Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Incorporation of waste materials in the manufacture of masonry bricks: An T

update review
Amin Al-Fakih , Bashar S. Mohammed , Mohd Shahir Liew, Ehsan Nikbakht
⁎ ⁎

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Conventional bricks are made off from clay with high firing temperature or from cement concrete, but these
Waste materials consume and emit high energy and have environment shortcoming like carbon footprint and raw materials
Burnt bricks depletion. Researchers have utilized various types of waste materials in the production of bricks to protect the
Unburnt bricks environment and contribute towards sustainable development. This study presents the latest research updates on
Sustainability
utilizing waste materials in bricks manufacturing. The study categorized into two groups based on manu-
facturing method: fired and unfired methods. The review of literature exhibited an obvious potential of the waste
materials as partial or total replacement of conventional raw materials where the produced bricks fulfilled the
standards requirements. Additional research work is required, not just in the properties and economical parts but
also on educating and aware the public about the advantages of utilizing waste materials in bricks manufacturing
as well as on developing codes of practices and standards.

1. Introduction Moreover, Current global waste generation volumes are approxi-

Masonry brick is an ancient and one of the most significant con-
struction and building materials worldwide. It was an essential earth
material in the period of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Roman dating
back to 8000 BCE [1,2]. The compressive strength and durability to
weathering of fired-clay bricks have made them a widely used con-
struction material for thousands of years [3]. The ancient and con-
ventional procedures of brick making were by mixing the earth-based
materials (raw materials), molding the bricks, drying and then firing
them till they obtain a certain level of strength [4,5] or by using or-
dinary Portland cement (OPC) to produce concrete bricks. In contrast,
the excessive usage of earth materials the manufacturing of fired bricks
resulted in a massive depletion of raw resources and high energy con-
sumption – almost 300% higher than the energy consumption of con-
crete blocks [6] – thus, it is responsible for a serious environmental
degradation due to the high greenhouse gas emissions [7]. On the other
hand, the concrete bricks are manufactured from cement and sands.
The cement (OPC) considers as environmentally un-friendly where the
production of cement consumes a great amount of energy (one ton of
cement required 4 GI of energy), emits significant amount of CO2
(approximately one ton) and other greenhouse gas emissions [8,9].
mately 1.3 billion tons per year and are expected to increase to ap-
proximately 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025 [10]. Rates of wastes
growth are fastest in China, other parts of East Asia, and parts of Eastern
Europe and the Middle East (Fig. 1). According to [11] 12.8 million tons
of waste is produced in 2015 in Malaysia. However, this volume is
expected to increase up to 15.6 million tons by the year 2020. The most
Malaysian waste is organic and plastic wastes which contribute about
45% and 24%, respectively, of the total generated waste as shown in
Fig. 2.
To diminish the environmental pollution, reduce the amount of
generated wastes and protect the raw materials from depletion, thereby
contributing to sustainability and more eco-friendly approaches, re-
searchers have made remarkable efforts to develop different types of
bricks from various types of waste and byproducts materials. Therefore,
the manufacturing process of bricks on the last two decades trended to
utilize waste materials to reduce the shortcoming of the conventional
manufacturing method of making bricks.
In this review paper, the latest research updates on utilizing waste
materials to produce bricks are presented. The mechanical and physical
properties of the bricks incorporating waste materials are highlighted as
well.

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: amin.ali_g03663@utp.edu.my (A. Al-Fakih), bashar.mohammed@utp.edu.my (B.S. Mohammed).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.09.023
Received 23 February 2018; Received in revised form 26 September 2018; Accepted 26 September 2018
Available online 27 September 2018
2352-7102/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Fig. 1. Total waste generated (kg/capita/day) worldwide by region [10].
Fig. 2. Total waste generated in Malaysia by waste materials [11].
2. Review of studies on the incorporation of waste materials in
brick making
The wide studies and research for the incorporation of waste ma-
terials in manufacturing and producing bricks are going to be char-
acterized into two common forms according to the manufacturing
method namely burnt bricks and unburnt bricks. The burnt bricks have
been subcategorized based on the type of waste into organic and in-
organic waste, as detailed below.
2.1. Manufacturing of burnt bricks
The process of brick manufacturing from clay involves preparation
of clay, molding, drying, and finally firing them in a kiln at certain
firing temperature. Numerous researchers have studied the manu-
facturing of burnt bricks incorporating organic and inorganic waste
materials as shown and summarized in Tables 1, 2, respectively.
2.1.1. Manufacturing of burnt bricks incorporating organic wastes materials
Galán-Arboledas et al. [12] evaluated the utilization of diatomac-
eous earth residues (DER, refining of vegetable oils and brewing) as raw
materials for the production of bricks as partial replacement of clay
between 3% and 10% by weight. Samples were molded and burnt at
850, 950 and 1050 °C firing temperature. The test results revealed that
the addition of the diatomaceous earth residues in brick making in-
creased the porosity by 37 vol% and reduced the bulk density by about
10% compared to the conventional clay bricks. On the other hand, the
tensile strength increased from 7 MPa to 7.8 MPa at the first 3% addi-
tion of the waste and then decreased steadily to 5 MPa at 10% addition
of the waste. Meanwhile, there is a decrease of the compressive strength
to 9.5 and 11.7 MPa at 10% addition of DER at 950 °C and 1050 °C
firing temperature. At the same time the thermal conductivity of the
produced bricks decreased with increasing the proportion of residues
and increasing the sintering temperature. Thus, allowing the products
to be utilized in construction.
38
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
Goel & Kalamdhad [13] demonstrated the possibility of utilizing
degraded municipal solid waste (DMSW) as a raw material in the
manufacturing of burnt bricks by 5–20 wt% and the final product was
burnt at 850 and 900 °C. The laboratory results revealed that the in-
corporation of 20% of DMSW in the constituent of bricks was the most
appropriate and significant constituent mix. Brick samples in-
corporating DMSW exhibited lower firing linear shrinkages and lower
bulk density up to 16% than control bricks at any firing temperature
with no visible cracks and efflorescence. Moreover, the results showed a
significant increase of water absorption (up to 11%) with the increase
of DMSW proportion. Thus, the addition of DMSW increased the por-
osity of the manufactured brick which reduced the mass density
(1511–1211 kg/m3) and hence a dramatic reduction (up to 78%) in
compressive strength was observed.
Juel et al. [14] assessed the suitability of utilizing tannery sludge
(TS) in the production of clay bricks. Various proportions (10, 20, 30
and 40 wt%) of tannery sludge were replaced the clay. The test results
exhibited that water absorption increased from 7.2% to 20.9% and the
compressive strength decreased up to 56% with increasing TS contents
and firing temperature. However, 10% of TS by weight concluded to be
an optimum constituent for TS-amended. Firing shrinkage, weight and
bulk density were decreased with increase of TS proportions and firing
temperature. Moreover, the firing energy was confirmed to be saved up
to 15–47% by incorporating 10–40% TS content. The study concluded
that incorporating tannery sludge is promising to manufacture decent
quality bricks that can fulfill all the requirements prescribed in ASTM
standards.
Mohajerani et al. [15] utilized the recycled cigarette butts (CBs) in
the production of burnt clay bricks with contents of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%,
and 10% by weight. The specimens were prepared and dried for 24 h at
105 °C and then burnt at firing temperature of 1050 °C. The results
revealed a lighter clay brick with increasing CBs contents where the
density decreased up to 30% over the conventional clay bricks. At the
same time the water absorption dramatically increased, but not more
than 20%. However, the increasing of CBs content resulted in more
visible cracks and larger size and number of pores which induced lesser
strength. Moreover, the compressive strength diminished by 88% (from
25.65 MPa at 0% of CBs to 3.00 MPa at 10% of CBs) and flexural
strength reduced by more than 50%. However, the optimum compres-
sive strength of the manufactured bricks was obtained with 1% of CBs
to be 19.53 MPa. Firing energy could potentially be saved up to 58%.
Eliche-Quesada et al. [16] analyzed the possibility of utilizing rice
husk ash (RHA) and wood ash (WA) wastes (10–30 wt%) in the pro-
duction of fired clay bricks. The brick specimen was compressed and
then fired in different temperatures (900–1000 °C) for four hours. Re-
sults exhibited that the addition of RHA or WA increased the linear
shrinkage, water suction, open porosity (up to 10.8 vol% for RHA and
7.3 vol% for WA), and water absorption (up to 21.2% for WA and
32.9% for RHA) of the manufactured bricks significantly regardless of
firing temperature. On the other hand, bulk density decreased up to
25.1% and 9.8% by the addition of RHA and WA, respectively. Also, the
compressive strength was reduced to 13.5 and 17.5 MPa for 30 wt% of
RHA bricks fired at 900 and 1000 °C, respectively while the addition of
30 wt% of WA reduced the compressive strength to 34.3 and 42 MPa at
900 and 1000 °C firing temperature, respectively. It's concluded that
10 wt% RHA and 20 wt% WA is the optimal proportion of biomass ash
waste that met the properties specified by standards for clay masonry
units.
Adazabra et al. [17–19] examined the utilization of spent shea
waste (SSW, 5–20 wt%) in the manufacturing of clay bricks (mold
compressed/ fired / 900–1200 °C for 1 h). The increasing incorporation
of spent shea waste content into the clay material caused an increase in
water absorption values in all scenarios. Compressive strength test in-
dicated lower strength of the produced brick incorporated SSW and
categorized as non-load-bearing structural construction.
Kadir et al. [20] reported on the utilization of sewage sludge waste
 Table 1
Burnt bricks incorporated with organic wastes materials.
No. Waste material & Content (wt%)
1 Diatomaceous earth residues
(3–10%)
2 Municipal solid waste (MSW)
(5–20%)
3 Tannery sludge (10–40%)
4 Recycled cigarette butts
(2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10%)
5 Rice husk (10–30%), wood ash
wastes (10–30%)
6 Spent shea waste (5–20%)
7 Sewage sludge waste (0–20%)
8 Sugarcane bagasse ash (5–15%),
Rice husk ash (5–15%), and Lime
(3–18%)
9 Biosolids (5–25%)
39
10 Waste coal (up to 30%)
11 Fly ash (0–25%)
12 Olive mill waste (0, 5, and 10%)
13 Co-combustion fly ash (0–100%)
14 Olive pomace bottom ash
(10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%)
15 Kindling from vine shoots
(5, 11, and 17%)
16 Wheat straw, olive stone flour (4%
and 8%), and sunflower seed cake
(4%)
17 Spent mushrooms compost
(0, 5, 11, and17%)
Production Method Unit Size (mm) Bulk Density Compressive strength (CS) and Water absorption (WA) and Other properties Ref.
(BD), kg/m3 flexural strength (FS) Porosity
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Molded and burnt under 850, 950 and 120×28×18 1770–1670 CS ranged from 12.7 to 9.5 MPa Porosity increased by 37 vol% Thermal conductivity decreased [12]
1050 °C firing temp. FS ranged from 7.8 to 5.0 MPa
Molded + oven dried (105 °C) and then 61×29×19 1511–1211 CS ranged from 27.2 to 9.96 MPa WA increased by 9% and 8% in No visible cracks, no [13]
burnt under 850, 900 °C firing temp. laterite soil and by 11% and efflorescence and lower linear
10% in alluvial soil shrinkage
Hand holding, then 24 h natural drying, 120×60×35 1850–1400 CS: ranged from 10.98 to WA: increased from 7.2% to Firing shrinkage decreased and [14]
48 h of oven drying (105 °C) and heated 29.61 MPa 20.9% no efflorescence.
at 900, 950, and 1000 °C
Oven drying for 24 h at 105 °C and then 300×100×50 1941–1482 CS: ranged from 12.57 to 3.0 MPa WA: ranged from 9% to 18%. Firing energy saved up to 58% [15]
burnt at 1050 °C firing temp. FS: ranged from 2.48–1.24 MPa Porosity: increased
Compressed at 54.5 MPa and fired at – 1839–1394 CS ranged from 53.4 to 13.5 MPa. WA increased up to 21.2% and Thermal conductivity (up to [16]
900 or 1000 °C for 4 h 32.9% Porosity increased up to 0.68 W/mK/ 15–30%
10.8 vol% and 7.3 vol% reduction)
mold compressed then fired at 900 or – 1800–1220 CS ranged from 11 to 4 MPa WA increased up to 32% – [17–19]
1200 °C for 1 h
Air drying for 24 h then oven drying at – 1610–1204 CS ranged from 27.1 to 2.1 MPa WA increased from 8.22% to Linear shrinkage increased from [20]
105 °C for 24 h, compacted and then 19.69% 1.63% to 6.18%
fired at1050 °C
10 d of sun-drying and then 36 hr of 228×114×76 1220–1060 CS ranged from 5.53 to 7.18 MPa WA varied between 23.8% and IRA ranged between 0.55 and [21,22]
firing in kiln at 800 °C 17.5% 0.805 g/cm2/min
FS ranged from 0.83 to 1.27 MPa Non-Efflorescence
Porosity increased from 36% to Optimum moisture content
44% increased from 13.1 to 18.3%
Room temp. drying for 48 h, oven Cylinder 105×55 2024–1714 CS ranged from 29.5 to 10.5 MPa WA increased from 11.8% to Initial shrinkage and volumetric [24]
drying at105 °C for 24 h, burnt at 14.98% shrinkage increased
1050 °C for 3 h
Air drying, fired at 1000 °C firing temp. 250×120×65 1040–1250 CS ranged from 11.8 to 13.2 MPa Porosity increased Shrinkage ranged between 7.3% [25]
and 7.5%
FS ranged from 2.7 to 3.1 MPa Thermal conductivity ranged
from 0.19 to 0.23 W/(m °C)
Sun drying for 4–5 d, fired at 800 °C in 225×112×75 1610–1530 CS ranged from 19 to 8.0 MPa WA increased from 15% to 24% Efflorescence decreased to 3.6% [26]
kiln for 3 d FS ranged from 5.7 to 3.0 MPa Porosity increased of surface area
Compressed at 20 MPa, oven drying at 20 mm (diameter) 1920–1450 CS ranged from 36.9 to 10.26 MPa WA ranged between 14.5% to Thermal conductivity decreased [28]
40 °C for 12 h and 110 °C for 24 h, fired 32.5% from 0.638 to 0.436 W/mK
at 850, 950, and 1050 °C for 2 h Porosity increased from 30.8%
to 47.0%
Compressed at 10 MPa, oven drying at Cylinder 32.5×50 1500–2000 CS decreased (12.5–2.0 MPa) and WA ranged between 5.9% and Lower shrinkage (< 4%) [29]
60 °C, fired at 800, 900, and 1000 °C in at 1000 °C it increased from 13.5 18.2%
kiln. to 47 MPa
Molded and pressed at 54.5 MPa, burnt 60×30×10 1635–1278 CS ranged from 33.9 to 10.5 MPa WA ranged from 19% to 31.5% Thermal conductivity reduced [30]
at 950 °C for 4 h Porosity ranged 28.2% to 39% from 0.143 to 0.166 W/mK
Drying at 25 °C and 90% humidity, – 1684–1124 CS ranged from 38.04 to WA increased from 16.93% to Thermal conductivity decreased [31]
drying again at 100 °C and 5% 1.556 MPa 36.04% from 0.738 to 0.208 W/m K
humidity, fired at 900 °C Porosity increased
Dried up to 105 °C, fired up to 920 °C 175 × 79 × 17 1700–1460 FS ranged from 5.3 to 10.9 MPa WA ranged between 17.8% to Linear shrinkage decreased [32]
for 1 h 30% from 5.8% to 3.3%
Porosity increased from 25.6% Thermal conductivity reduced
to 43.5% up to 61%
Oven-dried at 110 °C, fired at 950 °C in 300×300×(20–30) 1700–1500 CS ranged from 39.5 to 12.5 MPa WA increased up to 22.5% Linear shrinkage increased from [33]
a tunnel kiln Porosity increased from 27.5% 5.50% to 6.40%
to 33%
(continued on next page)
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
A. Al-Fakih et al. Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54

