Machine Design

For

Mechanical Engineering

By

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 Syllabus

Syllabus for Machine Design

Design for Static and Dynamic Loading; Failure Theories; Fatigue Strength and the
S-N Diagram; Principles of the Design of Machine Elements such as Bolted, Riveted and
Welded Joints, Shafts, Spur Gears, Rolling and Sliding Contact Bearings, Brakes and Clutches.

Analysis of GATE Papers

Year Percentage of Marks Overall Percentage

2015 3.70
2014 5.50
2013 6.00
2012 8.00
2011 3.00 6.419%
2010 6.00
2009 6.00
2008 9.33
2007 11.33
2006 5.33

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 Contents

Contents
Chapters Page No.
#1. Design for Combined Loading 1 – 12
 Introduction 1
 Theories of Failure 1–4
 Solved Examples 4–8
 Assigment 1 9 – 10
 Assigment 2 10 – 11
 Answer Keys & Explanations 11 – 12

#2. Design for Dynamic Loading 13 – 31

 Introduction 13
 Stress Concentration 13 – 15
 Fatigue 15
 Fatigue or Endurance Limit 15 – 16
 Linear Elastic Fatigue-Life Methods 17 – 20
 Factors Effecting Endurance Limit 21 – 23
 Solved Examples 23 – 26
 Assignment 1 27 – 28
 Assignment 2 28 – 29
 Answer Keys & Explanations 29 – 31

#3. Design of Joints 32 - 56

 Introduction 32
 Riveted Joints 33 – 35
 Types of Riveted Joints 35 – 36
 Tearing of Plate in Front of the Rivet 37 – 40
 Bolted/Screw Joints 40 – 44
 Welded Joints 44 – 48
 Solved Examples 48 – 52
 Assignment 1 53 – 54
 Assignment 2 54 – 55
 Answer Keys & Explanations 55 – 56

#4. Design of Shaft and Shaft Components 57 – 64

 Introduction 57
 Shaft Design for Stress 58 – 59
 Shaft Components 60

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 Contents

 Solved Examples 60 – 61
 Assignment 62 – 63
 Answer Keys & Explanations 64

#5. Design of Bearings 65 – 81

 Introduction 65
 Rolling Contact Bearings 65 – 68
 Bearing Life 68 – 70
 Sliding Contact/Journal Bearings 71 – 75
 Solved Examples 75 – 77
 Assignment 1 78
 Assignment 2 79
 Answer Keys & Explanations 80 – 81

#6. Design of Brakes and Clutches 82 – 100

 Introduction 82
 Brake Design 82 – 86
 Clutch Design 87 – 92
 Solved Examples 92 – 95
 Assignment 1 96 – 97
 Assignment 2 97 – 98
 Answer Keys & Explanations 98 – 100

#7. Design of Spur Gears 101 – 114

 Introduction 101
 Gear Nomenclature 101 – 102
 Interference in Involute Gears 103 – 104
 Lewis Equation – Beam strength of Gear Teeth 104 – 105
 Permissible Working Stress 105 – 106
 Solved Examples 106 – 110
 Assignment 1 111
 Assignment 2 111 – 112
 Answer Keys & Explanations 113 – 114

Module Test 115 – 120

 Test Questions 115 – 118
 Answer Keys & Explanations 119 – 120

Reference Books 121

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 “Success consists of going from failure to
failure without loss of enthusiasm.”

1
(Winston Churchill)

1
CHAPTER

Design for Combined Loading

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Theories of Failure
2. Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
4. Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant Theory)
5. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von-Mises Theory)

Introduction
A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member. To be stationary, the force or
couple must be unchanging in magnitude, point or points of application and direction. A static load
can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load, a torsional load, or any
combination of these. To be considered static, the load cannot change in any manner. In most testing
of these properties of materials that relate to the stress-strain diagram, the load is applied gradually,
to give sufficient time for the strain to fully develop. Furthermore, the specimen is tested to
destruction, and so the stresses are applied only once. Testing of this kind is applicable, to what are
known as static conditions; such conditions closely approximate the actual conditions to which
many structural and machine members are subjected. Another important term in design is “failure”.
The definition of failure varies depending upon the component and its application. Failure can mean
a part has separated into two or more pieces has become permanently distorted, thus ruining its
geometry has its reliability downgraded or has its function compromised, whatever the reason.

