LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

Refresher Course
Prepared by: Prof. Minerva Atanacio-Brillante

Anatomical, Mechanical and Physiological Bases of Movements

LET Competencies:

1. Analyze body parts in relation to movements

2. Identify the components of Physical Education
3. Demonstrate lifetime wellness program and activities

PART I – KNOWLEDGE UPDATE

ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MECHANICAL

BASES OF MOVEMENTS

Definition of Terms

 Anatomy – is the branch of science that deals with the structure of the body parts, their forms
and how they are organized
 Physiology- the science that deals with the functions of the body parts - what they do and how
they do it.
 Kinesiology – is that science that deals with the study of human motion
 Mechanics – is the area of scientific study concerned with the mechanical aspect of any
system. This provides accurate answers to what is happening, why it is happening, and to what
extent it is happening
o static - the study of factors associated with non moving systems
o dynamics – the study of factors associated with system in motion
 biomechanics- is the area of study wherein the knowledge and methods of
mechanics are applied to the structure and function of the living human system
 kinematics – the study of the time and space factors of motion of a system
 kinetics – the study of the forces acting on body that influence its movement

Introduction

The study of human body has a long history. Our ancestors, who relied on superstitions and notions
about magic to help the sick, became so curious about how their bodies worked. Through continuous
practice and observation, they began to discover useful ways of treating the human body..

The medical provider and healer coined many new terms to name the body parts, describe their
location and to explain their functions. These terms, most of which originated from Greeks and Latin
words formed the basis for the language of anatomy and physiology which we relate as scientific
names. (Biomechanics, 1990)

Scientist has always been interested in the structure and movement of the human body. The ancient
Egyptians are believed to have been the first people to study anatomy. In the middle of the 4 th century
B.C. Hippocrates, known as the “Father of Medicine”, continue these studies in Greece. Aristotle, known
to be the “Father of Kinesiology” was the first scientist to describe and analyze the actions of muscle.
Galen was the first to introduce the concept of muscle contractions and named such muscles as the
agonist and antagonist muscles.

Today, even with the modern technology, scientist continues to conduct research to learn more of the
human body and how it works. The science of Anatomy provided us with the knowledge about the
structure and function of the human body, while Kinesiology with information about human motion in
relation with other sciences such as physiology, physics and neurology. (Fitness, Theory and Practice,
2002)

The Human Body

The body is the most amazing and miraculous living machine in the universe, capable of growth, self
repair and reproduction as a result of the monitoring power of the human brain. It is made up of
thousands of parts of various sizes and shapes that work together in an organized manner, each of
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which have a specific functions working together to keep as alive. But, the big question is “What is the
human body really made of?”
 Cell – are the building blocks of the body. They are the smallest structure of the body that
carries out complex processes. It varies in size, shape, color and other depending upon its
function. It can divide and multiply, Typically a human cell consists of several compartments of
organelles surrounded by plasma membrane. The organelles can be seen floating in fluid called
cytoplasm. Each cell contains a nucleus where the genetic material is stored. This coil-like
structure is called chromosomes that always comes in pair and are made up of a chemical called
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) where the genetic materials are stored. Each one of us has 46
chromosomes, from which 23 came from the father and 23 from the mother. This made us
unique from others.
 Tissue – are group of cells organized into layers or masses that have common function. Cells of
different tissues vary in size, shape, organization and function, those within each type are quite
similar in function. The tissues of the human body are of four major types
1. Epithelial – cover all body surfaces, line most internal organs, and are the major tissues
of glands. The epithelial cells reproduce readily that is why injuries to epithelium heals
rapidly as new cells replace lost or damages ones. Examples are the skin, stomach and
intestine
2. Connective – binds structures, provide supports and protection, serves as frameworks,
fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells, protect against infections and help repair tissue
damage. Examples are the bones, the tendons , ligaments, muscles, adipose tissue or
fats, nervous tissues
 Organs – are groups of different tissues that form a complex structure with specialized functions
like the skin, skeleton, stomach, the heart, kidneys, intestine, muscles, brain, blood etc...
 Systems – are group of organs that function closely together that constitute the organism
1. Skeletal system - consist of the bones, cartilage and ligaments that binds bones
together. Without the frame to support your body you would collapse, lose your shapes
and be unable to move. This body frame is called skeleton. It gives your body strength
and protects the soft parts inside. The bones are light enough to allow you to move about
easily. They have joints that you can bend to allow the body to do many things. It also
produces blood cells and store inorganic salt.
2. Muscular system – consist of the different muscles all over the body. By the contraction
and pulling of the skeletal muscles, the muscles provide forces that cause the body to
move. They also maintain posture and are the main source of body heat. Your heart
beating, your intestine and lungs working are made of muscles
3. Nervous system – consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs. Nerve cells
within this organs use electrochemical signals called nerve impulses that carries
information between the brain and all parts of the body. The sensory nerve carries
signals to your brain from your senses telling what is happening around you. When the
brain decided what to do it sends signals along the other set of nerves – the motor
nerves that makes your muscles work.
4. Circulatory system- consist the heart, the blood vessels and the blood. The blood is
pumped all around your body by the heart. It passes and transport blood through the
blood vessels. Arteries used to transport blood away from the heart while the veins
transport blood towards the heart, while exchange of gases takes place in the tiny
capillaries.
5. Respiratory System – consist of the air passages from the nose to the trachea or
windpipes, bronchi, to the alveoli or the air sacs of your lungs. The air that you breathe is
made up of different gasses, mixed together, but the body only needs one of them,
oxygen to keep you alive.
6. Digestive system – consist of the mouth that breaks down the food into tiny bits. Then it
travels down the esophagus which is connected to the stomach where the digestive
process is strongest. Then the food flows down the small intestine. Food nutrients seep
though the thin walls into the blood. The large intestine holds the food that the body can
not digest. Later it passes out the body through the rectum.
7. Excretory System – the organs in several systems absorb and excrete various wastes.
The digestive system excrete undigested food through the rectum, the kidney removes
waste from the blood in the form of urine. The respiratory system gives out carbon
dioxide as waste product while the skin gives out perspiration that even carries salt and
fats.
8. Integumentary system – includes the skin and its various accessory organs such as the
nails, hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. This system protects the underlying
tissues, help regulate body temperature, house variety of sensory receptors and
synthesize certain products.
9. Reproductive system – Reproduction is the process of producing offspring. Cell
reproduces when they divide and give rise to new cells. The reproduction of an organism
produces a whole new organism like itself. This consists of the female organs vagina,
uterus, ovary, egg and egg tube. The male organs include the penis, testes and bladder.
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 10. Lymphatic system - consist of the lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph nodes, thymus
gland and spleen. This system transports some of the tissue fluid back to the blood
stream and carries certain fatty substance away from the digestive organs. The cells of
the lymphatic system are called lymphocytes. They defend the body against infection by
removing the disease causing microorganisms and viruses from the tissue.
11. Endocrine system – includes all the glands that secrete chemical messengers called
hormones that help control conditions within the body. They are the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, pineal glands and thymus

In the field of Physical Education, the study of anatomy is centered on the systems that are directly
involved in movements. The rest of the systems are taken in passing although it plays a very important
role in the development of the body and in maintaining fitness and wellness. The said focus is given
more on the musculoskeletal, cardio respiratory and nervous systems.