(SSW, 0−20 wt%) in the manufacturing of burnt clay bricks (com-

pacted/ fired/ 1050 °C). Results revealed that shrinkage (1.63–6.18%)
Initial rate of absorption varied [34]

Thermal and acoustic properties [35]

Ref.

and water absorption (8.22–19.69%) of the manufactured brick speci-

mens increased with increase of sewage sludge waste content while
density (1610–1204 kg/m3) and compressive strength (27.1–2.1 MPa)
from 0.014 g/mm2/min to

decreased. The study concluded that addition of up to 5% of sewage

sludge waste could produce bricks satisfied the standards.
0.028 g/mm2/min.

Kazmi et al. [21,22] reported on the thermal performance of burnt

Other properties

clay bricks incorporating sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and rice husk ash
(RHA) as a partial replacement of clay (5, 10, 15 wt%). Physico-me-
improved

chanical and thermal properties of brick specimens were investigated.

Bricks specimens were prepared and fired in furnace at 800 °C for one
and half days. It was reported that incorporating SBA and RHA in the
production of clay bricks resulted in light-weight bricks (up to 1060 kg/
WA reached 19% at 4% RHA
Water absorption (WA) and

m3 and 1130 kg/m3, respectively) with cost saving. Moreover, com-

pressive strength (up to 5.53 MPa), flexural strength (up to 0.83 MPa)
and thermal conductivity (up to 0.37 W/mK) were decreased with in-
creasing the proportion of SBA and RHA in fired clay bricks. On the
other hand, brick specimens exhibited high porosity (up to 40%) with
Porosity

increasing content of SBA and RHA, thus revealing increase in water

absorption (up to 23.86%) as compared with brick specimens without
–

addition of waste. However, the study stated that the produced brick
satisfied the minimum requirements indicated by ASTM C67 [23].
CS ranged from 21.4 to 16 MPa

CS ranged from 3.7 to 1.9 MPa

Compressive strength (CS) and

Ukwatta & Mohajerani [24] investigated the properties of fired clay

bricks incorporated biosolids (5–25 wt%), from Melbourne Water's
Western Treatment Plant (WTP). Manufactured bricks were burnt at
flexural strength (FS)

1050 °C for 3 h. Test results showed that the compressive strength of the
manufactured bricks reduced (from 29.50 MPa to 10.50) compared to
the conventional fired clay bricks (30.50 MPa). Regardless of the
heating rates, the increase of the WTP biosolids content resulted in
gradual increase in cold and hot water absorption (11.8% and 14.98%,
respectively) and higher initial shrinkage and volumetric shrinkage. On
the other hand, the dry density (2024.2–1714.3 kg/m3) of the
Bulk Density
(BD), kg/m3

amended-clay bricks was steady decreased with increase the WTP

1810–2010

1450–1220

biosolids. It's recommended the usage of up to 25% biosolids to produce

a non-load bearing fired clay bricks and subordinate applicable pro-
portions of biosolids for load bearing.
Abdrakhimov & Abdrakhimova [25] utilized waste coal (30 wt%) as
a partial replacement of natural conventional materials in the produc-
Unit Size (mm)

Sago husk (1.3, 1.7, 2, 2.3, 2.6, 2.9, Moulded, sun-dried, and then burnt at 200×110×40

Rice husk ash (0, 2, 4, 8, 6, 10%) by Moulded and fired in an industrial scale 195×95×50

tion of ceramic light weight bricks (burnt/1000 °C). Four types of coal
waste were utilized namely coal flotation waste (CFW), coal flotation
sludge (CFS), coal concentration waste I (CCWI) and coal concentration
waste II (CCWII). Results revealed that the addition of the above
mentioned wastes (up to 30 wt%) increased the porosity of the brick
about 550 °C by stove zinc plate and

samples and contributed to the constant sintering of lightweight brick

crock. The density of the brick products is found to be categorized as
class B construction light weight bricks (1040–1250 kg/m3). The results
of compressive strength (up to 13.2 MPa), flexural strength (up to
3.2 MPa), shrinkage (up to 7.5%), heat resistance (up to 21) and
Production Method

Kiln (600–850 °C)

thermal conductivity (up to 0.23 W/m °C) for the manufactured ceramic
aluminum foil

lightweight bricks met the requirements of the lightweight brick stan-

dards.
Abbas et al. [26] studied the mechanical and durability properties of
the fired clay bricks (fired/800 °C) manufactured using fly ash (FA,
0–25 wt%). Results indicated that the incorporation of fly ash sig-
No. Waste material & Content (wt%)

nificantly reduced the compressive strength and bending strength, of

the produced brick, by more than 50% compared to the conventional
clay bricks. Moreover, the density decreased up to 18% with the in-
crease of fly ash content and resulted in lightweight bricks while the
porosity and water absorption (15–24%) increased with the increase of
3.1, and 3.3%)
Table 1 (continued)

fly ash percentage and thus resulted in low compressive strength (about
8 MPa) and low bending strength (3 MPa). However, compressive and
weight

bending strength of bricks incorporating up to 20% of fly ash satisfied

the minimum requirements of the Pakistan Building Code [27]. Ef-
florescence (3.6% of surface area) performance was enhanced with the
18

19

increase of fly ash content.

