal requirement. They
indicate where these regulations apply in
cases where this would not otherwise be
apparent. In some cases, a resolution or
ordinance must be approved for the regulatory sign to have a legally enforceable meaning.
Regulatory signs should be placed at the beginning of the section of roadway where the
regulation applies, and repeated periodically throughout extended sections.

Some regulatory signs are critically important in conveying essential information to the road
user. However, many of these same signs may not command the respect of road users, because
of excessive use (such as STOP signs) or because of inappropriateness of regulation (such as
unrealistically low speed limits).

Selection and implementation of regulatory signs must be based on an engineering study which
considers:
 Recognized warrants or criteria
 Realistic assessment of the roadway, traffic, and environment
 Evaluation of alternative countermeasures
 Based on a systems plan

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Regulatory signs are generally rectangular in shape with a white background and black (or red
in the case of a prohibition) legend. Regulatory signs include:
 Right of way series such as STOP signs
or YIELD signs. The sign should be
placed at or near the point where the
driver is required to stop, and may be
supplemented with a STOP line or
YIELD line on the pavement. If a
crosswalk has been established, the
sign should be located about 4 ft.
(1.2) m in advance of the crosswalk.
If sight distance to the STOP or
YIELD sign is limited, a STOP
AHEAD or YIELD AHEAD sign
should be installed.
 Speed series such as speed limit, speed zone ahead, and school speed zone signs. Speed
zones should be established based on an engineering study of prevailing roadway
speeds (as a primary factor), roadway and environmental factors, and crash history.
Unrealistically low speed zones are difficult to enforce and often have poor
compliance.
 Lane Use and Movement series such as
turn restrictions, lane use, one-way,
and vehicle exclusion signs. Where
restrictions or prohibitions are
required, the signs should be highly
conspicuous with lettering large
enough to be read by drivers
approaching the location of the
restriction.
 Parking series signs regulate the use of
the curb lane and other parking areas.
 Pedestrian series signs regulate
pedestrian crossings.
 Traffic control signal series regulate traffic movements at signalized intersections.
 Miscellaneous regulatory signs include weight limit, ROAD CLOSED, TURN ON
HEADLIGHTS, etc. signing.

Warning Signs
Warning signs inform road users of conditions on or adjacent to the roadway that potentially
could be hazardous. These conditions may violate normal driver expectancy and/or may
require extra decision making time to determine an appropriate response. Warning signs are
generally diamond-shaped with a yellow (or florescent yellow-green for pedestrian, bicycle,
and school signs) background and a black legend.

To be effective, warning signs must be placed far enough in advance of the hazard so that
drivers can take appropriate actions. Warning sign location in advance of the hazard depends

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on speed, PRT (perception/reaction) time,
and (where applicable) the amount of speed
reduction or maneuver distance. PRT times
range from 2.5 sec. for general warning signs
to 14.5 sec. for signs requiring a high degree
of judgment and response from the driver.
PRT time should also be used to determine
minimum spacing between warning signs.
See Table 2C-4 of the MUTCD for warning
sign placement criteria.

Warning signs are critical to road user safety,

yet they may not motivate drivers to take
appropriate action. In some cases, this is because the warning may be non-specific or may
apply only in rare instances. Warning signs should be used sparingly, but when used should
have primacy over other traffic control devices. Conspicuity or target value of warning signs
may have to be reinforced through redundancy (multiple signs, flashing lights, pavement
markings, etc.).

Warning signs include:

 Alignment series such as curve, turn,
large arrow, and chevron signs. The
use of alignment series signs should
be limited to locations where the
change in alignment is not apparent,
where a speed reduction of more
than 5 mph (10 km/h) would be
required for comfortable operation,
or where traffic engineering studies
indicate a need. A supplemental
speed advisory plate may be needed
based on the results of a ball-bank
indicator test or other analysis of
curve design speed.
 Intersection series such as crossroad,
side road, T-intersection, and double-
headed arrow signs. Such signs may
be useful at locations with limited
visibility, where the intersection
would be unexpected, or where
accident history indicates a need.
They are not normally used where
junction or advanced route turn
guide signs are in place.
 Traffic control series such as STOP
AHEAD, YIELD AHEAD and SIGNAL AHEAD. These signs are used when
drivers do not have sufficient visibility of the intersection traffic control device to take

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 appropriate action. See Table 4D-1 of the MUTCD for minimum traffic signal visibility
criteria.
 Cross section series such as road narrows, narrow bridge, and divided highway signs.
Where a lane is dropped, the warning sign location should provide drivers with 14.5
sec of PRT time.
 Advance crossing and crossing series such as pedestrian, bicycle, trucks, deer, etc. Only
critical locations (such as restricted sight distance, young or elderly pedestrians, or an
accident history) should be signed. School areas require special attention, focusing on
the area adjacent to the school and along designated school routes. The color
“florescent yellow-green” is approved for use for pedestrian, bicycle, and school zone
warning signs. The current MUTCD also eliminated the use of “crosswalk” lines on
warning signs placed at the location of crossings. Instead, the standard warning sign
is supplemented with an angled down arrow to indicate the crossing location.
 Surface conditions series such as Slippery When Wet, Pavement Ends, and Bump signs.

The MUTCD states that horizontal alignment warning signs on freeways, expressways, and
roadways functionally classified as arterials or collectors with an AADT of more than 1,000
vehicles per day shall be in accordance with Table 2C-5. Signs designated as “Required” in
Table 2C-5 are mandatory. “Recommended” indicates that the sign is recommended but not
mandatory. “Optional” means that the sign may be installed but no recommendation is
implied. The MUTCD indicates that Turn or Reverse Turn signs shall be used (rather than
Curve or Reverse Curve signs) where the advisory speed is 30 mph (50 km/h) or less. The
Curve or Reverse Curve signs are used where the advisory speed is greater than 30 mph (50
km/h).

Guide Signs
Guide signs provide navigation information,
including route designations, destinations,
directions, distances, services, points of
interest, and other geographical, recreational,
or cultural information to assist road users in
reaching their intended destinations. A high
level of guidance is essential to minimize
confusion and to optimize safety and
efficiency of traffic flow. The principles of
primacy, timing, and spreading are important
in the placement of guide signs. Redundancy
may be important to reassure drivers that
they are on the desired route. Guide signs
include street name signs, route signs, destination and distance signs, and freeway and
expressway interchange identification signs.

Guide signs generally have green (or brown for recreational and cultural interest signs)
backgrounds and white legends. The MUTCD requires that the lettering for names of places,
streets, and highways on guide signs shall be a combination of lower-case letters with initial
upper-case letters. Nominal loop height of the lower-case letters shall be 3/4 the height of the
initial upper-case letter.

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Motorist Information Signs
Motorist information signs provide information about facilities, services, businesses, and
attractions on or near roadways. They include general services indicating the availability of gas,
food, lodging, etc.; specific services (specific business identification for gas, food, lodging, and
attractions); recreational and cultural interest attractions and traffic generators and tourist
oriented businesses. Motorist information signs generally have blue backgrounds and white
legends.

Changeable Message Signs

Changeable message signs are capable of
displaying more than one message. They may
be changed manually, by remote control, or
by automatic controls. Such signs should be
limited to not more than three lines with not
more than 20 characters per line. No more
than two displays should be used within any
message cycle. The entire message should be
readable at least twice by drivers traveling at
prevailing speeds. The signs should not be
used to display information other than
regulatory, warning, and guidance
information related to traffic control. The
use of animation, rapid flashing, or other dynamic elements is not allowed.