To communicate effectively with same line of thoughts, using the same language specifically the
physical educators, coaches, choreographers, dancers and physical therapist, anatomist developed
several terms with precise meanings to describe anatomy. Some of these terms concern the relative
positions of the body parts. The use of such terms assumes that the body is in anatomical position
where the body is standing erect, face forward, the arms at the sides and with palms facing forward.

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

Relative Positions
The terms relative position described the location of one body part with respect to another which
includes the following:
 Superior means that a body part is above another part or is closer to the head.
(The thoracic cavity is superior to the abdominopelvic cavity).
 Inferior means that the body part is below another body part or is toward the feet.
(The neck is inferior to the head)
 Anterior (or Ventral) –means towards the front ( The eyes are anterior to the brain)
 Posterior (or Dorsal) – means towards the back ( The pharynx is posterior to the oral cavity)
 Medial – relates to the imaginary midline dividing the body into equal left and right halves. A body
part is medial if it is closer to the line than another part. T The nose is medial to the eyes)
 Lateral – means toward the side with respect to the imaginary midline. (The ears are lateral to the
eyes)
 Proximal – describes a body part that is closer to a point of attachment or closer to the trunk to the
trunk of the body than other part. (The elbow is proximal to the wrist)
 Distal – means that a particular part of the body id farther from the point of attachment or father
from the trunk than another part. ( The fingers are distal to the wrist)
 Superficial – means situated near the surface (the epidermis is superficial to the layer of the skin).
Peripheral also means outward or near the surface.
 Deep – described part that is more internal. The dermis is the inner layer of the skin).

Body Section/ Planes

Observing the various locations and organization of the internal body parts requires cutting or
sectioning the body along various planes.
 Sagittal – refers to the lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and left portion. If the sagittal
section passes along the midline and divides the body into equal parts it is called median
(midsagittal)
 Transverse (Horizontal) – refers to the cut that divides the body into superior and inferior potion.
 Coronal (frontal or lateral) – refers to a section that divides the body into anterior and posterior
portion

Sometimes a cylindrical organ such as the blood vessel is sectioned. In this case, a cut across the
structure is called a cross section, an angular cut is an oblique section, and a lengthwise cut is a
longitudinal section

THE BODY SYSTEMS

I. THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeleton is made out of 206 bones of different size and shapes. It serves as the framework that
holds the whole body together.

THE BONES
The bones are the living structures consisting of several layers. These include thin, membranous outer
surface that has a network of nerves and blood vessels running through it. Bones is made up of 35%

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organic materials of fibrous protein called collagen that gives the bone flexibility. The 65% of inorganic
salt and water like calcium and phosphorus that gives the bone strength.

Functions
 The 206 bones of the human body form a rigid framework (skeleton) to which the softer tissues
and organs of the body are attached.
 The vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the surrounding
skulls, as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage.
 Body movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. For this
reason, they are often grouped together as the musculoskeletal system. Muscles are connected
to the bones by tendons while bone are connected to another bone by ligaments. This bone
connection is typically called joints.
 Blood cells are produced by the marrow in some bones. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells
is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and destroyed by the
liver.
 Bones served as storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is
present in the blood, a build up will occur within the bones. When the supply of these minerals is
low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.

Types of Bones
The types of bones are classified on the basis of their form:
 Long bones - leg and arm bones
 Short bones – wrist and ankle bones
 Flat bones – skull, shoulder blade, ribs, sternum and patella
 Irregular bones - spinal column

The thigh bones or the femur is the largest and strongest single bone in the body, while the smallest
bone is called stirrup found in the middle ear connected to two other small bones called hammer and
anvil that are joined to the eardrum. This carries sound signals to the brain.

Division of the Skeleton

The human skeleton is divided into two parts:
 AXIAL Skeleton – consist of the bones that form the axis of the body and support and protect
the organs of the head, neck and trunk.
1. Skull
2. Sternum
3. Ribs
4. Vertebral Column
 APPENDICULAR Skeleton is composed of the bones that anchor the appendages to the axial
skeleton.
1. Upper Extremities
2. Lower Extremities
3. Shoulder Girdle
4. Pelvic Girdle (the sacrum and coccyx are considered part of the vertebral column)

The Axial Skeleton

The Skull
The skull is the bony framework of the head. It is comprised of the eight cranial and fourteen facial
bones. The cranial bones make up the protective frame of bones around the brain while the facial bones
make up the upper and lower jaw and other facial structures. These are:
 CRANIAL BONES
1. frontal – forms the forehead (1)
2. parietal - forms the roof and sides of the skull (2)
3. temporal – house the ears (2)
4. occipital – forms the base of the skull and contains the foramen magnum (1)
5. sphenoid – is considered the key bone of the skull where all bones are
connected to it (1)
6. ethmoid - located between the eyes that forms the part of the nasal septum (1)
 FACIAL BONES
1. mandible – forms the lower jaw and the only moveable joint in the head that provide the
chewing motion. (1)
2. maxilla – forms the upper law (2)
3. palatine – forms the hard palate or the roof of the mouth (2)
4. zygomatic – are the cheek bones (2)
5. lacrimal – help form the orbits or inner aspect of the eyes(2)
6. nasal – forms the bridge of the nose (2)
7. vomer – form parts of the nasal septum ( the divider between the nostrils) (1)
8. inferior concha – bones which makes-up the side wall of the nasal cavity (2)
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The Ribs
The ribs are thin, flat curved bones that form a protective cage around the organs in the upper body.
They comprised 24 bones arranged in 12 pairs that form a kind of cage that encloses the upper body.
They give the chest its familiar shape to protect the heart and lungs from injuries and shocks The ribs
also protects parts of the stomach, spleen and kidneys, during respiration, the muscles in between the
ribs lift the rib cage up to allow the lungs to expand when you inhale. Then, the rib cage moves down
again, squeezing the air out of your lungs when you exhale.

These bones of the rib cage are divided into three categories namely:
 TRUE RIBS – are the first seven pairs of bones connected to the spine ( backbone) and
directly to the breastbone or sternum by a strip of cartilage called the costal cartilage
 FALSE RIBS – are the next three pairs of bones directly connected to the spine at the back
and are attached to the lowest true ribs in front.
 FLOATING RIBS – are the last two sets of ribs the spine but not connected to anything in
front.

