Learning Essentials

How did life start?

There are, in principle, at least three possibilities:

Special creation

Life-forms may have been put on earth by supernatural or divine forces.

Extraterrestrial origin

Life may not have originated on earth at all; instead, life may have infected earth from some other
planet.

Spontaneous origin

Life may have evolved from inanimate matter, as associations among molecules became more and more
complex.

Special Creation

The theory of special creation, that a divine God created life is at the core of most major religions. The
oldest hypothesis about life’s origins, it is also the most widely accepted. Far more Americans, for
example, believe that God created life on earth than believe in the other two hypotheses. Many take a
more extreme position, accepting the biblical account of life’s creation as factually correct.
Extraterrestrial Origin

The theory of panspermia proposes that meteors or cosmic dust may have carried significant amounts of
complex organic molecules to earth, kicking off the evolution of life. Hundreds of thousands of
meteorites and comets are known to have slammed into the early earth, and recent findings suggest
that at least some may have carried organic materials. Nor is life on other planets ruled out.

Spontaneous Origin

Most scientists tentatively accept the theory of spontaneous origin, that life evolved from inanimate
matter. In this view, the force leading to life was selection. As changes in molecules increased their
stability and caused them to persist longer, these molecules could initiate more and more complex
associations, culminating in the evolution of cells.

For over 150 years – since the time of Charles Darwin – the theory of evolution has been through more
scrutiny and rigorous investigation than just about any other scientific claim.

What is evolution?

Evolution is defined as any process of formation or growth; development.

Theory of Evolution

The idea of evolution has been around for centuries. In fact, it goes all the way back to the ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle. However, evolution is most often associated with Charles Darwin. Darwin
published a book on evolution in 1859 titled On the Origin of Species. In the book, Darwin stated the
theory of evolution by natural selection. He also presented a great deal of evidence that evolution
occurs.

The diversity of life on Earth today is the result of evolution. Life began on Earth at least 3.5 to 4 billion
years ago, and it has been evolving ever since. At first, all living things on Earth were simple, single-celled
organisms. Much later, the first multicellular organisms evolved, and after that, Earth’s biodiversity
greatly increased. Figure below shows a timeline of the history of life on Earth.

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There are three main pieces of evidence supporting evolution:

Species share similarities that are sign of their common ancestry.

Illustrative Example:

Insects, though unbelievably diverse, have 6 legs. There are likely several hundred thousand insect
species and they all have pretty much the same body plan.

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There are progressions of species changing over time.

Example:
All these common vegetables were once wild mustard.

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Species have traits that are the remnants of past generations.

Example:

If you didn’t know any better, you might think this was a flattened elephant foot. Well, that’s not far from
the truth since manatees are closely related to elephants. The West Indian manatee (Trichechus
manatus) has fingernails on its flippers and hair on its body (visible in this photo).

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Learning Essentials

The Miller-Urey Experiment

An early attempt to see what kinds of organic molecules might have been produced on the early earth
was carried out in 1953 by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey. In what has become a classic experiment,
they attempted to reproduce the conditions at ocean’s edge under a reducing atmosphere.

To carry out their experiment, they:

(1) assembled a reducing atmosphere rich in hydrogen and excluding gaseous oxygen;
(2) placed this atmosphere over liquid water, which would have been present at ocean’s edge;

(3) maintained this mixture at a temperature somewhat below 100°C; and

(4) simulated lightning by bombarding it with energy in the form of sparks.

The result of this experiment led to different hypotheses.

The Path of Chemical Evolution

A raging debate among biologists who study the origin of life concerns which organic molecules came
first, RNA or proteins. Scientists are divided into three camps, those that focus on RNA, protein, or a
combination of the two. All three arguments have their strong points. Like the hypotheses that try to
account for where life originated, these competing hypotheses are diverse and speculative.

RNA World

The “RNA world” group feels that without a hereditary molecule, other molecules could not have formed
consistently.

Protein World

The “protein-first” group argues that without enzymes (which are proteins), nothing could replicate at
all, heritable or not. The “protein-first” proponents argue that nucleotides, the individual units of nucleic
acids such as RNA, are too complex to have formed spontaneously, and certainly too complex to form
spontaneously again and again.
Peptide-Nucleic Acid World

Another important and popular theory about the first organic molecules assumes key roles for both
peptides and nucleic acids. Because RNA is so complex and unstable, this theory assumes there must
have been a pre-RNA world where the peptide-nucleic acid (PNA) was the basis for life. PNA is stable and
simple enough to have formed spontaneously, and is also a self-replicator.

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Learning Essentials

What are the themes unifying in the study of life?

Biological Systems

A biological system is basically a combination of parts formed together to create a complex system. For
example, a car is a combination of many parts and pieces. Each piece individually is just that one single
part but combined, they can create the car or motorized vehicle.

Cellular Basis of Life

All organisms are made up of cells and most multicellular organisms have cells that are specialized for
specific functions. An example would be nerve tissue. The tissue consists of many nerve cells and
together they make up a complex network.

Form and Function

How something works is related to its structure. In other word, if you needed to put a screw you don’t
use a hammer, you need to use the correct form to achieve the correct function.

Reproduction and Inheritance

Offspring, in a way, is/are replicas of their parents and grandparents. A child inherits genes from his
parents which gives him his unique characteristics that are also known as DNA.

Interactions with the Environment

Every organism in its environment is continuous in its own way. For instance, a plant goes through
photosynthesis to make its own food and nutrition. The transfer of chemicals between organism and
their environment is a key part in any ecosystem.

Energy and Life

We obtain our energy in a chemical form from molecules in our food. Energy travels through an
ecosystem in sunlight and in heat; ecosystems convert one form of energy into another. Producers like
plants make some of the energy, and consumers like animals eat the food made by the producers.
Energy stored in the body is used to carry out life activities.

Regulation

Your body has a regulated temperature of about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. When you do an activity and
the temperature of your body rises to higher then, to regulate your body temperature, your brain signals
your body to produce sweat. For example, when a dog sticks out its tongue and pants that’s its form of
sweating.

Adaptations and Evolutions

Adaptation means an inherited trait that helps the organism’s ability to survive and reproduces in its
environment. Evolutions mean specifically a generation-to-generation change in proportion different
inherited genes in a population.

Biology and Society

Recently in the past few years, people have been using biology to perform medical procedures,
developing pest- resistance crops, and creating wildlife refuges where animals and other species can be
protected and studied.

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Learning Essentials

What is Bioenergetics?

Bioenergetics is defined as the biology of energy transformations and energy exchanges (as in
photosynthesis) within and between living things and their environments.

This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in
living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration
and the many other metabolic and enzymatic processes that lead to production and utilization of energy
in forms such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.

The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms.
Life is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy
between living tissues/cells and the outside environment.

What is energy?

The cells, as the basic unit of life, of an organism require energy to carry out functions required for life.
Energy is the power to do work. The energy can be kinetic or potential.

Kinetic Energy
It is the energy that an object possesses due to its motion. Heat and light energy are examples of kinetic
energy.

Potential Energy

It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position relative to others, stresses within itself,
electric charge, and other factors. It includes energy stored in chemical bonds.

There are two types of energy reaction:

Exergonic Reaction

It is a spontaneous chemical reaction that releases energy.

Endergonic Reaction

It is an anabolic chemical reaction that consumes energy. It is the opposite of an exergonic reaction.

What is cell?

Cell is the basic unit of life. Cells make up all living things and must carry out certain functions to sustain
life. The primary functions of living cells include transportation of molecules, metabolism of energy, and
reproduction. All plant and animal cells share these basic functions.
Transportation of Molecules

The cell membrane regulates movement of molecules by either active or passive transport. Small
molecules such as oxygen can move though the cell membrane in passive transport. Larger
macromolecules such as proteins are moved via active transport through exocytosis or endocytosis.

Metabolism

Animal cells create energy by aerobic respiration and plant sells use photosynthesis. Both processes
produce the nucleotide Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the primary source of energy for cells, and
it enables them to carry out their other functions.

Reproduction

Cell reproduction is vital to the survival of an organism.

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Learning Essentials

“Sunlight plays a much larger role in our sustenance than we may expect: all the food we eat and all the
fossil fuel we use is a product of photosynthesis, which is the process that converts energy in sunlight to
chemical forms of energy that can be used by biological systems.”

—Wim Vermaas
What is photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical
energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation). This chemical
energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide
and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light", and σύνθεσις, synthesis,
"putting together”. In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Photosynthesis is largely
responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies
all the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.

Photosynthesis may be summarized by the word equation:

In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell
membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself.

In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell
contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is
composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane
space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma
are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened
disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a
lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane
protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.

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Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not
absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color.
Photosynthesis is a two-stage process.

The light-dependent reactions, a light-dependent series of reactions which occur in the grana, and
require the direct energy of light to make energy-carrier molecules that are used in the second process:

light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to make ATP (photophosphorylation)

at the same time water is split into oxygen, hydrogen ions and free electrons

the electrons then react with a carrier molecule nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP),
changing it from its oxidized state (NADP+) to its reduced state (NADPH)

The light-independent reactions, a light-independent series of reactions which occur in the stroma of the
chloroplasts, when the products of the light reaction, ATP and NADPH, are used to make carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide (reduction); initially glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (a 3-carbon atom molecule) is
formed.

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Learning Essentials

Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. At the
first trophic level, primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar energy to produce
organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivores—animals that feed solely on plants—make up
the second trophic level. Predators that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger
predators are present, they represent still higher trophic levels. Organisms that feed at several trophic
levels (for example, grizzly bears that eat berries and salmon) are classified at the highest of the trophic
levels at which they feed. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break
down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.
Autotrophs

They make their own food through the process of photosynthesis, sustain themselves, and do not usually
consume organic molecules derived from other organisms. They are the producers.

Photoautotrophs

They use the energy of light to produce organic molecules.

Chemoautotrophs

They are prokaryotes that use inorganic chemicals as their energy source.

Heterotrophs

They are consumers that feed on plants or animals, or decomposers (an organism of decay. These are
also called saprobes. They break down the remains of dead animals and plants, releasing the substances
that can be used by other members of the ecosystem). They are the consumers.

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Learning Essentials

How do organisms obtain and utilize energy?

The process of obtaining and using energy by living organisms are best explained by three important
scientific terms namely Metabolism, Anabolism and Catabolism.

Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living
state of the cells and the organism. Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two categories:

Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy

Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells

Metabolism is closely linked to nutrition and the availability of nutrients. Bioenergetics is a term which
describes the biochemical or metabolic pathways by which the cell ultimately obtains energy. Energy
formation is one of the vital components of metabolism.

Nutrition, Metabolism and Energy

Nutrition is the key to metabolism. The pathways of metabolism rely upon nutrients that they
breakdown in order to produce energy. This energy in turn is required by the body to synthesize new
proteins, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) etc.

Nutrients in relation to metabolism encompass bodily requirement for various substances, individual
functions in body, amount needed, level below which poor health results etc.

Essential nutrients supply energy (calories) and supply the necessary chemicals which the body itself
cannot synthesize. Food provides a variety of substances that are essential for the building, upkeep, and
repair of body tissues, and for the efficient functioning of the body.

The diet needs essential nutrients like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and
around 20 other inorganic elements. The major elements are supplied in carbohydrates, lipids, and
protein. In addition, vitamins, minerals and water are necessary.
Carbohydrates in metabolism

Foods supply carbohydrates in three forms: starch, sugar, and cellulose (fiber). Starches and sugars form
major and essential sources of energy for humans. Fibers contribute to bulk in diet. Body tissues depend
on glucose for all activities. Carbohydrates and sugars yield glucose by digestion or metabolism.

Proteins in metabolism

Proteins are the main tissue builders in the body. They are part of every cell in the body. Proteins help in
cell structure, functions, hemoglobin formation to carry oxygen, enzymes to carry out vital reactions and
a myriad of other functions in the body. Proteins are also vital in supplying nitrogen for DNA and RNA
genetic material and energy production.

Proteins are necessary for nutrition because they contain amino acids. Among the 20 or more amino
acids, the human body is unable to synthesize 8 and these are called essential amino acids.

Fat in metabolism

Fats are concentrated sources of energy. They produce twice as much energy as either carbohydrates or
protein on a weight basis.

The functions of fats include:

helping to form the cellular structure;

forming a protective cushion and insulation around vital organs;

helping absorb fat soluble vitamins,

providing a reserve storage for energy

Minerals and vitamins in metabolism

The minerals in foods do not contribute directly to energy needs but are important as body regulators
and play a role in metabolic pathways of the body. More than 50 elements are found in the human body.
About 25 elements have been found to be essential, since a deficiency produces specific deficiency
symptoms.

Important minerals include calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, chloride ions, copper, cobalt,
manganese, zinc, magnesium, fluorine and iodine.

Vitamins are essential organic compounds that the human body cannot synthesize by itself and must
therefore, be present in the diet. Vitamins particularly important in metabolism include Vitamin A, B2
(riboflavin), Niacin or nicotinic acid, Pantothenic Acid etc.

Metabolic pathways

The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways. These allow the basic
chemicals from nutrition to be transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a
sequence of enzymes.

Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that
require energy. These reactions also are coupled with those that release energy. As enzymes act as
catalysts they allow these reactions to proceed quickly and efficiently. Enzymes also allow the regulation
of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell's environment or signals from other cells.

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What is reproduction?

Reproduction is a biological processes in which an organism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to
itself.
The offspring grows, matures, and in turn reproduce a new off.

Thus, there is a cycle of birth, growth and death. Reproduction enables the continuity of the species,
generation after generation.

*Asexual reproduction – when offspring is produced by a single parent with or without the involvement
of gamete formation

*Sexual reproduction – when two parents (opposite sex) participate in the reproductive process
involving fusion of male and female gametes

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What are the reproductive parts of plants?

Reproductive parts – the morphological features of plants that are responsible for creating new
individual in sexual processes

Flower

The flower is the reproductive unit of some plants (angiosperms). Parts of the flower include petals,
sepals, one or more carpels (the female reproductive organs), and stamens (the male reproductive
organs).

Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants. Their reproductive structures are flowers in which the
ovules are enclosed in an ovary.

*Stamens are the male reproductive parts of flowers. A stamen consists of an anther (which produces
pollen) and a filament. The pollen consists of the male reproductive cells; they fertilize ovules.

The pistil is the collective term for the carpel(s). Each carpel includes an ovary (where the ovules are
produced; ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style (a tube on top of the ovary), and a
stigma (which receives the pollen during fertilization).

**The ovules are equivalent to the pollen grains of the male reproductive organ. These are the sex cells
produced in the ovary.

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What are the types of reproduction in plants?

1. Self-fertilization/self-pollination Fertilization is a fusion of male and female gametes (sex cells)

produced by the same individual.
Self-fertilization occurs in bisexual organisms, including most flowering plants, numerous protozoans,
and many invertebrates.

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2. Cross-fertilization Cross-fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes from different
individuals of the same species.

It must occur in dioecious plants (those having male and female organs on separate individuals) and in all
animal species in which there are separate male and female individuals. Cross-pollination can only occur
between members of the same species.

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3. Asexual reproduction In this method, a single individual (parent) is capable of producing offspring.

a.Binary fission (“division in half”)

It is a kind of asexual reproduction. Another type of fission is multiple fission, which is advantageous to
the plant life cycle. Multiple fission, at the cellular level occurs in many protists. The nucleus of the
parent cell divides several times by mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates,
creating multiple daughter cells.

b. Budding It involves the growth of a small bulb-like projection called bud. It grows and detaches itself
from the parent cell to grow independently into a new organism.

c. Fragmentation involves breaking down of filaments into fragments that grow into young ones.

d. Artificial Vegetative Propagation.

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*Grafting. The stems of two different plants are joined together so as to produce a new plant containing
the characters of both plants.

*Cutting. It involves planting a young cutting of the stem with buds into moist soil.

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*Layering. A branch of the plant which is near to the ground is pulled towards the ground and a part of
this branch is covered with moist soil leaving the tip of this branch above the ground.

*Tissue culture. A mass of tissue is selected from the growing tip of the plant. This is termed as callus.

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e. Natural Vegetative Propagation *Stolons. Stolons or runners are horizontal stems that grow above the
ground, for example, strawberries. Tiny plantlets form along the stolon, and roots form where they touch
the ground.

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*Rhizomes. Rhizomes are root-like stems that grow horizontally under the ground. New roots and shoots
form at the nodes with shoots growing upwards to form new plantlets. Lateral buds grow out to form
new rhizomes.

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*Tubers. Tubers are swollen portions of an underground stem that store food so a plant can lie dormant
over the winter, for example, potatoes.

Axillary buds, commonly known as ‘eyes’, form over the surface of the tuber and produce shoots that
grow into a new plant the following year.

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*Bulbs. Bulbs form lateral buds from the base of the mother bulb, which produce new smaller bulbs or
bulbels in subsequent years.

f. Sexual reproduction.

*Coniferous Trees. A group of plants called gymnosperms developed wind borne pollen like the cayads,
ginkos and needle-bearing trees such as pines and redwoods.

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Their pollens are released into the air and drift to other trees in the forest.
The plants also developed female cones which are essentially the ovaries. The pollen falls directly to the
female cones. Gymnosperm means naked seeds. These seeds have very thin covering that probably does
not offer them much protection. *The Development of flower.

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Angiosperms have flowers and bear seeds enclosed in a protective covering called a fruit. Angiosperms
are the dominant types of plants today.

Angiosperms are further divided into monocots and dicots. Monocots have one seed leaf. Dicots have
two seed leafs.

Learning Essentials

To perpetuate the generation of species on land, plants need to evolve new structures and methods for
reproduction.

The seed is as significant for plants as the amniotic egg for land animals. Seeds are formed when the
chromosomes of the parents are united in the ovary.

The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum from ovary
in order to produce seeds.

After fertilization, ovaries of flower change to fruits containing seeds.

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What are the organs of plants?

The organs of plants are divided into vegetative and reproductive.

The vegetative organs are the leaves, stem, and roots.

*The leaves take care of food manufacture and transpiration.

*The stem supports the leaves and parts of the plant.

*The roots absorb water and minerals and anchor the plant to the soil.

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The reproductive organs are responsible for the perpetuation of the plant. These are the flowers, fruits,
and seeds.

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Germination is the process by which a plant grows from a seed.

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Every seed is a tiny plant (embryo) with leaves. Stems, and root parts waiting to germinate and grow. It is
protected by a coat, which could either be thin or thick and hard to protect the embryo from tough
conditions.

The seed also contains a short-term food supply called endosperm. This is found in the plant’s
cotyledons.

