GE1706

The Self

I. The “self” based on various perspectives

A. David Hume’s definition
In epistemology, he questioned common notions of personal identity and argued that there is no
permanent “self” that continues over time. This idea can be formulated as the following arguments:
• All ideas are ultimately derived from impressions.
• So, the idea of a persisting “self” is ultimately derived from impressions.
• But, no impression is a persisting thing.
• Therefore, there cannot be any persisting idea of “self.”
In other words, because the “self” must be a constant, persisting, stable thing, and yet all knowledge
is derived from impressions, which are transient, non-persisting, variable things, it follows that we do
not really have knowledge of a “self” and therefore, there is no self.

B. Gilbert Rye’s definition

Ryle attacked Descartes’, Plato’s, and Freud’s idea of a dualistic metaphysics of mind and body –
which views the mind and body as two (2) radically different aspects of the self. He decided to focus on
the observable behavior of self by ignoring or denying the existence of an internal, nonphysical self. No
more inner selves, immortal souls, states of consciousness, or unconsciousness entities. He defined
self as the behavior that is presented to the world, a view that is known today as behaviorism.

C. Immanuel Kant’s definition

According to Kant, we all have an inner and outer self which together form our consciousness. The
inner self is comprised of our psychological state and our rational intellect. The outer self includes our
sense and the physical world.
When speaking of the inner self, there is apperception. Apperception is how we mentally assimilate
a new idea into old ones. According to Kant, representation occurs through our senses. It is mental
imagery based on past sensations and experiences.

D. John Locke’s definition

According to Locke, the self is a thinking intelligent being that has reason and reflection and can
consider itself as itself, the same thinking thing, in different times and places, and continues to define
personal identity simply as “the sameness of a rational being.” As long as one is the same self, the
same rational being, one has the same personal identity (Nimbalkar, 2011).
John Locke holds that personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity. He considered
personal identity (or the self) to be founded on consciousness or memory and not on the substance of
either the soul or the body.

E. Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s definition

According to Merleau-Ponty, the mind is part of the body and the body is part of the mind. We may
have some sort of stand-alone mental faculty that perceives, but it needs the body to communicate with
the world. It needs the body to act on its perceptions.
He argued that the body is not just an object that imprisons the mind, it is a subject. It is not just a
slave to the mind's consciousness. It is part of consciousness. The perception of the mind and the
actions of the body are unified as one.
In Phenomenology of Perception, he wrote, “Inside and outside are inseparable. The world is wholly
inside and I am wholly outside myself.” To sum it up, this work asserts that self and perception are
encompassed in a physical body. Therefore, the physical body is a part of self.

F. Patricia Churchland’s definition

Churchland views the self as the brain. She argued that the more we know about the brain, the
clearer it becomes that the brain is each of us. That there is no “mind” beyond the brain. No “self”
beyond it and no soul.
In her book Touching the Nerve: The Self as Brain, she stated that: “My brain and I are inseparable.
I am who I am because my brain is what it is. Even so, I often think about my brain in terms different

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from those I use when thinking about myself. I think about my brain as that and about myself as me. I
think about my brain as having neurons, but I think of me as having a memory. Still, I know that my
memory is all about the neurons in my brain. Lately, I think about my brain in more intimate terms— as
me.”

G. Plato’s definition
Plato, like Descartes, believes that persons are immaterial souls or pure egos. On this view, persons
have bodies only contingently, not necessarily; so they can live after bodily death.
According to him, a person’s inner life or soul has three (3) distinct elements: the appetite, the
spirited or hot-blooded part, and the mind.
Plato's three (3) elements of the psyche are:
• The appetite, which includes all our myriad desires for various pleasures, comforts, physical
satisfactions, and bodily ease.
• The spirited, or hot-blooded part, i.e. the part that gets angry when it perceives (for example)
an injustice being done.
• The mind (nous), is the part that thinks, analyzes, looks ahead, rationally weighs options, and
tries to gauge what is best and truest overall.

H. Rene Descartes’ definition

In his work, Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes discussed dualism. Dualism is the theory
which states that reality or existence is divided into two (2) parts. When speaking of humanity, dualism
asserts that the mind is separate from the body. With his ties to dualism, Descartes believed the mind
is the seat of our consciousness. Because it houses our drives, intellect, and passions, it gives us our
identity and our sense of self.

I. Sigmund Freud’s definition

Sigmund Freud postulated that there are three (3) layers of self within us all: the id, ego, and
superego.
According to Freud, id is the first part of the self to develop. It is the seat of all our desires and
wants. Rather than dealing rationally or logically, id exists to express urges it wants to see filled. Context
has no meaning; the goal is only to have urges and desires met.
Differing from the id, ego is the part of us that deals in reality. The ego regulates how many of the
id's urges will be expressed or met. The ego is able to discern what is right or wrong based on context.
Last is the superego. The superego seeks to attain the ideal of a perfect ego. However, the
superego is irrational in its idea and pursuit of perfection. Believing that the superego is formed by our
parents and even religion, Freud asserted that the superego can be rigid and punishing. Due to the
stringency of the superego and the waywardness of the id, a healthy ego acts as a regulator of both.

J. Augustine of Hippo’s definition

Noverim te, noverim me: "May I know you [God], May I know myself." Augustine wrote these words
in one of his earliest works, but it retained its force throughout his lifetime. He believes that the self can
only be truly discovered through a recognition of God’s love and man’s response to that love.

II. Factors that can influence or shape the self

There are different factors which can influence a person’s self-concept. Baumeister (1999) as cited by
McLeod (2008) defines self-concept as “the individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the
person’s attributes and who and what the self is.”
According to Carl Rogers, the self-concept has three (3) different components:
• Self-worth – the view a person has for himself/herself
• Self-image – how much value a person places on himself/herself
• Ideal self – the self a person aspires to be
A person’s self-concept can be influenced by age, appearance, gender, culture, emotional
development, education, relationships with other people, sexual orientation, and life experiences.

