DC Generator

A dc generator is an electrical machinewhich converts mechanical energy intodirect current

electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf. This article outlines basic construction and working of a DC generator.

Construction Of A DC Machine:
Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and
vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor.
Hence, let's call this point asconstruction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc
generator'.

The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are
described below.

1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel.
It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They
carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i)
they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed
on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when
energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
 Armature core (rotor)

4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots
to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
each armature slot will carry two different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to
collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor,
commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists
of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments
is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil
and the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
 Commutator

Working Principle Of A DC Generator:

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a
varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive
force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from
the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced
current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic
field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically
induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of induced current is given
by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the
direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and
a conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the
direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the
direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the above
figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature
conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets
reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the
terminals.

Types Of A DC Generator:
DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-
excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an independent external DC
source.
(ii) Selfexcited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced by the generator
itself. Initial emf generation is due to residual magnetism in field poles. The generated emf causes
a part of current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the field flux and thereby increasing
emf generation. Self excited dc generators can further be divided into three types -
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding

An alternator is an electrical machinewhich converts mechanical energy into alternating electric

energy. They are also known as synchronous generators.

How Does An AC Generator Work?

The working principle of an alternatoror AC generator is similar to the basic working principle
of a DC generator.
Above figure helps you understandinghow an alternator or AC generator works. According to
the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field
EMF gets induced across the conductor. If the close path is provided to the conductor, induced
emf causes current to flow in the circuit.

Now, see the above figure. Let the conductor coil ABCD is placed in a magnetic field. The direction
of magnetic flux will be form N pole to S pole. The coil is connected to slip rings, and the load is
connected through brushes resting on the slip rings.

Now, consider the case 1 from above figure. The coil is rotating clockwise, in this case the
direction of induced current can be given by Fleming's right hand rule, and it will be along A-B-C-
D.

As the coil is rotating clockwise, after half of the time period, the position of the coil will be as in
second case of above figure. In this case, the direction of the induced current according
to Fleming's right hand rule will be along D-C-B-A. It shows that, the direction of the current
changes after half of the time period, that means we get an alternating current.
Construction Of AC Generator (Alternator)

Salient pole type alternator

Main parts of the alternator, obviously, consists of stator and rotor. But, the unlike other
machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is stationary.

Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator of an alternator is not meant to serve path for magnetic
flux. Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made up of
lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the eddy current losses.

Why Armature Winding Is Stationary In An Alternator?

 At high voltages, it easier to insulate stationary armature winding, which may be as high as
30 kV or more.
 The high voltage output can be directly taken out from the stationary armature. Whereas,
for a rotary armature, there will be large brush contact drop at higher voltages, also the
sparking at the brush surface will occur.
 Field exciter winding is placed in rotor, and the low dc voltage can be transferred safely.
  The armature winding can be braced well, so as to prevent deformation caused by the high
centrifugal force.
Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:

(i) Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type

1. Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators. Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the figure
above. This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called salient poles),
bolted on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current
losses. Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short in axial length.
2. Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in turbo
alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder havingg slots
along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
The DC suppy is given to the rotor winding through the slip rings and and brushes arrangement.

AC Motor
Definition: The motor that converts the alternating current into mechanical power by using an
electromagnetic induction phenomenon is called an AC motor. This motor is driven by an alternating
current. The stator and the rotor are the two most important parts of the AC motors. The stator is the
stationary part of the motor, and the rotor is the rotating part of the motor. The AC motor may be single
phase or three phase.

The three phase AC motors are mostly applied in the industry for bulk power conversion from electrical
to mechanical. For small power conversion, the single phase AC motors are mostly used.The single
phase AC motor is nearly small in size, and it provides a variety of services in the home, office, business
concerns, factories, etc. Almost all the domestic appliances such as refrigerators, fans, washing machine,
hair dryers, mixers, etc., use single phase AC motor.

The AC motor is mainly classified into two types. They are the synchronous motor and the induction
motor.
 Synchronous Motor
The motor that converts the AC electrical power into mechanical power and is operated only at
thesynchronous speed is known as a synchronous motor.

Working Principle of a Synchronous Motor

When supply is given to synchronous motor, a revolving field is set up. This field tries to drag the rotor
with it, but could not do so because of rotor inertia. Hence, no starting torque is produced. Thus,
inherently synchronous motor is not a self-starting the motor.

Induction Motor
or Asynchronous Motor
The machine which converts the AC electric power into mechanical power by using an electromagnetic
induction phenomenon in called an induction motor. The induction motor is mainly classified into two
types., i.e., the single phase induction motor and the three phase induction motors.
Working Principle of an Induction Motor
In an induction machine the armature winding serve as both the armature winding and field winding.
When the stator windings are connected to an AC supply flux is produced in the air gap. The flux rotates
at a fixed speed called synchronous speed. This rotating flux induces voltages in the stator and rotor

winding. If the rotor circuit is closed, the current flows

through the rotor winding and react with the rotating flux and a torque is produced. In the steady state,
the rotor rotates at speed very close to synchronous speed.

