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∆ ∆ ∆
Heat transfer Mechanisms
Conduction Convection Radiation
Heat transfer Mechanisms
Conduction Convection Radiation
Radiation
Basic concepts
• Driving Force T
– There must be a
difference in
temperature
– ONLY then,
HEAT WILL BE
TRANSFERED!
Until when?
Basic concepts
• Thermal equilibrium
– Steady state condition
• Temperature stops changing
– Temperature in the surroundings
are very similar
– Heat transfer is neglectable
Substance: any gas
Property: … based in the Boyle’ law
[pV]
Ref 1*: boiling water (100°C*)
Ref 2*: freezing water (0°C*)
Interpolation: linear
Q= Heat [J]
n = number of moles[mol]
C = molar specific heat OR
molar heat capacity
(different for each material)
Molar Heat Quantity T = driving force [ K]
Problem 17.26
• In an effort to stay awake for an all‐night study session,
a student makes a cup of coffee by first placing a 200‐
W electric immersion heater in 0.320 kg of water.
– (a) How much heat must be added to the water to raise its
temperature from to 20°C tp 80°C
– (b) How much time is required? Assume that all of the
heater’s power goes into heating the water.
Problem 17.27
• An aluminum tea kettle with mass 1.50 kg and
containing 1.80 kg of water is placed on a stove. If no
heat is lost to the surroundings,
– How much heat must be added to raise the temperature
from 20°C to 85°C?
– What would be the heat required to the same task if total
heat losses accounts for 100 kJ?
Heat transfer in Phase change
Q= Heat [J]
m = mass [kg]
L = Latent of
change of phase
(vaporization or
fusion) [J / kg]
Heat in Phase change T = driving force
[ K]
• For instance: water
– Solid to Liquid 334 10
334 10 2256 10
EXPANSIBILITY
(FLUIDS AND MATERIALS)
Joints?
Failure due to Th. Exp.
Thermal Expansion
Based on solid’s cubic
structure
Expansibility
κ
Problem 17.18
• A steel tank is completely filled with 2.80 m3 of
ethanol when both the tank and the ethanol are at
a temperature of 32°C.
– When the tank and its contents have cooled to 18°C what
additional volume of ethanol can be put into the tank?
Conductivity
• Heat transfer mechanism from molecule to
molecule.
• Transfer’s velocity depends on:
– Material’s type
– Temperature difference
– Body’s geometry (length of transference and
transversal area)
Fourier’s Law
(The law of heat conduction)
Where:
q: heat flux [W, kcal/h]
K: thermal conductivity [W/mK]
A: transversal area [m2]
dT: total difference of temperature [K]
dx: length through which heat flows
[m]
• Heat flows at right angles
• Temperature gradient is negative since conduction
occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature
• K is a proportionality constant (W/mK)
Conduction Heat Flux
• Heat fluxes through the Surface (areas) in
contact. Heat flux current is also called (H)
• If transversal area is duplicated, the heat flux H
doubles too. H is proportional to A.
• When the conductor’s length duplicates, the
heat flux current is reduced to half. H is
negatively proportional to L.
Conductivity
= heat flux or heat current
[W] o [J/s]
= thermal conductivity coef.
[W / (m K)]
A = area [m2]
T = T gradient [ K]
Heat flux or Heat L= length [m]
current
Other reference concepts:
Thermal resistance
L : plate’s thickness [m]
Temperature gradient (for Heat flux with
temperature profiles) termal resistance
Conduction through Composite Wall
1
∆
∆ /
∆ /
∆ /
∆
∆
∆
Example 1 (E17.12)
• A polystyrene cooler has a total wall area (including cover) of
0.8 m2 and a wall thickness of 2.0 cm. It is filled with ice, iced
water and soda cans at 0°C.
– Estimate the heat flux to the inside of the cooler, considering an external
temperature of 30°C
– Estimate how much ice melts in one day
Heat flux in steady state
, , ,
In steady state
Example 2 (E17.13)
• A steel bar 10.0 cm long is welded end to end to a copper bar
20.0 cm long. Each bar has a square cross section 2.00 cm on
one side. The free end of the steel bar is kept at 100 C by
placing it in contact with steam, and the free and of the copper
bar is kept at 0 C by placing it in contact with ice. Both bars are
perfectly insulated on their sides.
