Heat Transfer Short Notes PDF

Heat Transfer
 INTRODUCTION:
 The energy in transit due to temperature difference is called Heat transfer.
 There are three modes of Heat Transfer Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
 The transfer of energy from more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles is called
Conduction.
 Conduction can take place in Solids, liquids and gases.
 Conduction in gases and liquid is due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
 Conduction in solids is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a

lattice and the energy transport by force electrons.
 Heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a moving fluid when they are at
different temperatures is called Convection.
 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.
 If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump
or the wind, the type of convection is called Forced Convection.
 If the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy force that is induced by density

differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid is called Natural (or)
Free Convection.
 The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as
a result of changes in electronics configurations of the atoms or molecules is called
Radiation.
 Radiant energy requires no medium for propagation and will pass through vacuum.
 Radiant heat can be reflected from the surfaces and obeys laws of Reflection.
 Radiant heat follows the law of inverse square.
 Radiant heat travels with velocity of light.
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Heat Transfer
 Wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves.
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction:

Fourier’s law of heat conduction states that “The rate of flow of heat through a
simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area of the section at right
angles to the direction of heat flow, and to change the temperature with respect to
the length of path of heat flow”
dt
QA
dx
Where
Q = Heat flow through a body per unit time, W
A = Surface area of heat flow, m2
dt = temperature difference, oC or K
dx = Thickness of body in direction of flow, m.
dt
Q  k.A
dx
Where
k = constant of proportionality known as thermal conductivity, w m  K .
 The ‘-ve’ sign of k is to take care of the decreasing temperature along with the
direction of increasing thickness or the direction of heat flow.
 The amount of energy conducted through a body of unit area, and unit thickness in
unit time per unit temperature difference is called thermal conductivity (k).
 ksolids  kliquids  k gases
 k non metallic Crystals k nonferous materials  k fereous materials
 Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with increase in temperature

(aluminum and uranium being exceptions)
 The value of thermal conductivity of liquids tends to decrease with increase in

temperature (water being exception)
 The values of thermal conductivity of gases increase with temperature.
 Gases with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal conductivities then with
lower molecules weights.
Heat Transfer
 For most materials the dependences of thermal conductivity (k) on temperature is

almost linear.
 Thermal conductivity of porous materials depends upon the type of gas or liquid
present in voids.
 Thermal diffusivity:
Thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and is
defined as
Heat conduction k
 
Heat storage Cp
2
 The unit of thermal diffusivity is m and that of thermal conductivity is
s
 .
mK
dx
 The quantity is called thermal conduction resistance  R th cond .
kA
 The reciprocal of thermal resistance is called thermal conductance.
 Newton’s law of cooling:

Q  hA  t s  t f 
Where Q = Rate of convective heat transfer,
A = Area exposed to heat transfer,
ts = surface temperature
tf = Fluid temperature
h = Coefficient of convection thermal resistance.
1
 The quantity is called convection thermal resistance  R th conv  .
hA
 Stefan–Boltzman’s law:
Stefan–Boltzman’s law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly
proportional to fourth power of its absolute temperature
 Q  T4
 If two bodies exchange heat, then

Q  FA  T14  T24 
Heat Transfer
Where
F  A factor depending on geometry and surface properties
  Stefan – Boltzman Constant
 5.67  108 
m2 K 4
A  Area, m 2
T1 ,T2  Temperatures in K
T1  T2
 TQ 
1
FA  T1  T2   T12  T22 
The value of
1
FA  T1  T2   T12  T22 

is called Radiation thermal resistance R th rad 
CONDUCTION
 General Heat Conduction Equations:
 General Heat conduction in Cartesian coordinate non-homogeneous, material, self

heat generating and unsteady, three-dimensional heat flow is.
  t    t    t  t
 kx    k y    k z   q g  .C.
x  x  y  y  z  z  
or
t
  kt   q g  .C.

Where k x ,k y ,k z are thermal conductivities in x, y and z directions.
q g  heat generated per unit volume per unit tone
  mass density of material
C  Sp. Heat of material
t  temperature
  time
 General Heat conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity is

 2 t  2 t  2 t q g C t 1 t
    .  .
x 2 y 2 z 2 k k   
or
q g 1 t
2 t  
k  
Heat Transfer
 Heat conduction equation when no internal source of Heat generation is present is.
 2 t  2 t  2 t 1 t
  
x 2 y 2 z 2  
or
1 t
2 t 
 
This equation is called Fourier’s equation.
 Heat conduction under steady state with heat generation is

 2 t  2 t  2 t qg
   0
x 2 y 2 z 2 k
or
qg
2 t  0
k
This equation is called Poisson’s equation.
 Heat conduction under steady state without internal heat generation is

2t 2t 2t
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2
Or
2 t  0
This equation is called Laplace equation.
 General heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinate is

  2 t 1 t 1  2 t  2 t  q g 1 t
 r 2  r r  r 2 2  z 2   k   
 
Or
   t  1  2 t  2 t  q g 1 t
 r   2 2  2   
 r  r  r  z  k  
 General Heat conduction equation in Spherical coordinates is

 1 2 t 1  t  1   2 t   qg c 1 t
 2 2  2  sin    2  r    
 r sin   r sin      r r  r   k k  
2
 Heat Conduction in Plane Wall:
Heat Transfer
 Temperature at any point ‘x’ in a plane wall with uniform thermal conductivity is
t t  t 2  t1 x
t   2 1  x  t1  or  
 L  t 2  t1 L
Where
t1  temperature at x  0
t 2  temperature at x  L.
L  thickness of wallin m
 Variable thermal conductivity k  k 0 1  t  , where ko = thermal conductivity at