Theories of Failure
Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking and rupturing are among the ways that a
machine element fails. In uni-axial tension test the failure mechanisms is simple as elongations are
largest in the axial direction, so strains can be measured and stresses inferred up to “failure.” The
“failure” conclusion becomes challenging when the loading is bi-axial or tri-axial. Unfortunately,
there is no universal theory of failure for the general case of material properties and stress state.
Instead, over the years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to today’s
accepted practices. These “practices” as known as theories of failure and are used to analyse the
failure of materials.

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 Design for Combined Loading

Structural metal behavior is typically classified as being ductile or brittle, although under special
situations, a material normally considered ductile can fail in a brittle manner. Ductile materials are
normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 and have an identifiable yield strength that is often the same
in compression as in tension (Syt = Syc = Sy ). Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit identifiable
yield strength, and are typically classified by ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, Sut and Suc,
respectively (where Suc is given as a positive quantity).

The Generally Accepted Theories are:

1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory)
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory(also known as Saint Venant theory)
4. Maximum strain energy theory(also known as Haigh’s theory)
5. Maximum distortion energy theory(also known as Hencky and Von-Mise’s theory)

Since ductile material usually fail by yielding i.e., when permanent deformation occurs in the
material and brittle materials fail by fracture, therefore the limiting strength for these two classes of
materials is normally measured by different mechanical properties. For ductile materials the
limiting strength is the stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test and it is
assumed to be equal in tension and compression. For brittle materials the limiting strength is the
ultimate stress in tension or compression.

Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal or normal stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension
test.
Since the limiting strength brittle materials (which do not have well defined yield point) the limiting
strength is ultimate stress, therefore according to the above theory, taking factor of safety (F.O.S) in
to consideration, the maximum principal or normal stress (σt1 ) in a bi-axial system is given by
σyt
σt1 = For ductile material
F. S
σu
= For brittle material
F. S
Where, σyt = Yield points stress in tension as determined from simple tension test, and
σu = Ultimate stress
Since the maximum principal stress or stress theory is based on failure in tension or compression
and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile
materials. However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or
compression this theory is generally used.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)

According to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear at yield reaches a value
equal to the shear at yield point in a simple tension test mathematically
τmax = τyt /F. O. S ------------ (i)
Where, τmax = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system
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 Design for Combined Loading

τyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test
F.O.S = Factor of Safety
Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-half the yield stress in
tension, therefore the equation (i) may be written as;
σyt
τmax =
2 × F. O. S
This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile material.

Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant Theory)

According to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal (or normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (strain a
yield point) as determined from a simple tensile test. The maximum principal (or normal) strain in a
bi-axial stress system is given by,
σt1 σt2
εmax = −
E m. E
∴ According to the above theory
σt1 σt2 σyt
εmax = − = ε= − − − − − (i)
E m. E E × F. O. S
Where
σt1 and σt2 = Maximum and minimum principal stresses in bi-axial stress system
ε = Strain at yield point as determined from simple tension test
1/m = Poisson’s ratio
E = Young’s modulus
F. O. S = Factor of safety
From equation no (i), we may write that
σt2 σyt
σt1 − =
m F. O. S
This theory is not used, in general, because it only gives reliable results in particular cases.

Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain
energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e., strain
energy at the yield pant) per unit volume as determined from simple tension test.
We know that strain energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system
1 2 2 2σt1 × σt2
U1 = [(σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − ]
2E m
and limiting strain energy per unit volume for yielding as determined from simple tension test
1 σyt 2
U2 = ( )
2E F. O. S
According to the above theory, U1 = U2
1 2 2 2σt1 × σt2 1 σyt 2
∴ [(σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − ]= ( )
2E m 2E F. O. S
2 2 2σt1 × σt2 σyt 2
or (σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − =( )
m F. O. S

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 Design for Combined Loading

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von-Mises Theory)

According to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion
strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches
the limiting distortion energy (i.e., distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined
from a simple tension test mathematically the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as
2 2 σyt 2
(σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − σt1 × σt2 = ( )
F. O. S
This theory is mostly used fir ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.

Solved Examples
Example 1
Find the maximum principal stress developed in a cylindrical shaft, 8 cm in diameter and
subjected to a bending moment of 2.5 kNm and a twisting moment of 4.2 kNm. If the yield
stress of the shaft material is 300 MPa. Determine the factor of safety of the shaft
according to the maximum shearing stress theory of failure.
Solution:
Given: d = 8 cm = 0.08 m; M = 2.5 kNm = 2500 Nm; T = 4.2 kNm = 4200 Nm
σyield (σyt ) = 300 MPa = 300 MN/m2
Equivalent torque, Te = √M 2 + T 2
= √(2.5)2 + (4.2)2 = 4.888 kNm
Maximum shear stress developed in the shaft,
16Te 16 × 4.888 × 103
τmax = = × 10−6 MN⁄m2 = 48.62 MN⁄m2
πd3 π × (0.08)3
300
Permissible shear stress = = 150 MN/m2
2
150
∴ Factor safety = = 3.085
48.62