– A, Find the steady state temperature at the junction of the two bars.
– B. Determine the total heat flow (heat current) through the bars.
Variable area (pipes)
Radiation
• Heat transfer through electromagnetic
waves (all bodies)
– At 20°C?
– At 800°C? i.e. Carbón caliente
– At 3000°C? i.e. Bombilla incandescente
A = superficial area [m2]
e = emissivity [non dimensional]
σ = Stefan‐Boltzmann ctn. [W/m2*K4]
σ = 5.670400(40)x10‐8 [W/m2*K4]
T = absolute temperature [K]
Example (17.15)
• A thin square steel place, 10 cm on a side, is
heated in to a temperature of 800°C. If the
emissivity is 0.60
– What is the total radiation of energy?
Radiation and Absorption
• In thermal equilibrium with the surrounding, T=Ts
Net rate of radiation of a
body to its surrounding
where:
A = area [m2]
e= emissivity [ ]
σ = Stefan‐Boltzmann cnt [W/m2*K4]
σ = 5.67x10‐8 [W/m2*K4]
T = body’s temperature[K]
Ts = surrounding’s temperature [K]
Example (17.16)
• If the total surface area of the human body is 1.20 m2 and
the surface temperature is 30°C,
– find the total rate of radiation of energy from the body.
– If the surroundings are at a temperature of 20°C, what is the net
rate of heat loss from the body by radiation?
– The emissivity of the body is very close to unity (1), irrespective of
skin pigmentation.
Convection
• Heat transfer through fluid mass
movement from one region to another
mass, momentum and heat transfer!
‐ Domestic heating
‐ Cooling of a combustion motor
‐ Blood flow in the body
‐ 2 types:
‐ Simple, free, natural density difference
due to thermal expansion of molecules
‐ Forced an external agent moves the
molecules adding force
The Newton’s Law of Cooling
(The beginning)
Where:
q: heat loss rate [W]
A: area [m2]
dT: temperature difference [°C]
“Under the effects of a breeze”
h: heat transfer coefficient [W/m2°C]
• Applies when the coefficient is independent to
temperature differences between object and
environment
– In classical natural convective heat transfer, heat transfer
coefficient is dependent on the temperature
Convective Heat Transfer
Where:
q: heat loss rate [W]
A: area [m2]
Ta: object’s surface temperature [°C]
Tb: fluid temperature [°C]
h: heat transfer coefficient [W/m2°C]
1
Example
• Steam at 320°C flows in a stainless steel pipe (k = 15W/m.°C)
whose inner and out diameters are 5 cm and 5.5 cm,
respectively. The pine is covered with 3‐cm‐thick glass wool
insulation (k = 0.038W/m.°C). Heat is lost to the sur‐roundings
at 5°C by natural convection and radiation, with a combined
natural convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient of
15 W/m2.°C, Takin the heat tranfer coefficient inside the pipe
to be 80 W/m2.°C, determine the rate of heat loss from the
steam per unit length of the pipe. Also determine the
temperature drops across the pipe shell and the insulation
Non Dimensional Numbers
• h is estimated using empirical equations and non
dimensional numbers
Where:
h: heat transfer conv. Coeff. [W/m2K]
D: diameter of recipient in contact with fluid [m]
Nussetl k: thermal conductivity coef.
Cp: specific heat of fluid [J/KgK]
µ: fluid viscosity [kg/ms]
L: dimension of the recipient [m]
: density [kg/m3]
Prandtl g: gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
: volumetric thermal expansion coeff. [1/°C]
ΔT: temperature difference [K]
Grasshoff
Forced Convection
∗
(inside a pipe)
.
0.085 ∗ ∗
If [Re*Pr*Di/L]<100 3.66
1 0.045 ∗ ∗ .
/ .
If [Re*Pr*Di/L]≥100 1.86 ∗ ∗
If [Re]>2100 Turbulent . / .
0.023 Pr
• If fluid (air outside or water inside) is flowing.
• In external cross flow where 100<Re<107
/ / /
0.62 /
3 /
1
0.4 /
282000
1
• Inside the pipe, where 2500<Re<1.25x105. It
could be used:
. /
Natural Convection
Where:
Nu, Gr, Pr: non dimensional numbers
a, m: geometric constants
• The most common study
∆ /
fluid is air. To estimate h if 1.1
air is surrounding the pipe: