Deep Foundations

2. DEEP FOUNDATIONS

2.1. Review (Principle of Foundation Engineering, Alemayehu Teferra, Chapter-8)

8.1 Pile Foundations

8.1.1 General
Piles are structural members of timber, steel or concrete used to transfer loads from
superstructure to the lower levels in the soil mass.
Piles may be used for the following purposes:
a. To transfer loads to a suitable bearing layer
b. To transfer loads to the adjoining soil mass along the length of the pile by means of friction
c. To increase the bearing capacity of granular soils by means of compaction (vibration)
d. To anchor structures which are subjected to hydrostatic uplift
e. To anchor structures which are subjected to horizontal pull
f. To provide protection to water front structures against impact
g. To provide resistance against horizontal or inclined forces.

8.1.2 Classification of Piles

Piles may be classified according to their function or material composition.

A. Classification According to Function
1. Point bearing pile (Fig. 8.1a)
2. Friction pile (Fig. 8.1b)
3. Compaction pile (Fig. 8.1c)
4. Tension pile (Fig. 8.1d)
5. Anchor pile (Fig. 8.1e)
6. Fender pile (Fig. 8.1f)
B. Classification According to Composition
1. Timber Pile (treated or untreated)
2. Concrete pile (pre-cast or cast-in-place)
3. Composite pile (timber and concrete or steel and concrete)
4. Steel pile (H-pile, pipe pile and sheet pile).

In the following pages, a very brief description of the various types of piles according to their
composition will be given. For detailed treatment the reader is recommended to refer to[2], [12].
[29], [35].

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Deep Foundations

P P

Frictional
weak force
soil

( a ) Point bearing Frim soil ( b ) Friction pile

H
Loose granuar
material

Tension

Compacted zone

( c ) Compaction pile ( d ) Tension pile

Vessel Impact from floating

H
object or ship

Lock

Hydrostatic uplift

Anchorage

( e ) Anchor pile ( f ) Dolphin or fender

pile

Fig . 8.1 : Examples of different types of pile

foundations

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8.1.2.1 Timber Piles

A timber pile is a trunk of a tree which is free from structural defects and properly trimmed.
Since timber is vulnerable to moisture change, it should be treated with a special preservative
(mostly creosote oil) to prevent decay. Untreated pile embedded below ground water table
permanently has a long life. However, if it is exposed above the water table it is subjected to
decay.

8.1.2.2 Concrete Piles

Concrete piles may either be pre-cast or cast-in-place.

8.1.2.2.1 Pre-Cast Piles

These piles are cast in a casting yard and transported to the construction site. They are often
made of uniform sections with pointed tips and often have a square or octagonal cross-section.
The cross-sectional area and reinforcement of these piles depend on the envisaged loading as
well as the handling stresses. The handling stresses is turn depend upon the method of lifting
and the location of the points of support. Depending upon the length of the pile the number of
the supporting points varies. Typical detail of pre-cast pile is given in Fig. 8.2. As it may be
seen from the figure, the pitch of the ties is smaller at both ends of the pile than at other areas.
This is to avoid damage due to driving. If hard driving is anticipated, driving shoes should be
provided at the tip of the pile.

8.1.2.2.2 Cast-in-place

These piles are made by pouring concrete in a prepared bore hole. Generally such piles are
divided into three categories.
A. Shell Type (Cased Type)
This type is produced by first driving a steel shell – which may be made up of a corrugated steel
or pipe – into the ground to a desired depth. The concrete is then poured in the shell. Along its
length the steel shell may be either tapered or straight [2], [12}, {35] (Fig. 8.3).
B. Shell-Less Type (Uncased Type)
In this type or pile, the shell is withdrawn while the concrete is being poured (Fig.. 8.3)
C. Pedestal Type
This type of pile has as enlarged bulb or pedestal. The pile may be cased or uncased (Fig. 8.3).

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 Ø6@8 Ø 6 @ 20 ( min ) Ø6@8
D 4

15
Deep Foundations

8 2.5 2.5 8
2D D
L
Square piles

5 cm . pitch 20 cm . pitch ( min )

5 Turns 3 Turns
4
D

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.)