0oC plane wall with variable thermal conductivity is
1
1 x 2 1
t  1  t1   (1  t1 )2  (1  t 2 )2   
2
 L 
Where t1  temperature at x  0
t 2  temperature at x  L
L  thickness of wall, m
  temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity.
 Temperature variation in terms of heat flux with variable thermal conductivity is

1
1  2Q.x 
2 2
1
t     t1    
    k o A 
 Composite Slab:
 Heat conduction through a Composite wall with ‘n’ slabs is

t t
Q  1n n 1
L

n 1 kA
 Overall heat transfer coefficient (U):

Overall heat transfer coefficient (U), if there is pressure of bulk fluids on either side
of a metal is

U
1 L 1
 
h h f k h cf
Where
h hf  heat transfer coefficient from hot fluid to metal surface, 
m2  K
h cf  Heat transfer coefficient from metal surface to cold fluid, 
m2  K
L  Thickness of metal wall, m
Heat Transfer
k  Thermal conductivity of wall material,  m  K
 Thermal contact resistance is given by

Temperature drop at the interface
 R th cont 
Heat transferred Surface Area
 Hollow Cylinder:
 Temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder with uniform conductivity is

t t t t
t  t1  1 2 ln(r1 )  1 2 ln  r 
 
r
ln 2
r1
ln 2
r
 
r1
Or
t  t1

 
ln r
r1
 
t 2  t1 ln r2
r1
Where,
t is interface temperature.
r is radius at any particular point.
t1 , t 2 are temperature of inner and outer surfaces
r1 , r2 are inner and outer radius.
 Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder with uniform thermal conductivity is

t t
Q 1 2
ln  r2 r1 
2kL
 Temperature variation in terms of interface temperature with variable thermal

conductivity in a hollow cylinder is given by
  1  t   1  t  
1
 ln r  2
1 r1  1
t  1   t1   
2 2 2
 

 
1 2
r 
ln 2
 r1 
 Temperature variation in terms of heat flux with variable thermal conductivity is a

hollow cylinder is given by
 
1
 ln r  2
1  
2
1 Q r1
t     t1    
     k o L 
 
Heat Transfer
 Logarithmic mean area for hollow cylinder is

A o  Ai
Am 
ln  Ao Ai 
Where Ai and A0 are inside and outside surface areas of the cylinder
 Logarithmic mean radius of the hollow cylinder is

r r
rm  2 1
ln 2
r
r1  
Where r1, r2 are inner and outer radius respectively.
 Composite Cylinder:
Heat conduction through a composite cylinder without fluid flow is
2L  t1  t n 1 
Q n
1 r 
k ln  n 1 
n 1 n  rn 
 Hollow Sphere:
Temperature distribution through a hollow sphere with uniform thermal
conductivity is
t  t1 r2  r  r1 
  
t 2  t1 r  r2  r1 
 Temperature distribution associated with radial conduction with uniform thermal

conductivity through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola
 Temperature variation in terms of surface temperature with variable conductivity is

a hollow sphere is given by
1
1 2 
 r  r1   r2 
 
2
1
t  1  t1       1  t1   1  t 2   
2 2
  r2  r1   r   
 Temperature variation in terms of heat flux with variable conductivity in a hollow

sphere is given by
1
1  Q 1  1 1 
2 2
1
t     t1      
    k o 2  r1 r  
 Logarithm mean area of hollow sphere is given by
Heat Transfer
A m  Ai Ao
Or
A m  4r1r2
Where,
r1, r2 are inner and outer radius
Ai, Ao are inner and outer surface areas.
 Composite Sphere:
 Heat conduction through a composite sphere without considering inside and outside
heat transfer coefficients. (i.e., without fluid inside and outside the sphere).
4  t1  t n 1 
Q n
 rn 1  rn 
k r r
n 1  n n n 1 

 If there are ‘n’ concentric cylinder and there is hot fluid inside and cold fluid
outside, then heat conduction is given by
Q

2L t hf  t cf 
 1 n
1 r  1 
   ln  n 1   2 
 h hf r1 n 1 k n  rn  h cf r n 1 
 If there are ‘n’ concentric spheres and there is hot fluid inside and cold fluid
outside, then heat combination is given by
Q

4  t h f  t cf 
 1 n 
 r  r  1 
 2
   n 1 n   2

 h hf r1 n 1  k n rn r n 1  h cf r n 1 
 The thickness upto which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decrease is
termed as critical thickness.
 The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called critical
radius (rc).
 Critical radius of insulation for cylinder

k
rc 
ho
Where,
k  thermal conductivity of insulating material
Heat Transfer
h 0  heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of insulation
 Critical radius of insulation for sphere

2k
rc 
ho
 Minimum insulation thickness is given by

t min  rc  r1
Where,
rc  critical radius
r1  inner radius
 Extended Surfaces or Fins:
 If the available surface is found to be inadequate to transfer the required quantity of

heat with the available temperature drop and convective heat transfer coefficient,
then extended surfaces or fins are used.
 Finned surfaces are widely used in engine cylinder heads, Radiators of automobiles,
Transformers and electronic equipments etc.
 Heat dissipation from a infinitely long rectangular fin  l    is given by

Qfin  kAcs m  t 0  t a 
Where
A cs  Area of cross-section
k  Thermal conductivity
t 0  temperature at base of fin
t a  temperature of the ambient/surrounding fluid
hP
m
kAcs
P  Perimeter of the fin.
h  Convective heat transfer coefficient.
 For infinitely long fin