A same DC machine can be used as a motor or generator. Construction of a DC motor is same

as that of a DC generator.

Working Principle Of A DC Motor

A motor is an electrical machinewhich converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The principle of working of a DC motor is that "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given
by Fleming's left hand rule and it's magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux
density, I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

Fleming's left hand rule: If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand
to be perpendicular to each other AND direction of magnetic field is represented by the first finger,
direction of the current is represented by second finger then the thumb represents the direction
of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor.
 Animation: Working of DC Motor
(credit: Lookang)

Above animation helps in understanding the working principle of a DC motor. Whenarmature

windings are connected to a DC supply, current sets up in the winding. Magnetic field may be
provided by field winding (electromagnetism) or by usingpermanent magnets. In this case, current
carrying armature conductors experience force due to the magnetic field, according to the
principle stated above.

Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of force
would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of conductor is reversed the
magnetic field.

This is how a DC motor works!

Back EMF
According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is
something to oppose the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by
magnetic drag, but in case of dc motors there is back emf.

When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux
lines and hence according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in
the armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the armature
current (Ia) . The circuit diagram below illustrates thedirection of the back emf and armature
current. Magnitude of Back emf can be given by the emf equation of DC generator.
Significance Of Back Emf:
Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on a dc
motor is suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current
torque. Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being
proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing back emf
armature current will start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will
also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.

On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed.
Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased
armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, presence of
the back emf makes a dc motor ‘self-regulating’.

Types Of DC Motors
DC motors are usually classified of the basis of their excitation configuration, as follows -

 Separately excited (field winding is fed by external source)

 Self excited -

1. Series wound (field winding is connected in series with the armature)

2. Shunt wound (field winding is connected in parallel with the armature)

3. Compound wound -

1. Long shunt
 2. Short shunt

Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance

The electromotive force () or e.m.f. is the energy provided by a cell or battery per coulomb
of charge passing through it, it ismeasured in volts (V). It is equal to the potential difference
across the terminals of the cell when no current is flowing.

e.m.f=E/Q

7.  = electromotive force in volts, V

8. E = energy in joules, J

9. Q = charge in coulombs, C

Batteries and cells have an internal resistance (r) which is measures in ohm’s (). When
electricity flows round a circuit the internal resistance of the cell itself resists the flow of current
and so thermal (heat) energy is wasted in the cell itself.

  = electromotive force in volts, V

 I = current in amperes, A

 R = resistance of the load in the circuit in ohms, 

 r = internal resistance of the cell in ohms, 

We can rearrange the above equation;

and then to

In this equation (V) appears which is theterminal potential difference, measured in volts
(V). This is the potential difference across the terminals of the cell when current is flowing in the
circuit, it is always less than the e.m.f. of the cell.

Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law, in electromagnetism, statement that an induced electric current flows in a direction
such that the current opposes the change that induced it. This law was deduced in 1834 by the
Russian physicistHeinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804–65).
Thrusting a pole of a permanent barmagnet through a coil of wire, for example, induces
an electric currentin the coil; the current in turn sets up a magnetic field around the coil,
making it a magnet. Lenz’s law indicates the direction of the induced current. Because like
magnetic poles repel each other, Lenz’s law states that when the north pole of the bar magnet is
approaching the coil, the induced current flows in such a way as to make the side of the coil
nearest the pole of the bar magnet itself a north pole to oppose the approaching bar magnet.
Upon withdrawing the bar magnet from the coil, the induced current reverses itself, and the near
side of the coil becomes a south pole to produce an attracting force on the receding bar magnet.
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A small amount of work, therefore, is done in pushing the magnet into the coil and in pulling it
out against the magnetic effect of the induced current. The small amount of energy represented
by this work manifestsitself as a slight heating effect, the result of the induced current
encountering resistance in the material of the coil. Lenz’s law upholds the general principle of
theconservation of energy. If the current were induced in the opposite direction, its action
would spontaneously draw the bar magnet into the coil in addition to the heating effect, which
would violate conservation of energy.

Armature

Armature is the rotating part of the motor. In DC motors ,the armature is supplied with
current. When this current carrying armature is kept in a magnetic field it will experience a
torque and starts to rotate.

Armature Reaction:

As the armature carries current , a magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field can be
resolved into two components : cross magnetizing flux and demagnetizing flux. The cross
magnetic flux distorts the stator flux and the demagnetizing flux opposes the stator flux.
They are eliminated by the usage of compensating windings and interpoles.