5 cm . pitch

15

0.29D
0.29D
0.42D 8
8 2D
D

L
Octagonal piles
L ( cm ) = up to 760 760 - 1070
1070 - 1530
Fig . 8.2 : Typical detail of precast piles [ 35 ] min . D( cm) = 30 36
41
Recomnended longitudinal reinforcement = 1.25 % 1.5 %
2%

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 Shell type piles
Deep Foundations

Tapered piles Straight piles

Shell - less Pedestal
(uncased ) piles piles
Thin sheet Pipe
Step taper Uniform taper
shell shell

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.)

15m

30m

45m

Fig. 8.3: Some common types of cast - in - place piles [

12 ]

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8.1.2.3 Composite Piles

Composite piles consist of two different materials that are connected together. Normally the
joint between the two materials is the weak link and as a result should be properly designed. The
common types of composite piles are timber and concrete or steel and concrete.
A Timber and Concrete
In this combination the timber part is placed below the ground water level and the concrete is
then poured at the top.
B. Steel and Concrete
This type of pile is used for depths where cast-in-place piles may not easily be constructed. Steel
pipes or H-piles are driven to the required depth and then concrete is cast at the top end of the
piles.

8.1.2.4 Steel Piles

The common types of steel piles are H-piles and Pipe-Piles.

A. H-Piles
As opposed to structural steel, here the flanges and the web are rolled with equal thickness in
order to withstand large impact force. The flange width should be about 85% of the depth of the
web to provide rigidity[35].
B. Pipe Piles
The pipes may be fabricated (seamless) or welded (rolled). Pipe piles are normally filled with
concrete. The ends may be open or closed depending upon the type of the soil under
consideration. The general characteristics and use of the above piles is presented in Table 8.1.

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Deep Foundations

Table 8.1: General characteristics and use of piles adapted from Teng[35]

Type of Pile Usual maximum design Advantages Disadvantages Common Use

load (kN) per pile
Timber 250 Low cost per metre of Small bearing capacity. Foundation for structures
pile. Untreated piles above with moderate load.
Timber is a resilient ground water may last Protection of water front
material suitable for more than 25 years but structures from damage
impact absorption. are not permanent. by floating objects and
Prone to damage by hard crafts. Timber trestles
driving, should not be and bents. Foundation
driven through hard for temporary structures.
stratum or boulders.
Pre-cast 800 Relatively large bearing Must be reinforced to Trestles and bridge
Concrete Large pre-stressed piles capacity. Permanent. withstand handling bents. Water-front
may have higher value. Can be treated for sea- stresses. Requires space installations (docks,
water installation. for casting and storage. piers, bulkheads, etc.).
Takes time to set and Foundations for bridges.
cure before installation. Pre-stressed piles of
Requires heavy large bearing capacity
equipment for handling are advantageous in
and driving. bridge foundations.

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Table 8.1 (Cont’d)

Type of Pile Usual maximum design Advantages Disadvantages Common Use
load (kN) per pile
Incurs large cost in
cutting off extra lengths
or adding more lengths
(this is often the case
since exact pile lengths
can be determined in
advance only in
exceptional cases.)
Cast-in-Place 750 Relatively large bearing Foundation for
Compacted pedestal capacity. Permanent. buildings, bridges, etc.,
piles may have higher Can be treated for sea- of moderate to heavy
value. water installation. Easy loads.
to alter pile lengths.
Damage due to handling
or driving can be
eliminated. May be
installed by pre-
excavation thus
eliminating vibration due
to driving.

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Deep Foundations

Table 8.1 (Cont’d)

Type of Pile Usual maximum design Advantages Disadvantages Common Use

load (kN) per pile
Composite Governed by the weaker Relatively low cost. Small bearing capacity. Foundations for
of the two parts. Permanent. Joint between two parts building, bridges, etc., of
constitutes a weak point. moderate loads where
Prone to damage due to upper part of piles is
driving. above ground water
level.
Steel 1000 Large bearing capacity. Possibility of damage Foundations for large
Can penetrate through from corrosion and structures of heavy
stiff layer or boulders. electrolysis. loads. Trestles and
Small volume Relatively expensive bridge bents.
displacement of soil unless the bearing
Can stand rough stratum can develop
handling. large pile capacity. Less
effective as friction pile
or compaction pile.