  0 e mx
Where,   t  t a
0  t 0  t a
Heat Transfer
 If ml>5, we use the conditions of infinitely long fin.
 Heat dissipation from a rectangular for insulated at the tip is given by,
fin  kAcs m  t 0  t a  tanh  ml 
or
fin  hPkAcs  t 0  t a  tanh  ml 
 The expression for temperature distribution for a rectangular fin insulated at the tip
is given by
 t  t a cosh m  l  x 
 
0 t 0  t a cosh ml
 Heat dissipation from a rectangular fin losing heat at the tip is given by
 h 
 tanh  ml   km 
fin  kAcs m  t 0  t a   
h
1  tanh  ml  
 km 
 The expression for temperature distribution for rectangular fin losing heat at the tip
is given by
cosh m  l  x   sinh m  l  x 

h
 t  ta km
 
0 t 0  t a cosh  ml  
h
sinh  ml  
km 
 The ratio of actual heat transferred by the fin to the maximum heat transfer by fin, if
entire fin area were at base temperature is called efficiency of a fin.
 The efficiency of infinitely long rectangular fin,  ml    is given

1
fin 
ml
 The efficiency of rectangular fin insulated at the tip is given by

tanh  ml 
fin 
ml
 The ratio of the fin heat transfer rate tot the heat transfer rate that would exist
without a fin is called effectiveness of the fin  fin 
 For Infinitely long fin, effectiveness
Heat Transfer
Q with fin hPkACS  t 0  t a  Pk

fin   
Q without f in h ACS  t 0  t a  hAcs
 For a straight rectangular fin of thickness of y and width ‘b’

2k
fin 
hy
 Fin effectiveness should be greater than unity if the rate of heat transfer is to be
improved.
Pk
 Use of the fins on surfaces is justified only if  5.
hA cs
 If the ratio of Perimeter (P) and cross-section area  Acs  is increased the
effectiveness of fin is improved. This is the reason for preferring thin and closely
spaced fins.
 The heat flow rate will be minimum when Biot number (Bi) is equal to unity and
will increase when Bi < 1.
 Newtonian heating or cooling process:

Newtonian heating or cooling process is the process in which the internal resistance
is assumed to be negligible in comparison with its surface temperature.
 Transient Heat Conduction:

The temperature distribution in the body for Newtonian heating or cooling is given
by
 t  ta  hA s   BiF0
  exp    e
i t i  t a  VC 
Where,
  Density of solid, kg/m3.
V  Volume of the body m3
C  Sp. Heat of the body, J kgo C
h  Unit surface conductance, 

m 2o C
t  Temperate of the body at any time, oC
As  Surface area of body, m2.
t a  ambient temperature, oC and
  Time, s.
Heat Transfer
 The ratio of interval conduction resistance to surface convection resistance is called

Biot Number (Bi)
hL
Bi  C
k
Where,
volume of solid  V 
LC  Characteristic length 
Surface Area of Solid  As 
k  thermal conductivity
h  convective heat transfer coefficient.
Characteristics
Surface
S.No Geometric shape Volume  V  length  L C 
Area  AS 
V
LC 
AS
1 Flat plate LBH 2BH L
2
2 Cylinder  bng  R L
2
2RL R
2
4
3 Sphere R 3 4R 2 R
3 3
4 Cube L3 6L2 L
6
 If Biot number is small it indicates that the system has a small internal conduction
resistance.
 If Bi < 0.1, the lumped heat capacity approach is used.
 Fourier number (F0) signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect
through a solid and is given by

F0  2
LC
k
Where   thermal diffusivity of the solid = .
c
vc
 The quantity is called time constant   *
h As
 Time constant is the indication of the rate of response of a system to a sudden

change in its environmental temperature.
 Sensitivity of a thermocouple is the time required by a thermocouple to reach its

63.2 percent of the value of its initial temperature difference.
 Time constant or thermal time constant can be written as

* or Tth  R th Cth
Heat Transfer
Where, R th  Resistance to convection heat transfer

1

hAS
C th  Lumped thermal capacitance of solid
 VC.
 Instantaneous heat flow  Qi  is given by
Qi  hAs  t i  t a  e BiFo
 Total or cumulative heat transfer is given by

Q  VC  t i  t a  e Bi F0  1
t  t 
 Heisler Charts depict the dimensionless temperature  0 a  versus Fourier
 ti  ta 
number  F0  for various values of

1
for solids of different geometrical shapes.
Bi
 When both conduction and convection resistance are almost of equal importance the
Heisler charts are extensively used to determined the temperature distribution.
 The temperature distribution at any time ‘  ’ at a plane parallel to and at a distance

‘x’ from the surface in infinite solids is given by.
t  ta  x 
ti  ta
 erf    erf  z 
 2  
 x 
Where erf   is known as ‘Gaussian error function’.
 2  
 For Semi – infinite solids, Bi  .
 Penetration depth refers to the location of a point where the change in temperature
is within 1 percent of the change in Surface temperature.
t  ta
i.e.,  0.9
ti  ta
x
  1.8 from Gaussian error integral table.
2 T
 Penetration time  p  is the time taken for a surface perturbation to be felt at that
depth in the range of 1 percent. It is given by
Heat Transfer
d
 1.8  d  3.6 
2 p
or
d2
p 
13
CONVECTION
 Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk
fluid motion.
 The amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the fluid
and unit area of surface in unit time is called convective heat transfer coefficient
(h).
 There are two types of convection Natural or free convection and forced convection.
 Nusselt number is a convenient measure of heat transfer coefficient.
 Reynolds number is taken as an important criterion of kinematic and dynamic

similarities in forced convection heat transfer.
 Rayleigh number (Ra) is taken as an important criterion in free convection heat

transfer.
 Rayleigh number is product of Grashof number and Prandtl number.
 Dimensionless numbers:
Group Interpretation Formula