The Sternum
The sternum is a flat, dagger shaped bone located in the middle of the chest from where the ribs are
connected to it by the costal cartilage.. It is composed of three parts, the handle called the manubrium,
the blade called body and the tip called xiphoid process

The Vertebral Column

The vertebral column also called the backbone or spinal column consist of series of 33 irregularly
shaped bones called vertebrae, This 33 bones are divide into five categories depending on where they
are located in the backbone.
 CERVICAL VERTEBRAE – the first seven vertebrae located on top of the vertebral column.
These bones form a flexible framework of the neck and support the head. The first cervical
vertebra is called the atlas which allows the head action for the YES and NO.
 THORACIC VERTEBRAE – are the next 12 vertebrae form the anchor of the rib cage. The
bones of the thoracic vertebrae are larger than the cervical and increase in size from to
bottom.
 LUMBAR VERTIBRAE – these five bones are the largest vertebrae in the spinal column that
support most of the bodies weight and are attached to many of the back muscles
 SACRUM – is the triangular bone located just below the lumbar vertebrae that consist of four
of five sacral vertebrae in a child which fused into a single bone after age 26. This forms the
back wall of the pelvic girdle
 COCCYC – is also called the tailbone consist of 3-5 bones that are fused together in adult.

The vertebral column turned into 26 movable parts in adults. In between the vertebrae are
intervertebral discs made of fibrous cartilage that acts as shock absorbers and allow the back to move.
At age 50 to 55 and as the person ages this disc compresses and shrink. Resulting in a distinct lost of
height.

Looking at the side, the spine form four curves called the cervical curve, thoracic, lumbar and the final
curve pelvic or sacral curve. These curves allows human being to stand upright and help maintain their
balance. Any exaggeration on this curves is a problem. Kyphosis, on the thoracic, lordosis on the
lumbar and scholeosis on the side curvature

The Appendicular Skeleton

The Upper Extremities
The upper extremity consist of parts, the arm, forearm and the hands
 ARM – is the region between the shoulder and the elbow consist of a single long bone called
humerus. The humerus is the longest bone in the upper extremity. The top or the head is
large, smooth and rounded that fits into the scapula in the shoulder. On the bottom end are
two depressions where the humerus connects to the radius and ulna of the forearm.
 FOREARM - is the region between the elbow and the wrist. It is formed by the radius on the
lateral side and the ulna on the medial side when viewed on anatomical position. The ulna is
longer than the radius and connected more firmly to the humerus. The radius however
contributes more to the movements of the wrist and hand than the ulna. When the hands are
turned over so that the palm is facing downwards, the radius crosses over the ulna.
 HANDS – have 27 bones and are consist of three parts, the wrist, palms and fingers.
1. Wrist or Carpals – consist of 8 small bones called carpal bones that are tightly bound by
the ligament. These bones are arranged in two rows of four bones each
2. Palm or Metacarpal – consist of 4 metacarpal bones one aligned with each of the fingers.
The bases of the metacarpal bones are connected to the wrist bone and the heads are
connected to the bones of the fingers that form the knuckles of a clenched fist.
3. Fingers or Phalanges – consist of 14 bones called phalanges. The single finger bone is
called phalanx arranged in three rows
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Lower Extremities
The lower extremities are composed of the bones of the thigh, leg, foot and patella (kneecap). The
bones of the lower extremities are the heaviest, largest and strongest bones in the body because they
must bear the entire weight of the body when a person is standing in the upright position.
 THIGH – the region between the hip and the knee composed of a single bone called femur or
thighbone. The femur is the longest , largest and strongest bone in the body
 LEG - it is the region between the knee and the ankle. It is formed by the fibula on side
away from the body and the tibia or the shin bone. The tibia connects to the femur to form
the knee joint. The tibia is larger that the fibula because it bears the weight while the fibula
serves as an area for muscle attachment.
 FOOT – contains 26 bones of the ankle, instep the five toes. The ankle is composed of 7
tarsal bones the largest of which is called calcaneus or heel bone. The talus rest on top of the
calcaneus and is connected to the tibia that allows the ankle to flex and extend
 PHALANGES or Metatarsal – bones of the foot are similar in number and position to the
metacarpal and phalanges of the hands
 KNEECAP or Patella – is a large triangular sesamoid bone between the femur and the tibia.
The patella protects the knee joint and strengthens the tendons that forms the knee

The Shoulder Girdle

The shoulder girdle is also called pectoral girdle composed of four bones: 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae.
The pectoral girdle serves as an attachment point for the numerous muscles that allows the elbow and
the shoulder joint to move. It also provides the connection between the upper extremities and the axial
skeleton.
 CLAVICLE – is also known as collar bone. It is a slender S-shaped bone that connects the
upper arm to the trunk of the body and holds the shoulder joint that allow a greater freedom
of movement. One end of the clavicle is connected to the sternum and one end is connected
to the scapula
 SCAPULA – is a large triangular, flat bone on the back side of the rib cage commonly called
the shoulder blade. It overlays the second through the seventh ribs and serve as attachment
for several muscles.

The Pelvic Girdle

The pelvic girdle also called the hip girdle composed of coxal bones that support the weight of the body
from the vertebral column. This basin–shaped pelvis supports the upper half of your body and protects
the soft parts and other body systems. This coxal bone is composed of the ilium, ischium and pubis

The pelvic girdle differs between man and woman. In man the pelvis is more massive and the iliac crest
is closer together. In woman, the pelvis is more delicate and the iliac crest is rather apart that reflects
the role of women in pregnancy and in the delivery of children.

The Joints
The joints or articulation is the place where two bones come together. There are three types of joints
classified according to their degrees of movement.
 IMMOVABLE or Synarthroses – in this joint the bones are in a very close contact and are
separated only by thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. The sutures are the joints of the skull.
The parietal bones are joined by the sagittal suture. Where the parietal bones and frontal bones
meet is the coronal suture, the parietal and the occipital is joined by lomboidal suture while the
suture between the parietal and temporal is referred to squamous suture. This site is the most
common location of the fontanelles on the head of the baby
 SLIGHTLY MOVABLE or Amphiarthroses – this joint is characterized by bones that are connected
by hyaline cartilage (fibro cartilage). Example: The ribs that are connected to the sternum.
 FREELY MOVABLE or Diarthroses – most of the joint in the human body are freely movable
which are of six types:
1. Ball-and-Socket – this type has a ball shaped end on one bone that fits into a cup shaped
socket of the other bone allowing the widest range of motion including rotation. Example:
shoulder and hip joints
2. Condyloid – oval shaped condyle fits into elliptical cavity of another allowing angular motion
but not rotation. This occur between the metacarpals (bones in the palm of the hands) and
the phalanges (fingers) and between the metatarsals(foot bones excluding heel) phalanges
(toes)
3. Saddle – this type of joint occurs when the touching surface of two bones have both concave
and convex regions with the shapes of the bones complementing one another and allowing a
wide range of movement. Example: only the thumb.
4. Pivot – the rounded or conical surface of one bone fits into a ring of one or tendon allowing
rotation. Example: the joint between the axis and atlas of the neck.
5. Hinge – a concave projection of one bone fits the concave depression in another that allows
only two movements, flexion and extension. Example: knee joint and elbow joints

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 6. Gliding – Flat or slightly flat bones move against each other allowing sliding or twisting
without any circular movement. Example: carpals or wrist bone and tarsals of the ankle

Types of Motion
Joints can move in many directions such as:
 FLEXION – is the act of bringing two bones closer together which decrease the angle between
two bones
 EXTENSION – is the act of increasing the angle between two bones that results in straightening
motion
 ABDUCTION – is the movement of an extremity away from the midline (an imaginary line that
divides the body from head to toe
 ADDUCTION – is movement towards the midline
 CIRCUMDUCTION – a continuous motion from flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and
hyperextension
 ROTATION – allows a bone to move around one central axis. A pivot motion when you turn the
head from side to side.
 PRONATION – the forearm turns the hand so the palm is facing downward
 SUPINATION – turns the hand to face upward.