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Deep Foundations

2.2. Pile Capacity (Principle of Foundation Engineering, Alemayehu Teferra)

8.1.3 Pile Capacity

The bearing capacity of isolated piles may be determined in one of the following methods:
a. From loading tests
b. From prevailing Building Codes
c. From sounding tests
d. From dynamic pile-driving formulas
e. From computational (analytical) methods.
In the above, the order in which the methods are presented corresponds to the degree of
reliability of the bearing capacity determination of piles.

8.1.3.1 Loading Tests

The loading test gives reliable results. Essentially, it consists of loading one pile and recording
the load and the corresponding settlement data. One then plots the load settlement curve, from
which one determines the allowable load on the foundation. The detailed procedure for the pile
loading test is given in EBCS-7 [14].

8.1.3.1.1 Determination of the Limiting Pile Load

In a very few cases, the load settlement curve may show a marked limiting value. But in most
cases the load settlement curves do not distinctly show the limiting load. As a result there are
numerous suggestions for determining the limiting load.
The limiting load is read from load-total settlement or from load-plastic settlement curves.
A . From Load Total Settlement Curves (Fig. 8.4)
The limiting pile load may be determined from one of the following methods:
(i) The point at which the end tangents of the load-settlement curve meet
(Mansur/Kaufmann 1956[27]
(ii) The point at which the curve begins to show a steeper slope (DIN 1054[8]
(iii) The point at which the curve manifests the steepest slope i.e., ds/dQ= max
(Vesic 1963[39].
(iv) ) For a total settlement of 0.1d(Terzaghi/Peck 1961[37]).
) For a total settlement of 50mm(Terzaghi/Peck 1948[36])
) For a total settlement of 25mm(New York City Building Law [quoted in 31]
) For a total settlement of 20mm(Muhs 1959, 1963[27]

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Suggested limiting
loads loads Q ( MN )
Plastic
Total settlement

1
Plastic settlement
Total settlement

elastic

20
7
25
6
0.1d
4

2
settlement

50
elastic

1 Masur / kaufmann [ 22 ]
Total settlements ( mm )
2 DIN 1054 [ 8 ]

3 Vesic [ 39 ]

4 Terzaghi / Peck [ 37 ]

5 Terzaghi / Peck [ 37 ]

6 New york city building law

7 muhs 1959 and 1963 [ 27 ]

Fig . 8.4 : Determination of limiting load from pile loading test

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B. From Load Plastic Settlement Curve (Fig. 8.5)

In this case one needs first to plot the respective load plastic settlement curve from the load total
settlement curve as indicated in Fig. 8.5a. It is by using this curve that the following suggestions
are proposed to determine the limiting pile load(Fig. 8.5a):
(i) For a plastic settlement of 0.025d(DIN 4026[11]
(ii) For a plastic settlement of 0.020d (U.S.A.[quoted in 31]
(iii) For a plastic settlement of 8mm(Magnel 1948[21])
(iv) For a plastic settlement of 35mm(American Association of State Highway
Officials[1]).

8.1.3.1.2 Allowable Pile Load

The allowable pile load is obtained by dividing the appropriate limiting pile load by a factor of
safety. The magnitude of the factor of safety, which ranges from 1.3 to 2.0, is dependent on the
load type and number of load tests performed. A factor of safety of 2.0 is generally accepted.
For details one is referred to EBCS-7[14]

8.1.3.2 Building Codes

Based on several years of experience, some codes give allowable bearing capacity for piles.
EBCS-7 does not as yet provide users with allowable values for different foundations. One may,
however, use the allowable values as recommended by the German Standards, DIN 4014[9] and
DIN 4026[11] for preliminary design.

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Deep Foundations

Load Q ( MN )

Plastic settlement
Settlement ( mm )

Total
settlement

a - Determination of plastic settlement from total

settlement curve
Load Q ( MN )

0.020d
2
6.5 4
0.025d 1
8.0
3
Plastic settlement ( mm )

1 DIN 4026 [ 11 ]
2 USA
3 Magnel [ 21 ]
4 American Association of State Highway Officials [ 1 ]

b - Determination of limiting load from plastic

settlement curve

Fig . 8.5 : Load plastic settlement curve

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Deep Foundations

Table 8.2: Allowable Loads for Piers(Cast-in-Place Piles)

(DIN 4014)

Diameter of Piers without base: Piers with base:

Pier, d Allowable loads Allowable loads
cm kN kN
30 200
35 250
40 300
50 400
60 300
70 380
80 470
90 550
100 650

Compacted dense
sand
or semi - staff clay
t

The values given

above assume
( i ) t=> 3m without base
( ii ) =t > 2.5 with base
( iii ) The soil surounding the
pile should be dense sand
or semi - stiff clay .