A plant with one cotyledon is called monocots. If they have two cotyledons, they are called dicots.

Seeds are plant’s way of being dispersed from one place to another.

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Reproduce

Animals can be grouped into those which give birth to living offspring and those which lay eggs that
eventually hatch into offspring.

*Live-bearing or viviparous. The animals which give birth to live offspring.

*Egg-laying or oviparous. The animals which lay-eggs.

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Asexual Reproduction

Parthenogenesis

A female’s egg develops into a new organism without being fertilized by a sperm cell.

Example: aphids, hammerhead sharks, turkeys

Budding

An offspring grows directly out of the body of the parent.

Example: Hydras, predatory cnidarians

Fragmentation

A parent breaks into multiple pieces, each of which develops into a fully functioning, independent
individual.

Example: sea stars, flatworms

Binary fission

It occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some invertebrate, multicelled organisms.

After a period of growth, an organism splits into separate organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic
organisms undergo binary fission by mitosis.

Sexual Reproduction
During sexual reproduction in animals, a haploid sperm and unites with a haploid egg cell to form a
diploid zygote.

The zygote divides mitotically and differentiates into an embryo. The embryo grows and matures. After
birth or hatching, the animal develops into a mature adult capable of reproduction.

Hermaphroditism

It occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female reproductive parts.

Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or mate with another of their species.

Sequential Hermaphroditism

It occurs when an individual reverses its sex during its lifetime.

*Protogynous – when individuals start out life as a female and change sex to male;

*Protandrous – when individuals start out life as a male and change to female.

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Learning Essentials

What is a gene?
Genes are small sections of DNA within the genome that code for proteins.

They contain the instructions for our individual characteristics – like eye and hair colour. Gene is a
functional unit of heredity. It is capable of storing information and capable of self-replication and can
undergo mutation.

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Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins.

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What are the chemical compositions of DNA?

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is found within the nucleus of every cell

Each strand is composed of a long chain of monomer nucleotides. The nucleotide of DNA consists of a
deoxyribose sugar molecule to which is attached a phosphate group and one of four nitrogenous bases:

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Two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine).

The nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds between the phosphate of one nucleotide and
the sugar of the next, forming a phosphate-sugar backbone from which the nitrogenous bases protrude.

One strand is held to another by hydrogen bonds between the bases; the sequencing of this bonding is
specific—i.e., adenine bonds only with thymine, and cytosine only with guanine.

Nucleotide is the building block of DNA.

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Watson and Crick Model

In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick determined that the structure of DNA is a double-helix polymer,
a spiral consisting of two DNA strands wound around each other.
The model shows that paired nucleotide, which always occur as A-T or G-C, are linked by hydrogen
bonds. This is called the complementary base pairing.

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Why is DNA important?

All the characteristics that a person had are affected by the DNA in the cell. It controls the color of the
eyes, hair, complexion, height, etc. These characteristics are traits that can be inherited.

How traits appear in you depends on the kind of proteins a person’s cells make. DNA stores the
blueprints for making proteins.

How DNA copies itself?

Before a cell divides, its DNA is replicated (duplicated.) Because the two strands of a DNA molecule have
complementary base pairs, the nucleotide sequence of each strand automatically supplies the
information needed to produce its partner.

If the two strands of a DNA molecule are separated, each can be used as a pattern or template to
produce a complementary strand; Each template and its new complement together then form a new
DNA double helix, identical to the original.

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What is mitochondrial DNA?

Although most DNA is packaged in chromosomes within the nucleus, mitochondria also have a small
amount of their own DNA. This genetic material is known as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA.
Mitochondria are structures within cells that convert the energy from food into a form that cells can use.

Oxidative phosphorylation- a process where the mitochondria produce energy. This process uses oxygen
and simple sugars to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy source.

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What is RNA?

RNA, ribonucleic acid, is a single strand molecule with no helix.

The structure of RNA nucleotides is very similar to that of DNA nucleotides, with the main difference
being that the ribose sugar backbone in RNA has a hydroxyl (-OH) group that DNA does not.

The four bases of RNA are guanine, cytosine, adenine and uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).

Central Dogma - RNA plays a central role in the pathway from DNA to proteins.

During the process known as transcription, a RNA copy of a segment of DNA, or messenger RNA (mRNA),
is made. This strand of RNA can then be read by a ribosome to form a protein.

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Translating the Code of Life: From DNA to RNA to Protein

Proteins control the activities of the cell, and so the life of the entire organism.

Protein Synthesis Summary

The DNA is inside the nucleus. It contains the information for making proteins. This information has to be
copied or transcribed by the RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA).

The copied information called codon, which is made up of three consecutive nitrogenous bases, is sent
to the cytoplasm where it will enter the ribosomal RNA.

Once inside the ribosome, translation begins, meaning, the transfer of RNA (tRNA) from the cytoplasm
starts to bring the anticodon, the three consecutive nitrogenous pairs, that fits the mRNA codon.

A codon is a base triplet of nucleotides in mRNA which calls for an amino acid. Each anticodon
represents one type of amino acid. Amino acids are the basic units of protein molecules.

When all the codons are covered into amino acids, translation stops and a protein molecule is produced.

Why are proteins important?

Proteins perform all of the work in organisms. Some functions include:

Serving as catalyst for reactions

Performing cell signalling

Transporting molecules across membranes

Creating structures

** Phenotype is what you see - the visible or observable expression of the results of genes, combined
with the environmental influence on an organism’s appearance or behavior.

**Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism and it results in some of the physical characteristics of
that organism.

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Learning Essentials
What is genetic engineering?

Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s characteristics
(phenotype) in a particular way.

It involves the transfer of genes or parts of DNA from one organism to another.

Transgenic organism – organisms whose genes are altered or modifies for specific purposes

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How is DNA used in Genetic Engineering?

Genetic engineering is achieved through manipulation of the DNA. Doing this is possible since DNA is like
a universal language; all DNA for all organisms is made up of the same nucleotide building blocks.

Since DNA contains the genes to build certain proteins, by changing the DNA sequence, engineers are
able to provide a new gene for a cell/organism to create a different protein.

The new instructions may supplement the old instructions such that an extra trait is exhibited, or they
may completely replace the old instructions such that a trait is changed.

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Genetic Engineering Technique

The process for genetic engineering begins the same for any organisms being modified.