Note:
 The bones of the spine are the vertebrae. On top of the vertebrae are two bones called the atlas
and the axis, that fits together to allow the head to nod and turn from side to side.
 The spine can only curve gently, if it bends any farther, it could damage your spinal cord or the
nerve cable that carries message to and from the brain
 From the side, the spine looks curved like a letter S. it helps you to stand up straight
 The ribcage have 12 pairs of ribs are attached to the raw of bones in your spine.
 Your hip joint is where the end of the thighbones or the femur fits into a socket in your pelvis.
This joint helps you to bend your body in almost half
 The arms can only bend at the elbow .The muscles that control the thumb and the fingers begin
here. They are attached to the two arm bones, called the radius and the ulna
 Your ankle is a joint, it is made up of bones in the foot and the end of the legs bones called
tibia and the fibula

II. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The Muscles
You have about 650 muscles in your body. While bones give the body structure and support, they
cannot move by themselves. Muscles are need for all body movements like walking, running , talking,
breathing and others. The three functions of muscles are movement, maintenance of posture,
production of body heat and muscles help give our body its shape.

3 Types of Muscles
There are three types of muscle
 SKELETAL MUSCLES are connected to the bones. A skeletal muscle fiber is long, cylindrical,
multinucleated and contains an alternation light and dark striations. They are also called
voluntary muscles because the movements they produce are under your control that maybe
rapid or forceful. Contraction stabilizes the joint.
 SMOOTH MUSCLES - are long and spindle-shaped with no striation. It is located in the walls of
tubular structures and hollow organs such as the digestive tract, the blood vessels and other
internal organs except the heart
 CARDIAC MUSCLES - are involuntary muscles found only in the heart that works nonstop for life.
Its contraction occurs involuntarily and is rhythmic and automatic. When the body is at rest the
heart generally beats about 60 to 70 times in a minute.

Characteristics of Muscles
The muscles whether they are skeletal, smooth or cardiac have four characteristics in common:
 CONTRACTIBILITY – When the muscle shortens or contracts, it reduces the distance between
the parts of its content or the space that it surrounds. The contraction of skeletal muscles which
connects a pair of bones brings the attachment point closer together which causes the bone to
move. When cardiac muscles and other smooth muscles contract they squeeze out the blood
causing the surrounding blood vessels to relax and increase in diameter to allow the passage of
blood in these tubes and to decrease upon contraction
 EXCITABILITY (Irritability) – is the ability of the muscle and the nervous cells (neurons) to
respond to certain stimuli by producing electric signals called action potentials or impulses.
 EXTENSIBILITY – is the ability to be stretched. Like when the biceps muscle contracts to lift the
bone, the triceps muscle then extends or stretched.
 ELASTICITY –the ability of the muscles to return in its original length when relaxing.

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Muscle Contraction
Skeletal muscle is attached to the bone by long ropy strands called tendon. The skeletal muscles
contract or shorten, to move the bones. A muscle only pulls in one direction. It needs another muscle
to pull in the muscle in the opposite direction in order to return a bone to its original position. When
you straighten the arm the triceps contracts pulling the biceps back to a relax position,
 ISOTONIC – when muscles contract they shorten and movements occurs
 ISOMETRIC – when the muscles contract but the muscles do not shorten or produce
movement...

Muscle Tone
The muscle tone is the state when two muscles work against each other, and is always at the state of
slight contraction and ready to pull. Muscle tone is particularly important in maintaining the posture. If
the muscles of the neck, trunk and legs suddenly relax, the body collapses.

Oxygen Debt
Oxygen Debt is the condition when we continuously breathe deeply and pant after strenuous exercise
or work. This continued intake of oxygen is required to complete the metabolism of lactic acid (acid
causing pain to muscles) that accumulated during the exercise.

Naming Muscles.
Muscles are named by location, size, and direction, number of origin, location of origin, insertion and
action; however, not all muscles are named in this manner.
 location - frontalis (forehead)
 size - gluteus maximus ( largest muscles in the buttocks)
 direction of fibers - external abdominal oblique
 number of origins - biceps (two-headed muscles in the humerus)
 location of origin - sternocleidomastoid ( origin is the sternum, clavicle.
maseter)
 action
flexor - flexor carpi ulnaris ( flexes the wrist)
extensor - extensor carpi ulnaris (extends the wrist)
levator - raises or lowers body parts
depressor - depresses the corner of the mouth

Skeletal Muscles
The following sets of muscles are those directly responsible in producing major body movements:
 MUSCLES OF THE NECK
1. Sternocleidomastoids are large muscles extending diagonally down sides of the neck.
Possible movements are flexion, extension and rotation (twist) of the head
 MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES
1. Trapezius is a large triangular muscles located at the upper surface of the back that moves
the shoulder and extends the head
2. Deltoid is a thick triangular muscle that covers the shoulder joint.that causes the upper
arm to abduct
3. Pectoralis Major is located at the anterior part of the chest that flexes the upper arm and
helps and helps to abduct the upper arm.
4. Serratus – is the anterior chest that moves the scapula forward and helps to raise the arms
5. Biceps Brachii - is the muscle located at the upper arm to the radius that helps to flex the
lower arm
6. Triceps Brachii - is found at the posterior arm to the ulna that helps extend the lower arm
7. Extensor and Flexor Carpi Muscle Group – are muscles that extend from the anterior and
posterior forearm to the hand. This group moves the hand
8. Extensor and Flexor Digitorum Muscle Groups – extends from the anterior and posterior
forearm to the fingers. It moves the fingers
 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK
1. External Intercostals - are found between the ribs. It raises the ribs to help breathing
2. Diaphragm - is a dome-shaped muscle separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities. This
helps to control breathing
3. Rectus Abdominis – is an abdominal muscle that extends from the ribs to the pelvis that
compresses the abdomen
4. External Oblique – is located at the anterior edge of the last eight ribs that depresses the
ribs, flexes the spinal column and compresses the abdominal cavity
5. Internal Oblique – is found directly beneath the external oblique with fibers running in the
opposite direction that depresses the ribs, flexes the spinal column and compresses the
abdominal cavity
 MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES
1. Gluteus Maximus – is the buttocks muscle that stretches the femur and rotates it outward