Sign Visibility and Legibility

Regulatory, warning, and guide signs and
object markers shall be retroreflective or
illuminated to show the same shape and
similar color at night as well as during the day
(unless specifically exempted by the
MUTCD. Retroreflection means that the
light from vehicle’s headlights striking the
sign is reflected directly back to the light
source. Because the driver of a vehicle is
located relatively close to the headlights of
the vehicle, retroreflectivity provides drivers
with the ability to see signs at nighttime.

Sign retroreflectivity is typically provided either by spherical glass beads or prismatic reflectors
in the sign material. The retroreflectivity of sign materials gradually deteriorates as the sign
ages. The MUTCD contains “minimum maintained retroreflectivity guidelines” for signs.
These criteria provide guidance for the replacement of signs as nighttime brightness degrades.
Highway agencies must have a program to ensure that signs maintain adequate
retroreflectivity, such as periodic nighttime visual inspection, measurement of retro-
reflectivity, or periodic replacement based on sign life expectancy.

As an alternative to retroreflectivity, the sign can be illuminated using either external or internal

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lighting sources. Normal street lighting or other ambient lighting is not considered adequate
to fulfill this requirement.

Adequate sign letter sizes are critical to sign legibility. Letter sizes in the 2009 MUTCD are
predicated on the criterion of 30 ft. (9 m) of legibility distance for each 1 inch (25 mm) of
letter height.

Sign Locations
In general, roadside signs in rural areas shall
have a mounting height of at least 5 feet (1.5
m) above the near edge of pavement. In areas
where parking or pedestrian movements
occur, the clearance to the bottom of the sign
shall be at least 7 feet (2.1 m). If a secondary
sign is mounted below another sign, the
bottom of the secondary sign may be 1 foot
(0.3 m) lower than the mounting heights
specified above. When signs are mounted
over the roadway, the minimum vertical
clearance is 17 feet (5.2 m).

For ground-mounted signs, the minimum lateral offset should be 12 feet (3.6 m) from the
edge of the traveled way, or 6 feet (1.8 m) from the outside edge of shoulder, whichever is
greater. However, in urban areas where sidewalk width is limited or where existing poles are
close to the curb, a minimum offset of 1 foot (0.3 m) from the face of curb may be used.

Sign Supports
Sign supports must be durable and
structurally adequate to withstand wind and
ice loading. At the same time, they should not
present a hazard to road users and should fail
in a safe and predictable manner when struck
by a vehicle. Post-mounted signs shall be
crashworthy or shielded with a longitudinal
barrier or crash cushion if located within the
clear zone. On impact, the sign supports
must break away, yield, bend over, or
fracture. After impact, the “stub height” of
the support remaining in the ground should
not exceed 4 inches (100 mm) to avoid snagging the undercarriage of the vehicle. Because
large overhead sign support structures cannot be made to break away on impact, they should
be suitably shielded if located within the clear zone on a high-speed road.

PAVEMENT MARKINGS

Pavement markings include lines, patterns, words, symbols, and other devices that are placed
on or set into the pavement surface for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding road

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users. Pavement markings can be used to:
 Indicate regulations (no passing
zones, mandatory turn lanes)
 Supplement other devices (stop
lines)
 Guide road users (lane lines,
crosswalks)
 Warn road users (Signal Ahead
message, railroad crossing)

Pavement markings convey information in a

“coded” form, using color, line design (solid,
broken, width, etc.), and number of lines.

Pavement markings have definite limitations

which must be recognized. They are
obliterated by snow, hidden by stopped
vehicles, may lose visibility at night in the
rain, and may wear rapidly under moderate
to heavy traffic volumes, requiring frequent
maintenance. In spite of these limitations,
pavement markings have the advantage,
under favorable conditions, of conveying
information to road users without diverting
attention from the roadway.

A variety of pavement marking materials are available, including paint, thermoplastic, epoxy,
pre-formed tape, raised retroreflective and non-retroreflective markers, in-pavement lighting
devices, etc. Relative costs, longevity, pavement type and condition, traffic volume, and hazard
to workers should be considered in selecting an appropriate marking material.

Longitudinal Pavement Markings

Longitudinal markings include centerlines, lane lines and edge lines. These lines not only guide
the lateral placement of vehicles on the roadway, but also provide drivers with advance
visibility of upcoming changes in the
roadway alignment and cross section.

The MUTCD requires centerline markings

on all paved urban arterials and collectors
that have a traveled way of 20 feet (6.1 m) or
more and an ADT of 6,000 vehicles per day
or more. Centerline markings are also
required for all paved two-way roads with 3
or more lanes for moving motor vehicle
traffic. On two-lane roads with a marked
centerline, no-passing zones must be
designated with a solid yellow line. Passing

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sight distance criteria are contained in Table 3B-1 of the MUTCD.

Edge line pavement markings may be used to denote the edges of the roadway. When used
on a divided highway or one-way street, the left edge line is yellow and the right edge line is
white. The MUTCD requires edge lines for all freeways, expressways, and paved rural arterials
with a traveled way of 20 feet (6.1 m) or more and an ADT of 6,000 vehicles per day or more.

It is sometimes desirable to extend lane lines through an intersection or interchange where the
design complexity (offset, curve, or multiple-turn lanes) or traffic congestion make the driving
task unusually difficult.

Special longitudinal markings include:

 Solid white lines to discourage crossing (e.g., turn lanes, bicycle lanes, etc.)
 Double-broken, yellow lines to denote each lane line that will serve as a dividing line
at some time of the day for reversible lane operation
 Solid yellow plus broken yellow lines denoting each side of a two-way left turn lane.

Transverse Pavement Markings

Transverse markings include stop lines, yield lines, crosswalks, railroad crossing markings, and
diagonal lines used in painted channelization. Stop lines should be used when it is desirable to
designate the desired point at which vehicles are to stop for a STOP sign or signal. They are
especially useful when the STOP sign cannot be located adjacent to the desired stopping
location.

Crosswalks both guide pedestrians to the desired crossing location and warn drivers of the
potential presence of pedestrians. Where transverse lines are used to mark a crosswalk, the
gap between the lines should not be less than 6 feet (1.8 m). Distinctive patterns such as
diagonal stripes should be reserved for crosswalks of special concern where added emphasis
is needed.

Word Messages and Symbols

Word messages and symbols should be limited to as few words as possible and never more
than three lines of information. Letters and symbols should be elongated to avoid a distorted
appearance when viewed from the drivers’ perspective. Words and symbols designating
mandatory lane usage or movement prohibitions should only be considered supplemental to
standard regulatory signs. The MUTCD restricts the use of the diamond symbol only to HOV
lanes.

Similar to signs, pavement markings must be retroreflective for nighttime visibility. Glass
beads placed in the marking material or prismatic raised reflective markers provide this
retroreflectivity. Future updates of the MUTCD are expected to contain guidelines for
minimum maintained retroreflectivity of pavement markings.

Delineators
Delineators are retroreflective devices mounted at a height of 4 feet (1.2 m) above the roadway
edge, at a constant distance from the edge of roadway, 2 to 8 feet (0.6 to 2.4 m) from the outer
edge of the shoulder. Delineators are generally required continuously along the right side of

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freeways and expressways, and along one side of ramps. They may also be used along any type
of roadway.

TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Traffic control signals are power-operated signal displays. The primary function of a traffic
signal is to alternately assign the right-of-way to various traffic movements at an intersection
or other roadway location.

When properly located, designed, operated

and maintained, traffic control signals have
the following potential advantages:
 Provide for the orderly movement of
traffic
 Reduce the frequency of certain types
of crashes (e.g., right angle, crossing
pedestrian, and possibly left turn)
 Increase the capacity of the minor
street approaches
 Provide a means of interrupting
heavy traffic flows to allow other
traffic to enter or cross the intersection

When poorly located, designed, operated or

maintained, traffic control signals have the
following potential disadvantages:
 Increase delay and excess fuel
consumption, especially during off-
peak periods
 Increase the frequency of certain
types of crashes (e.g., rear end, lane
change, turning vehicle-pedestrian,
and possibly left turn)
 Result in driver frustration, and
possible loss of respect for the device
 Induce road users to use alternative, less appropriate, routes to avoid such signals

The capability and commitment of the agency for proper maintenance of a traffic control
signal should be carefully considered early in the planning and design stages.

Traffic control signals should not be installed unless one or more of the nine warrants
contained in the MUTCD are satisfied. In evaluating the MUTCD signal warrants, it is
presumed that if installed, the device will be properly operated and maintained, the geometric
design of the intersection is adequate, nearby traffic control signals are properly coordinated,
and that the intersection control will be selected on the basis of a traffic engineering study and

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judgment. Satisfying one or more warrants is
a necessary, but not sufficient, indication of
the need for signal control. The MUTCD
signal warrants include:
 Eight-hour vehicular volume
 Four-hour vehicular volume
 Peak hour
 Pedestrian volume
 School crossing
 Coordinated signal system
 Crash experience
 Roadway network
 Intersection near a Railroad Grade Crossing

See the MUTCD and Traffic Control Devices Handbook for additional discussion of traffic signal
warrants.

There are two generic modes of traffic control signal operation: pre-timed and traffic actuated:

Pre-timed Control
Pre-time control operates within a fixed cycle
length with preset interval lengths. This type
of operation is best suited where traffic
patterns and volumes are predictable and do
not fluctuate rapidly. Typically, several timing
programs can be provided to change the
cycle length and interval lengths for various
time periods during the day. Potential
advantages of pre-timed control include:
 Consistent cycle and interval lengths
facilitate coordination with adjacent
signals along a street or in a network
of streets.
 More understandable to pedestrians compared with actuated control
 Lower overall installation and maintenance costs because there are no detectors
 Simpler mode of operation with fewer and more straight-forward decisions required
in timing the traffic signal compared with traffic actuated control
 Not adversely affected by stopped vehicles or construction, which may interfere with
proper functioning of actuated control detection.

Traffic Actuated Control

Traffic actuated control provides variable interval lengths in response to changing traffic flow
at the intersection. Operation does not depend on predicted traffic conditions (as with pre-
timed control), but simply responds to actual traffic demand as measured by the detectors.
Potential advantages of traffic actuated control include:
 Greater efficiency at intersections where traffic volumes are not consistent and

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 predictable, or where they fluctuate radically.
 Minimize delay under periods of light traffic demand
 Reduce crashes associated with the arbitrary stopping of vehicles
 Minimize disruption of progression at an intersection, which is unfavorably located
within a pre-timed signal system.

These modes are not necessarily exclusive: in some cases, the advantageous features of both
pre-timed and actuated control can be combined at a single intersection. There is no
universally “best” mode of traffic signal control. Each mode of control has unique potential
advantages and disadvantages. In addition to the traffic control needs of the intersection and
signal system, consideration must be given to maintenance and operations capabilities of the
responsible jurisdiction.

Signal Installations
The MUTCD requires at least two signal
faces for the major movement on each
approach to a signalized intersection. At least
one, and preferably both of these signal faces
shall be at least 40 ft (12 m) beyond the stop
line and not more than 180 ft (55 m) beyond
the stop line (unless a supplemental near-side
signal face is provided), and as near as
practical to directly in line with the drivers’
normal view, and shall be located within a
cone of vision 20o to the left and right of the
centerline of the approach, measured from a
point 10 ft (3 m) in advance of the stop line.

Vehicle signal lens may be either 8 inches

(200 mm) or 12 inches (300 mm) in diameter.
The 12-inch (300-mm) lenses are required by
the MUTCD for new signal faces, except:
 Downstream signals where signals
are closely spaced
 Circular indications where the posted
speed limit is less than 30 mph
 Circular indications for a
supplemental near-side signal
 Supplemental signal for the sole
purpose of controlling pedestrians or
bicycles

Existing 8 inch (200 mm) signal lenses may remain in place for the remainder of their useful
life.

Pedestrian signal heads use symbolic WALKING PERSON and UPRASIED HAND
indications. The MUTCD requires the use of pedestrian signal heads if the traffic signal meets

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Warrant 4 (Pedestrian Volume) or Warrant 5
(School Crossing), if the signal operates with
an exclusive pedestrian phase, at any
established school crossing, or where signal
phasing may be confusing to pedestrians.

Accessible pedestrian signals are devices that

communicate information about pedestrian
timing in non-visual format such as audible
tones, verbal messages, and/or vibrating
surfaces. The need for accessible pedestrian
signals at an intersection may be indicated by
citizen requests, traffic volumes during
periods when pedestrians might be present, high volumes of right-turn-on-red, complex signal
phasing, or complex intersection geometry.

Countdown pedestrian signals display the number of seconds remaining in the pedestrian change
interval. The countdown begins at the beginning of the flashing UPRAISED HAND display,
and ends at the beginning of the vehicle yellow change interval. The MUTCD requires the
installation of countdown displays at all pedestrian signal heads at crosswalks where the
pedestrian change interval is more than 7 seconds.

Signal Phasing
A traffic signal phase is defined as the sum of
the Green right-of-way, Yellow Change, and
Red Clearance intervals in a cycle that are
assigned to an independent traffic movement
of combination of movements. An interval is
the part of a signal cycle during which signal
indications do not change. A standardized
phase numbering system has been adopted
that organizes phases by grouping them into
continuous loops, referred to as rings.
Crossing or conflicting movements are
separated by making the movements
sequential within the same ring, or by adding a barrier between phases for one street and the
phases for the conflicting street. At any given time, the signal may display one phase from one
ring and one phase from the other ring, but not two phases from the same ring. Both rings
cross the barriers at the same time to ensure that conflicting movements from the two crossing
streets are not served at the same time.

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The phasing and sequencing of a traffic
control signal affect both the safety and
efficiency of intersection traffic operations.
Basic principles of signal phasing include:
 The number of phases used depends
on the geometric design of the
intersection (number of approaches,
lanes, exclusive left-turn lanes),
volume and directional movements
of vehicular traffic, and pedestrian
crossing requirements.
 The purpose of phasing is to
minimize the potential hazards at the
intersection through the separation of conflicting vehicular and pedestrian
movements. However, this must be accomplished without substantially reducing the
efficiency of traffic flow.
 Consideration must be given to the fact that as the number of phases is increased, the
total delay to vehicles is increased and the traffic carrying capacity of the intersection
may be reduced.