40
 A. Al-Fakih et al.

Table 2
Burnt bricks incorporated with inorganic waste materials.
No. Waste material & Content (wt%) Production Method Unit Size (mm) Bulk Density Compressive strength (CS) and Water absorption (WA) Other properties Ref.
(BD), kg/m3 flexural strength (FS) and Porosity

1 Waste glass sludge (5–25%) Undergone sun drying for 3 d and then burnt 228×114×76 1350–1375 CS ranged from WA varied from 19.8% to IRA-0.3 g/cm2/min [37,38]
in a kiln at 850 °C for 36 h 10.0−12.56 MPa 17% Non-Efflorescence
FS ranged from 1.09 to Porosity decreased UPV increased from 1643 to
2.07 MPa (46–39%) 1809 m/s
2 Diatomite (6%) and sugar filter mud Pressed at 15 MPa, Oven drying at 100 °C for Cubic shaped 1375–1010 FS increased up to 12.9 MPa Porosity increased up to – [39]
(30–0%) 12 h, and then fired at 700, 800, and 900 °C in 60×8×6 50.39%
kiln for 2 h
3 Rice husk ash (5, 10, 15, and 20 vol Sun drying for 5–6 d, oven drying at 120 °C 77×38×26 1730–1530 CS ranged from 17.5 to Porosity increased Reduction in dry shrinkage [40]
%), Brick waste for 6 h, fired at 800 °C in kiln for 4 h 12.5 MPa (5.12–1.5%), and firing shrinkage
(5, 10, 15, and 20 vol%), (4.9–1.12%),
4 Waste glass (0%, 5%, and 10%) Air drying for 24 h, oven drying at 110 °C for 140×65×40 1700–1760 CS ranged from 19.3 to WA decreased from Shrinkage reduced from 4.34% to [41]
24 h, fired at 900,950, and 1000 °C for 1 h 24.65 MPa 18.66% to 14.78% 3.41%
Porosity decreased
5 Marble powder Semi-pressed at pressure Cylinder 2050–1590 CS ranged from 34.2 to 8.2 MPa WA ranged from 10.9% Thermal conductivity decreased [42]
(0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, of 40 MPa, air drying for 24 h, oven drying at to 26.9% from 0.97 to 0.40 W/mK.
30%, and 35%) 40 °C for 12 h and 110 °C for 24 h, fired at 20×10 Porosity increased from