Coefficient of Dimensionless surface s
friction ( C f ) shear stress.  V2 2
Friction factor (f) Dimensionless p
pressure drop for  L D   u 2m 2 
internal flow.
Prandtl number (Pr) Ratio of the Cp  

momentum and k 
thermal diffusivities.
Reynolds number Ratio of the inertia VL
(ReL) and viscous forces. 
Heat Transfer
Grashof number Ratio of buoyancy to g  Ts  T  L3

(GrL) viscous forces. 2
Nusselt number Dimensionless hL
(NuL) temperature gradient kf
at the surface.
Peclet number (PeL) Dimensionless VL
 ReL Pr
independent heat 
transfer parameter.
Schmidt number Ratio of the 
(Sc) momentum and mass D AB
diffusivities.
Lewis number (Le) Ratio of the thermal 
and mass diffusivities. D AB
Stanton number Modified Nusselt h Nu L

number Vc p Re L Pr
Sherwood number Dimensionless hmL
(ShL) concentration gradient D AB
at the surface.
Weber number (We) Ratio of inertia to V 2 L
surface tension forces 
 Reynolds number signifies the relative predominance of inertia to viscous forces

occurring in flow system.
 Prandtl number provides a measure of relative effectiveness of momentum and

energy transport by diffusion.
 In convection heat transfer we come across some complicated geometries for the
occurrence of flow, then we come across the concept of equivalent circular tube.
 Equivalent circular tube is a tube which would present the same resistance against
the flow or would secure the same heat transfer as the duct usually used equal ro
comparable conditions.
 The diameter of an equivalent tube is known as equivalent diameter (De) or

Characteristic length (LC).
4AC
 Equivalent Diameter, De 
P
Where A C  Cross  sec tional area
P  Perimeter
Heat Transfer
Equivalent diameter
Cross-sectional
S.No Name and Diagram Perimeter  4A C 
Area  A C   De  
 p 
2lb
1 Rectangular duct lb 2 l  b
lb
l 2 l1b1  l2 b2 
2 Rectangular annulus l1b1  l2 b2 2  l1  b1    l2  b2 
 l1  b1    l2  b2  
b2 b
l2
l
3 Square Annulus a12  a 22 2 2a1  2a 2  a1  a 2
a2
a1
 2
4 Circular Annulus
D 4
 D  d2  D  d Dd
  
d 4  lb  d 2 
  4 
5 Annulus lb  d 2 2  l  b   d
d 4  2  l  b   d 
 Hydrodynamics Boundary layer:
 The edge facing the direction of flow is called leading edge and the rear edge is
called trailing edge.
 The boundary layer is wholly laminar near the leading edge of a flat plate and the
velocity distribution is parabolic.
Heat Transfer
 As the distance from the leading edge increases, the thickness of boundary layer
increases.
 As velocity of fluid increases, boundary layer thickness decreases.

Flat Plate Pipes and Ducts
Laminar Re < 5 × 105 Re < 2000
Turbulent Re > 5 × 105 Re > 2000
 When a fluid flows over a heated or cold surface, a temperature field is set up in the
field next to the surface. The zone or layer where in the temperature field exists is
called the thermal layer.
 The thermal boundary layer is defined as a distance ‘y’ from the plate at which.
ts  t
 0.99
ts  t
Where,
t s  surface temperature
t   Surrounding temperature
 Prandtl Number:
Hydrodyanmic boundary layer thickness   

  Prandtl Number 
1
3

Thermal boundary layer thickness  th 
 When,
Pr  1,  th  
Pr  1,  th  
Pr  1,  th  
 Forced Convection:
S.No Velocity Boundary δ C1
profile conditions
At y  0 At y  
1. u y u=0 u=U 3.46x 1.155


U  Re x Re L
Heat Transfer
2. u  y  y
2 U=0 uU 5.48x 1.46
 2     u
V   0 Re x Re L
y
3. u 3 y 1 y
3 u0 uU 4.64x 1.292
     u
U 2   2   u
2
0 Re x Re L
0
y 2 y
4. u  y u=0 u=U 4.795x 1.31

 sin  
U 2  Re x Re L
5. Blasius exact 5x 1.328

solution Re x Re L
k
h x  0.332  Rex   Pr 
12 13

x
hx x
Nu x   0.332  Rex   Pr 
12 13
k
h  2h x
hL
Nu   0.664  ReL   Pr 
12 13
 Laminar tube flow:

  r 2 
(i) u  u max 1     ... Most commonly used equation for the velocity
  R  
distribution from laminar flow through pipes.
48k
(ii) h 
11D
(iii) Nu  4.364
(iv) Nu  3.65 … For constant wall temperature.
 Turbulent tube flow:

I. For flat plate
 0.371
(i) 
x  Re x 1 5
Heat Transfer
U 2 0.0576  0.0288 U 2 
(ii) o    
 Re x   Re x  
15 15
2 
0.0576
(iii) Cfx 
 Re x 
15
0.072
(iv) Cf  Valid for 5  105  Re L  107
 ReL 
15
0.455
Cf  … Relation suggested by Prandtl and Schlichting, for Re
 log10 ReL 
2.58
between, 107 and 109, when the boundary layer is turbulent from the leading edge
onwards.
0.455 1670
Cf   … for laminar and turbulent flow at Rec  5 105
 log10 ReL 
2.58
Re L
(v) Nu x  0.0288  Re x   Pr 
0.8 13
k
h x  0.0288    Re x   Pr 
0.8 13
x
(vi) Nu  0.036  ReL   Pr 
0.8 13
k
h  0.036    ReL   Pr 
0.8 13
L
(vii) Nu   Pr  0.036  ReL   836
13 0.8
… when Rec  5 105
 