At many locations, determinations must be

made regarding the provision of separate
protected left-turn phases. Two “rules of
thumb” are commonly used to determine if
separate left turn phases are required:
 If the volume of left turning vehicles
exceed 100 vehicles per hour, and
 If the product of the number of left
turning vehicles times the opposing
volume exceeds 50,000.

Where protected left-turn phases are provided, the left-turn traffic should be accommodated
with a combination of protected and permitted phasing wherever practicable in order to
maximize capacity and efficiency. A flashing yellow arrow can be displayed during the
permissive left-turn period to emphasize the need for left-turners to yield to oncoming traffic.

At locations where left-turning volumes are very high (e.g., more than 300 left turns per hour),
multiple left-turn lanes may be needed to meet user demands. If two or more left turn lanes
are provided, this movement should generally be made during a protected phase without
opposing traffic.

The objective should be to devise the simplest design and the minimum number of phases
that will accommodate the existing and anticipated future traffic demands.

Signal Timing
The timing of intervals within the sequence of operation for the traffic control signal must be
determined based on the type of the controller unit and the operational requirements of the

18
intersection. Pre-timed and actuated control
are timed differently because of the inherent
differences in operational philosophy and
functional characteristics of these control
types. Timing strategies may also differ
depending on whether the intersection is
isolated or part of a signal system. However,
the following guiding principles generally
apply to all modes of control:
 Relatively short-cycle lengths tend to
improve performance in terms of
minimizing overall intersection
delay, provided that the capacity of
the intersection is not exceeded.
 If all traffic movements are to be provided with equal quality of service, the green
intervals lengths should be set proportional to traffic demand volumes on a per-lane
basis.
 The phase-change intervals (yellow
change and possibly a red clearance)
for each phase must be determined
to ensure that approach vehicles can
either stop or clear the intersection
without conflicts once the yellow
change interval begins. The MUTCD
indicates that the yellow change
interval should be “approximately 3
to 6 seconds.” The “ITE Method”
for determining the total phase-
change interval uses the equation:

(U.S. Units)

(Metric Units)

where CP = Total phase change period (sec.)

t = perception-reaction time (usually 1.0 sec.)
V = Approach speed (ft/sec or m/sec)
a = Deceleration rate (usually 10 ft/sec/sec or 3.0 m/sec/sec)
W = Width of intersection (ft. or m)
L = Length of vehicle (usually 20 ft. or 6.0 m)
g = Grade of approach (decimal)

See the Traffic Control Devices Handbook for timing procedures for phase change intervals. Using
this timing procedure, the Yellow Change interval is typically set equal to the value of the first

19
two terms of the equation; the Red Clearance interval is set equal to the third term of the
equation.

Where pedestrians are present, interval

timing must accommodate their crossing
time. Timing for pedestrians must account
for:
 Pedestrian start-off time
 Pedestrian clearance time
 Buffer time

The start-off time must be long enough to

permit all pedestrians who are waiting to
cross enough time to step into the street and
start crossing. During the start-off time, the pedestrian signal heads display the WALKING
PERSON symbol. The MUTCD indicates this period should be at least 7 seconds, but may
be reduced to 4 seconds under unusual circumstances. Where pedestrian traffic is heavy, a
longer start-off time may be needed.

Pedestrian clearance time is the time needed

to complete the street crossing, at least as far
as the far edge of the farthest traveled lane,
or to a median wide enough for pedestrian
storage. The clearance time is calculated as
D/S where D is the crossing distance and S
is the walking speed of the pedestrians.
Normally a walking speed of 3.5 feet/second
(1.1 m/sec) should be used. However, if the
crossing is used by people who may not be
able to travel at this speed, such as wheelchair
users, then a lower walking speed should be
considered. Also, if the crossing is heavily
congested, a lower walking speed may be
appropriate. A walking speed of 4 ft/sec (1.2
m/sec) may be used if there is an opportunity
for slower moving pedestrians to actuate a
longer clearance time by using an extended
pushbutton push, or through passive
detection of pedestrians remaining in the
crosswalk.

The pedestrian clearance time is the sum of

the Pedestrian Change Interval plus the
Buffer Interval. During the Pedestrian
Change Interval, the pedestrian signal displays a flashing UPRAISED HAND signal

20
indication. The MUTCD indicates that the
Buffer Interval shall be at least 3 seconds
long before any conflicting vehicle traffic is
released. The Buffer Interval may overlap
some or all of the vehicle Yellow Change and
Red Clearance intervals.

Indecision (Dilemma) Zones

On high-speed approaches to signalized
intersections, drivers may be indecisive if the
signal changes to yellow when the drivers are
a few seconds away from the intersection.
The portion of the approach where this
indecisiveness tends to occur is referred to as the indecision zone or dilemma zone. An
inappropriate decision by such drivers may
result in either a rear-end collision or a right-
angle collision. To minimize the crash
potential of the indecision zone, a vehicle
actuated controller with appropriate
detection placement can be used. Because
the area of indecision tends to lie in the range
of 2.5 seconds to 5.0 seconds of travel time
upstream of the intersection, the traditional
approach to providing dilemma zone
protection is to place advance detection at a
distance of 5.0 seconds travel time upstream
of the intersection. Then, a vehicle that has
been detected within the last several seconds can be provided with an extended green
indication so the driver is not confronted with a yellow signal. If no vehicles have been
detected in several seconds, then it is safe to end the green and begin a yellow signal because
the closest vehicle must still be more than 5 seconds away from the intersection and not within
the zone of indecision.

Signal Preemption
At some locations, it is desirable to be able to
transfer the normal mode of signal control to
a special signal control mode in order to give
priority to emergency vehicles or transit
vehicles approaching the intersection.

Railroad grade crossing signal preemption

serves to ensure that the separate railroad and
highway traffic control systems do not
conflict with each other. Two potential
problems that such preemption seeks to
avoid are:
 The queuing of highway traffic across the tracks at a grade crossing by an adjacent

21
 highway traffic signal.
 Interference to the operation of a highway traffic signal because of traffic backed up
from a downstream railroad grade crossing

Traditionally, the use of traffic signal preemption has been recommended whenever the
distance between the crossing and the signalized intersection is 200 ft. (60 m) or less. However,
recent research has indicated that this criterion is inadequate and that this distance be
determined on the basis of the length of the queue on the approach across the tracks created
by the traffic signal.

The timing element that must be given foremost consideration to ensure the proper operation
of signal preemption is the warning time provided by the railroad active warning system to the
traffic signal controller assembly before arrival of a train. The proper warning time assures
that the preemption sequence can clear vehicles from the track before arrival of the train. In
some cases, it may be acceptable to shorten Green intervals and Pedestrian Walk and Clearance
intervals in order to provide a Clear Track Green interval as quickly as practicable.

Emergency vehicle preemption can be provided for any authorized emergency vehicle such as
fire, ambulance, or police. The purpose is to obtain a green signal for the emergency vehicle
to give the vehicle priority through the intersection. To obtain a green, the existing signal phase
may be abbreviated, and after a normal phase change interval, the green is transferred to the
approach used by the emergency vehicle. Normally, only that single approach receives the
green. Preemption can be initiated by a transmitter on the emergency vehicle or by a switch at
the emergency vehicle base.

