Strength of Materials

Strength of materials, also know as mechanics of materials, is focused on analyzing stresses and de ections in
materials under load. Knowledge of stresses and de ections allows for the safe design of structures that are capable
of supporting their intended loads.

Contents

Stress & Strain (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#stress-and-strain)

Hooke's Law (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#hookes-law)
Strain Energy (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#strain-energy)
Sti ness (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#sti ness)
Structure with Multiple Load Paths (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#sti ness-
multiple-load-paths)
Stress Concentrations (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#stress-concentration)

Combined Stresses (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#combined-stresses)

Mohr's Circle (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#mohrs-circle)
Applications (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#applications)
Allowable Stress Design (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design)
References (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#references)

Related Pages:
• Mechanical Properties of Materials (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/mechanical-properties-of-materials)
• Engineering Materials (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/engineering-materials)
• Structural Calculators (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/)

Stress & Strain

When a force is applied to a structural member, that member will develop both stress and strain as a result of the
force. Stress is the force carried by the member per unit area, and typical units are lbf/in2 (psi) for US Customary
units and N/m2 (Pa) for SI units:

F
σ =
A

where F is the applied force and A is the cross-sectional area (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/cross-

sections#cross-section-properties-table) over which the force acts. The applied force will cause the structural
member to deform by some length, in proportion to its sti ness (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-
materials#sti ness). Strain is the ratio of the deformation to the original length of the part:

L − L0 δ
ϵ = =
L0 L0

where L is the deformed length, L0 is the original undeformed length, and δ is the deformation (the di erence
between the two).
There are di erent types of loading which result in di erent types of stress, as outlined in the table below:

Loading Type Stress Type Illustration

Axial Stress
(general case)
Tensile Stress
Axial Force (if force is tensile)
Compressive Stress
(if force is compressive)

Shear Force Transverse Shear Stress

Bending Moment Bending Stress

Torsion Torsional Stress

Axial stress and bending stress are both forms of normal stress, σ , since the direction of the force is normal to the
area resisting the force. Transverse shear stress and torsional stress are both forms of shear stress, τ , since the
direction of the force is parallel to the area resisting the force.

Normal Stress

F
Axial Stress: σ =
A

My
Bending Stress: σb =
Ic

Shear Stress

F
Transverse Stress: τ =
A

Tr
Torsional Stress: τ =
J
In the equations for axial stress and transverse shear stress (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/beam-
analysis#shear-stress-in-beam), F is the force and A is the cross-sectional area of the member. In the equation for
bending stress (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/beam-analysis#bending-stress-in-beam), M is the bending
moment, y is the distance between the centroidal axis and the outer surface, and Ic is the centroidal moment of
inertia (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/cross-sections#moment-of-inertia) of the cross section about the
appropriate axis. In the equation for torsional stress, T is the torsion, r is the radius, and J is the polar moment of
inertia (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/cross-sections#polar-moment-of-inertia) of the cross section.

In the case of axial stress over a straight section, the stress is distributed uniformly over the entire area. In the case
of shear stress, the distribution is maximum at the center of the cross section; however, the average stress is given
by τ = F /A, and this average shear stress is commonly used in stress calculations. More discussion can be found
in the section on shear stresses in beams (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/beam-analysis#shear-stress-in-beam).
In the case of bending stress and torsional stress, the maximum stress occurs at the outer surface. More discussion
can be found in the section on bending stresses in beams (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/beam-
analysis#bending-stress-in-beam).

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Just as the primary types of stress are normal and shear stress, the primary types of strain are normal strain and
shear strain. In the case of normal strain, the deformation is normal to the area carrying the force:

δ σ
ϵ = =
L0 E

In the case of transverse shear strain, the deformation is parallel to the area carrying the force:

δ parallel to area
γ = = tan ϕ ≈ ϕ
H

where γ is the shear strain (unitless) and ϕ is the deformed angle in units of radians.

In the case of torsional strain, the member twists by an angle, ϕ, about its axis. The maximum shear strain occurs on
the outer surface. In the case of a round bar, the maximum shear strain is given by:
 rϕ
γmax =
L

where ϕ is the angle of twist, r is the radius of the bar and L is the length.

The shear strains are proportional through the interior of the bar, and are related to the max shear strain at the
surface by:

ρ
γ = γmax
r

where ρ is the radial distance from the bar's axis.

Hooke's Law
Stress is proportional to strain in the elastic region of the material's stress-strain curve
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/mechanical-properties-of-materials#stress-strain-curve) (below the
proportionality limit, where the curve is linear).

Normal stress and strain are related by:

σ = Eϵ

where E is the elastic modulus of the material, σ is the normal stress, and ϵ is the normal strain.

Shear stress and strain are related by:

τ = Gγ

where G is the shear modulus of the material, τ is the shear stress, and γ is the shear strain. The elastic modulus
and the shear modulus are related by:

E
G =
2(1 + ν )

where ν is Poisson's ratio.

Hooke's law is analogous to the spring force equation, F = kδ . Essentially, everything can be treated like a spring.
Hooke's Law can be rearranged to give the deformation (elongation) in the material:
 Axial Elongation L0 σ F L0
δ = L0 ϵ = =
(from normal stress) E AE

Angle of Twist τL TL
ϕ = =
(from shear/torsional stress) rG GJ

Strain Energy
When force is applied to a structural member, that member deforms and stores potential energy, just like a spring.
The strain energy (i.e. the amount of potential energy stored due to the deformation) is equal to the work expended
in deforming the member. The total strain energy corresponds to the area under the load de ection curve, and has
units of in-lbf in US Customary units and N-m in SI units. The elastic strain energy can be recovered, so if the
deformation remains within the elastic limit, then all of the strain energy can be recovered.

Strain energy is calculated as:

General Form: U = W ork = ∫ F  dL (area under load-de ection curve)

2 2
1 F L0 σ L0 A
U = Fδ = = (area under load-de ection curve)
2 2AE 2E

Within Elastic Limit:

2
1 AEδ
U = kδ
2
= (spring potential energy)
2 2L0
Note that there are two equations for strain energy within the elastic limit. The rst equation is based on the area
under the load de ection curve. The second equation is based on the equation for the potential energy stored in a
spring. Both equations give the same result, they are just derived somewhat di erently.

More information on strain energy can be found here (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/mechanical-properties-of-

materials#strain-energy).

Need Structural Calculators?

(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/)
We have a number of structural calculators (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/) to choose from. Here are
just a few:

Beam Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/beam-analysis/)

Bolted Joint Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/bolted-joint-analysis/)
Bolt Pattern Force Distribution (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/bolt-pattern-force-distribution/)
Lug Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)
Column Buckling Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/column-buckling/)

(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/)

Sti ness
Sti ness, commonly referred to as the spring constant, is the force required to deform a structural member by a unit
length. All structures can be treated as collections of springs, and the forces and deformations in the structure are
related by the spring equation:

F = kδ max

where k is the sti ness, F is the applied force, and δmax is the maximum de ection de ection in the member.

If the de ection is known, then the sti ness of the member can be found by solving k = F /δmax . However, the
maximum de ection is typically not known, and so the sti ness must be calculated by other means. Beam de ection
tables (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/beam-analysis#beam-de ection-tables) can be used for common cases.
The two most useful sti ness equations to know are those for a beam with an axially applied load, and for a
cantilever beam with an end load. Note that sti ness is a function of the material's elastic modulus, E, the geometry
of the part, and the loading con guration.

Max
Sti ness
De ection Illustration
[lbf/in]
[in]