1. Identify an organism that contains a desirable gene.

2. Extract the entire DNA from the organism.

3. Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA. One way to do this is by using a restriction enzyme. These
enzymes search for specific nucleotide sequences where they will “cut” the DNA by breaking the bonds
at this location.
4. Insert the new gene to an existing organism’s DNA. This may be achieved through a number of
different processes. Plasmid is a circular piece containing the genetic material. When new gene is
inserted in it, it opens it ring and new gene is attached to its ends through the enzyme called as ligase.
New gene replicates along with the plasmid’s genetic material. For example if plasmid is carrying a gene
of insulin, it will start producing the protein of insulin along with other gene products. Bacteria are of
great significance in the pharmaceutical industry because they are used to produce insulin and other
useful proteins.

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What are the uses of Genetic Engineering?

Repairing a genetic “defect” (as with the early trials of gene therapy in humans)

Enhancing an effect already natural to that organism (example: to increase its growth rate)

Increasing resistance to disease or external damage (example: crops – blight, cold or drought)

Getting a micro-organism to produce human insulin for diabetics, or a sheep to produce a human blood-
clotting in her milk, in both cases a transgenic method)

Getting a tomato to ripen without going squashy

GMO (Genetically Modified Organism)

These are living organism whose genetic material has been synthetically manipulated in a laboratory
through genetic engineering.

These relatively new science creates unstable combinations of plant, animals, bacterial and viral genes
that do not occur in nature or through crossbreeding methods.

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What is cloning?

Cloning is a method that scientist use to produce a genetic copy of another individual.

Clones do not always look identical. Although clones share the same genetic material, the environment
also plays a big role in how an organism turns out.

Do clones ever occur naturally?

In nature, some plants and single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, produce genetically identical
offspring through a process called asexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, a new individual is
generated from a copy of a single cell from the parent organism.

Natural clones, also known as identical twins, occur in humans and other mammals. These twins are
produced when a fertilized egg splits, creating two or more embryos that carry almost identical DNA.
Identical twins have nearly the same genetic makeup as each other, but they are genetically different
from either parent.

Dolly, a sheep, is the first cloned animal. Dolly is a clone of her mother.

About Dolly:

*Dolly had three mothers. One mother gave Dolly her DNA, one supplied an egg, and the third, surrogate
mother, gave birth to her.

*She died after more or less 7 years of survival.

*Dolly, who was naturally mated with a Welsh Mountain ram, gave birth to Bonnie Monday, April 13,
1998.

*The next year Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie, and she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and
Cotton in the year after that.

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Since 1997, the techniques used to clone Dolly have been applied to many other animals.

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Learning Essentials

What are the current uses of Genetically Modified Organisms?

Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs).

Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are increased crop yields, reduced costs for food or
drug production, reduced need for pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and food quality,
resistance to pests and disease, greater food security, and medical benefits to the world's growing
population.

Advances have also been made in developing crops that mature faster and tolerate aluminum, boron,
salt, drought, frost, and other environmental stressors, allowing plants to grow in conditions where they
might not otherwise flourish.

Other applications include the production of nonprotein (bioplastic) or nonindustrial (ornamental plant)
products.

A number of animals have also been genetically engineered to increase yield and decrease susceptibility
to disease.

For example, salmon have been engineered to grow larger and mature faster, and cattle have been
enhanced to exhibit resistance to mad cow disease.

Genetic modification has been widely used for the last two decades in a variety of industries.

* Agriculture
Plant crops, including both food and fiber harvests, have been subject to several types of genetic
modification. Genes used to increase yields include those conveying drought, pest and disease-
resistance.

According to the GMO Compass website, in 2009 more than 88 percent of U.S.-produced corn, soybean
and cotton crops were genetically modified.

The Philippines was the first in Asia to approve commercial cultivation of a GM crop for animal feed and
food in 2002 when it allowed GM corn planting. It has also allowed GM crop imports for more than a
decade. Around 70 percent of its corn output is GM.

*Medicine

According to the Institute for Traditional Medicine, one of the first applications of genetic modification
was the creation a bacterial strain capable of producing human insulin. Insulin, the hormone lacking in
people with diabetes, was previously isolated from pig pancreas.

Other examples of GMOs used in medicine include pharmaceutical agents produced in sheep's milk and
vaccines grown in chicken eggs.

*Bioremediation

Bioremediation describes any process by which living organisms are used to clean up contaminated soil
or water. Bioremediation generally uses microorganisms, small bacteria and yeasts, which ingest the
contaminants in a given site and render them inert through the cells' own metabolic processes.

According to the BioBasics website, factors affecting their survival could include temperature, pH, oxygen
levels and nutrients. Genetic modification makes it possible to engineer bacteria that will be robust
within a given environment, by inserting genes that will ensure their survival.
What are the benefits of using GMOs?

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms made with engineered material with the goal of
improving the original organism. They can then be used, in some cases, to produce GMO foods.

Seeds are genetically changed for multiple reasons, which include improving resistance to insects and
generating healthier crops, according to Healthline.com. This can lower risk of crop failure, and make
crops better resistant to extreme weather.

Engineering can also eliminate seeds and produce a longer shelf life, which allows for the "safe transport
to people in countries without access to nutrition-rich foods."

Environmental benefits. Less chemicals, time, machinery, and land are needed for GMO crops and
animals, which can help reduce environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and soil erosion.

Enhanced productivity because of GMOs could allow farmers to dedicate less real estate to crops. Also,
farmers are already growing corn, cotton, and potatoes without spraying the bacterial insecticide Bacillus
thuringiensis because the crops produce their own insecticides, according to the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.

Better nutrition. By modifying some GMO foods in terms of mineral or vitamin content, companies can
supply more necessary nutrients and help fight worldwide malnutrition, according to The Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

The use of molecular biology in vaccination development has been successful and holds promise,
according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Scientists have engineered
plants to produce vaccines, proteins, and other pharmaceutical goods in a process called "pharming."

What are the risks of using GMOs?

Food allergies in children under 18 spiked from 3.4 percent in 1997-99 to 5.1 percent in 2009-11,
according to the National Center for Health Statistics, though it bears noting that there's no conclusive
scientific link to GMO foods.

GMOs can pose significant allergy risks, according to a Brown University study. Genetic enhancements
often combine proteins not contained in the original organism, which can cause allergic reactions for
humans. For example, if a protein from an organism that caused an allergic reaction is added to
something that previously didn't, it may prompt a new allergic reaction.