Transit vehicle priority is different than preemption in that its purpose is to modify the timing
of the normal sequence of operation to provide a green to the approaching transit vehicle
sooner, rather than transferring out of the normal sequence. Transit priority can be initiated
by a transmitter on the transit vehicle or by roadway detectors.

Signal Systems
A signal system is defined as two or more
signalized intersections which are operated in
coordination with one another. Coordination
means that there is a predictable time
relationship between the operations of each
signal relative to the operations of each of the
other signals in the system. One of the most
cost-effective traffic operational
improvements that can be made in urban
street systems results from the coordination
of traffic control signals along a street or
within a network of streets.

The primary objective of signal coordination is to provide for progression. The system will be
progressive when the time relationship between adjacent signals permits vehicles traveling at
a planned speed to pass through a green light at each intersection within the system without

22
stopping. Advantages of progression include:
 Reduction in overall travel time and delay
 Reduced frequency of stops, fuel consumption, air pollutant emissions, and vehicle
operating costs
 Reduction of crashes associated with stopping
 Built-in speed control

Coordination can be achieved using a variety of techniques including time-based coordination,

system masters with interconnect to each local controller unit, closed-loop systems, or
computer controlled systems.

Maintaining a consistent time relationship

between adjacent signals requires that the
cycle lengths at all intersections within the
system must be the same. In systems where
signals are spaced at approximately even
intervals along a street, a “first cut” estimate
of an efficient signal system cycle length can
be calculated as:

𝐷
𝐶=𝑋×
𝑉

where C = Signal system cycle length (sec.)

X = An integer (e.g., 1, 2, 3, etc.)
D = Average spacing between signals (ft or m)
V = Progression speed (ft/sec or m/sec)

The following factors will influence the desirability of system operation, as well as the potential
efficiency with which a system could operate:
 Signal spacing. As a rule-of-thumb,
signals that are located within a
distance of ½ mi. (1 km) or less
should be considered for system
operation. However, even at greater
spacing, significant benefits may
result from coordination. The
desirability of system operation
generally increases as spacing
between signals decreases; but the
efficiency of system operation
generally increases as spacing
increases. Irregular spacing also tends
to degrade system efficiency.
 Directional movement. One-way operation greatly facilities progressive signal timing. This
is true whether it is a one-way street or a two-way street on which progression is only
important in one direction.

23
  Signal phasing. Multiple phases reduce the effective green time available to service the
coordinated through movements, and therefore tend to reduce system efficiency.
 Arrival patterns. If traffic arrives at the intersection in regular, dense platoons,
progression provides important benefits. Conditions which tend to break up platoons
include excessive distances between signals and high volumes of traffic turning onto
and off of the street from driveways or cross streets.
 Traffic fluctuations. Arrival characteristics and traffic volumes may vary greatly
throughout the typical day. Peak period conditions may indicate the need for system
operation, but off-peak conditions may best be served with isolated operation.
 Incompatible signal cycle requirements. To provide progression, all signals in the system must
operate on the same cycle length. The desirable cycle length for system efficiency may
not provide efficient operation or adequate capacity at individual intersections within
the system, and compromises may have to be made. In some cases, a critical
intersection can be operated at twice or half the normal system cycle length.

Signal Removal
In many communities, due to lack of traffic
engineering expertise, or political pressure, or
both, traffic signals have been installed at
intersections where they are not warranted
nor justified. In other cases, signals may have
been needed at one time, but changing
conditions have reduced this need.

Many engineers are reluctant to attempt the

removal of a signal, fearing liability
consequences. In reality, a reasonably
analyzed, carefully documented decision to
reduce the restrictiveness of intersection controls should not result in unreasonable risk of
liability. It must be recognized that traffic control signal removal often involves institutional
or political constraints; the removal decision process must also include consideration of these
factors in addition to the technical issues.

Where a signalized intersection is to be converted to two-way stop control, three variables

tend to have a significant effect on the change in accident frequency:
 Adequacy of minor street sight distance
 Traffic volumes
 Average annual crash frequency prior to signal removal

Conditions favoring signal removal include adequate sight distance, lower traffic volumes, and
a crash frequency of at least two per year.

It is always easier to not install a signal initially then to put one in and then try to remove it
later. An agency needs to make some assessment of how well a new signal would fit into a
future progression system before the initial installation is made.

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HIGHWAY-RAILROAD GRADE CROSSINGS

The highway-railroad grade crossing is unique in that it constitutes the intersection of two
transportation modes, which differ both in the physical characteristics of their traveled ways
and in their operation.

Crashes at highway-railroad grade crossings are rare and relatively random events, averaging
0.025 crashes per public crossing per year. They account for 0.1 percent of total traffic crashes
in the United States each year, although they represent 1.0 percent of the highway fatalities.
The annual number of grade crossing crashes has generally decreased over the years. However,
the relatively high severity of grade crossing crashes demands special attention.

In order to improve safety and efficiency at

highwayrailroad grade crossings, a wide
range of potential improvements may be
considered. These include:
 Upgraded passive or active traffic
control devices
 Changes in horizontal and/or vertical
alignment of highway and/or rail line
 Improvements in sight distance
 Crossing surface improvements
 Crossing illumination
 Grade separation
 Closing the crossing
 Do-nothing

The standards for traffic control systems for highway-railroad grade crossings are set forth in
Part 8 of the MUTCD. These systems can be classified as passive and active, referring to the type
of traffic control devices employed.

Passive Traffic Control Devices

Passive devices include signs and pavement
markings
 The standard railroad crossing sign or
“crossbuck” is required on each
approach to all crossings (public and
private), and is normally installed on
the right side of the roadway.
 A Railroad Advanced Warning Sign
shall be used on each roadway
approach in advance of every grade
crossing except on low-volume, low-
speed roadways crossing minor spurs or other tracks that are infrequently used and
which are flagged by train crews; in the business districts of urban areas where active
grade crossing traffic control devices are in use; or where physical conditions do not

25
 permit even a partially effective display of the sign.
 STOP or YIELD signs may be used at the discretion of the state or local agency at
any crossing with two or more trains per day (if the crossing does not have active
devices). They may also be used at crossings where an engineering study establishes
their need.
 Pavement markings placed in advance of a grade crossing consist of an X, the letters
RR, a no-passing marking (two-lane roads), and transverse lines, and are required on
all paved approaches where there are signals or automatic gates, or where vehicle
speeds are 40 mph (65 km/h) or greater.

Active Traffic Control Devices

Active devices include flashing light signals, bells, and gates.
 The flashing light signal installation displays red signals flashing alternately to indicate
the approach or presence of a train. Where additional emphasis or better visibility is
required, supplemental signals are placed on cantilevers.
 A highwayrailroad crossing gate is used as a supplement to flashing lights. Such gates
are classified as “traffic gates” in the MUTCD. They are designed to warn, but not
primarily to provide a physical barrier to vehicle and pedestrian traffic when in the
lowered position.

In a “four-quadrant” gate installation, gates are placed on both sides of the roadway for each
approach. In order to prevent vehicles from being trapped between the gates, the gates on the
far or exit side of the track(s) are lowered at a later time than those on the near or entrance
side. In some cases, detectors are used to identify vehicles that may be stopped on the tracks,
and the far side gates are not lowered until the vehicles depart the track area.