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 2. Gluteus Medius – a muscle that extends from the deep femur to the buttocks and the
injection site. Its function is to abduct and rotates the thigh
3. Tensor Faciae Latae - is a flat muscle found along the upper lateral surface of the thigh that
flexes abduct and medially rotates the thigh
4. Rectus Femoris – is the anterior thigh that flexes the thigh and extends the lower leg
5. Sartorius – is also called tailor’s muscle. It is a long, strap-like muscle that runs diagonally
across the anterior and medial surface of the thigh that flexes and rotates the thigh and
legs.
6. Tibialis Anterior – is located in front of the tibia bone that dorsiflexes the foot which permits
walking on heels
7. Gastrocnemius – is the calf muscle flexes the lower muscles that points the toes
8. Soleus – is abroad flat muscle found beneath the gastocnemius that extends the foot
9. Peroneus Longus – is a superficial muscle found on the lateral side of the leg that extend
and everts the foot and support the arches

Muscle Structure and Size

Muscles will only change in size but not in the number of cells. Muscles that have been injured can
regenerate only to a limited degree. If the muscle damage is extensive, then the muscle tissue is
replaced by connective tissue (scar) Muscles that are not used will atrophy (shrink in size and reduced
in strength) and those that are used excessively will hypertrophy (increase in size). Muscles that are
over exercised or worked will have a tremendous increase of connective tissue between the muscle
fiber. This causes the skeletal muscle to become tougher.
Notes:
 The largest muscle in your body is the gluteus maximus located in your thigh and buttocks.
 If you stand on tip toe, you can see the calf muscle in the back of your leg
 The longest muscle in your body is the sartorius muscle in the upper leg
 Some of your arm muscles are attached to the bones in your back. This strong anchor enables
you to pick up the heavier things
 The muscle of the hands allows to make a delicate, accurate and powerful movement. Your
flexible fingers have many small muscles which are useful for precise job. Your fingers and
thumb work together to let you grasp things tightly to support you if you hang on the bar or
support your body when the body is on an inverted position on a handstand.
 Muscles are attached to the bones that make them move. They can only pull; they cannot push
which is why they always move in pair.

Role of Muscles
Muscles have various role in a given movement which is dependent on the requirement of that
movement.. Those roles are designated as prime mover, antagonist, and synergist.
 MOVERS or AGONIST – is a muscle that is directly responsible to producing a movement.
1. Prime movers – are muscles that do most of the work to produce movement.
2. Assistant movers - are the muscles that help to perform the movements but seem to be of
less important.
 SYNERGIST – are muscles that act as neutralizers or stabilizers. These aids in the production of
the desired motion use to indicate cooperative muscle functioning in various roles.
1. Stabilizer, fixator, supporting muscles – are the muscles that contracts statically, to steady
or support some part of the body against the pull of the contracting muscle , against the pull
of gravity or any other force that interferes with the desired movement
2. Neutralizer – is a muscle that acts to prevent an undesired action of the mover,
 ANTAGONISTS – are muscles that cause the opposite movement from that of the movers.

Muscle Food
To keep the muscle working properly, you need a diet that includes protein like eggs, cheese, milk and
dried beans.

Effect of Training on Muscle Efficiency

 Improved coordination of all muscles involved in a particular activity
 Improvement in the respiratory and circulatory system to supply the needs of an active
muscular system
 Elimination and reduction of excess fat
 Improved joint movement involved with that particular muscle activity

Effect of Training on Muscle Strength

STRENGTH (capacity to do work) is increased by proper training. Training can have the following effects
on skeletal muscles:
 Increase in muscle size
 Improved antagonistic muscle coordination, where antagonistic muscles are relaxed at the right
moment and do not interfere with the functioning of the working muscle

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  Improved functioning in the cortical brain region, where the nerve impulses starts muscular
contraction

Common Exercise and Sports Injuries

 Muscle Strain – is a tear in the muscle resulting fro excessive use. There is a limited bleeding
inside that can result swelling and pain ( ice pack helps to stop bleeding and swelling)
 Muscle Spasm (cramp) - is a sustained contraction of the muscle that may occur due to overuse
of muscle. Cramps are caused by the build –up of a waste substance called lactic acid. Too much
lactic acid built up un the muscle causes there muscle to contract very sharply and painfully.
 Rotator Cuff – is an inflammation of group of tendons that fuse together and surrounds the
shoulder joint. This occurs due to repetitive overhead swinging a tennis racquet or pitching a
ball
 Shin Splint – is an injury to the muscle tendon in the front of the shin that occurs in jogging.
Using the correct running shoes may prevent such an injury
 Tennis Elbow – is an inflamed tendon that connects the arm muscle to elbow.. this may occur
carrying heavy luggage, playing tennis or pounding hummer.

Note:
 It is quite important that before you begin to make any strenuous movements, you should
always start with a warm up doing gentle loosening-up and stretching exercise.
 It is also important that you end up with a cool-down exercise to relax the muscle that had bee
forced to contract during the activities.
 Muscles are able to adapt gradually to the amount of work they have to do, so regular exercise
can build the up and make them healthier.

III. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is the longest system of the body which includes the following organs:
 HEART – is the muscular pump which is responsible for circulating blood throughout the body
 BLOOD VESSELS – which includes the arteries, veins and capillaries are the structures that
takes the blood from the heart to the cells and return blood from the cells back to the heart
 BLOOD – carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells and carries the waste products away
 LYMPH – return excess fluid from the tissue to the general circulation, The lymph nodes produce
lymphocytes and filter out pathogenic bacteria

The Heart
The heart is a four chamber muscular organ about the size of a closed fist that functions as a powerful
pump. It is located in the chest between the lungs behind the sternum and above the diaphragm, just
to the left of center. The heart continuously pumps blood through the body’s extensive network of
arteries and veins, delivers oxygen and nutrients and removes waste products.

Chambers
The human heart is divided into right and left halves by the septum and each half is divided into two
parts, thus creating four chambers. The upper chambers are the right and left atrium (auricle) and the
lower chambers are the right and left ventricle

Valves
The heart has two pairs of valves that regulate blood flow within. These valves prevent the from flowing
back blood as the heart open and close during contraction.
 ATRIOVENTRICULAR or A V – are valves located between the atria and the ventricle.
1. Tricuspid valve – is a valve with 3 points of attachment positioned between the right atrium
and right ventricle. It allows the blood to flow from the right atrium down to the right
ventricle.
2. Bicuspid – a 2 point attachment valve located at the left side of the heart, regulating the
blood flow from the left atrium down to the left ventricle
 SEMI-LUNAR Valve – are valves located where the blood will leave the heart.
1. Pulmonary – is found at the orifice (opening) of the pulmonary artery where the blood
travels from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery then into the lungs.
2. Aortic –is found at the orifice of the aorta. This valve permit the blood to pass from the left
ventricle into aorta to the different body parts.