Lowered resistance to antibiotics. Some GMOs have built-in antibiotic qualities that enhance immunity,
according to Iowa State University, but eating them can lessen the effectiveness of actual antibiotics.
Genes may migrate. According to The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations,
"Through 'gene escape,' they can pass on to other members of the same species and perhaps other
species. Genes introduced in GMOs are no exception, and interactions might occur at gene, cell, plant,
and ecosystem level.

Problems could result if, for example, herbicide-resistance genes got into weeds. So far, research on this
is inconclusive, with scientists divided — often bitterly. But there is scientific consensus that once widely
released, recalling transgenes or foreign DNA sequences, whose safety is still subject to scientific debate,
will not be feasible."

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Learning Essentials

What is the Metabolism?

Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms.

Enzymes are what make all the chemical reactions in the cell possible.

These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures,
and respond to their environments.

The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms,
including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells, in which case the
set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism.

What are the three main purpose of metabolism?

The three main purposes of metabolism are

conversion of food/fuel to energy to run cellular processes,

conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates,

elimination of nitrogenous wastes.

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What are the different metabolic processes involved in the various organ systems?

Brain – Glucose is virtually the sole fuel for the brain, except during prolonged starvation. The brain lacks
fuel stores and hence requires a continuous supply of glucose.

-Glucose metabolism remains unchanged during mental activity, although local increases are
detected when a subject performs certain tasks

Kidney – the major purpose of the kidney is to produce urine, which serves as a vehicle for excreting
metabolic waste products and for maintaining the osmolarity of the body fluids.

-During starvation kidney becomes an important site of gluconeogenesis and may contribute as
much as half of the blood glucose.

Liver – The metabolic activities of the liver are essential for providing fuel to the brain, muscle, and other
peripheral organs.

-The liver can produce glucose for release into the blood by breaking down its store of glycogen
and by carrying out gluconeogenesis.

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Even the simplest animals on earth are exceedingly complicated biological mechanisms--and advanced
vertebrates like birds or mammals are composed of so many deeply intermeshed, mutually dependent
moving parts that it can be hard for a non-biologist amateur to keep track.

What are the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in representative
animals?

Respiratory System

All cells need oxygen, the crucial ingredient for extracting energy from organic compounds.

Animals obtain oxygen from their environment with their respiratory systems: the lungs of land-dwelling
vertebrates gather oxygen from the air, the gills of ocean-dwelling vertebrates filter oxygen from the
water, and the exoskeletons of invertebrates facilitate the free diffusion of oxygen (from the water or the
air) into their bodies.

Equally important, the respiratory systems of animals excrete carbon dioxide, a waste product of
metabolic processes that would be fatal if allowed to accumulate in the body.

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Circulatory System
Once their respiratory systems obtains oxygen, vertebrate animals supply this oxygen to their cells via
their circulatory systems, networks of arteries, veins and capillaries that carry oxygen-containing blood
cells to every cell in their bodies.

(The circulatory systems of invertebrate animals are much more primitive; essentially, their blood
diffuses freely throughout their much smaller body cavities.)

The circulatory system in higher animals is powered by the heart, a densely packed mass of muscle that
beats millions of times throughout a creature's lifetime.

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Nervous System

The nervous system is what enables animals to send, receive, and process nerve and sensory impulses,
as well as to move their muscles.

In vertebrate animals, this system can be divided into three main components: the central nervous
system (which includes the brain and spinal cord), the peripheral nervous system (the smaller nerves
that branch off from the spinal cord and carry nerve signals to distant muscles and glands), and the
autonomic nervous system (which controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat and digestion).

Mammals possess the most advanced nervous systems, while those of invertebrates are much more
rudimentary.

Digestive System

Animals need to break down the food they eat into its essential components, in order to fuel their
metabolisms.

Invertebrate animals have simple digestive systems--in one end, out the other (as in the case of worms
or insects) or the constant circulation of nutrients around tissues (as in sponges)--but all vertebrate
animals are equipped with some combination of mouths, throats, stomachs, intestines, and anuses or
cloacas, as well as organs (like the liver and pancreas) that secrete digestive enzymes.
Ruminant mammals like cows have four stomachs, in order to efficiently digest fibrous plants

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Endocrine System

In higher animals, the endocrine system is made up of glands (such as the thyroid and the thymus) and
the hormones these glands secrete, which influence or control various body functions (including
metabolism, growth, and reproduction).

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Reproductive System

Arguably the most important organ system from the perspective of evolution, the reproductive system
enables animals to create offspring.

Invertebrate animals exhibit a wide range of reproductive behavior, but the bottom line is that (at some
point during the process) females create eggs and males fertilize the eggs, either internally or externally.

All vertebrate animals--from fish to reptiles to human beings--possess gonads, paired organs that create
sperm (in males) and eggs (in females). The males of higher vertebrates are equipped with penises, and
the females with vaginas, milk-secreting nipples, and wombs in which fetuses gestate.

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Muscular System

Muscles are the tissues that allow animals both to move and to control their movements.
There are three main components of the muscular system:

skeletal muscles (which enable higher vertebrates to walk, run, swim, and grasp objects with their hands
or claws),

smooth muscles (which are involved in breathing and digestion, and are not under conscious control);

cardiac or heart muscles, which power the circulatory system. (Some invertebrate animals, like sponges,
completely lack muscular tissues, but can still move somewhat thanks to the contraction of epithelial
cells)

Immune System

Probably the most complicated and technically advanced of all the systems, the immune system is
responsible for

1) distinguishing an animal's native tissues from foreign bodies and pathogens like viruses, bacteria, and
parasites,

2) mobilizing an immune response, whereby various cells, proteins and enzymes are manufactured by
the body to root out and destroy the invaders.

The main carrier of the immune system is the lymphatic system both of these systems only exist, to a
greater or lesser extent, in vertebrate animals, and are most advanced in mammals.

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Lymphatic System
Closely associate with the circulatory system, the lymphatic system consists of a body-wide network of
lymph nodes, which secrete and circulate a clear fluid called lymph (which is virtually identical to blood,
except that it lacks red blood cells and contains a slight excess of white blood cells).

The lymphatic system is only found in higher vertebrates, and it has two main functions: to keep the
circulatory system supplied with the plasma component of blood, and to maintain the immune system.