TEMPORARY TRAFFIC CONTROL

Part VI of the MUTCD is entitled, “Temporary Traffic Control,” and provides guidance for
traffic control for highway work zones and incident areas. The principle objective of
temporary traffic control is safety--safety of workers and safety of the road users. Proper traffic
control devices and procedures will keep traffic moving and enable workers to perform their
tasks without unnecessary risk or delay
Typical problems encountered, which can
contribute to road user confusion and create
hazardous situations include:
 Insufficient advance
warninginadequate signing,
insufficient distance in which to
respond, unclear instructions.
 Inadequate guidance and
delineationlack of information,
poorly placed devices, conflicts with
permanent pavement markings.
 Unprotected hazardsdebris,

26
 materials, equipment, and excavations.
 Conflicts created by work activitiesworkers outside of protected area, equipment
operating too close to the traveled way, traffic control devices obstructing vision.
 Poor housekeepingdebris on roadway, water or mud on pavement, dirty, damaged,
or non-functioning devices.
 Distractions to road usersgawking, unusual devices, operations too close to the
traveled way.
 Confusion non-standard devices, too many choices for motorists, improper placement
of devices, too many or too few devices.
 Traffic congestionbackups, delays, driver frustration, and impatience.

Traffic Control Zone

The traffic control zone is the entire section of roadway containing the temporary traffic
control devices associated with a work activity. The zone extends from the first advance
warning sign to the last sign or channelization device. The traffic control zone typically
includes:
 Advance warning area. In this area, the
road user is given information about
hazards ahead and the actions, which
must be taken. The only devices used
in this area are signs.
 Transition area. In this area, traffic is
channelized from the normal lanes to
the paths required to move through
the activity area.
 Activity area. This is the area where
the work takes place. It is composed
of:
 Work space. Area set apart for exclusive use by workers, equipment, and material.
 Traffic space. The portion of the roadway in which traffic is routed through the activity
area.
 Buffer space. A buffer space is used as recovery space for errant vehicles. No work
activity should take place in this space. The longitudinal buffer space may be placed in
the initial portion of a closed lane, which precedes the actual work space. The lateral
buffer space may be used to separate the traffic space from the work space or a
potentially hazardous area
 Termination area. The termination area is used at work sites to allow traffic to clear the
activity area and to return to the normal traffic lanes.

The selection of traffic control procedures and devices is dependent on the following factors:
 Work activity. Work zones are frequently classified according to the type of work that
is being performed. Actually, this has little significance to road users. They are only
concerned with the impact of the work activity on their use of the facility.
o Construction projects commonly require several weeks, months, or even years
to complete. Traffic control procedures must accommodate both daytime and

27
 nighttime conditions. A long duration makes it more attractive to invest in
high-type traffic controls and facilities such as barriers and temporary
roadways.
o Maintenance operations are generally accomplished more rapidly, rarely
exceeding a few days. However, some maintenance activities involve extensive
work and take on the basic characteristics of a construction project.
o Utility operations are generally short daytime operations, except under
emergency conditions. Because crew sizes are generally small with only a few
vehicles involved, the number and types of traffic control devices placed in the
traffic control zone may be minimal.
o Incidents such as crashes, emergencies and disasters may pose severe and
unpredictable problems. The ability to install proper traffic control may be
greatly reduced in an emergency and any devices on hand may be used for the
initial response. If the situation is prolonged, the devices should be upgraded.

 Work duration is a major factor in the design of the traffic control zone. Duration is
generally classified as:
o Long-term stationary activities
are those which occupy a
location more than 3 days.
o Intermediate-term stationary
work occupies the location
from overnight to 3 days. It
may not be feasible or
practical to use devices or
procedures that would be
desirable for long-term
projects such as altered
pavement markings, barriers,
and temporary roadways
o Short-term stationary work is daytime work that occupies a site from 1 to 12
hours. Most maintenance and utility work is short-term stationary work. The
crew is present to maintain and monitor traffic control. Use of flaggers may be
appropriate
o Short duration work occupies a location for up to one hour. There are hazards
involved in setting up and taking down traffic controls, and road user exposure
time would be significantly increased as the traffic control is expanded.
Simplified traffic control procedures may therefore be warranted. However,
the use of fewer devices should be offset by the use of other more dominant
devices such as special lighting units on work vehicles.
o Mobile work moves intermittently or continuously along the roadway. It often
involves frequent, short stops as long as 15 minutes. For some continuously
moving operations, where traffic volumes are light and sight distance is good,
a well-marked work vehicle may suffice. Where feasible, warning signs should
be placed along the roadway and moved periodically as work progresses.
Vehicles may be equipped with flashing vehicle lights, truck-mounted
attenuators, and appropriate signs, and flaggers and/or shadow vehicles may

28
 be useful. Safety should not be compromised by using fewer devices simply
because the operation will move frequently.

 Type of facility is also a primary factor in the selection of appropriate traffic control
devices.
o Freeways and expressways require the highest type of traffic control because of
high speeds, multiple lanes, and often high volumes of traffic. Longer distances
are needed to provide adequate response times at high speeds. More signs may
be needed to get messages to road users traveling in interior lanes.
o Rural two-lane highways are characterized by lower volumes, but high speeds.
o Urban arterial streets generally have lower speeds, but may still require a
significant amount of traffic control because of high volumes. Close
intersection spacing may necessitate reduced device spacing. The needs of
pedestrians and cyclists may have to be addressed.
o Local streets typically have modest speeds and volumes. The number signs and
sign spacing may be further reduced. In some cases, a single advance warning
sign may be sufficient.

 Location of work site within the right-of-way also influences the selection of traffic
control procedures and devices. As a general rule, the closer the work is to traffic, the
more control devices are needed.

The following principles provide a guiding

philosophy of good traffic control for work
zones.
 Traffic safety should be an integral
and high-priority element of every
project, from planning through
design and construction. Work
should be conducted with the safety
of road users and workers in mind at
all times.
 Traffic movement should be
inhibited as little as practicable.
Traffic control should be designed with the expectation that drivers will reduce their
speeds only if they clearly perceive a need to, and reduced speed zoning should be
avoided as much as possible. The traffic control plan should be designed so that
vehicles can reasonably safely travel through the work zone with a speed limit
reduction of no more than 10 mph (20 km/h). Frequent and/or abrupt changes in
geometrics should also be avoided. Roadway occupancy should be minimized, and
where practicable should be scheduled during off-peak or nighttime hours.
 Drivers, bicyclists, and pedestrians should be guided in a clear and positive manner.
Adequate warning, delineation, and channelization devices should be provided which
are effective under varying conditions of light and weather.
 To ensure acceptable levels of operation, routine inspection of traffic control elements
should be performed during both daylight and at night time. Individuals who are
trained in the principles of safe traffic control should be assigned responsibility for

29
 safety at work sites.
 Maintenance of roadside safety
requires attention during the life of
the work site because of the potential
increase in hazards. It is desirable to
provide an unencumbered roadside
recovery area. Signs and
channelization devices should yield
when struck by errant vehicles.
Equipment and materials should not
be stored or parked in a buffer space
or clear zone.
 Each person whose actions affect traffic control zone safety should receive training
appropriate to the job decisions each is required to make.
 Good public relations should be maintained by keeping road users, nearby property
owners and businesses, emergency service providers, and railroad and transit operators
well informed, and were needed, their needs accommodated.