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Table 8.3: Allowable Loads on Driven Wooden Piles(DIN 4026)

Penetration depth in the
Allowable loads in kN for different diameters, d, in (cm)
bearing soil in (m)
15 20 25 30 35
3 150 200 250 300 400
4 150 200 300 400 500
5 - 300 400 500 600
The above values assume densely compacted non-cohesive soil or semi-stiff clay
Table 8.4: Allowable Loads on Driven Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete Piles with Square
Cross-Section(DIN 4026)
Penetration depth in the
Allowable loads in kN for different sizes, a, in (cm)
bearing soil in (m)
20 25 30 35 40
3 200 250 350 450 550
4 250 350 450 600 700
5 - 400 550 700 850
6 - - 650 800 1000
The above values assume densely compacted non-cohesive soil or semi-stiff clay
Table 8.5: Allowable Loads on Driven Steel Piles(DIN 4026)
Penetration depth in the
Allowable loads in kN
bearing soil in (m)
H-Sections width Circular* and Square* sections.
or height in (cm Diameter, d**, or size, a, in (cm)
30 35 35 or 30 40 or 35 45 or 40
3 - - 350 450 550
4 - - 450 600 700
5 450 550 550 700 850
6 550 650 650 800 1000
7 600 750 700 900 1100
8 700 850 800 1000 1200
NOTE: * The values given are valid for piles with closed tips. For open-ended piles 90%
of the given values may be used, provided the soil around the pile is dense or
stiff.
** d = external diameter
a = average size length of a square section or area equivalent rectangular
section

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Table 8.6: Approximate Average Values of Skin Friction [34]

Average values of skin

Soil Type friction Non-Cohesive Soils
Average value of
Soil Type skin friction
- kN/m2 - kN/m2
Mud 12  10 Silty sand 40  10
Silt 15  10 Sand, medium dense 60  25
Soft clay 20  10 Coarse sand 100  50
Silty clay 30  10 Sand, loose 25
Sandy clay 30  10 Sand, very dense 100
Clay 35  10 Gravel 12 5  50
Sandy silt 40  10
Stiff clay 45  10
Dense sandy clay 60  15
Hard clay 75  20

8.1.3.3 Sounding Tests

There are numerous methods for estimating pile capacity from sounding tests[31]. Here the
methods of de Beer[6,7], USSR Code (SNi PII –B.S -67)[32], and that of Meyerhof[23, 24, 25]
will be discussed. The principles underlying the methods are presented in Fig. 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8
respectively and are self-explanatory. The method of de Beer uses the concept of limiting
depths, while the methods of the USSR Code and Meyerhof take the areas of the respective point
resistances. Meyerhof uses the results of the Standard Penetration tests, while de Beer and the
USSR Code use the results of Static Penetrometers.
Due to the relative ease of operation and low cost involved, sounding tests are preferred over
other methods. Nevertheless sounding tests do not replace loading tests. If sounding tests are
judiciously interpreted, the results they offer are reliable.
The ultimate bearing capacity obtained should be divided by a factor of safety to obtain the
allowable load. Unless dictated by prevailing codes, one may use the following factors of safety:
 = 2 for piles without base
 = 2.5 for piles with base
 = 1.7 for wooden piles.

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a ) For uniform soil layer

2
Point resistance s ( kN /m )

C dp

t gs

S1

tE

s ( t )
depth ( m )

S sb tgp

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra.

T ( Prof.) Page 17
Deep Foundations

b ) For non - uniform soil layers

Pile
Point resistance s (2 kN /m )

dp
S1

S2

S3
8.0d

s2

S4
s1
0.7 - 4.0d
Depth t ( m )

The valus of s1 and s2

sb=s1 +s2 2
[ kN /m ]
2 should be weighted values

Fig . 8.6 : Determination of the bearing capacity of piles

from sounding tests according to De Beer [ 6,7 ]

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Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra.