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III. Self-Examination and Self-Discipline

A. Self-Examination
• the thought that you give to your own character and actions, for example in order to judge
whether you have been behaving in a way that is acceptable to your own set of values
• a reflective examination (as of one's beliefs or motives)

B. Self-Discipline
• the ability to control yourself and to make yourself work hard or behave in a particular way
without needing anyone else to tell you what to do
12 Ways You Can Develop Your Self-Discipline (Forbes Coaches Council, 2017)
1. Set priorities
Start each day by prioritizing tasks. Identify where your efforts are best spent, then dedicate
appropriate time for them. This will ensure you don’t end each day feeling defeated because
efforts were wasted on low-priority items.
2. Find an accountability partner
It can be a colleague, friend, or a peer. Make a shared document, then track progress and give
each other praise when warranted. Also, make sure you hold each other accountable. Don't let
excuses fly.
3. Start with one non-negotiable
Focus on that one thing and make it a non-negotiable. As you begin to see results, you will find
that it becomes a habit and you can make something else your non-negotiable.
4. Know your pain tolerance
Determine what suffering you are willing to do to achieve your goal. Not all goals are worth
suffering for, and not all sufferings yield results. Start by asking, "What suffering am I willing to
do today?"
5. Be consistent
If you make excuses — about your studies or having no time — you will have neither self-
discipline nor true happiness. So what's most important to you? Carve out a time to do this,
every day for a month. Whatever it is, start small. Commit, no matter what.
6. Take time to visualize
Self-discipline is like a muscle — the more you exercise it, the stronger it gets. A starting point
to get you unstuck is to take time to visualize how great it will be to get things done, imagine
and paint a mental picture of the benefits and the sense of satisfaction you’ll have once it’s
done.
7. Understand your personality
Self-awareness not only helps you understand how these situations affect your stress levels
and quality of life but also manage your natural reactions to achieve the best outcome, even if
that means hiring a workaround for what you hate to do.
8. Focus on the power of choice
Self-discipline is easy when you focus on the power you have to choose. When we exhibit
behaviors that are not aligned with our goals, we often overlook our power to choose and revert
to our default behaviors. Slow down and ask yourself what you are choosing in each moment
when you are working on greater discipline. It is okay to make "off-course" choices sometimes,
just notice and learn from them.
9. Eat at regular times
Eating at regular intervals regulates blood sugar levels, improves concentration, and helps with
decision-making. Fuel your body to have better self-discipline.
10. Remind yourself, so you don’t forget
Developing more self-discipline typically involves beginning or re-engaging in a new set of
behaviors or a new routine. Write it down, schedule it, or create a visual reminder of what you're
trying to accomplish, so it doesn't slip through the cracks of your busy day.
11. Set reminders

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Self-discipline is hard. To stay focused, keep your goals top of mind. For example, if you want
to start going to bed earlier, willpower alone may not be enough to get you to shut off the next
Netflix episode. But setting a phone reminder for 10 p.m. with a message related to your goal.

12. Ask ‘What’s next?’

Define your 30,000-foot vision of where you want to be and when. Working backward, break
down the vision into very small steps and start with the first "doable quickly" step. Ask "what's
next?" then move forward with the next "doable quickly" step.

References:
12 ways you can develop your self-discipline. (2017). Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2017/12/01/12-ways-you-can-develop-your-
self-discipline/#6d2cf8f51a20
Churchland, P., (2013). Touching a nerve: the self as brain. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
David Hume. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.iep.utm.edu/hume/
Hume on personal identity. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://rintintin.colorado.edu/~vancecd/phil1020/Hume4.pdf
Kerns, T. (n.d.). Plato’s three parts of the soul. Retrieved from
http://philosophycourse.info/platosite/3schart.html
McLeod, S. (2008). Self-concept. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html
Nimbalkar, N. (2011). John Locke on personal identity. 2011 Jan-Dec; 9(1): 268–275. doi: 10.4103/0973-
1229.77443
O’Donnel, J. (n.d.). Augustine. Retrieved from http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/twayne/aug5.html
Personal identity. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.iep.utm.edu/person-i/
Piccirillo, R. (2010). The Lockean memory theory of personal identity: Definition, objection, response.
Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1683/the-lockean-memory-theory-of-
personal-identity-definition-objection-response
Revisiting Carl Rogers theory of personality. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://journalpsyche.org/revisiting-carl-
rogers-theory-of-personality/
Self-concept. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://resources.hwb.wales.gov.uk/VTC/2012-
13/22032013/hsc/eng/unit_2/hsc_u2_self_concept.htm
Self-discipline. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/self-discipline.
Self-examination. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/self-
examination.
Self-examination. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-examination.
The self is embodied subjectivity: Husserl and Merleau-Ponty. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://revelpreview.pearson.com/epubs/pearson_chaffee/OPS/xhtml/ch03_sec_11.xhtml#P70004
96877000000000000000000CF3
The self is how you behave: Ryle. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://revelpreview.pearson.com/epubs/pearson_chaffee/OPS/xhtml/ch03_sec_09.xhtml
Whittemore, J. (n.d.). The self according to Rene Descartes. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-self-according-to-rene-descartes.html
Whittemore, J. (n.d.). Immanuel Kant's metaphysics of the self. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/immanuel-kants-metaphysics-of-the-self.html#transcriptHeader
Whittemore, J. (n.d.). Sigmund Freud’s layers of the self. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/sigmund-freuds-layers-of-the-self.html

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