41
6 Galvanic sludge wastes
(1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%)
7 Gangue (60–90%)
8 Automotive waste sludge (0–50%),
glass waste
(10–20%), and wood ash (0–10%),
9 Iron tailings (100%, and 80%), fly
ash (0%, and 20%)
10 Arsenic-iron sludge
(3%, 6%, 9% and 12%)
11 Borogypsum
(0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, and
15%)
950, and 1050 °C for 2 h 22.0% to 42.8%
Oven drying at 110 °C for 24 h, fired at 950 °C 60×30×10 1760–1450 CS ranged from 65.2 to 86 MPa WA reduced from 16.4% Linear shrinkage reduced from [43]
for 1 h to 15.46% − 0.265 to − 0.485%
Porosity decreased from
28.86 vol% to 22.43 vol%
Pressed under 2 MPa pressure, oven drying at 100×200×50 – CS increased to 40 MPa then WA increased up to Water permeability increased to [44]
100 °C for 12 h, burnt at 1100 – 1200 °C for decreased to 5 MPa 12.5% 0.085 cm/s
45 min Porosity increased up to
26.5%
Compressed at 3 MPa, oven drying at 100 °C, 60×20×10 – FS ranged from 4.07 to – Firing shrinkage increased up [45]
burnt at 800–1000 °C for 6 h 8.14 MPa to14.8%
Oven drying at 35 °C for 12 h, and then at – 2060–1860 CS ranged from 26.0 to WA increased from 16% Low firing shrinkage (from 0.76% [46]
105 °C for 8 h, fired at 900, 950 and 1000 °C 15.8 MPa to 17.2% to 1.60%)
Porosity increased from
28.5% to 32.3%
Oven drying at 105 °C for 2 d, fired at 1000 °C 250×125×75 – CS ranged from 15.1 to 7.1 MPa WA increased from 15% – [47]
in a kiln for 12 h to 20%
Oven drying at 105 °C for, fired at 800, 900, – 2100–1540 CS ranged from 46.0 to 7.0 MPa WA increased from – [48]
1000, and 1100 °C in an electric furnace for 19.1% to 22.2% at
2h 1000 °C
Porosity increased
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Sutcu et al. [28] analyzed the influence of the addition of olive mill
waste (OMW, 0–10 wt%) in the physico-mechanical and thermal
parameters of porous clay bricks (fired/850, 950 and 1050 °C). Ex-
perimental results revealed that the incorporation of 10% olive mill
waste decreased the bulk density of the specimens up to 1450 kg/m3. As
the olive mill waste content increased from 0% to 10% and the firing
temperature increased, the water absorption increases gradually to up
to 32.5%, thus porosities of the manufactured specimens increased from
30.8% to 47.0% respectively. In contrast, the compressive strengths
diminished from 36.9 MPa to 10.26 MPa at burning temperature of
950 °C. The study showed that the olive mill waste could be used as a
pore maker in brick production.
Leiva et al. [29] studied the possibility of using co-combustion fly
ash (CFA) to substitute clay (0–100 wt%) for the manufacturing of eco-
friendly fired bricks (fired/800,900 and 1000 °C). All the produced
specimens showed lower shrinkage (less than 4%) while the density
increased up to 2000 kg/m3 with the increase of fly ash content at
1000 °C firing temperature. However, they found that the water ab-
sorption is inversely proportional to the firing temperature and directly
proportional to the fly ash content. The compressive strength decreased
(12.5–2 MPa) with increasing of fly ash amount, except at 1000 °C firing
temperature where it increased gradually from 13.5 MPa to 47 MPa for
fly ash content 0–100%, respectively.
Eliche-Quesada & Leite-Costa [30] investigated the properties of
fired bricks mixed with olive pomace bottom ash (OPBA) as partial
replacement of clay (10–50 wt%). Results revealed that considerable
reduction in density, compressive strength and thermal conductivity
were observed with the increasing proportion of the waste mentioned
above due to the increase in porosity. On the other hand, developed
bricks characteristics including water suction (2.2–4.38 kg/m2), ap-
parent porosity, linear shrinkage (0.07–0.63%), loss on ignition
(11.25–20.61%) and water absorption were increased with increasing
OPBA proportion compared to the fired clay bricks. Thus, the sub-
stitution of 10 and 20 wt%, the best mix, of OPBA manufactured fired
bricks with density of 1635 and 1527 kg/m3, compressive strength of
33.9 MPa and 14.2 MPa and thermal conductivity of 0.143 W/mK and
0.166 W/mK, respectively. The study revealed a feasible utilization of
olive pomace bottom ash (up to 20 wt%) as partial replacement of clay
to produce good quality bricks.
Velasco et al. [31] studied the thermal and mechanical properties of
the fired clay bricks incorporated with kindling from vine shoots (KVS)
(5,11 and 17 wt%). The results revealed an obvious increase, from
16.93% to 36.04%, in the water absorption of the developed fired clay
bricks due to the increase on the open porosity of the additives with
respect to the waste percentages. Therefore, the thermal conductivity
(0.738 W/m K to 0.208 W/m K) and bulk density (1684 kg/m3 to
1124 kg/m3) tended to decrease with the increase of waste percentage
from 0% to 17%, respectively. Finally, results showed a dramatically
reduction in compressive strength (38.04–1.556 MPa) of the newly
fired clay bricks with the increase of vine shoots contents. However, the
usage of the vine shoots is limited to 11% whereby the developed bricks
comply with standards for structural masonry clay bricks.
Bories et al. [32] investigated the impacts of the addition of re-
newable pore-forming agents on the properties of fired bricks. Various
incorporations have been conducted which are wheat straw (WS, 4%
and 8 wt%), sunflower seed cake (SSC, 4 wt%) and olive stone flour
(OSF, 4 & 8 wt%). The results showed increase in porosity, water ab-
sorption and thermal insulation of the produced bricks for all renewable
pore-forming agents. Whereas, a noticeable reduction of the bulk den-
sity and the flexural strength were observed. However, the best com-
promise is to incorporate 4 wt% of sunflower seed cake, with the lowest
grinding, leading to an increase of 23% of porosity and decreases of
17% of the bending strength and 61% of the thermal conductivity.
Velasco et al. [33] utilized spent mushrooms compost (SMC,
0–17 wt%) in the manufacturing of better insulation fired bricks. The
linear shrinkage (5.50–6.40%) and weight loss (12.50–14.0%) of the
42
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
specimens was slightly increased by the addition of SMC, while on the
other hand, the bulk density of the developed bricks decreased from
1700 kg/m3 to 1500 kg/m3 which implies lighter weight building
bricks. It was observed that the apparent porosity of the specimens was
increased with increase in SMC content from 27.5% to 33% as well as
the water absorption was obviously increased up to 22.5%, thus re-
sulted in reduction in compressive strength up to 65% where the ad-
dition of 17% of SMC produced a brick with a compressive strength of
about 14 MPa.
Ornam et al. [34] studied the influence of sago husk waste (SHW) in
the production of fly ash bricks. The specimens were molded and left
under the sunlight to dry then burnt at 550 °C by stove zinc plate and
aluminum foil for 2 h. The brick samples exhibited gradual decrease in
compressive strength with increasing the sago husk contents. On the
other hand, the higher the sago husk content (up to 3.1 vol%) the lower
the density of the specimen could be (1810 kg/m3). The initial rate of
absorption of the modified fly ash brick attained the lowest value which
is still within the specifications and requirements of ASTM C67 [23].
Silva & Perera [35] studied the potential use of rice husk ash (RHA,
0–10 wt%) on the manufacturing of fried clay bricks. The results
showed that RHA improved the brick properties where the maximum
compressive strength of 3.55 MPa (32.7% higher than conventional
fired cay brick) and water absorption of 19% at 4 wt% RHA was ob-
tained. The density of the bricks decreased from approximately
1450 kg/m3 at 0% RHA to about 1220 kg/m3 at 10% RHA. Study
concluded that the optimum amount of the waste RHA that could be
replaced with the clay to produce fired clay bricks was 4% by weight.
The above-mentioned studies focused on analyzing the effects of
utilizing organic waste materials on the compressive strength, water
absorption and bulk density of burnt brick manufactured at different
firing temperature between 550 °C and 1200 °C as shown in Fig. 3,
Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Fig. 3 shows that the incorporating in-
creasing contents, up to 60%, of most of the organic waste reduce the
compressive strength of the manufactured bricks. Meanwhile, some of
them increase the compressive strength with increasing the waste
contents. However, the compressive strength of the most manufactured
bricks, at contents up to 40% of various wastes, is still within the
minimum limits stated in ASTM C62 [36] for building bricks.
Fig. 4 illustrates the water absorption of burnt bricks, at amounts up
to 60% of various wastes, at firing temperature ranged between 600 °C
and 1200 °C. All developed bricks showed increasing water absorption
with increasing organic waste content except for co-combustion fly ash
Fig. 3. Compressive strength of burnt brick incorporated various organic waste.
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Fig. 4. Water absorption of burnt brick incorporated various organic waste.
(CFA) fired at 1000 °C where it decreased. The results conclude that the
utilization of organic waste lead to categorized the water absorption of
the manufactured bricks into the same grade limits prescribed in ASTM
C62 [36], where Grade SW (Severe Weathering), Grade MW (Moderate
Weathering) and Grade NW (Negligible Weathering), must present
water absorption levels lower than 17%, 22% and no limit, respectively.
Fig. 5 presents the comparison of bulk density of different manu-
factured bricks made of various organic waste, at contents up to 80%, at
firing temperature between 550 °C and 1200 °C. It's obviously clear that
the inclusion of organic waste lead to enhance the density of the de-
veloped bricks in comparison with the control specimens. The results
illustrate that incorporating increasing organic waste contents (5% and
above) yielded to produce lightweight bricks as per the requirements of
American standard ASTM C90 shown in Fig. 5.
2.1.2. Manufacturing of burnt bricks incorporating inorganic wastes
materials
Inorganic wastes are non-biodegradable materials that contain
chemical substances of mineral origin.
Kazmi et al. [37,38] studied the potential use of waste glass sludge
(WGS) in the production of clay brick at varies percentage (5–25%) by
weight. The molded bricks were burnt in a kiln at 850 °C for 36 h. The
results indicated that, the higher replacement of WGS content, the
lesser unit weight of the brick could be. For instance, the partial re-
placement of clay by 25% WGS resulted in 3% lighter brick. The
Fig. 5. Bulk density of burnt brick incorporated various organic waste.
43
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
compressive strength of manufactured bricks was increased by 23% for
the samples incorporating 25% replacement of clay by WGS due to the
reduction in porosity. Also, the flexural strength was increased by al-
most 100% by the addition of WGS. Moreover, with increasing of WGS
content the water absorption of brick samples decreased from 20% to
17% at 5% and 25% replacement of clay, respectively. Non-ef-
florescence was observed on the manufactured brick which improve the
aesthetic of masonry structures.
Man et al. [39] studied the physical and mechanical properties of
porous bricks manufactured by mixing diatomite and sugar filter mud
(SFM) in various proportions (0–30 wt%) at different firing temperature
(700–900 °C). Bulk density decreased with increase diatomite and SMF
additions in parallel with the firing temperature, therefore the flexural
strength increases. Results revealed that the best mix of mechanical and
physical properties is accomplished for a blend of 70 wt% diatomite,
20 wt% SFM with the additions of 6 wt% dolomite and 4 wt% sodium
perborates burnt at 800 °C. therefore, based on the mentioned optimal
proportion of the waste materials mentioned above, the open porosity
(50.39%), bulk density (1.25 g/cm3), the flexural strength (10.05 MPa)
were higher than porous brick properties prescribed in Chinese national
standard [49].
Sorna et al. [40] investigated the incorporation of rice husk ash
(RHA, 5–20 vol%) and brick waste (BW, 5–10 vol%), as a partial sub-
stitution of clay, in the production of construction bricks (fired/
1000 °C). Test results on the developed brick revealed a decrease in dry
shrinkage (5.12–1.5%), firing shrinkage (4.9–1.12%), apparent density
(1730–1530 kg/m3) and cold crushing strength (17.5–12.5 MPa). Thus,
rice husk ash and brick waste can be utilized as alternative raw mate-
rials to produce fired clay bricks with significant properties and then
contribute to sustainable development.
Phonphuak et al. [41] investigated the use of waste glass (WG,
0–10 wt%) in the production of fired clay brick (burnt/900, 950 and
1000 °C) to enhance the physico-mechanical parameters and diminish
the burning temperature. Results revealed a linear reduction
(4.34–3.41%) in the shrinkage as the content of waste class increased
and showed increment in the bulk density (1700–1760 kg/m3) as the
content of waste glass increased. On the other hand, water absorption
(14.78–18.66%) and apparent porosity (35.17–29.71%) showed similar
trends where decreased with increase of waste glass and firing tem-
perature as well. Moreover, the result indicated that the compressive
strength obviously enhanced with increasing waste glass content and
firing temperature, thus obtained a compressive strength ranged be-
tween 19.3 and 24.65 MPa for the incorporation of 5–10% of waste
glass, respectively. The study concluded that the waste glass could be
utilized as a potential replacement material for clay to produce fired
clay bricks with good physical and mechanical properties.
Mucahit Sutcu et al. [42] replaced the clay by waste marble powder
(WMP, 0–35 wt%) to produce lightweight fired clay bricks (semi-
A. Al-Fakih et al.
pressed and fired/950–1050 °C). Results indicated that the addition of
waste marble powder decreased the bulk density of the fired clay bricks
from 2050 kg/m3 to 1590 kg/m3 with respect to waste proportions and
firing temperature. Thus, the apparent porosity increased (22.0–42.8%)
with decreasing of the bulk density of the bricks for both burning
temperature. Similarly, the water absorption was linearly increased
from 10.9% to 26.9% with increasing waste marble powder content
from 0% to 35%, respectively on both firing temperatures, whereas
their compressive strength decreased to 8.2 MPa at 30% addition of
waster marble powder.
Pérez-Villarejo et al. [43] studied the potential use of galvanic
sludge wastes (GSW, up to 5 wt%) in the production of ceramic clay
bricks (fired/950 °C). The results revealed that, the addition of galvanic
sludge wastes obviously diminished the linear shrinkage (−0.265 to
−0.485%) and bulk density (1760–1450 kg/m3) of the developed
bricks whereas, it showed slightly higher closed porosity values com-
pared to the control clay bricks. Moreover, the water absorption
showed slight reduction from 16.4% to 15.46% which doesn’t reflect
much change as well as the open porosity (28.86–22.43 vol%). The
ultimate compressive strength (86 MPa) of the produced bricks was
obtained by the addition of 2–3 wt% GSW, nevertheless, in all cases,
compressive strength values were always higher than the minimum
value required by the EN 772-1:2011 [50].
Zhu et al. [44] utilized solid waste named gangue (60–90 wt%) as
partial replacement of aggregate, and added tailings (10–40 wt%) as
binder agents to produce a permeable bricks under firing temperature
of 1140–1200 °C for 45 min. Results revealed that with increasing the
proportion of gangue the permeability and apparent porosity increased
and exhibited the highest water permeability of 0.085 cm/s and highest
apparent porosity of 26.5% at 90 wt% of gangue contents. On the other
side, the compressive strength decreases with the increasing gangue
content. It reaches a peak of nearly 40 MPa with 60 wt% gangue ad-
ditions and decreases dramatically to 22 MPa when the content of
gangue is 70 wt%. Finally, water absorption increased with the increase
gangue content and firing temperature from 3% to 12.5%.