II. For tubes

Nu  0.023  Re   Pr 
0.8 13
k
h  0.023  Re   Pr 
0.8 13
D
The above expressions are valid for
L
1104  Re  1105 ; 0.5  Pr  100;  60.
D
 Free or Natural Convection:
 Free or natural convections is the process of heat transfer which is due to movement
of the fluid particles by density changes associated with temperature differential in
fluid.
 Flow over vertical plates (Laminar flow)

(a) Exact solution
Heat Transfer
  Gr 4  Pr 2 
14
(i) Nu x  0.676  x 2 
 0.861  Pr 
  GrL 4  Pr 2 
14
(ii) Nu x  0.902  2 
 0.861  Pr 
(b) Approximation solution:
 u x g 2  t 2  t   
2
u y y
(iii)  1    where u  
u1    4
1
 
 g  t s  t    1 2
1 2
4  
(iv) u max  u1  0.766  0.952    x
27    2 

 3.93  0.952  Pr   Gr4   Pr 
14 1 4 1 2
(v)
x
 g  t s  t   x 3 
 where Gr  and Pr  
 
x 2


(vi) m  u x
12

(vii) m   u x  x   u x  x 
12  2 1 
14
 GrL 
(viii) Total mass, m  1.7v  
  Pr   Pr  0.952  
2
h x 2x
(ix) Nu x  x  0.508  Pr   0.952  Pr   Grx  
12 1 4 14
k 
hL 4
 Nu x  0.677  Pr   0.952  Pr   GrL 
1 4
(x) Nu L 
12 14
k 3
II. Flow over vertical plates (Turbulent flow)
0.1
8 15 1  0.494  Pr 
  23

(xi)  0.565  Pr   
x  Grx 
0.4
 Grx 
(xii) Nu x  0.0295  Pr 
7 15
 
1  0.494  Pr  
23
0.4
 GrL 
Nu L  0.0246  Pr 
7 15
(xiii)  
1  0.494  Pr  
23
Heat Transfer
 Simplified free convection relations for air:

S.No Surface and its orientation Laminar Turbulent
 t 
14
h  1.42   h  1.32  t 
13
1. Vertical plate or cylinder
L
10 4
 Gr.Pr  109  10 9
 Gr.Pr  1013 
 t 
14
h  1.32   h  1.25  t 
13
2. Horizontal cylinder
D
10 4
 Gr. Pr  109  108
 Gr. Pr  1012 
3. Horizontal plate :
 t 
14
h  1.32   h  1.67  t 
13
Heated surface facing up
L
10 5
 Gr.Pr  2  107   2 10 7
 Gr.Pr  3  1010 
 t 
14
Heated surface facing down h  0.59  

L
 3 10 5
 Gr.Pr  3  1010 
14 k
4. Spheres h   2  0.392  Gr  
 D
1  Gr  10 
5
  Gr R   1
2
e … Pure free convection
 Gr R   1
2
e … Mixed (free and forced) convection
 Gr R   1
2
e … Pure forced convection.
 External Flows:
The local Nusselt number Nux for mixed convection on vertical plates is given by
Nu x  0.332  Re x 
12
 Pr 
13

if Grx R e2x  A 
and, Nu x  0.508  Pr 
12
 0.952  Pr 
1 4
 Grx 
1 4

if Grx R e2x  A 
where, A 0.6 for Pr  10
and, A 1.0 for Pr  100
For horizontal plates when  Grx Re2.5
x   0.083 the following equation for forced
convection may be used

Nu x  0.332 Re1x 2 Pr1 3
Heat Transfer
 Internal Flows:
(i) For mixed convection in laminar flow, Brown and Gauvin recommended a
correlation of the forms as:
0.14
  Gz  0.0123  Gz.Gr1 3 4 3 
13
Nu  1.75  b 
 
 s 
Where,
Gz  Graetz number  Re Pr  D L 
And,
 b , s  Viscosities of the fluid at the bulk mean temperature and surface
temperature respectively.
(ii) For mixed convection with turbulent flow in horizontal tubes, Metais and
Eckert (1966) suggest
Nu  4.69  Re   Pr   Gr   D L
0.27 0.21 0.07 0.36
RADIATION
 The energy emitted by matter that is at a finite temperature is called radiation.
 Energy of radiation is by electromagnetic waves (or photons).
 Radiation does not require any material medium like conduction and convection, it
can occur most effectively in Vacuum.
 Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves and travel at the speed
of light in Vacuum.
 The total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit area and time is called total
emissive power.
 Emissive Power:
Emissive power of a black body, according to Stefan–Boltzman law, is proportional
to the fourth power of absolute temperature.
Eb  AT 4
Where,
E b  Emissive power of a black body in watts, W
Heat Transfer
  Stefan–Boltzman constant  5.67  108 

m2 K 4
A  Area of radiating surface, m2
T  Absolute Temperature, K.
 Monochromatic emissive power:

The rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength is called
Monochromatic emissive power ( E  )
 Emissivity:
The ratio of emissive power of anybody to the emissive power of a black body at
same temperature is called emissivity    .
 For black body,   1

While body,   0
Grey body, 0    1
 Irradiation:
 The total incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area is called Irradiation (G).
or Incident Radiation.
 From the conservation of energy principle,