Traffic control devices used in work zones

include signs, pavement markings,
channelization devices, and other devices.
Part VI of the MUTCD contains specific
requirements for the design, color, size, and
shape of the traffic control devices used in
temporary traffic control zones.

Signs
Signs provide information to road users
regarding the situation ahead and actions,
which must be taken. There are three types
of signsregulatory, warning, and guide
signs. Several factors to be considered in applying signs in a work zone, including:
 Target value can be enhanced by placing signs where they stand alone and contrast with
their background. Target value can also be enhanced by using larger sign sizes and
placing flags or flashing lights adjacent to the sign panel. Warning and guide signs have
either orange or florescent orange backgrounds to identify them as specifically related
to the work zone. Florescent pink has been adopted as a color for signs in incident
management zones.
 Priority value is achieved when the sign is placed where it does not compete for the
motorists’ attention. Priority value can be increased by avoiding unnecessary signs, and
removing or covering signs that are not applicable.
 Legibility is achieved through the use of adequate size sign panels and lettering on the
panel. It is enhanced through periodic cleaning and replacement when the sign face
has been damaged or defaced.
 Retroreflectorization or illumination is required for all signs that are used at night.

30
Portable Changeable Message Signs
Portable changeable message signs (PCMS) have the flexibility to display a variety of messages.
They are most useful where the message may need to be varied in response to changing traffic
or work site conditions and for emergency situations.

Arrow Displays
Arrow displays may be used for stationary or mobile lane closures. For a stationary lane
closure, the arrow display should be located on the shoulder at the beginning of the taper.

Channelizing Devices
Channelization devices are used to warn drivers of hazards created by the work activities and
to guide and direct drivers safely past the hazards. Because channelizing devices are potential
obstacles they shall be crashworthy and should always be preceded by one or more warning
signs advising road users of the existence of the work zone. Channelizing devices should be
constructed and ballasted to perform in a predictable manner when struck by a vehicle. If
struck, they should yield or break away, and fragments or other debris from the device should
not penetrate the passenger compartment or be a potential hazard to workers or pedestrians.
Channelizing devices include:
 Cones
 Tubular Markers
 Vertical Panels
 Drums
 Barricades

When used to close a lane or shift traffic

laterally on the roadway, channelization
devices should be arranged in tapers of
adequate length. The following equations can
be used to determine taper length:

L = WS2/60 (U.S. units) or

L = WS2/155 (metric units)
For speeds of 40 mph (65
km/h) or less, and

L = W x S (U.S. units) or L = 0.625 x W x S (metric units)

For speeds of 45 mph (70 km/h) or more.

A minimum taper length of L should be used for merging tapers, and a minimum taper length
of ½ L should be used for shifting tapers. Shoulder closure tapers may be 1/3 L.

Pavement Markings
Pavement markings should be provided in a work area, to the extent practical, comparable to
the markings normally maintained along adjacent roadways. The MUTCD includes the
following provisions:
 In long-term stationary work areas, markings shall match the markings in place at both
ends of the project.

31
  Markings shall be in place along any
surfaced detour or temporary
roadway before it is opened to
traffic.
 In any work area where it is not
practical to provide a clear path by
markings, appropriate warning signs,
channelizing devices, and delineation
shall be used to indicate the required
vehicle paths. In long-term projects,
pavement markings which are no
longer appropriate shall be removed
or obliterated.

Temporary markings are those pavement markings or devices that are placed within work
zones to provide road users with a clearly defined path of travel through the zone when the
permanent markings are either removed or obliterated during the work activities. All
temporary broken-line pavement markings shall use the same cycle length as permanent
markings and shall have line segments that are at least 2 feet (0.6 m) long. Unless justified
based on engineering judgment, temporary pavement markings should not remain in place for
more than 14 days after the application of the pavement surface treatment or the construction
of the final pavement surface on new roadways or over existing pavements.

Lighting Devices
Lighting devices are often used to supplement channelization and warning devices to attract
the attention of road users, to identify hazards, and to delineate the travel path.

Flaggers
Flaggers may be useful in guiding traffic safely through a work area and in protecting the public
and workers. Functions to be performed in a work zone for which flaggers may be necessary
include:
 Alternately stop and release traffic when both directions of traffic use one lane.
 Stop all traffic for short periods of time to accommodate equipment movements,
placing apparatus over the roadway, etc.
 Maintain traffic through a work area at reduced speeds.
 Look out for and help protect the work crew.

Portable Barriers may be used to provide a physical device which vehicles cannot penetrate
under normal speeds and impact angles. They may be constructed of concrete, steel, or any
material that will prevent vehicle penetration. There are four major applications of portable
barriers:
 Temporarily separate two-way traffic
 Prevent road users from penetrating into an especially hazardous area such as an
excavation
 Provide positive protection for workers or pedestrians
 Protect the components of the highway facility itself, such as a temporary bridge pier.

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A barrier should only be installed if it reduces the severity of potential crashes.

Other devices that may be useful for work zones include:

 Truck-mounted attenuators, or crash cushions, can be attached to the rear of trucks used
in or adjacent to high-speed traveled lanes, especially on short duration or mobile
operations.
 Rumble strips are transverse strips of rough textured surface on the pavement, used to
alert drivers of unusual or unexpected conditions, or to draw the drivers' attention to
a traffic control device.

Adequate maintenance of the traffic control

zone over the life of the project is essential
to the safety of road users and workers.
Deficiencies that degrade the effectiveness
of the traffic control devices include dirt;
damage from rough handling, traffic
impacts, and vandalism; displacement and
damage due to construction activities;
weather; and malfunctions and burnouts.
Routine maintenance inspection of the
traffic control zone is necessary to identify
and correct such deficiencies and to service
the devices.

Field review should ensure that there is driver compliance with work zone traffic control.
Where problems are observed, the traffic control should be revised until compliance is
obtained.

The needs and control of all road users (motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians) including
persons with disabilities through a work zone shall be an essential part of planning, design,
operation, and maintenance of work area traffic control. Pedestrians should not be led into
conflicts with work site vehicles, equipment, or operations, or conflicts with roadway traffic
moving through or around the work site. Pedestrians should be provided with a reasonably
safe, convenient, and accessible path that replicates as nearly as practical the most desirable
characteristics of the existing sidewalks.

Individual channelizing devices, tape or rope used to connect individual devices, other
discontinuous barriers and devices, and pavement markings are not detectable by persons with
visual disabilities and are incapable of providing detectable path guidance on temporary or
realigned sidewalks or other pedestrian facilities. When it is determined that a facility should
be accessible to and detectable by pedestrians with visual disabilities, a continuously detectable
edging should be provided throughout the length of the facility such that it can be followed
by pedestrians using long canes for guidance

Part VI of the MUTCD contains a series of “Typical Application” drawings which provide
guidance in the concepts and principles of traffic control for work zones. These typical
applications are not intended to be applied rigidly. Rather, they provide guidance which may

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require modification in actual field applications.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

To ensure that road users have adequate

opportunities to perceive and evaluate the
information contained on traffic control
devices, the devices must be visible, well
maintained, and effective in communicating
their message. The performance of traffic
control devices is a critical issue as attention
is focused on the visual needs of older
drivers and pedestrians. This is especially
critical when driving at night.

Traffic control device management (TCDM)

is a program which is useful in determining:
 Type and number of devices present
 Location
 Condition
 Effectiveness under various environmental conditions
 Work history of the devices
 Strategies for replacement.