Wiemes et al. [45] evaluated the utilization of automotive waste
sludge (AWS, up to 50 wt%), glass waste (GW, 10–20 wt%), and wood
ash (WA, 10 wt%), all generated from Brazilian industrial companies, as
raw materials in the manufacturing of clay bricks (compressed/
800–1000 °C). The optimal results were obtained at the total of 60% of
industrial waste incorporated in brick making at all firing temperatures,
thus the flexural strength increased to 6.72 MPa for 40% AWS, 10% GW
and 10% WA incorporation at 1000o C. Similarly, firing shrinkage of
specimens showed significant increased up to 14.8% with the increase
of industrial wastes content up to 70% (50% AWS, 10% GW and 10%
WA) as well as with increase firing temperature.
Yang et al. [46] studied the utilization of iron tailings (IT) as 100%
by weight raw materials in the production of fired bricks. Fly ash (FA)
was added with proportion of 0–20% by weight to increase the quality
of the produced bricks at 900–1000 °C firing temperature. The results
showed that, regardless of the firing temperature, the open porosity and
water absorption of the produced fired bricks was related where they
increased with increase in fly ash content which found to be increased
from 28.5% to 32.3% at and from 16% to 17.2%, respectively at 950 °C
firing temperature. Moreover, results revealed a low firing shrinkage of
all specimens which varies from 0.76% to 1.60%. Similarly, a reduction
in bulk density (2060–1860 kg/m3) and compressive strength
(26–15.8 MPa) were measured with the increase in fly ash content but
they are still within the requirements of the building bricks codes. The
study revealed that it is possible to utilize the iron tailings wastes as a
substitution of normal clay and shale to produce building bricks.
Hassan et al. [47] studied the potential use of arsenic-iron sludge
(AIS, 3–12 wt%) as a partial replacement of clay in the production of
fired brick. Results indicated that the compressive strength of the pro-
duced bricks increased from 14.1 MPa to 15.1 MPa, at first two mix
proportions, and then diminished to 7.1 MPa with the increase of iron
44
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
sludge percentage. Consequently, the water absorption was increased
from 15% to 20% with increase of arsenic-iron sludge content. The
study concluded that the optimal content of arsenic-iron sludge to
manufacture good bonding of clay-sludge bricks was found to be 6 wt%.
Emrullahoglu Abi [48] evaluated the feasibility of utilizing boric
acid production waste (borogypsum (BG): produced from industry in
Emet-Turkey) as a raw material for brick making. The proportion of
2.5–15% by weight of borogypsum was added to the brick production
and then tested in accordance to Turkish Standards for fired clay bricks.
The results showed a significant reduction (up to 16.47%) in the bulk
density of the produced bricks with increase in borogypsum content,
regardless to the firing temperature. on the other hand, the water ab-
sorption test revealed clear increments (from 19.1% to 22.2%) with
regards to borogypsum content at 1000 °C firing temperature. At the
same firing temperature, the compressive strength of the produced
bricks decreased from 28.0 MPa to 21.0 MPa at the first BG proportion
(2.5 wt%) and then increased with increase BG content up to 30 MPa (at
10 wt% BG) and decreased again at 15% of BG content to be 24 MPa.
In Section 2.1.2, it was observed that the utilization of inorganic
waste materials in the manufacturing of bricks effect mainly the com-
pressive strength, water absorption, and bulk density. Thus, Fig. 6
presents the compressive strength of burnt bricks, in accordance with
ASTM C62 [36], manufactured with different types of inorganic waste,
at amounts up to 35% and firing temperature between 800 °C and
1200 °C. Most of the results showed decreasing strength with increasing
inorganic waste content, where, in some cases, increasing inorganic
waste content, up to 10%, improved the bricks’ compressive strength
such as WG [41] and BG [48]. However, the inclusion of 25% inorganic
waste produced burnt bricks that fulfill the minimum compressive
strength stated at ASTM C62 [36] as shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 7 exhibits the water absorption results of several samples from
various studies at Section 2.1.2 which contain increasing contents of
inorganic waste (0–35%) and subjected to firing temperatures
(800–1200 °C). overall, the results conclude that it is possible to pro-
duce inorganic waste containing bricks exhibiting water absorption
levels similar to the typical range of grade SW and grade MW stated in
ASTM C62 [36] (Fig. 7).
It is observed from the results obtained from the various studies in
Section 2.1.2 that the bulk density of inorganic waste containing bricks
generally improved with increasing the replacement percentages and so
for lower firing temperature between 800 °C and 900 °C as shown in
Fig. 8. Fig. 8 also shows the density classification of masonry brick
according to ASTM C90 [51], where, the manufactured bricks
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of burnt brick incorporated various inorganic
waste.
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Fig. 7. Water absorption of burnt brick incorporated various inorganic waste.
Fig. 8. Bulk density of burnt brick incorporated various inorganic waste.
containing 35% of inorganic waste can categorized as lightweight
products except iron tailings [46] which categorized as medium weight.
Other several researches have also carried out to examine the fea-
sibility use of waste materials in manufacturing of burnt clay, including
paper waste [52], shale, fly ash, crushed bricks and waste paper [53],
waste sugarcane bagasse coal mine wastes [54,55],saw dust [56], and
paper mill sludge [57]. They found that all these waste materials meet
the minimum requirements and they are a promising and sustainable
materials. Moreover, Silva et al. [58] reported an extensive review on
the utilization of glass waste in the production of ceramic bricks.
2.2. Manufacturing of unburnt bricks incorporating wastes materials
The above-mentioned production method of bricks incorporating
waste materials required high firing temperature which still has the
shortcoming of high-energy consumption and large quantity of green-
house gas emissions. Therefore, researchers have studied production of
bricks from waste materials based on unburnt method as shown in
Table 3. This category does not require firing temperature for the
production but then depends on cementing method.
Torkaman et al. [59] investigated the utilization of wood fiber waste
(WFW), rice husk ash (RHA), and limestone powder waste (LPW) as
partial replacement of cement (25% each) to produce lightweight
concrete blocks. The compressive strength of the concrete block in-
corporated with 25% of WFW and LPW was considerably decreased due
to the low specific gravity of the two recycled waste materials. While,
the replacement of 25% of RHA showed an increase in the compressive
strength of the concrete block compared to other studied waste
45
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
materials. Also, the water absorption was decreased from 11.8%, for the
control, to 6.6%, 6.3%, and 4.7% for the 25% replacement of WFW,
LWP, and RHA, respectively. The bulk density of specimens was also
decreased to attain 30% lighter than the weight of the conventional
concrete blocks. The study revealed that innovative lightweight con-
crete block could be produced from the above mentioned waste mate-
rials.
Cheah et al. [60] investigated the performance of the building
blocks incorporated with pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and high calcium
wood ash (HCWA) as a total replacement of cement. The content of the
above mentioned wastes was from 0% to 100% by weight. The com-
pressive and flexural strength of the specimens were significantly in-
creased with increasing the contents of PFA up to 60% and HCWA up to
40%, which attained the maximum strength of 30.0 MPa and 1.55 MPa,
respectively. As a result, the combination of wood ash and fuel ash
waste can be used in block production. Therefore, the produced hollow
concrete block satisfied the requirements prescribed in ASTM C90 [51]
which can be categorized as load-bearing units with normal weight.
Martín-Morales et al. [61] evaluated the feasibility of utilizing re-
cycled aggregates (RA) in the production of concrete hollow blocks
(CHB). Concrete recycled aggregate (CRA) and mixed recycled ag-
gregate (MRA) were added as partially replacement of aggregate by
weight with varied proportions (50–100%). The results showed that the
density of CHB incorporated recycled aggregate decreased up to
16.51% in relation to the control blocks. Besides, compressive strength,
water absorption was obviously increased by the substitution of fine
and coarse recycled aggregate. However, the manufacturing of CHB
incorporated with above mentioned waste showed an appropriate
performance which meet the requirement of the Euro code EN 771-3
[62] and classified as non-structural block.
Eliche-Quesada et al. [63] used two industrial waste materials
(biomass ash (BA) and dust filter from gases purification (DFGD)) to
produce a sustainable masonry unit called silica–calcareous unburnt
bricks by cementing method. Bricks were produced by mixing the
biomass ash and dust filter by proportion of (100–50%) and (0–50%) by
weight, respectively. The results revealed that the increase of dust filter
waste resulted in higher water absorption (up to 26.7%), and lower
bulk density of silica–calcareous bricks leading to lighter bricks. Thus,
the bulk density of the produced bricks containing only biomass ash
was about 1514 kg/m3 while for the bricks having 50% by weight of
dust filter wastes was 1346 kg/m3. The study concluded that, bricks
incorporating 90% and 10% by weight of biomass ash and dust filter,
respectively satisfied the criteria prescribed in EN 771-2: 2011 [64]
with the declared values of bulk density (1471 kg/m3), compressive
strength (17.3 MPa), water absorption (24.2%), and thermal con-
ductivity (0.48 W/mK).
El-Attar et al. [65] investigated the utilization of cement kiln dust
(CKD) as partial replacement (0%, 30% and 50%) of cement in the
manufacturing of solid cement brick. Brick samples were prepared and
cured by spraying water two times a day for 28 days. With increasing
CKD content and decreasing cement content, the unit weight was
slightly decreased (from 1.97 to 2.22 t/m3) and clearly observed an
increase in water absorption percentage by 1.20–5.40% and
7.80–11.40% for the addition of 30% and 50% cement kiln dust, re-
spectively. Moreover, the compressive strength of the brick showed
systematical reduction (12.8–50%) with increase of CDK, regardless of
cement type and bricks age. Besides, the manufactured solid cement
brick exceeded the minimum strength limit prescribed in ASTM C90
[51] which is classified as load-bearing brick with 30% cost saving.
Kumar et al. [66] assessed the properties of cement stabilized ma-
sonry blocks (CSMB) incorporated with brick powder (BP, 70 wt%) and
fine recycled concrete aggregate (FRCA, 30 wt%) as partial replacement
of sand and the addition of silica fume (SF, 2 wt%), fly ash (FA, 2 wt%)
and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS, 2 wt%) as partial re-
placement of cement. Test results revealed that the dry density of the
manufactured CSMB units at 28 days ranged between 1758 kg/m3 and
 Table 3
Unburnt bricks incorporated with waste materials.
No. Waste material & Content wt%
1 Wood fiber, Rice husk ash, and
Limestone powder (25%)
2 Pulverized fuel ash, and high
calcium wood ash (0–100%)
3 Concrete recycled aggregate
(50−100%), and mixed
recycled aggregate (50−100%)
4 Biomass ash (100–50%), and
dust filter (0–50%)
5 Cement kiln dust (0%, 30%, and
50%) with 150 kg/m3 of PC
6 Brick powder (70%) and fine
recycled concrete aggregate
(30%)
7 Boiler ash (70%)
8 Glass powder (20–35%) and
palm oil fly ash (20–35%)
46
9 Iron mine spoil waste
(30−50%), quarry dust
(40−62%), and lime (2%)
10 Sawdust (5−20 vol%), wood
ash (5−15 vol%), and lime mud
(5−15 vol%),
11 Crumb rubber (10–40 vol%)
12 Bio-briquette ash (5–55%)
13 Sawdust (10–100 vol%)
14 Steel slag and blast furnace slag
(100%)
15 Recycled fine aggregate
(25–100%)
16 Incinerator bottom ash
(0–100%)
Production Method Unit Size (mm) Bulk density (BD), Compressive strength (CS) Water absorption (wt%),(WA) Other properties Ref.
kg/m3 and flexural strength (FS)
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Molded and vibrated for 1 min, pressed, 150×150×150 2200–1400 CS decreased from 6.29 MPa WA decreased to 6.6%, 6.3%, – [59]
and then cured at 25 ± °C and 65 ± 5% to 1.61, 1.43, and 2.87 MPa and 4.7%
RH for 28 d
Pressed, air dried for 24 h at 28 ± 5 °C 290×140×100 Normal Weight CS ranged from 2.5 to 30 MPa WA decreased Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) [60]
and 80 ± 5% RH, and then cured for 7, FS ranged from 0.2 to increased
28, 90, 280, 360 d 1.55 MPa
Pressed by vibro-compressor with 4000 400×200×200 2045–1856, and CS ranged from WA increased from Adequate durability against [61]
r.p.m, cured by the water vapor for 1 h, 1891–1816 (13.83–18.81) MPa, and (7.79–10.05%), and freeze-thaw and salt
and then cured in water chamber. (14.01–17.28) (7.65–11.81%) crystallization
Molded, pressed at 10 MPa, air dried for 60×30×15 1471 –1346 CS varied from 17.3 to WA increased from 19.8% to Thermal conductivity decreased [63]
1 day, cured at room temperature for 28 d., 5.9 MPa 27.5% from 0.655 to 0. 42 W/mK
and then oven drying at 105 °C until Porosity increased from
constant mass. 29.4% to 37.9%
Air drying for 1 day, and then cured by 250×120×60 2220–1970 CS varied from 26.5 to Water absorption increased by Cost saving up to 30% [65]
spraying water two times a day for 28 d 17.4 MPa percentage from 1.2% to
11.4%
Dried, covered by wet gunny bags, and 190 × 90 × 90 1758–1875 CS varied from 6.6 to WA varied from 9.7% to – [66]
then cured by praying water for 28 d 4.38 MPa 16.5%
Cured in water at 30 °C for 28 d 230×100×65 1360 CS varied from 11 MPa to – – [68]
15 MPa
Molded, air dried for a couple of d, and 210×100×100 1628–1338.7 CS ranged from 15.39 to WA ranged between 11.48% Thermal conductivity reduced [69]
then cured for 28 d. 7.21 MPa and 18.5% up to 0.39 W/mK
FS ranged from 1.12 to Porosity increased from 19%
1.625 MPa to 27%
Pressed, covered by gunny bags and 230×110×75 – CS ranged from 3.5 to WA ranged from – [70]
sprayed for 28 d 5.4 MPa (12.0–14.7%), (15.9–49.9%),
FS ranged from 0.74 to and (14.8 – 4.5%)
1.12 MPa
Cured at 20 °C for 28 d Various 2080–1380 CS varied from 0.83 MPa to WA increased from 11.5% to Thermal conductivity varied [71]
7.56 MPa 24% from 0.55 to 1.12 W/mK
Pressed at 69 kPa for 5 s, and then water- Various 2042–1742 CS ranged from 19.24 to WA increased – [72]
cured automated tray system at room 7.56 MPa
temp. for 28 d.
Pressed at 14 MPa, dried for 3 d, water- 230×100×85 1470–1170 CS ranged from 3.64 to WA increased from 13% to Thermal conductivity lowered [73]
cured for 7 d, and then sun drying for 7 d. 4.19 MPa 25% by 59% and 52% compared to
clay and fly ash brick
Added 60% fly ash and 5% silica fume as – – CS up to 10.43 MPa WA reached 10% Initial rate of absorption [74]
cementitious materials, FS ranged from 0.00107 MPa increased up to 6.55 g/cm2per
to 0.02128 MPa minute
Molded and pressed at 12.5 MPa, placed in Various 2255–2545 CS ranged from 4.1 to WA increased from 5.5% to Clean and cost saving product [75]
the carbonation activation for 2 or 24 h 35.9 MPa 6.7%
FS ranged from 0.5 to
8.9 MPa
Pressed at 140 N/mm2, dried for 24 h, 216×97×68 1968–1962 CS ranged 12.75–20.98 MPa WA increased from 9.33% to Thermal conductivity decreased [76]
cured by water spraying, and then open air FS ranged from 2.11 to 11.46% up to 0.82 W/mK
dried for 28 d. 5.35 MPa
Molded, placed at polythene sheet for 24 h, 440×215×100 2214–2009 CS ranged from 10.7 to WA increased from 7.0% to – [77]
demolding then cured in water tank at 4.0 MPa 20.4%
20 °C for 28 d. FS ranged from 2.3 to
1.0 MPa
(continued on next page)
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
 Table 3 (continued)