Irradiation (G) = Absorbed radiation( G a ) + Reflected radiation( G r ) + Transmitted
Radiation( G T )
      1
Ga
Where   absorptivity 
G
Gr
  Reflectivity 
G
G
  Transmissivity  T
G
 For Black Body   1,   0,   0.
 For Opaque body     1,   0
 For while body   1,   0,   0.
 Solids do not transmit unless the material is of very thin section.
Heat Transfer
 The radiation absorbed by metals is within a fraction of micrometer and that of

insulators within a friction of millimeter.
 Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen have a transmissivity of practically unity.
 Types of Reflection:
 If the angle between the reflected beam and the normal to the surface is equal to the
angle made by the incident radiation with the same normal, then the reflection is
said to be Regular reflection or Specular reflection.
 If the incident beam is reflected in all directions, then the reflection is called
Diffused Reflection.
 The total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area is called radiosity
(J).
 Kirchhoff’s law:
Kirchhoff’s law states that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptive when
the body remains in equilibrium with its surroundings.
 Planck’s law:
 The spectral distribution of the radiation intensity of a black body
2c2 h 5
 E  b 
 ch 
exp   1
 kT 
Where,
 E  b  Monochromatic emissive power of black body, 
m2
c  Velocity of light in vacuum, 2.998 108 3 108 m s
h  Planck’s constant  6.625 1034 Js
  Wavelength, m
k  Boltzman cons tan t  1.3805 1023 J K
T  absolute temperature, K.
 The energy emitted at all wavelength increases with rise in temperature.
 The rate of energy leaving a surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit
area of emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space is called intensity of
radiation (I).
Heat Transfer
 A portion of space inside a sphere enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of
the cone at the center of sphere is called a solid angle.
 Lambert’s Cosine law:

E   E n cos 
Where
E   Total emissive power from a radiating plane is surface in any direction.
E n  Total emissive power of radiating surface in the direction of normal.
  Angle of emission
 The angle subtended by the normal to the radiating surface and the direction vector
of emission of the receiving surface is called angle of emission    .
 Concept of Shape Factor:
 The view factor or shape factor or configuration factor is purely a geometric

quantity and is independent of surface temperature and properties and is given by
“F”.
 If the surfaces are diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors, then the view factor is
called diffuse view factor.
 If the surfaces are diffuse emitters but specular reflectors, then the view factor is
called Specular view factor.
 The shape (or) view factor relation when two bodies are exchanging radiant energy
with each other is given by.
A1F1 2  A 2 F2 1
 The Reciprocity theorem,

Ai Fi  j  A j Fji
 Reciprocity theorem can be effectively used when one of shape factors is unity.
 For a flat surface,
1 F11  0
Heat Transfer
 For a convex surface
1 F11  0
 For a concave surface 1

F11  0
 If all radiation emanated by a convex surface 1 is intercepted by the enclosing

surface 2, the shape factor of the convex surface w.r.t enclosure F1 2  1 if F1 2  1,
A1
then F21  from reciprocity theorem.
A2
 If two surfaces Ai and Aj are parallel and large and radiation occurs across the gap
between them. So that Ai  A j and all radiation emitted by one falls on the other,
then
Fi  j  Fji  1
 If there are two surfaces Ai and Aj and if one of the two surfaces (Ai ) is subdivided
into sub-areas Ai1, Ai2, ….. Ain, then
A i Fi  j   A in Fin  j
 The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the
enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity. This rule is called summation rule.
N
F
j1
i j 1
 The total number of view factors for ‘N’ surfaces is ‘N2’.
 The total number of view factors that are to be evaluated directly for an N-surface
1
enclosure is N(N  1)
2
Heat Transfer
 If the enclosure comprises of ‘N’ surfaces, then the energy emanated from one
surface is always intercepted by another ‘N-1’ surfaces, and the surface itself if it is
a concave one. This is called Principle of Conservation.
 If there are two surfaces, one is radiating surface Ai and the other is receiving
surface Aj and if ‘Ai’ is divided into areas ‘Am’ and ‘An’, then we have
Ai Fi  j  A m Fm  j  A n Fn  j
i.e., Fi  j  Fm  j  Fn  j
 If there are two surfaces, one is radiating surface Ai and the other is receiving
surface Aj and if ‘Aj’ has been divided into two sub-areas ‘Am’ and ‘An’ then,
Ai Fi  j  Ai Fi  m  Ai Fi  n
 Fi  j  Fi  m  Fi  n
 If the surfaces ‘j’ and ‘k’ are symmetric about the surface ‘I’ then Fi  j  Fi  k , this is
called symmetry rule.
 The shape factor relation for inclined plates of equal width and with a common edge
is given by.
j
w
1
Fi  j  1  sin 
2

w i
 The shape factor relation for perpendicular plates with common edge is given by
 1
2
1 y  y  
2
y Fi  j  1   1     
2  x   x   
 
i x
 The shape factor relation for three sided enclosure is given by
Heat Transfer
y
z xyz
k j Fi  j 
2x
i
x
 Radiation heat transfer relations:
Rate Shapte Interchange factor

Net Heat
S.No Configuration Diagram of factor or
transfer
Areas  1 
F - 2 equivalent emissitivity
A1 ,T1 ,
1 Small object in
A
A2
0 1 1 
Q12  A11 T14  T24 
L arg e cavity
A 2 ,T2 , 2
 
A1 A2
1 A T14  T24
2 If finite large A1  A 2  A 1 Q12 
1 1 1 1
T1 T2  1  1
1  2 1  2
1 2
r2
r1
3 Infinite long
A1 r1
 1
1
Q12 