T ( Prof.) Page 19
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T ( Prof.) Page 20
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8.1.3.4 Dynamic Pile Driving Formulas

8.1.3.4.1 General

The bearing capacity of piles may be estimated from pile-driving formulas. Basically, the
formulas use the concept of conservation of momentum and give the dynamic resistance of
penetration. Because of the swift application of the loads, the dynamic pile driving formulas are
applicable in non-cohesive soils where pore water pressures do not develop. There are numerous
formulas for estimating the dynamic resistance of piles. All of them may be classified into two
main categories, namely formulas which use the permanent set (Sp) and formulas which use both
the permanent set (Sp) and the elastic compression of the pile and soil (Se) (Table 8.7). These
quantities could be directly measured while driving the pile in question. This is done by holding
or clamping a piece of paper or board on the pile and moving a pencil horizontally across the
edge of the paper or board. A curve will be traced showing elastic compression of pile and soil
and a permanent set (Fig. 8.9). Those formulas which use Sp and Se are considered to be more
reliable.

se

sp
direction of pencil
hammer blow

movement
direction of

Clamp

Pencil
pencil

Fig . 8.9 : Typical methods of taking graphs in pile driving

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Deep Foundations

Table 8.7: Some Examples of Dynamic Pile-Driving Formulas [quoted in 34]

For Permanent Set (Sp)

No. Author Formula
1 Eytelwein Q1h Q1
 Q1  Q2
S p Q1  Q2
2 Redtenbacher
EF  2h  w Q12 

 p S  S 2
p  
 w  (Q1  Q2 ) EF 
3 Rankine EF   w Q1h 
 S p  S p 
2
2 
w  EF 
4 Weisbach EF  w 
 S p  S p  2 Q1  h  (Q1  Q2 ) S p
2

w  EF 
5 Engineering Q1h
News S p  K2
6 Brix Q1h Q1Q2

S p (Q1  Q2 ) 2
7 Stern  
EF w Q1  k12 Q2
 S p  S p  2  (Q1  Q2 ) S p
2
[Q1 h ]
w  EF Q1  Q2 
8 Janbu 1 Q1h
ku S p

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Deep Foundations

Table 8.7: (Cont’d)

For Permanent Set (Sp) plus Elastic Compression Se

No. Author Formula
1 Hiley ( K 3 Q12  Q1 K 12 Q2 K 3 ) h
(0.5 S e  S p )(Q1  Q2 )
2 Rausch Q12 h
(0.5 S e  S p )(Q1  Q2 )
Definition
Cd = 0.75 + 0.15 Q2/Q1
E = modulus of elasticity of pile [kg/cm2]
F = cross-sectional area of pile [cm2]
h = dropping height [cm]
K1 = 0.30 – 0.60 depending on the material of the ram cover
K2 = 0.25 – 2.50 depending on the type of hammering
K3 = 0.65 – 1.00 depending on the type of hammering
Ku = Cd (1  1  e / Cd )
ℓw = effective length of pile [cm]
Q1 = weight of hammer [kg]
Q2 = weight of pile [kg]
Se = elastic compression [cm]
Sp = permanent set.
Q h
e = 1 2w
FES p

The allowable load will then be determined by dividing the ultimate dynamic resistance by a
factor of safety of 3.
It should be stated at this stage that EBCS-7 explicitly states that pile-driving formulas should
not be used without correlating the results with soil borings and loading tests or local experience.

8.1.3.4.2 Method Using the Exact Variation of Pile Set (Sp)[18]

The movement of the pile head is registered with a fast rotating drum. A pen or any other
appropriate marker is attached to the pile and is made to trace the exact movement of the pile as
the drum rotates with 50 to 100 revolutions per second, thus giving the time-deformation curve
(Fig. 8.10).

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Deep Foundations

driving guide
hammer

electric motor

pen

rotating drum

pile

1
time t ( 100 sec )

first blow
pile deformation ( mm )

Sp

movement of pile

Fig . 8.10 : Arrangement of recorder and data according to Hoffmann [ 18 ]

From the time deformation curve one plots the time velocity curve (Fig. 8.11b), from which the
time acceleration curve is drawn (Fig. 8.11c). Using the concept that force is equal to mass
multiplied by acceleration, one plots the variation of the dynamic resistance (Fig. 8.11d), from
which the mean dynamic resistance is calculated.