No. Waste material & Content wt% Production Method Unit Size (mm) Bulk density (BD), Compressive strength (CS) Water absorption (wt%),(WA) Other properties Ref.
kg/m3 and flexural strength (FS)
A. Al-Fakih et al.

17 Construction and demolition Compacted using a uniaxial hydraulic – 1720–1850 CS ranged from 4.12 to WA varied from 19.09% to – [78]
waste (65–90%) press, and then cured for 21 d. 7.73 MPa 13.60%
18 Municipal sludge (WTPW, Pressed by 18 MPa uniaxial pressure, cured – 1965–1925 CS ranged from 5.23 to WA increased up to 21.7% – [79]
0–5%) at 24 °C and 95% RH for 28 d 4.25 MPa
19 Fly ash and bottom ash (0–75%) Molded, covered with wet clothes for 2 d in 200×90×60 1665–1340 CS ranged from7.13M to WA varied between 12.6% Ultrasonic pulse velocity ranged [80]
lab temp., demolded and then cured 17.36MP and 29.2%. from 2.2 to 2.96 km/s.
partially in water tank at 22 °C and 95% FS ranged from 1.21 to IRS increased from 0.83 to
RH 2.34 MPa 1.8 kg/mm2 min
20 Recycled calcined oyster-shells Compacted, cured at 80 °C and 95% RH for 240×115×53 2127–2189 CS ranged from 6.2 to WA varied between 8.3% and – [81]
ash (0–20%) 7d, and then placed in air at 24 °C for 14, 25.3 MPa 11.7%
28, and 108 d. FS increased by 23%
21 Fly ash (0–15%) and rice husk Molded and compacted at 35 MPa and then 220×105×60 1950–1725 CS ranged from 16.10 to WA varied between 9.2% and – [82]
ash (10–20%) cured for 28 d. 22.10 MPa 14.8%
FS ranged from 2.80 to
3.50 MPa,
22 Fly ash (88%) and lime (12%) Formed by hydraulic press at 6.13 MPa and Various 970 CS 7.5 MPa WA rated of 60.87% [83]
then cured for 7 h at autoclave FS: 0.55 MPa
23 Fine quarry waste (0%, 10%, Compacted, stored for 24 h, cured in water Cubic 2370–2220 CS ranged from 25 MPa to – – [84]
20%, 30%, 40% and 50%) tank for 28 up to 100 d, and then air drying 50×50×50 9 MPa
for 1 d
24 Palm oil fuel ash (0–60%) Molded, pressed by compaction machine, 200×100×70 2120–1980 CS reduced from 16 to WA was 0.1% higher than No efflorescence [85]
and then cured at control room for 28 d to 7.5 MPa control sample
56 d
25 Oil palm kernel shell Molded, compacted by hydraulic jack 220×110×80 1800–1300 CS ranged from – 22 MPa – – [86]
machine, and then cured for 28 d at