Sounds
The sound of the heartbeat is created by the two sets of heart valves closing during the cardiac cycle
that can be heard through the stethoscope and are described phonetically as “lub-dub”. The lub sound
is produced by the closing of the AV valve called systole. The dub sound is made by the closing of the
semi-lunar valves known as diastole

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Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac cycle refers to the alternating contraction and relaxation of the heart during one heartbeat. It
takes about four fifths of a second to complete then repeat continuously. The cycle consist of two
phases, in systole the ventricle contract, forcing the blood into the arteries out of the heart. In diastole
the ventricle relaxes and fill it with blood,
Blood Circulation
The heart functions as a double pump. Two major functions occur each time the heart beats. The
pumping actions occur at the same time. Each time the ventricle contracts, blood leave the right
ventricle to go to the lungs to be oxygenated, and the blood leaves the left ventricle to go to the aorta
carrying oxygen and nutrients to the cells and tissues.
 RIGHT HEART – the deoxygenated blood flows into the heart from the superior and inferior
vena cava, to the right atrium down to the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery towards the
lungs for the exchange of gases
 LEFT HEART – the oxygenated blood from the lungs flows into the heart through the pulmonary
vein to the left atrium down the left ventricle, to the aorta to general body circulation
Types of Circulation
 PULMONARY CIRCULATION – is the shorter blood circuit where the used blood is pumped into
the lungs, picks up oxygen and discard carbon dioxide, then the blood returns into the heart
 SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION – occurs when the oxygenated blood returns to the heart and pumps
the blood throughout to the different systems of the body and back to the heart
The Blood
The blood contains the red and white blood cells that float inside a liquid called plasma, it also contains
thousand of different substances needed in the body .Blood carries all these things around the body
and also removes the waste products. It is part of the bodies communication system, that carries
chemical messengers called hormones that switch organs on and off as required.
Functions
 RESPIRATORY – transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and release carbon dioxide
from the tissues to the lungs
 REGULATORY - transport hormones and other chemical substances that control the proper
functioning of many organs. It also controls body temperature by circulating excess heat to the
body surfaces and to the lungs through which it is lost. It maintain water balance and a constant
environment for tissue cells
 NUTRITIVE – transport nutrient molecules from the small intestine to the tissues
 PROTECTIVE – circulate the antibodies and defensive cells throughout the body to fight against
infection and disease.
 EXCRETORY – transporting waste product like lactic acid, urea and creatinine from the cells to
the excretory organs

Blood Cells
In one tiny drop of blood, there are red cells, white cells and platelets, all floating in a liquid called
plasma.
 RED BLOOD CELLS (Erythrocytes) - transport oxygen to the tissues picks up carbon dioxide
away from the tissues and give up carbon dioxide to the lungs.
 WHITE BLOOD CELLS (Leucocytes) – are blood cells manufactured in both red marrow and
lymphatic tissues. It helps protect the body against infections and injuries
 BLOOD PLATELETS ( Thrombocytes) - are the smallest of the solid components of the blood. The
platelets function in the initiation of the blood-clotting process. The platelets are then stimulated
to produce sticky projecting structure creating a platelet plug to stop the bleeding.

Blood Types
The knowledge of one’s particular type of blood is important in cases of blood transfusions and surgery.
A test called type and cross match is done before giving blood transfusion to test blood compatibility.
There are four main types of blood
 O – is the blood type that can only receive type O blood, but is a universal donor to all blood
types
 A - is a blood type that can receive A and O only but can donate blood to A and AB only
 B – is a blood type that can receive B and O only and AB. This letters refer to chemicals on the
surface of the red blood cells.
 AB – is a universal recipient , that can receive blood type A, B, AB,O but can donate only to AB
blood type

The Blood Vessels

Blood flows around your body through a network of tubes called blood vessels. There are three types of
blood vessels namely arteries, veins and capillaries.
 ARTERIES – carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the capillaries except the
pulmonary arteries that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. Because the
blood in arteries comes straight from the heart and is pumped under pressure, so the artery
walls are thick and muscular
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  VEINS – carries deoxygenated blood away from the capillaries, towards the heart. Because the
pressure is now lower, the veins have thinner wall that the arteries.
 CAPILLARIES – are the smallest blood vessels where the exchange of gases and nutrients takes
place. It is so narrow that the RBC has to squash themselves up to pass through

Pulse
The pulse is a throbbing beat that can be felt on the inside of your wrist and in the side of your neck. It
is the alternating expansion and contraction of an artery as blood flows through it.
Heart Rate
The heart rate is the number of times that the heart contracts in a minute. The practical ways of taking
your pulse rate is by finding the pulse on your wrist or neck and gently holding your fingers (the index
and middle fingers) on it and counting the number of beats per minute.
Blood Pressure
When the heart pumps blood into the arteries the surge of blood filling the vessels create pressure
against the wall. The pressures measured at the moment of the contraction is the systolic pressure
while the lessen force of the blood measured when the heart relax is the diastolic pressure. The
average blood pressure is recorded as 120/80 with a normal pulse pressure of 40
IV. Respiratory System
The body requires a constant supply of energy for the cells to perform their many chemical activities.
Oxygen facilitates the release of energy stored in nutrient molecules. It must be in constant supply to
the body because without oxygen a human being can live no more than few minutes at best.

Functions
 Provide the structures for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body through
respiration
 Responsible for the production of sounds through the larynx that contains the vocal cord. When
air is expelled from the lungs it passes over the vocal chord and produces sounds

PATHWAYS OF RESPIRATION
When you breathe you draw air into the nose and into the lungs. Air travels down from the nose to the
pharynx, the larynx, down to the trachea or the wind pipes those branches out to bronchial tube to
smaller branches the bronchi, the bronchioles to the air sacs called alveoli. The oxygen is absorbed
through the thin walls of the alveoli and releases carbon dioxide to be breathed out as waste product.
The Lungs
The lungs are two fairly large, cone-shaped organs filling up the two lateral chambers of the thoracic
cavity. The lung tissue is porous and spongy, due to the alveoli and the large amount of air it contains
the alveoli is about 0.2mm across. The walls of the alveoli are very thin so oxygen and carbon dioxide
can easily pass through. There are 300 million estimated numbers of alveoli in the lungs.
Breathing Process
Most of the breathing in the lungs is cause by the contraction of a sheet of muscle called diaphragm.
This curved muscle sheet separates the content of the chest from the abdomen. When you inhale the
ribs are lifted upward outward, the diaphragm contracts and flatten, the size of chest increase which
causes the pressure of the lungs to drop, so air rushes in. When you exhale the ribs move down the
diaphragm relaxes, it becomes curved again and forces the air out of the lungs.
The breathing process becomes faster and deeper when you exercise in order to get more oxygen.
This helps break down the sugar and provide more energy for the muscles to work.
Normally you only breathe out about 10% of the air in your lungs. But when you are panting very hard
or running you may use about 60% of the air. Yet 20% will always be permanently trapped in the
alveoli
It is harder to breathe at high altitude because the air is thinner so there is less oxygen in it. While
under water the pressure of the water would prevent the lungs from expanding enough to draw the air
in.
Most healthy people can hold their breath for about 60 to 90 seconds but it soon becomes very
uncomfortable. Because breathing is a normal process, we never think about it. If you try to hold your
breath you can override this process only for a while but the brain will not let carbon dioxide build up
too much and will soon force you to breath

IV. NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the body’s main communication network, helping all the body systems to work
properly. It is made up of billions of tiny cells that carry electrical signals throughout the body. It
consists of:
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – consists of the brain which contains more that 12 billion active
nerve cells and the spinal cord, which extends from the base of the brain all the way down to
your back. It is protected by the rings of your bone in your spine. Together, they act as the
central processing unit, collecting information from every part of the body. The messages flow
around the body through a highly complex system of nerves, while some information is acted on
immediately, others are stored.