TCDM requires an accurate inventory system, routine field inspections, a responsive and
preventive maintenance effort, and a replacement program. A proper management program
can help agencies maintain the effectiveness of their traffic control devices. Thorough
documentation of this management process can also strengthen defense in cases of legal
claims.

The main objectives of a TCDM program are:

 Classification of all signs and markings by type, size, location, condition of sign and post,
and performance during the day and at night.
 Discovery of conditions requiring a change in the size, location, or type of sign; repair
of the sign or post; replacement with a new or refurbished sign.
 Plan for personnel effort and budget needed to adequately operate the TCDM program
and to develop a plan for implementing needed changes.

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An important part of the ongoing TCDM
process is the performance of routine field
inspections. This allows discovery of
conditions requiring further attention. The
follow-up action might entail repair,
replacement, or minor maintenance such as
cleaning. Obstructions which restrict
visibility, such as tree limbs, bushes, weeds,
or parked cars can be identified and noted for
further action. Obsolete and non-standard
devices as well as devices which are no longer
needed should be targeted for removal.

These inspections must be conducted both during the day and at night. As a general guide, at
least one daytime and one night inspection should be conducted on a yearly basis. The dates
of each inspection should be logged into the TCDM program. Employees of the highway or
transportation agency, the police department, and other governmental workers whose duties
require that they travel on streets and highways should be encouraged to report any damaged
or obscured sign which they observe.

Maintaining Adequate Retroreflectivity

In order to remain reasonably visible at night, signs must maintain an adequate level of
retroreflectivity. Various methods can be considered for rating sign retroreflectivity.
 Visual Night Inspection. The
retroreflectivity of a sign is assessed
by a trained sign inspector
conducting a visual inspection from
a moving vehicle during nighttime
conditions using one or more of the
following procedures:
o Calibration Signs. Prior to
conducting a night sign
inspection, the sign inspector
views sample signs that are at
or near the minimum
retroreflectivity levels.
These signs are viewed at night from the vehicle to be used during the
inspection and at distances that are representative of normal sign viewing
distances. During the actual inspection, the inspector identifies signs that
should be replaced based on how their retroreflectivity compares to the
calibration signs.
o Constant Parameters. The factors that influence night visibility (such as vehicle
type, headlights, view distance, driver age, and driver eyesight) are kept similar
to the factors used to develop the minimum retroreflectivity levels. The
inspector identifies signs that should be replaced based on a visual assessment.
o Comparison Panels. Small comparison panels at the minimum levels of
retroreflectivity are used to assess the retroreflectivity of a sign. A comparison

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 panel is temporarily attached to an existing sign in the field. An inspector
views the sign and comparison panel combination at night. The inspector
identifies signs that should be replaced based on how their retroreflectivity
compares with the comparison panels.
 Measured Sign Retroreflectivity. Sign retroreflectivity is measured using a
retroreflectometer. Signs with retroreflectivity below the minimum levels should be
replaced.
 Expected Sign Life. When signs are installed, the installation date is labeled or recorded
so that the age of a sign is known. The age of the sign is compared to the expected
sign life. The expected sign life is based on the experience of sign retroreflectivity
degradation in a geographic area. Signs older than the expected life should be replaced.
 Blanket Replacement. All signs in an area/corridor, or of a given type, should be replaced
at specified intervals. This eliminates the need to assess retroreflectivity or track the
life of individual signs. The replacement interval is based on the expected sign life for
the shortest-life material used on the affected signs.
 Control Signs. Replacement of signs in the field is based on the performance of a sample
of control signs. The control signs might be a small sample located in a maintenance
yard or a sample of signs in the field. The control signs are monitored to determine
the end of retroreflective life for the associated signs. All field signs represented by the
control sample should be replaced before the retroreflectivity levels of the control
sample reach the minimum levels.

Maintenance records should be kept to document activity related to traffic control device
inspections and repairs. The date and time the agency was informed of a condition requiring
investigation should be recorded. The record should also include the name of the initiating
party, actions taken, and when completed. Other problems observed while responding to the
maintenance request should be noted too. These records are useful in future planning of
maintenance force requirements and in legal defense cases.

Success and failure rates with different installation techniques, materials, or equipment can be
determined through monitoring and analyzing these maintenance records. In addition, as part
of a continuing maintenance and upgrading program, devices needing replacement can be
scheduled on a district or system wide basis.

To effectively plan a sign replacement schedule, monitor changes to the devices and reduce
legal liability through accurate documentation, an ongoing TCDM program is essential. The
program consists of an inventory of existing devices, a method to analyze, change and update
the data, timely replacement of devices at the end of service life, and adherence to established
standards regarding sign type, application, and design. If these guidelines are followed and the
system is well organized, the agency is in a position to defend itself against claims of negligence
related to the placement or condition of traffic control devices. It can also be reasonably
certain the traffic control devices in place are performing as intended.

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INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

include the application of advanced and
emerging technologies in fields such as
information processing, communications,
control, and electronics to surface
transportation needs.

ITS concepts can be grouped in four areas:

 Transportation Systems
Management
 Traveler Information Distribution
 Commercial Vehicle Operations
 Intelligent Vehicle and Connected Vehicle Systems

Transportation systems management techniques encompass all concepts used to manage

transportation better – all modes, urban and rural areas, freeways and surface streets. This
category includes the following:
 Arterial Management
 Freeway Management
 Incident Management
 Emergency Management
 Weather and Road Condition
Warning Systems
 Railroad Crossing Systems
 Parking Management
 Electronic Toll and Traffic
Management
 Transit Management
 Electronic Fare Payment Systems

Traveler information systems include

techniques to provide traveler information
to individuals. They include both pre-trip
and en-route information. Concepts
include:
 Pre-trip
o Commercial radio and
television
o Telephone call-in systems
o Ride matching and
reservations
o The internet
o Kiosks

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 o Personal communications
devices (PDAs)

 En-Route
o Variable message signs (VMS)
o Highway advisory radio (HAR)
o Transit stop displays
o MAYDAY systems
o Hazard warning systems
o In-vehicle navigation
o Dynamic route guidance

Commercial vehicle operations involve applying information and communications technologies to

enhance the safety and economy of commercial truck and buses. Concepts included in
commercial vehicle information systems and networks include:
 Commercial vehicle electronic clearance
 Automated roadside inspection stations
 Onboard safety monitoring technologies
 Commercial vehicle administrative processes
 Freight mobility systems

Intelligent vehicle and connected vehicle systems include the use of driver assistance and vehicle control
intervention systems to enhance safety and efficiency of vehicle operations. They include the
following:
 Rear-end and frontal collision avoidance
 Longitudinal and lateral control
 Lane departure avoidance
 Lane change and merge collision avoidance
 Visual enhancement systems
 Obstacle and pedestrian detection

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 REFERENCES

1. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways, U.S. Department of
Transportation, 2009.

2. Traffic Signing Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers, 1997.

3. Rodegerdts, L.A., et.al.., Signalized Intersection Information Guide, Federal Highway

Administration Report No. FHWA-HRT-04-091, Washington, DC, 2004.

4. A Toolbox for Alleviating Traffic Congestion, Institute of Transportation Engineers, 1997.

6. Traffic Control Devices Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers, 2014.

7. Traffic Engineering Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C.,

2016.

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