47
humidity room
26 Fly ash (0–100%) casted and cured for 7, 28 and 90 d at RH 100×20×20 1657–1756 CS in range 21–43 MPa WA varied from 38 to 110 kg/ Shrinkage varied between 1.1.9 [87]
Brick powder (0–100%) of 50% FS in range 1.8–10.5 MPa m3 to 5.7%
27 MgO rich kiln dust (3−18%), Molded in cylindrical mold, and then cured – 1890–2000 and At 90 d and 15% dosage, CS Optimum WA at 28 d ranged Optimum moisture content [88]
and Lime (3−18%) in water tank for 28 and 90 d 1890–1800 is 9.9 MPa from 12% to 14% increased from 12.6% to 15.7%
and 13.1–18.3%,
28 Lime (4%, 8%, 10%) coal fly Molded and then cured under room temp. Cylindrical 60 mm 1600–1620 CS varied between 7.6 and WA ranged from 11% to 16% – [89]
ash (10%, 12%, 16%) and wood (about 21.5 °C for 28 d.) diameter and 85 mm 8.2 MPa
aggregate (1.5%, 3%) height
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
A. Al-Fakih et al.
1875 kg/m3 where the lower and higher density was obtained with the
addition of GGBS and SF, respectively. Moreover, the wet compressive
strength (6.6–4.38 MPa) of all tested specimens met the minimal
strength value (3.5 MPa) prescribed in Indian standard [67]. Tests on
water absorption after 24 h of immersion exhibited that no significant
effect of the addition of SF or FA into the mixes was noticed in com-
parison with the control mix while the highest percentage of water
absorption (16.5%) was recorded with the addition of GGBS, but, still
within permissible limit of 18% by weight. Thus, the desirable mix for
the production of CSMB is measured to be 6% cement content with 2%
SF or FA.
Poinot et al. [68] studied the utilization of boiler ash (BA) in the
formulation of alkali-activated bricks. According to the tests results,
higher compressive strengths were achieved in the brick manufactured
with all above mentioned wastes, thus a brick made with a solids phase
weight ratio of ash (70): clay (20): lime (10), liquid to solid ratio of
0.45, and 2 M NaOH produced bricks with compressive strengths be-
tween 11 MPa and 15 MPa after 28 days curing at 30 °C. Furthermore,
early strength development was perceived, as more than 55% of the 28-
days strength was achieved after one day curing.
Raut & Gomez [69] developed an eco-friendly brick by in-
corporating glass powder (GP, 20–35 wt%) and palm oil fly ash (POFA,
20–35 wt%) as partial replacement of cement and using oil palm fibers
(0.5–1% wt of binder) and lime as binder. The developed eco-friendly
brick had a diverse correlation of porosity (19–27%) and bulk density
(1628–1338.7 kg m3). Water absorption exhibited the same trend as
that of porosity, but it's still within the limit prescribed in ASTM C67
[23]. Moreover, as the oil palm fiber proportion increases the initial
rate of absorption (0.2–5 kg/m2) increases. Results revealed that uti-
lizing fiber contents, as binder decreased the compressive strength
(15.39–7.21 MPa) of manufactured brick. It can also be observed that
compressive strength increases with increase of glass powder content at
the same fiber content. On the other hand, the flexural strength
(1.12–1.625 MPa) increases with the increase of fiber contents in the
newly developed bricks, thus the highest flexural strength was obtained
at the mix of 35% of glass powder, 35% palm oil fly ash and 15%
crushed dust with 0.75% of oil palm fibers. Thus, it can be construed
that glass powder is more substantial than palm oil fly ash for the
strength enhancement.
Nagaraj & Shreyasvi [70] studied exploratory utilization of iron
mine spoil waste (MSW, 30–50 wt%) and quarry dust ( 40–62 wt%), as
replacement of sand, and lime (2 wt%) as partial replacement of cement
in the production of compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEB). Blocks
were molded and pressed by toggle lower mechanism and the under-
gone a moist curing for 1 month. Results revealed that the optimal
compressive, flexural strength and water absorption were achieved at
30% of mine spoil waste contents, 60% of quarry dust and 2% of lime,
thus found to be 5 MPa, 1.12 MPa and 12%, respectively at six months
of ageing.
Madrid et al. [71] investigated the feasibility of utilizing by product
materials to produce a greener concrete masonry unit. Sawdust (SD,
5–20 vol%) was used as partial replacement for sand and then the ce-
ment was partially replaced by lime mud (LM, 5–15 vol%) and wood
ash (WA, 5–15 vol%). The density of all specimens was obtained to be
in the range of 1380 kg/m3 to 2080 kg/m3, however the increase of the
proportions of sawdust and wood ash reduced the density and increased
water absorption (sawdust/ (11.5–24%), wood ash/ (11.5–17.1%)). On
the other hand, the incorporation of lime mud in the specimens reduced
the water absorption (11.5–10%) and slightly increased the density at
the optimal percentage of 6.1% of cement content. The incorporation of
sawdust and wood ash reduced the compressive strength by up to 86%
and 17.7%, respectively while the addition of lime mud increased the
compressive strength by 23.2% compared to the control specimens. In
conclusion, the optimal replacement percentage of sawdust, wood ash,
and lime mud were found to be 0%, 10%, and 15%, respectively to
produce concrete masonry units that meet the requirements for load-
48
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
bearing walls.
Sodupe-Ortega et al. [72] evaluated the utilization of crumb rubber
(CR, 10–40 vol%) as a partial substitution of fine aggregate to manu-
facture rubberized long hollow blocks and bricks using an auto com-
pacting machine with varied percentage of w/c ratio (0.7–0.9). The
results showed that the dry density of the rubberized specimens de-
creased up to 16% as crumb rubber increases, thus attained density
ranged from 2042 kg/m3 to 1724 kg/m3. Hence, compressive strength
exhibited dramatic reduction at 0.8 w/c ratio with an increase in rubber
content (19.24–7.56 MPa) at 28 days of curing, particularly the in-
corporation of more than 20% of crumb rubber. The study re-
commended the optimal percentage of crumb rubber to be not more
than 20% for w/c ratio of 0.9.
Sakhare & Ralegaonkar [73] presented the utilization of bio-bri-
quette ash (BBA) as partial replacement of sand (5–55 wt%) to produce
masonry bricks. Test results found that as the content of BBA increases,
the density decreases from 1470 kg/m3 at 5% of BBA replacement to
1170 kg/m3 at 55% BBA replacement. In contrast, with the increase of
BBA contents the compressive strength increased from 3.64 MPa at 5%
to 4.19 MPa at 35% BBA and water absorption increased from 13% at
5% to 25% at 55%. The research revealed that the optimal mix pro-
portion of BBA to be 35% and the developed BBA bricks to be used for
non-load bearing walls.
Mohammed & Aswin [74] presented the feasibility of utilizing
sawdust (SD, 10–100 vol%) in the production of interlocking bricks
with the incorporation of cementitious material (15–60% fly ash (FA)
and 5% silica fume(SF)). Tests results revealed an increase in the
compressive strength of the developed interlocking bricks and found to
be 10.43 MPa. Also, Initial rate of absorption was enhanced with the
addition of sawdust and attained to be 65.5 kg/m2 per minute which
fulfilled the requirements stated in ASTM C67 [23]. In contrast, the
water absorption result was found to be 10% which exceeds the
minimum percentage stated in the above mentioned standard. The
study confirmed the potential use of the sawdust mixed with fly ash and
silica fume in brick production.
Mahoutian & Shao [75] explored the utilization of steel slag (SS) as
a total replacement of cement and blast furnace slag (BFS) as a total
replacement of fine aggregate in making a clean and eco-friendly con-
struction concrete block. Based on the test results, blocks incorporated
with 100% steel slag and 100% blast furnace slag had higher density
(2545 kg/m3) compared with the commercial cement concrete
(2255 kg/m3), thus resulting in slightly higher water absorption (6.7%).
The produced concrete block exhibited dry and wet compressive
strength similar to that of the dry commercial cement block which at-
tained to be 23.6 MPa. Also, its weight decreased by only 17% after 20
cycles of freeze and thaw which indicated a good resistance against the
freeze and thaw. The results demonstrated that the developed eco-
friendly bricks contributed no waste, consumes no natural resources
and thus is a clean product with cost saving.
Ismail et al. [76] determined the potential use of recycled fine ag-
gregate (RFA, 25–100 wt%) obtained from waste residual wall to sub-
stitute normal sand in the manufacturing of concrete bricks. Test results
revealed a reduction (up to 3.5%) in bulk density of the developed
bricks, except for the incorporation of 50% RFA as a replacement of
normal sand, which showed 1.7% higher bulk density than control
brick. Results also showed increases in compressive strength with in-
creases in the proportion of RFA up to 50% and then it tends to decrease
with increases of RFA contents. However, a significant compressive
strength was achieved when the specimen was incorporated with 50%
FRA, which was 20.98 MPa. At the same proportion of FRA, flexural
strength was obtained to be 5.35 MPa which is higher than the flexural
strength of the control bricks (2.93%). Similarly, the water absorption
increased (from 9.53% to 11.46%) with increase of the above men-
tioned waste, except at the proportion of 50% RFA which indicated
slightly less water absorption (9.33%).
Holmes et al. [77] studied the performance of masonry block
A. Al-Fakih et al.
incorporated with incinerator bottom ash (BA, 0–100 wt%) as a sub-
stitution of fine aggregate. Results showed direct effects in the me-
chanical properties of the developed bricks where compressive strength
(10.7–4.0 MPa), flexural strength (2.3–1.0 MPa) and density
(2214–2009 kg/m3) decreased with the increase of incinerator bottom
ash content. In contrast, the permeability of water was increased with
increases of incinerator bottom ash content which increased from 7.0%
to 20.4%. The study concluded that the optimal proportion of in-
cinerator bottom ash should not be more than 20% of the total fine
aggregate.
Contreras et al. [78] utilized the construction and demolition waste
(CDW), in Brazil, as partial replacement for aggregate (65–90 wt%) to
produce new concrete brick (compacted using uniaxial hydraulic press).
Cement and lime were used as additives. Thus, the optimal mix was
found to be 70% of CDW for both binders, cement and lime. The
compressive strength, water absorption, apparent porosity and density
were found to be 7.39 MPa, 19.09%, 32.11% and 1800 kg/m3, respec-
tively at the proportion of 70% CDW with cement binder. Moreover, the
use of CDW reduced the cost of the bricks and attained sustainable and
environmental friendly products to be used as load-bearing materials.
Rodrigues & Holanda [79] utilized municipal sludge from a water
treatment plant waste (WTPW, up to 5 wt%) in the manufacturing of
soil cement bricks. A reduction in the compressive strength of the soil
cement bricks incorporated the above mentioned waste were decreased
with increase of the waste contents. The strength was found to be
4.25 MPa at 5% municipal sludge which are greater than the minimum
strength prescribed in the Brazilian Standard [90]. Results revealed that
the apparent density of the innovated brick was slightly decreased with
increase of waste contents to be 1925 kg/m3 while their water ab-
sorption increased up to 21.7%.
Naganathan et al. [80] carried out an experimental study on the
bricks performance constructed using fly ash (FA) and bottom ash (BA)
as partial replacement of cement. Pressing and firing processes were
eliminating during the production of the bricks. Results showed a good
performance on the tested properties compared to the conventional
bricks where the compressive strength increased from 7.13 MPa to
17.36 MPa with the best mixing ratio of 1:1:0.45 (bottom ash: fly ash:
cement). Flexural strength also increased with the increase of above
mentioned wastes which varied from 1.21 to 2.34 MPa whereas the
fresh density decreased (up to 1340 kg/m3). Moreover, results revealed
that increase in fly ash decreased the water absorption (up to 15.2%).
The study concluded that utilizing fly ash and bottom ash on brick
making led to bulk consumption of wastes and contributed to sustain-
able development.
Li et al. [81] incorporated the recycled calcined oyster-shells ash
(OSA) as a partial replacement (0–20 wt%) of lime in the making of
unburnt fly ash bricks. Test results indicated that increase oyster-shells
up to 15% and lime up to 5% increased the compressive and flexural
strength of the produced samples by 16% and 23%, respectively thus
further addition of oyster-shells decreased the mechanical strengths.
However, the recycled oyster-shells have a substantial influence in
strength increases and durability of unburnt fly ash bricks. The study
concluded that calcined oyster-shells ash could produce a good quality
bricks that satisfied the Chinese national standards [49].
Hwang & Huynh [82] studied the potential use of fly ash (FA) and
rice husk ash (RHA) as partial replacement of aggregate (10–20 wt%) in
the production of unfired brick. Results showed that, increase in the
above mentioned waste increased the compressive and flexural strength
from 16.10 to 22.10 MPa and 2.80–3.50 MPa, respectively. At the same
time, water absorption of the produced bricks increased to reach 14.8%
which is within the Vietnamese standard limits [91,92]. Remarkable
reduction on the bulk density of un-fired building bricks incorporated
with fly ash and rice husk ash were recorded to be more than 1600 kg/
m3 which classified the produced bricks as a solid construction brick.
Çiçek & Çinçin [83] investigated the incorporation of fly ash (FA,
88 wt%) and lime (12 wt%), produced from the Seyitömer power plant
49
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
in Turkey, to produce fly ash/lime bricks cured under high pressure
steam. Compressive and flexural strengths were conducted and found to
be 7.5 MPa and 0.55 MPa, respectively, which fulfilled the minimum
limits stated in EN 771-4 [93].
Teerajetgul & Sinthaworn [84] investigated the mechanical prop-
erties of the interlocking bricks made of fine quarry waste (FQW) as
partial replacement of cement (0–50 wt%). Results indicated lowest
density of the specimens at 20% replacement of cement by fine quarry
dust which found to be 2220 kg/m3. Moreover, results revealed high
reduction in the compressive strength with the increase of the fine
quarry dust which ranged from 25 MPa to 9 MPa at age of 28days.
However, compressive strengths at the age of 28 days of all mixes in-
tegrating with fine quarry dust are higher than the compressive
strength prescribed in standards.
Rahman et al. [85] studied the performance of masonry in-
corporated palm oil fuel ash (POFA) as partial substitution of cement
(0–60 wt%). The results showed a reduction in the compressive strength
(16–7.5 MPa) and dry density (2120–1980 kg/m3) of the developed
masonry block with increase in palm oil fuel ash replacement. How-
ever, it fulfilled the requirements of Class 1 and Class 2 load-bearing
block in accordance to Malaysian Standard MS76:1972 [94]. Regarding
to the durability of the block, water absorption (0.1% higher than
control specimen) for all the specimens satisfied the requirements of
ASTM C55-11 [95] and there is no any indication of efflorescence on
the produced blocks.
Muntohar & Rahman [86] investigated the physico-mechanical be-
havior of masonry block incorporated with oil palm kernel shell (PKS)
at different sizes and proportions. The results revealed that the bulk
density of the samples reduced up to 31% over the control samples.
Thus, the bulk density of the developed bricks ranged from 1800 kg/m3
to 1300 kg/m3 at the mix proportion of 1 cement: 1 sand: 1 PKS and 1
cement: 1 sand: 3 PKS, respectively with the smallest size of PKS
(2.36–4.75 mm). On the other hand, the results confirmed that water
absorption of the samples increased from 40% at the mix proportion of
1 cement: 1 sand: 1 PKS to 90% at 1 cement: 1 sand: 3 PKS at the
smallest size of 2.36 mm. Results also demonstrated remarkable char-
acteristic for the samples having a small size of PKS (2.36 mm) where
the mix proportion of 1:1:2 produced the maximum compressive
strength (17 MPa) if compared to 1:1:1 and 1:1:3 mix proportions that
produced compressive strength of 15 MPa and 7 MPa, respectively. Si-
milarly, the flexural strength decreased with the increase of PKS con-
tent where the optimum flexural strength (2.22 MPa) was achieved at
the mix proportion of 1:1:1. Therefore, study recommended a mix
proportion of 1 PC:1 Sand:2 PKS as an optimum mix design for eco-
friendly shellcrete.
Rovnaník et al. [87] studied the utilization of fly ash (FA) and brick
powder waste (BPW) as raw materials to produce geopolymer brick.
Samples were casted and tested after 7, 28 and 90 days. At 28 days, the
bulk density and shrinkage exhibited an increment due to the different
specific gravity of the fly ash and brick powder, which attained
(1657–1756 kg/m3) and (1.9–5.7%), respectively. Moreover, the com-
pressive and flexural strength of samples mixed with fly ash and brick
powder showed significant increments at all ages.
Espuelas et al. [88] investigated the feasibility of magnesium oxide
(Mgo) byproduct as a binder for the manufacturing of unburnt clay
brick. The observed results exhibited that an Mgo rich kiln dust en-
hanced the mechanical and durability behavior of the clay bricks si-
milar to the way as lime does. The compressive strength reached a
maximum value at 9.9 MPa at 90days for the usage of 15% of Mgo kiln
dust as well as lime. Water absorption tests on bricks incorporated with
Mgo showed very significant enhancement of the durability properties
of unburnt clay bricks over lime. However, the water absorption for
Mgo and lime additives reduced as their usage amount increased. The
test results revealed the potential use of MgO based additives as alter-
native binders to the calcium-based ones which resulted in reducing the
environmental impact related with the use of fired clay bricks.
A. Al-Fakih et al.
Fig. 9. Compressive strength of unburnt brick incorporated various waste ma-
terials.
Masuka et al. [89] evaluated the effects of the addition by weight of
lime (4%, 8%, 10%) coal fly ash (10%, 12%, 16%) and wood aggregate
(1.5%, 3%) mixtures on engineering properties of unfired earth bricks
(UEBs). Compressive strength and water absorption of UEBs increased
significantly with an increase in the lime-coal fly ash ratio while wood
aggregate had no significant effect on the dry compressive strength and
dry density. However, significantly higher compressive strength was
observed for UEBs stabilized with 10% lime, 10% coal ash and 1.5%
wood aggregates than for those stabilized with 10% cement. Dry den-
sity values varied significantly among the UEBs but were all within
acceptable ranges according to British Standards.
The main information summarized in Table 3 and stated in Section
2.2 conclude that the incorporation of waste materials effects the
properties of manufactured unfired bricks such as compressive and
flexural strength, water absorption and bulk density. The results con-
ducted by the studies mentioned in Section 2.2 showed that higher
waste contents can results in lower compressive strength as shown in
Fig. 9. However, in some cases, the compressive strength increases with
increase waste contents up to 50%. Fig. 9 also shows the compressive
strength limits of loadbearing and non-loadbearing in accordance to
ASTM C90 [51] and ASTM C129 [96], respectively. Loadbearing and
non-loadbearing bricks must present compressive strength greater than
or equal to 13.8 MPa and 4.14 MPa, respectively.
Fig. 10, which illustrates the flexural strength of several unburnt
bricks incorporating increasing waste materials, at contents up to
100%, suggests that inclusion of waste content up to 40% leads to
improve the flexural strength. In some cases, the flexural strength of
bricks containing waste decreases with increase waste content.
Moreover, the other main property, that studies focused on, is water
absorption. This is shown in Fig. 11, which exhibits the effects of uti-
lizing waste contents (up to 100%), from different sources, on the water
absorption of bricks. The results showed that, the addition of residues
into the manufacturing of unburnt bricks increase the water absorption
with the increase of waste contents. In some cases, the water absorption
decrease with the increase of waste contents as reported by Torkaman,
et al. [59]. It is observed that the water absorption results of most of the
waste containing bricks is lower that the requirements proposed by
ASTM C90 [51] as shown in Fig. 11. The proposed water absorption
values by ASTM C90 for load bearing concrete bricks are 18%, 15%,
50
Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54
Fig. 10. Flexural strength of unburnt brick incorporated various waste mate-
rials.
Fig. 11. Water absorption of unburnt brick incorporated various waste mate-
rials.
and 13% for lightweight, medium weight and normal weight concrete
brick, respectively.
Results, reported by researchers in Section 2.2, of bulk density for
unburnt bricks containing different waste materials are illustrated in
Fig. 12. It shows a significant reduction in bulk density of waste con-
taining bricks when compared to that of the control bricks except for
steel slag and blast furnace slag, which gave higher density at 100%
replacement. Overall, the results confirmed that the manufactured
bricks mixed with different waste materials satisfied and fulfilled the
density requirements of American standard ASTM C90 [51] for load-
bearing structural applications as shown in Fig. 12.
Moreover, several researches have investigated the potential use of
many other waste material in the production of unburnt brick, in-
cluding electrolytic manganese solid waste [97,98], crumb rubber
[99–104], brick dust waste [105], stone powder sludge waste [106],
rice husk ashes [107–109], iron ore waste [110], reservoir sediment
[111,112], pumice, sewage sludge ash [113], steel slag waste [114],
recycled glass cullet [113], plastic bottles [115], and waste glass sludge
[38], polypropylene fibers [116], straw, wood chips, rice husk and
palm fibers [117], rice husk, corncob, sawdust and coconut coir
[118,119], Class F fly ash, granite dust, saline sand [120], and pul-
verized fly ash [121]. They concluded that these materials can be uti-
lized in brick production for a sustainable solution of the environmental
contamination issues worldwide. Finally, waste materials, can also be
utilized in the production of different concrete applications [122,123].
A. Al-Fakih et al. Journal of Building Engineering 21 (2019) 37–54