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  PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – is the network of small nerves that extends to all parts of the
body. It comprises cranial nerves that emerge from the brain and spinal nerve in the spinal
cord.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM –is includes peripheral and ganglia or the group of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system that carry impulses to involuntary muscles and glands
Nerves carry messages of sensation, proprioception and movement instructions to muscles. Some
impulses are so fast that they do a loop on the spinal cord sending back an instant message to the
muscle (reflexes).
Nerves also extend message to the internal organs to keep lungs, heart, digestive system, reproductive
and other organs working and responding properly. The nerves that control these involuntary activities
form the unconscious autonomic parts of the nervous system.

Nerve Cells
Nerve cells or neurons make up the nerves that carry messages around the body. They have a star-
shaped body containing the cell nucleus with a thread-like fiber called the axon. The tip of the axon is
branched and touches other neurones to which it derives messages or nerve impulses. Neurones have
many smaller threads and branches called dendrites which receives other messages from other
neurones

Types of Nerve Cells

There are three types of neurones with different functions
 MOTOR NEURONES – are neurones that control muscle works
 SENSORY NEURONES – are neurones that carry messages from the sense organs
 CONNECTOR NEURONES – are those that pass messages between different parts of the
nervous systems
Synapse
SYNAPSE is the point where the tiny bulb on the tip of a nerve fiver contacts another neurone. It is a
point where transmitter substance carries the electrical signal from the neurone to the next.
Nerve Impulse
NERVE IMPULSE is like a very simple message either on or off. Because there are so many neurones
connected to one another, this simple signal is enough to carry the most complicated messages
throughout the whole of the body’s nervous system
As a nerve impulse arrives at the junction between two nerve cells, it is carried across the gap or the
synapse by the chemicals called neurotransmitters. These contact sensitive areas in the next nerve
cell, and the nerve impulse is carried along.

Reflex Movement
REFLEXES are automatic reaction that takes place without your needing to think about them. Like if you
prick your finger, you jerk your arm instantly even before your brain becomes aware that some
damage has taken place. These reflexes take place in the spinal cord where instructions are given to
the muscles to pull your arms away as soon as the nerves have detected pain or damage. Reflexes also
take place in the body maintaining normal conditions. Like when food enters the stomach the flow of
digestive juice immediately starts. Another example is the blink when dirt enters in your eye and tears
flows out to cleans the eye
The Brain
THE BRAIN is the largest organ of the central nervous system and the body’s control center. It
coordinates all the messages that pass through the nervous system, giving as the ability to learn
reason and feel. It also controls the body’s automatic functions such as breathing, heart beat,
digestion growth and blood pressure. The bony cranium that surrounds the brain is cushioned by three
layers of tough membranes called the meninges. They are filled with liquid in which the brain floats.
The cavities inside the brain are filled with the same liquid so that the soft tissue does not flap about.
The brain tissue has three main layers
 Inner layer which surrounds the ventricle consist of nerve cells that controls instinctive
behavior
 Middle layer of white matter consist of primary nerve fibers control instinctive behavior
 Outer surface layer called the cerebral cortex or gray matter which consist of layers of
nerve cells that controls conscious though, movement and sensations
Parts of the Brain
The brain is divided into three main regions each with different function.
 CEREBRUM – is the part of the brain that gives you your intelligence and emotions. It makes up
almost 90% of the brain’s tissue. Its grey surface is made up of millions of nerve cells. The
white layers beneath is mostly made of the nerve fibers connecting them. A narrow strip
across the top of cerebrum called the cerebral cortex is concerned with organizing your
movement. Another part of the cerebrum is the sensory cortex, where senses such as touch,
vision and hearing are controlled. This part shows the relative importance of some of our
senses. A large part of the cerebrum is concerned with the hands, eyes and mouth because they
are highly sensitive areas. T

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  CEREBELLUM – is the smaller hemisphere that sits below the cerebrum. It controls posture,
balance, maintenance of muscle tone and muscle coordination. Fine movements are possible
because the cerebellum filters instruction from other parts of the brain. It monitors these
instructions and insures that the muscles work together. This part of the brain is well
understood. Its neurones are arranged in a regular pattern tha makes it possible to trace the
electrical circuit from one neurone to another.
 BRAIN STEM – connects the brain to the spinal cord. The brain stem is sometimes called the
oldest, part of the brain. This is because it keeps the whole body alive. Even if the other parts of
the brain are destroyed, the brain stem often keeps a person alive for some time. It contains
the mid brain controls eye and hearing reflexes and conduct impulses that controls the sleep-
wake cycle. the pons controls respiration, chewing and taste and the medulla that controls
crucial function of the heart, lungs, stomach and blood vessels

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord continues down from the brain. Like the brain it is submerge in cerebro-spinal fluid and
is surrounded by the three meninges. The gray matter in the spinal cord is located in the internal
section and the white matter composes the outer part. The spinal cord functions as a reflex center and
as a conduction pathway to and from the brain

VI. PHYSICS OF LIFE

Terminology
 MOTION is a change in position in a certain amount of time.
 SPEED is the rate at which an object moves. A speed that does not change is called constant
speed. Average speed is the ratio of distance traveled
 VELOCITY is speed in a given direction
 ACCELERATION is the rate of change in velocity.
 MOMENTUM Is equal to the mass of an object and the velocity with which it is traveling. All
moving objects have momentum and the more momentum an object has and the harder it is to
stop. The total momentum of an object remains the same unless outside force act on it The
momentum lost by one object is gained by another ( Conserved momentum)
 FORCE is either a push or a pull. It gives energy to an object causing it to start moving, stop
moving or change direction.
 FRICTION is a force that acts in a direction opposite to the motion of the moving object. Friction
will cause a moving object to slow down and finally stop.
 GRAVITY is the force of attraction that exists between all objects in the universe.
 WEIGHT is a measure of the of the force of gravity on an object.. (gravitational force)
 MASS is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.
 PROJECTILE is a motion when objects are thrown or shot through the air which can either be
horizontal or vertical.
 PRESSURE is a force that acts over a certain area.
 WORK is a product force applied to an object times the distance through which the force is
applied
 POWER is the rate at which work is done