Example 2
A cube of 5mm side is loaded as shown in Figure.
(i) Determine the principle stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3 .
(ii) Will the cube yield if the yield strength of the material is 70 MPa? Use Von-Mises
theory.
Solution:
Yield strength of the material, σet = 70 MPa = 70 MN/m2 or 70 N/mm2
1000 N
y
800 N

800 N 5 mm
500 N

2000 N

5 mm
z x
5 mm

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 Design for Combined Loading

(i) Principal stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3 :

2000
σx = = 80 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
1000
σy = = 40 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
500
σz = = 20 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
800
τxy = = 32 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
σx + σy σx − σy 2 80 + 40 80 − 40) 2
σ = ± √( ) + τ2xy = ± √( ) + (32)2
2 2 2 2
= 60± √(20)2 + (32)2 = 97.741, 22.26
∴ σ1 = 97.74 N/mm2 or 97.74 MPa
σ2 = 22.26 N/mm2 or 22.26 MPa
σ3 = σZ = 20 N/mm2 or 20 MPa
(ii) Will the cube yield?
According to Von-Misses yield criteria, yielding will occur if
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ≥ 2σ2yt
Now, (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2
⇒ (97.74 – 22.26)2 + (22.26 − 20)2 + (20 − 97.74)2
⇒ 5697.2 + 5.1 + 6043.5 = 11745.8 … (i)
2σ2yt = 2 × (70)2 = 9800 … (ii)
Since 11745.8 (i) > 9800, (ii) Hence yielding will occur

Example 3
A thin-walled circular tube of wall thickness t and min radius r is subjected to an axial
load P and torque T in a combined tension-torsion experiment.
(i) Determine the state of stress existing in the tube in terms of P and T.
(ii) Using Von-Mises – Henky failure criteria show that failure takes place
when√σ2x + 3τ2xy , where σ0 is the yield stress in uniaxial tension, σx and τxy are
respectively the axial and torsional stresses in the tube.
Solution:
Min radius of the tube = r
Wall thickness of the tube = t
Axial load = P
Torque = T
(i) The State of Stress in the Tube
P
Due to axial load, the axial stress in the tube σx =
2πrt
Due to torque, shear stress,
Tr Tr T
τxy = = 3
=
Jp 2πr t 2πr 2 t
π
Jp = {(r + t)4 − r 4 } = 2πr 3 t − neglecting t 2 higher power of t
2
P T
∴ The state of stress in the tube is, σx = , σy = 0, τxy =
2πrt 2πr2 t

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 Design for Combined Loading

(ii) Von Mises-Henky Failure in Tension for 2-Dimensional Stress is

σ20 = σ12 + σ22 − σ1 σ2
σx + σy σx − σy 2
σ1 = + √( ) + τ2xy
2 2

σx + σy σx − σy 2
σ2 = − √( ) + τ2xy
2 2

σx σ2x
In this case, σ1 = + √ + τ2xy and
2 4

σx σ2x
σ2 = − √ + τ2xy (∵ σy = 0)
2 4
2 2
σx σ 2 σ σ 2 σ σ 2
σ σ 2
∴ σ20 =[ + √ x + τ2xy ] + [ x − √ x + τ2xy ] − [ x + √ x + τ2xy ] [ x − √ x + τxy ]
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

σ2x σ2x σx σ2x

= [ + + τ2xy + 2 √ + τ2xy ]
4 4 2 4

σ2x σ2x σx σ2x σ2 σ2

+[ + + τ2xy − 2 √ + τ2xy ] − [ x − x − τ2xy ]
4 4 2 4 4 4
= σ2x + 3τ2xy
σ0 = √σ2x + 3τ2xy Proved

Example 4
Compute factor of safety, based upon the distortion-energy theory, for stress elements
at A and B of the member shown in the figure. This bar is made of AISI 1006 cold-drawn
steel and is loaded by the forces F = 0.55 kN, P = 8.0 kN and
T = 30 N. m., Sy = 280 MPa
y

100 mm

A F
B

z
D
P x
20 – mm T
Solution:
32Fl 4P 32(0.55)(103 )(0.1) 4(8)(103 )
A: σx = + = +
πd3 πd2 π(0.020)3 π(0.020)2
= 95.49 × 106 Pa = 95.49 MPa

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