Fig. 12. Bulk density of unburnt brick incorporated various waste materials.

3. Discussion Table 5
ASTM specification requirements of masonry bricks.
Properties of burnt and unburnt masonry bricks incorporating Standard Specification ASTM Grade Min. UCS Max.
varied types of waste materials were reviewed in this research. Title Designation (MPa) WA (%)
Utilization of waste materials in the production of masonry units can be
Loadbearing Concrete C90-16a Lightweight 12.4 18
used as an effective way to discard off this plentiful waste which lead to
Masonry Units Medium 12.4 15
protect the depletion of the natural resources and enhance the prop- Normal 12.4 13
erties of the produced brick. Nonloadbearing Concrete C129-17 3.45 No limit
It is obvious from the extensive review of the literature that dif- Masonry Units
ferent types of waste materials in varied amounts have been utilized by Concrete Building Brick C55-17 Na 20.7 15sw
Na 20.7 13mw
the researchers in brick's making by burnt and unburnt methods.
Na 20.7 10nw
Various properties of the produced bricks were evaluated by distinctive Sb 13.8 18sw
tests following the different accessible standards. For instance, Table 4 Sb 13.8 15mw
shows the density classification requirements based on ASTM stan- Sb 13.8 13nw
dards. Also, Table 5 shows the minimal unit compressive strength and Calcium Silicate Brick C73-17 SW 31 15
(Sand-Lime Brick) MW 20.7 18
maximum water absorption for concrete masonry units based on weight Concrete Facing Brick C1634-17 SW 20.7 15
classification as per ASTM standards. MW 20.7 13
Compressive strength (CS), bulk density (BD) and water absorption NW 20.7 10
(WA) are the most common properties and characteristic considered by Clay Building Brick C62 [36] SW 20.7 17
MW 17.2 22
most of the studies, however the two properties stated most in different
NW 10.3 No limit
accessible standards are compressive strength and water absorption
(see Table 5). Na veneer and facing use.
Even though very limited commercial fabrication and application of Sb general use.
bricks made from waste materials, the review of literature exhibits an SW Severe weathering.
obvious potential and versatility of the waste materials as partial or MW Moderate weathering.
total replacement of conventionally utilized raw materials where the NW Negligible weathering.
produced bricks fulfilled the requirements stated in different standards. WA water absorption.
UCS unit compressive strength.
The limited fabrication and utilization of masonry bricks from waste
materials is associated to the nonexistence of the related standards as
well as the slow acceptance and moderate acknowledgment by fac- rules and policies from the governments to educate the public and
tories, industries and public. As mentioned by Sanjuán et al. [124] that aware them about reusing and recycling of waste and the importance of
code of practice plays an vital role in spreading knowledge, utilizing sustainable development.
study results and decreasing the marketing time for innovations. More skills and understanding are vital for scaling up the promising
Therefore, to advance the manufacturing and utilization of masonry outcomes by researchers, thus can be done by including all the required
units made of waste materials, applicable and related guidelines ought information and methodologies and to be prepared and designed with
to be produced. Moreover, additional work is required, not just on the taking into consideration the manufacturing procedures adhered by
practical, cost-effective and environmental parts but also on making industrial manufacturers. From this perspective, future studies need to
be conducted in corporation with local manufacturers by using their
manufacturing procedures, especially those procedures and methods
Table 4 related to the formation, burning and testing phases. Additionally, more
ASTM density classification requirements of masonry units. researches are necessary for conducting characterization of raw and
waste materials so as to compare and scale up the results.
Density classification Oven-dry density (kg/m3)
Ave. of 3 units
4. Conclusion
Lightweight < 1680
Medium weight 1680–2000
Normal weight ≥ 2000 According to the existing literature about the utilization and in-
corporation of various kinds of waste materials for manufacturing of

51
A. Al-Fakih et al.
masonry bricks, the following points can be concluded.
• A wide variety of the latest studies on the production of bricks in-
corporating various waste materials as partial or total replacement
of the raw materials have been extensively presented.
• The most common methods studied for manufacturing brick in-
corporating waste materials are to be categorized into two methods
namely burnt and unburnt methods.
• The most common tests were compressive strength, water absorp-
tion and bulk density. For these, results have shown a good agree-
ment between the produced brick and the specifications prescribed
in the relevant standards.
•
Various studies concluded that utilizing waste materials to produce
masonry bricks can contribute to sustainable construction materials
and eco-friendly building products.
•
For extensive manufacturing and usage of bricks from waste mate-
rials, additional research work in terms of educating and aware the
public is required. Moreover, standards and code of practices for
products made of waste materials is needed.
Acknowledgment
Authors are grateful to the department of civil engineering,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia for providing the facilities
and support during this research work.
References
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