A1 T14  T24 
concentric cylinder A 2 r2 1 r1  1  1 r1  1 
   1    1
1 r2   2  1 r2   2 
4 Concentric spheres
r1
r2
A1  r1 
 
2
1
1
Q12 

A1 T14  T24 
2 2
A 2  r2  1  r1   1  1  r1   1 
     1      1
1  r2    2  1  r2    2 
 Radiation Shields:
 Radiation shields reduce the radiation heat transfer by effectively increasing the
surface resistances without actually removing any heat from the overall system.
Heat Transfer
 If one radiation shield is inserted between two parallel surfaces, the direct radiation
heat transfer between then is halved (when emissivities are equal). The
corresponding value of T3 of the shied attains to the value.  2 Shield
1

T34   T14  T24 
1 3
1 1
 Q12 net   1
1  2 1 3 2

with shield

 Q12 net  1 1  1 1 
without shield
   1     1
 1 3   3  2 
 If emissivities are equal and there are ‘n’ shields, all the surface resistances would
be same.
 For equal emissivities and ‘n’ shields.

  2 
 n  1    1 
 
Total resistance  R n shields 
A
A  T14  T24 
n shields 
 n  1 
2 
 1
 
 When n = 0 (i.e., with no shields)

2 
  1
 
Resistance, R without shield  
A
A  T14  T24 
Q without shield 
2 
  1
 
 If the reduction is heat flow does not effect walls temperatures, then
Q n shileds R without shields 1
 
Q wihout shield R n shields n 1
 The heat transfer rate between two long concentric cylindrical surfaces separated by
a cylindrical shield is given by
Heat Transfer
2r1L  T14  T24 

Q1 
1 r1  1  r  1 1 
   1  1    1
1 r2   2  r5  s1 s2 

Where
1  emisssivity of inner surface
 2  emissivity of outer surface
s1 and s2 are surface emissivities of shields
L  length of cylinders, m
r1  radius of inner surface, m
r2  radius of outer surface, m
r3  radius of shield, m
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Devices that transfer heat energy between fluids at different temperatures by different
modes of Heat Transfer are called Heat Exchangers.
 Types of Heat Exchangers:

1. Nature of Heat Exchange Process
(i) Direct Contact Heat Exchangers
Ex: cooling Tower, Jet condensers
(ii) Indirect contact Heat exchangers.
(a) Regenerators
Ex: I.C.Engines, Gas Turbines
(b) Recuperates
Ex: Radiators, Oil coolers, Air pre-heaters
2. Relative Direction of fluid Motion
(i) Parallel flow heat exchanger
Ex: Oil Heaters, water Heaters
(ii) Counter flow Heat Exchangers
Ex: Surface Condensers
(iii) Cross flow Heat exchangers
Ex: Air conditioner and refrigeration heat rejection applications
3. Physical state of fluids
(i) Evaporators
(ii) Condensers
4. Design and Constructional features
(i) Concentric tube heat Exchanger
(ii) Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Heat Transfer
(iii) Compact Heat Exchanger

 Regenerator is a type of heat exchanger where heat from the hot fluid is
intermittently stored in a thermal storage medium before it is transformed to the
cold fluid
 Recuperator is a type of heat exchanger in which the flowing fluids exchanging heat
are on either side of a dividing member.
 In Parallel flow heat exchanger both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger
at same end and move in same direction.
 In counter flow heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at
opposite ends and flow in opposite directions.
 In compact heat exchangers, the hot and cold fluids move perpendicular to each
other and such a flow is called cross flow.
 The large surface area in compact heat exchangers is obtained by attaching closely
spaced fins to the walls separating two fluids.
 Cross flow heat exchangers are further classified into unmixed and mixed flow
depending on flows configuration.
 Unmixed flow is the type of cross flow in which plate fins force the fluid to flow
through a particular inter fin spacing and prevent it from moving in the transverse
direction.
 Mixed flow is the type of cross flow in which fluid is free to move in transverse
direction.
 Shell and tube heat exchanger consists of a large number of tubes packed in a shell
with axes parallel to that of shell.
 In shell and tube heat exchanger, Heat Transfer takes places as one fluid flows
inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
 Baffles placed in the shell force the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to
increase the rate of heat transfer and to maintain uniform spacing between the tubes.
 Condenser is a type of heat exchanger in which hot fluid is cooled and condensed as
it flows through the heat exchanger.
 Evaporator is a type of heat exchanger one of the fluids vaporizes by absorbing
heat.
 Total heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger  Q   UAm

 Overall heat transfer coefficient:
 Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) for a plane wall
Heat Transfer
1
U
1 L 1
 
hi k ho
Where,
Hi = convective heat transfer coefficient of inside fluid, W/m2K
L = thickness of wall, m.
h0 = convective heat transfer coefficient of outside fluid, W/m2K
k = Thermal conductivity, W/m2K
 Overall heat transfer co-efficient (U) if the fluids are separated by a tube wall on the
inner surface.
1
Ui 
1 ri  ro   ri  1
 ln   
h i k  ri   ro  h o
 Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) if the fluids are separated by a tube wall on the
outer surface.
1
Ui 
 ro   1  ro ln  ro   1
 r   
 i  h i k  ri  h o
Where
ri = radius of inner surface
ro = radius of outer surface
A i  2ri L
A o  2ro L
 Heat capacity of hot fluid  Ch   m h c ph
Where
m h  mass of hot fluid, kg
s
c ph  Sp heat of hot fluid, kJ
kg K
 Heat capacity of cold fluid  CC   m C C PC
Where
m C  mass of cold fluid, kg
s
CPC  Sp heat of cold fluid, kJ
kgK
 Logarithmic mean Temperature difference (LMTD): For a parallel flow heat
exchanger.
Heat Transfer
1  2   1
m  or 2
 
ln  1  ln  2 
  2   1 
Where
1  t h1  t c1
2  t h 2  t c2
t h1  temperature of hot fluid at inlet
t h 2  temperature of hot fluid at exit
t c1  temperature of cold fluid at inlet
t c2  temperature of cold fluid at exit
 Logarithmic mean temperature difference(LMTD):
 Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) of a counter flow heat

exchanger.
  2  
m  1 or 2 1
 
ln  1  ln  2 
  2  1 
Where
1  t h1  t c2
2  t h 2  t c1
t h1  temperature hot fluid at inlet
t h 2  temperature of hot fluid at exit
t c1  temperature of cold fluid at inlet
t c2  temperature of cold fluid at exit
 If 1   2 in case of counter flow heat exchanger, then LMTD will be equal to the
temperature difference of any of the fluid.
1
 LMTD is used only when  1.7
2
1
 If  1.7, the Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference (AMTD) is used
2
1  2
AMTD 
2
 Effectiveness:
 Effectiveness    is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum
possible heat transfer.
Heat Transfer

Q


Ch t h1  t h 2 
Qmax Cmin t h  t c
1 1
 
 Actual Heat transfer  Q   m h Cph  t h1  t h 2  or m c C pc  t c2  t c1 
 Maximum possible heat transfer

 Qmax   Cmin  t h 1
 t c1 
 If Ch > Cc, then Ch = Cmax & CC = Cmin
 If CC > Ch, then Cc = Cmax & Ch = Cmin
 The ratio of C min and C max is called capacity Ratio (R)
 Number of Transfer units (NTU) is given by

UA
NTU 
Cmin
 Effectiveness of Parallel flow heat exchanger is given by

 NTU 1 R 
1 e

1 R
 Effectiveness of Counter flow heat exchanger is given by
 NTU 1 R 
1 e
  NTU 1 R 
1  Re
 If R = 0, then  parallel flow   counter flow  1  e  NTU
 Capacity Ratio (R) tends to zero in case of Condensors and Evaporators (Boilers).
 If R = 1, then
1  e2NTU
 parallel flow 
2
NTU
counter flow 
1  NTU
 The maximum effectiveness of Parallel flow heat exchanger is 50%
 The maximum effectiveness of Counter flow heat exchangers is 100%
 Fouling is the phenomenon of rust formation and deposition of fluid impurities
 Fouling factor (Rf) is the reciprocal of scale heat transfer co-efficient (hs)

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Heat Transfer

 The energy in transit due to temperature difference is called Heat transfer.

 Conduction can take place in Solids, liquids and gases.

 Conduction in solids is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a

 If the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy force that is induced by density

 Radiant heat follows the law of inverse square.

 Radiant heat travels with velocity of light.

 Wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves.

 Fourier’s law of heat conduction:

 ksolids  kliquids  k gases

 k non metallic Crystals k nonferous materials  k fereous materials

 Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with increase in temperature

 The value of thermal conductivity of liquids tends to decrease with increase in

 The values of thermal conductivity of gases increase with temperature.

 For most materials the dependences of thermal conductivity (k) on temperature is

 The reciprocal of thermal resistance is called thermal conductance.

 Newton’s law of cooling:

 If two bodies exchange heat, then

 General Heat Conduction Equations:

 General Heat conduction in Cartesian coordinate non-homogeneous, material, self

 General Heat conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity is

 Heat conduction under steady state with heat generation is

 Heat conduction under steady state without internal heat generation is

 General heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinate is

 General Heat conduction equation in Spherical coordinates is

 Heat Conduction in Plane Wall:

 Variable thermal conductivity k  k 0 1  t  , where ko = thermal conductivity at

 Temperature variation in terms of heat flux with variable thermal conductivity is

 Heat conduction through a Composite wall with ‘n’ slabs is

 Overall heat transfer coefficient (U):

k  Thermal conductivity of wall material,  m  K

 Thermal contact resistance is given by

 Temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder with uniform conductivity is

 Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder with uniform thermal conductivity is

 Temperature variation in terms of interface temperature with variable thermal

 Temperature variation in terms of heat flux with variable thermal conductivity is a

 Logarithmic mean area for hollow cylinder is

 Logarithmic mean radius of the hollow cylinder is

 Temperature distribution associated with radial conduction with uniform thermal

 Temperature variation in terms of surface temperature with variable conductivity is

 Temperature variation in terms of heat flux with variable conductivity in a hollow

 Logarithm mean area of hollow sphere is given by

 Critical radius of insulation for cylinder

h 0  heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of insulation

 Critical radius of insulation for sphere

 Minimum insulation thickness is given by

 Extended Surfaces or Fins:

 If the available surface is found to be inadequate to transfer the required quantity of

 Heat dissipation from a infinitely long rectangular fin  l    is given by

 For infinitely long fin

 If ml>5, we use the conditions of infinitely long fin.

cosh m  l  x   sinh m  l  x 

 The efficiency of infinitely long rectangular fin,  ml    is given

 The efficiency of rectangular fin insulated at the tip is given by

 For Infinitely long fin, effectiveness

Q with fin hPkACS  t 0  t a  Pk

 For a straight rectangular fin of thickness of y and width ‘b’

 Newtonian heating or cooling process:

 Transient Heat Conduction:

h  Unit surface conductance, 

 The ratio of interval conduction resistance to surface convection resistance is called

 If Bi < 0.1, the lumped heat capacity approach is used.

 Time constant is the indication of the rate of response of a system to a sudden