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Deep Foundations

v
v6 t6

Penetration velocity ( v )
first blow
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 Time t
v5 t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Time t
?t

movement of pile ( s )

S0 v4
?v

S1 ?t v3 ds
v = tan dt
=
S2
sp

v2
hammer ( vibration )

?s

S3 v1
S4,6 se

S5

a) Time - deformation b) Time - velocity curve

curve

Time w = m.b
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 w0 wdm wd max Time
b0,6 S0
b5
b4 S1
b3 A
sp

S2
b2
acceleration ( b )

dv S3 A
b = tan 
dt= wdm =sp

S4,6 mean dynamic

resistance
se

A = area of the curve

b1 m = mass of the pile

d) Calculation of the dynamic

c) Time - accelaration
resistance
curve

Fig . 8.11 : Determination of mean dymamic resistance of

a pile according to the method of Hoffmann [ 18 ]

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8.1.3.5 Analytical Determination of Bearing Capacity

In general the ultimate bearing capacity of a pile (Pu) equals the point resistance (Ppr) plus the
combined effect of friction and cohesions (Psf).
P u  Ppr  Psf  A p tt  c(t  1) cot  
(8.1)
 t 
 Ut  m  c a 
where 2 
Ap = cross-sectional area of pile
U = perimeter of pile
t = t vt
t =  p e 2 tan  (Rf. Fig. 1.15 for the definition of )
vt = shape factor (Art. 1.3.2.2.2)
 p = tan2 (45 +/2)
 = unit weight of the soil
t = depth of penetration of pile
c = cohesion
ca = adhesion of soil on the pile  c
 = angle of internal friction
m, = coefficients [34].
Considering the point resistance separately, one observes in Eq. (8.1) that the cohesion
component does not directly depend on the depth of penetration of the pile. On the other hand
the friction component is dependent on the depth t. As discussed in Art. 1.3.2.2.1, the influence
of the depth becomes negligible after the limiting depth has been reached.
It is in the analysis of Eq. (8.1) that the various authors differ. For the sake of comparison the
well-known methods have been presented (Table 8.8)
In general, the ultimate bearing capacity (Pu) may also be determined from the following
relationship:

Pu  fAs  qAb
(8.2)
where
f = average skin friction or adhesion per unit area of the shaft at the condition of full
mobilization of frictional resistance
q = ultimate value of the resistance per unit area of the base due to the shearing
strength of the soil
As = surface area of pile shaft
Ab = plan area of the base.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 26

Deep Foundations

The values of f and q are either determined from full-scale tests or estimated from tests on soil
samples either in the laboratory or in situ. For the latest stand one is refer to EBCS-7[14].
The analytical approach of Eq. (8.1) attempts to show the mechanics involved as failure
progresses in the soil mass, while Eq. (8.2), does not show this. Nevertheless, since Eq. (8.2) is
partly supported by test results, it should give a better estimate of the ultimate bearing capacity.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 27

 Deep Foundations

Table 8.8: Some Suggestions for Estimating the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Piles (quoted in 34]
t
pu  p pr  p sf  A p [t t  c(t  1) cot  ]  U t[ m  c a ]
2
No. Author t  t vt Remarks  m Remarks
1 Meyer/ 2p  p  tan 2 (45   / 2) For sand
Peter 1 0.4 till 0.5 For clay const.
skin friction
2 Krey  p ( p ) ( p ) is introduced
1 tan   = wall friction
when the failure
surface is fully
mobilized
3 Dörr p 1 1 1 = angle of internal
1  tan 2 1  sin 21 above the level
cos 2 1 2 of the pile toe

4 Prandtl  p e  tan  Ko tan  Ko = coefficient of

earth pressure at
rest
5 Jaky  p e 2 tan  Ko tan 
6 Caquot/ (1  0.32 tan 2 1 ) p e  tan   = angle of internal friction under 19
tan  1 [ 4  (tan  1 )
2
]
Kerisel the level of the pile tip e 30 3

1 = angle of internal friction tan 1

above the level of the pile tip
7 Ohde 
K o  0.5 for sand 0.54  = tan 
1  Ko  p 2 z    0.42  2    0.42 tan  v,z = soil parameters
  [   2  )  ]  K o  
2 3 3  t from Lab. Tests
 t 
8 Brinch- 3 p e  tan  Instead of the expression
Hansen (t-1) cot  the value of 9 cos 2 1 tan 1
is replaced

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 28