(In lower vertebrates and invertebrates, blood and lymph are usually combined, and not handled by two
separate systems.

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Skeletal System

Higher animals are composed of trillions of differentiated cells, and thus need some way to maintain
their structural integrity.

Many invertebrate animals (such as insects and crustaceans) have external body coverings, also known
as exoskeletons, composed of chitin and other tough proteins; sharks and rays are held together by
cartilage; and vertebrate animals are supported by internal skeletons, also known as endoskeletons,
assembled from calcium and various organic tissues.

Many invertebrate animals completely lack any kind of endoskeleton or exoskeleton; witness soft-bodied
jellyfish, sponges and worms.

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Urinary System

All land-dwelling vertebrates produce ammonia, a by-product of the digestion process.

In mammals and amphibians, this ammonia is turned into urea, processed by the kidneys, mixed with
water, and excreted as urine--separately from solid food wastes, which are eliminated in the form of
feces by the digestive system.

Interestingly, birds and reptiles secrete urea in solid form along with their other wastes--these animals
technically have urinary systems, but don't produce liquid urine--while fish expel ammonia directly from
their bodies without first turning it into urea.

(In case you're wondering about whales and dolphins, they do pee, but very infrequently and in highly
concentrated form.)

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Learning Essentials

What are the major organs of most plants?

Major organs of most plants include roots, stems, and leaves.

What is a root system?

Root System

There are two basic types of root systems in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root systems

Taproot systems feature a single, thick primary root, called the taproot, with smaller secondary roots
growing out from the sides. The taproot may penetrate as many as 60 meters (almost 200 feet) below
the ground surface. It can plumb very deep water sources and store a lot of food to help the plant
survive drought and other environmental extremes.
Some plants with taproots:

beetroot

burdock

carrot

sugar beet

dandelion

parsley

Fibrous root systems have many small branching roots, called fibrous roots, but no large primary root.
The huge number of threadlike roots increases the surface area for absorption of water and minerals,
but fibrous roots anchor the plant less securely.

Examples of plants that have fibrous root system:

grass

wheat

rice

marigold

white clover

maize

banana

millet

bamboo

onion

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What is the structure of a root?

The tip of a root is called the root cap. It consists of specialized cells that help regulate primary growth of
the root at the tip. Above the root cap is primary meristem, where growth in length occurs.

Above the meristem, the rest of the root is covered with a single layer of epidermal cells.
These cells may have root hairs that increase the surface area for the absorption of water and minerals
from the soil.

Beneath the epidermis is ground tissue, which may be filled with stored starch. Bundles of vascular
tissues form the center of the root.

Waxy layers waterproof the vascular tissues so they don’t leak, making them more efficient at carrying
fluids. Secondary meristem is located within and around the vascular tissues.

This is where growth in thickness occurs.

What are the functions of the root? They have three major jobs: absorbing water and minerals,
anchoring and supporting the plant, and storing food.

Absorbing water and minerals: Thin-walled epidermal cells and root hairs are well suited to absorb water
and dissolved minerals from the soil. The roots of many plants also have a mycorrhizal relationship with
fungi for greater absorption.

Anchoring and supporting the plant: Root systems help anchor plants to the ground, allowing plants to
grow tall without toppling over. A tough covering may replace the epidermis in older roots, making them
ropelike and even stronger.

Storing food: In many plants, ground tissues in roots store food produced by the leaves during
photosynthesis.

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What is a stem?

The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:

The nodes hold one or more leaves, as well as buds which can grow into branches (with leaves, conifer
cones, or inflorescences (flowers)). Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes.

The internodes distance one node from another.

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What is the structure of the stem?

Stem usually consist of three tissues, dermal tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissue.

The dermal tissue covers the outer surface of the stem and usually functions to waterproof, protect and
control gas exchange.
The ground tissue usually consists mainly of parenchyma cells and fills in around the vascular tissue. It
sometimes functions in photosynthesis.

Vascular tissue provides long distance transport and structural support.

What are the function of the stem?

Stems have four main functions which are:

Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and
provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits.

Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem

Storage of nutrients

Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells
called meristems that annually generate new living tissue.

Leaves are the keys not only to plant life but to all terrestrial life. The primary role of leaves is to collect
sunlight and make food by photosynthesis.

Despite the fundamental importance of the work they do, there is great diversity in the leaves of plants.
However, given the diversity of habitats in which plants live, it’s not surprising that there is no single best
way to collect solar energy for photosynthesis.

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What is the structure of the leaves?

A leaf consists of several different kinds of specialized tissues that work together to make food by
photosynthesis.

The major tissues are mesophyll, veins, and epidermis.

Mesophyll makes up most of the leaves interior. This is where photosynthesis occurs. Mesophyll consists
mainly of parenchymal cells with chloroplasts.

Veins are made primarily of xylem and phloem. They transport water and minerals to the cells of leaves
and carry away dissolved sugar.

The epidermis of the leaf consists of a single layer of tightly-packed dermal cells. They secrete waxy
cuticle to prevent evaporation of water from the leaf. The epidermis has tiny pores called stomata
(singular, stoma) that control transpiration and gas exchange with the air. Figure below explains how
stomata carry out this vital function.
What are the function of the leaves?

Leaves arranged in whorls encircle upright stems at intervals. They collect sunlight from all directions.

Leaves arranged in basal rosettes take advantage of warm temperatures near the ground.

Leaves arranged in alternate or opposing pairs collect light from above. They are typically found on
plants with a single, upright stem.

The blades of simple leaves are not divided. This provides the maximum surface area for collecting
sunlight.

The blades of compound leaves are divided into many smaller leaflets. This reduces wind resistance and
water loss.

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Learning Essentials

What are the different metabolic processes involved in plants?

Plant metabolism is defined as the complex of physical and chemical events of photosynthesis,
respiration, and the synthesis and degradation of organic compounds.

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What is photosynthesis?

The word photosynthesis can be separated to make two smaller words:

“photo” which means light

“synthesis” which means putting togethert

Plants need food but they do not have to wait on people or animals to provide for them. Most plants are
able to make their own food whenever they need it. This is done using light and the process is called
photosynthesis.
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To make food, plants need:

carbon dioxide

water

sunlight

Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of plants. The leaves are made up of very small cells. Inside
these cells are tiny structures called chloroplasts. Each chloroplast contains a green chemical called
chlorophyll which gives leaves their green color.

Chlorophyll absorbs the sun’s energy.

It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

Oxygen is released from the leaves into the atmosphere.

Hydrogen and carbon dioxide are used to form glucose or food for plants.

Some of the glucose is used to provide energy for the growth and development of plants while the rest is
stored in leaves, roots or fruits for later use by plants.

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What is respiration?

All living things get the energy they need to live from a chemical reaction called respiration. This process
needs glucose as a starting point.

Plant cells respire, just as animal cells do. If they stop respiring, they will die. Remember that respiration
is not the same as breathing, so take care - plants do not breathe.

As we can see from the word equations respiration and photosynthesis are opposites.

Respiration uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide.

Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.

Living cells respire. Aerobic respiration is the chemical reaction used to release energy from glucose. It is
called aerobic because oxygen from the air is also needed.
Here is the word equation for aerobic respiration. Energy is put in brackets because it not a substance:

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

Notice that the word equation for respiration is the reverse of the word equation for photosynthesis.

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What are metabolites?

Metabolites are compounds synthesized by plants for both essential functions, such as growth and
development (primary metabolites), and specific functions, such as pollinator attraction or defense
against herbivory (secondary metabolites).

Metabolites are organic compounds synthesized by organisms using enzyme-mediated chemical

reactions called metabolic pathways.

Primary metabolites have functions that are essential to growth and development and are therefore
present in all plants. In contrast, secondary metabolites are variously distributed in the plant kingdom,
and their functions are specific to the plants in which they are found.

Secondary metabolites are often colored, fragrant, or flavorful compounds, and they typically mediate
the interaction of plants with other organisms. Such interactions include those of plant-pollinator, plant-
pathogen, and plant-herbivore.

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Earth is teeming with life. It sustains an incredible number of organisms, most of which are not yet
catalogued or studied by science.

Evolution is responsible for the diverse lifeforms on Earth. The diversity of life is a result of a complex
process called evolution.

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It is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the
levels of species, individual organisms, and molecules.
 Homology & Evolution

Homology, in biology, similarity of the structure, physiology, or development of different species of

organisms based upon their descent from a common evolutionary ancestor.

The forelimbs of such widely differing mammals as humans, bats, and deer are homologous; the form of
construction and the number of bones in these varying limbs are practically identical, and represent
adaptive modifications of the forelimb structure of their common early mammalian ancestors.

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Analogous structures, on the other hand, can be represented by the wings of birds and of insects; the
structures are used for flight in both types of organisms, but they have no common ancestral origin at
the beginning of their evolutionary development.

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*A 19th-century British biologist, Sir Richard Owen, was the first to define both homology and analogy in
precise terms.

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When two or more organs or structures are basically similar to each other in construction but are
modified to perform different functions, they are said to be serially homologous. An example of this is a
bat’s wing and a whale’s flipper.

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*Both originated in the forelimbs of early mammalian ancestors, but they have undergone different
evolutionary modification to perform the radically different tasks of flying and swimming, respectively.
*Sometimes it is unclear whether similarities in structure in different organisms are analogous or
homologous. An example of this is the wings of bats and birds.

These structures are homologous in that they are in both cases modifications of the forelimb bone
structure of early reptiles. But birds’ wings differ from those of bats in the number of digits and in having
feathers for flight while bats have none.

**And most importantly, the power of flight arose independently in these two different classes of
vertebrates; in birds while they were evolving from early reptiles, and in bats after their mammalian
ancestors had already completely differentiated from reptiles.

**Thus, the wings of bats and birds can be viewed as analogous rather than homologous upon a more
rigorous scrutiny of their morphological differences and evolutionary origins.

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DNA/Protein Sequence & Evolution

One of the strongest evidences for common descent comes from the study of gene sequences.

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Comparative sequence analysis examines the relationship between the DNA sequences of different
species, producing several lines of evidence that confirm Darwin's original hypothesis of common
descent. If the hypothesis of common descent is true, then species that share a common ancestor
inherited that ancestor's DNA sequence, as well as mutations unique to that ancestor.

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More closely related species have a greater fraction of identical sequence and shared substitutions
compared to more distantly related species.

The simplest and most powerful evidence is provided by phylogenetic reconstruction. Such
reconstructions, especially when done using slowly evolving protein sequences, are often quite robust
and can be used to reconstruct a great deal of the evolutionary history of modern organisms (and even
in some instances such as the recovered gene sequences of mammoths, Neanderthals or T. rex, the
evolutionary history of extinct organisms).

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Phylogenetic relationships also extend to a wide variety of nonfunctional sequence elements, including
repeats, transposons, pseudogenes, and mutations in protein-coding sequences that do not result in
changes in amino-acid sequence. While a minority of these elements might later be found to harbor
function, in aggregate they demonstrate that identity must be the product of common descent rather
than common function.

What is the DNA Sequencing?

Comparison of the DNA sequences allows organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity, and the
resulting phylogenetic trees are typically congruent with traditional taxonomy, and are often used to
strengthen or correct taxonomic classification

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Sequence comparison is considered a measure robust enough to correct erroneous assumptions in the
phylogenetic tree in instances where other evidence is scarce.
For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2% divergent (based on substitutions)
from those of their nearest genetic relative, the chimpanzee, 1.6% from gorillas, and 6.6% from baboons.

Genetic sequence evidence thus allows inference and quantification of genetic relatedness between
humans and other apes. The sequence of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, a vital gene encoding a part of
the ribosome, was used to find the broad phylogenetic relationships between all extant life.

The analysis, originally done by Carl Woese, resulted in the three-domain system, arguing for two major
splits in the early evolution of life. The first split led to modern Bacteria and the subsequent split led to
modern Archaea and Eukaryotes.

What are endogenous retroviruses?

Endogenous retroviruses (or ERVs) are remnant sequences in the genome left from ancient viral
infections in an organism.

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The retroviruses (or virogenes) are always passed on to the next generation of that organism that
received the infection. This leaves the virogene left in the genome. Because this event is rare and
random, finding identical chromosomal positions of a virogene in two different species suggests common
ancestry.

What is protein?

The proteomic evidence also supports the universal ancestry of life. Vital proteins, such as the ribosome,
DNA polymerase, and RNA polymerase, are found in everything from the most primitive bacteria to the
most complex mammals.