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

When ever you describe something that is moving, you are comparing it with something that is
assumed to be stationary. The Newton’s Law of Motion explains the principles of better performance.
First Law – An Object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion unless
acted upon by an outside force.
 Force is used any time an object begins moving, stops moving or change direction
 Force can slows down or make it move fast.
 Speed is a measure of how fast or how slow an object moves
 Speed changes when the motion of an object changes called acceleration.
Example: In serving volleyball, simply holding it with one hand will not put the ball in flight unless you
hit it forcefully with the other hand. And it will not return back unless another player hit back.
Second Law – The greater the mass of an object the greater the force is needed to accelerate it. The
greater the force given to an object the greater the acceleration
 This explains that the size of acceleration depend on the strength of the force and the mass of
the object.
 Near Earth’s surface, gravity causes the falling object to accelerate, and all objects accelerate at
the same rate regardless of mass
 Air resistance acts in the opposite direction that in which the object is moving
 Any object thrown or shot horizontally or vertically through the air is called projectile. The
horizontal velocity is constant while the vertical velocity which is affected by gravity is
accelerated.
 When an objects moves along a circular path it is accelerated towards the center of the circle
 When an object is influenced only by gravity the object is said to be free fall so it should be free
from gravity.
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Third Law – For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 The forces in an action reaction pair are always equal in size and opposite in direction.
 All moving objects have momentum. The momentum of objects is the product of its mass and
velocity.
 The total momentum of a set of objects is conserved unless a net force acts on the set.
The Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
This law states that all the objects in the universe attracts each other by the force of gravity. The size
of the force depends in two factors: the mass of the object and the distance between them.
Pressure and Gravity
As a result of gravity, the pressure a liquid exerts increases as the depth increases. Air pressure
decreases as altitude increases.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the phenomenon caused by the upward force of the fluid pressure.
 The buoyant force of an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
 An object float in the fluid when the buoyant force on the object is greater than or equal to the
weight of the object.
 An object will float in a fluid if it is less than the density of the fluid.

Machine
Machines are device that makes our work easier to do. It can increase a force or change the direction of
the force
A machine changes either the size or direction of an applied force
 Effort force is force applied to a machine. The work put into the machine is work input
 Work that comes out of the machine is work output. Work output overcomes the resistance
force.
 Efficiency is the comparison between the work output and the work input
 The mechanical advantage is the amount a machine can increase its force
Simple Machines
 Lever is a rigid bar that is free to move about a fulcrum when an effort force is applied. There
are three classes of levers depending upon the locations of the fulcrum, the effort force, and the
resistance force
1. First Class Lever - the fulcrum is between the effort arm and the resistance arm
2. Second Class Lever – the resistance arm is between the fulcrum and the effort arm
3. Third Class Lever – the effort arm is between the resistance arm and the fulcrum.

 Pulley is a chain, belt or rope wrapped around a grooved wheel . a fixed pulley changes the
direction of an effort force
 Inclined Plane is a slanted surface.
 Wedge is a moving inclined plane
 Wheel and axel is a simple machine made up of two circular objects with different diameter
 Screw is an inclined planned wrapped around a cylinder.

Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.. Energy appears to have many forms.
 Mechanical energy – is associated with motion like when you walk, ride a bike or hit a ball and
the blood flowing through your blood vessels
 Heat Energy – the atoms that are constantly moving produces energy. The faster the particle
moves the more heat energy is produced. As when you rub your hands using friction convert the
mechanical energy into heat energy
 Chemical energy – energy is required to bond atom, when the bonds are broken it produces
energy. When you digest food bonds are broken to release energy for you to use

Kinetic and Potential Energy

 Kinetic Energy is energy of motion. This type of energy is dependent on both mass and velocity.
Example: a tossed ball that hit you may not hurt much, not like when the ball came from a
spike.
 Potential energy is energy of position or shape. Example: In Archery, the bow has a potential to
send an arrow gliding towards the target

VII. MAINTAINING HEALTH

Health
Being healthy involves far more than simply not being ill. Heath as defined by the WHO is the state of
completer physical mental social and emotional wellbeing of an individual and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity. If you feel in good health, your organs will be working properly and you will
have the energy to live life to the full. This feeling of wellbeing affects your mind and your body.

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS
Physical fitness is an important part of health, and this means that your heart, lungs, skeleton and
muscles all work together smoothly to carry out your daily activities.
Generally, physical fitness is defined as the ability of an individual to perform regular day to day
activities without undue fatigue and still has the energy to enjoy leisure and to meet emergencies.
Basic Fitness Components
There are two basic fitness components. These are the health-related and skill-related components. The
health-related fitness component pertains to the total functioning of the body. The skill-related fitness
component refers to the quality of movement of one’s skills.
 Health-Related Fitness

1. Cardio-respiratory Endurance - The ability of the heart and the lungs to function
efficiently and effectively over a prolonged period of time.
 3min-Step Test
2. Muscular Strength - The amount of force that particular muscle group can generate to
work against resistance
 Bent Knee Curl-ups
 Push–ups /Bent-Knee Arm Push-up
3. Muscular Endurance - It is the ability of a muscle group to perform minimum resistance
in a maximum repetition or to stabilize a fixed contraction (isometric) for a prolonged
period of time.
 Flexed Arm Hang
4. Flexibility -It is defined as muscle suppleness to accommodate the full
range of motion available at a joint.
 Sit and Reach
5. Body Composition –This refers to the relative amount of fats and lean body tissue or fat
free mass (muscle, bones and water) that comprise the body.
 Skinfold Test

. Skill-Related Fitness

1. Balance - The process of orienting yourself in space which involve muscle

reflexes, visual cues and reaction time for the maintenance of equilibrium.
It can either is static or dynamic balance.
 Static balance- One-Leg-Balance ( Closed Eyes)
 Dynamic balance – Leap and Pick
2. Coordination - The ability to shift smoothly the body or parts of the body from one
motion or position to another.
 Wand Juggling
3. Agility - The ability to move the entire body accurately to a sudden change
of a direction.
 Shuttle Run
3. Speed - It is the ability of the body to perform any movements in the
shortest possible time.
 50 meter Sprint
4. Power - It is the ability to transform energy into an explosive force that will cause the
body to move as fast or spring about.
 Standing Long Jump
 Vertical Jump
5. Reaction Time - It is the time needed for a muscle group to move in response to a given
stimulus called reflexes
 Ruler drop.

Exercise
Exercise is a physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive and purposive in the sense that
improvement or maintenance of physical fitness is an objective.

Basic Parts or Phase of an Exercise Program

1. Warm –up
2. Exercise Proper
 Strength
 Flexibility
 Endurance
3. Cool Down

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General Principles of Exercise

1. Overload
 Intensity
 Duration
 Frequency
2. Specificity
3. Individuality
4. Recovery
5. Reversibility
Note
 Exercise is important because it keeps the bones, joints and muscles healthy.
You cannot expect an older person to take vigorous exercise but they are encourage for
guided workout
 Carefully planned and performed exercises helps prevent joint and muscle injuries
 Walking and even swimming helps the circulation and keeps the joint supple.
 Follow professional advice on proper exercise level to avoid any damage to their body
particularly that of those who are under medical treatment.
 Regular exercise helps you tone up the muscles and the circulatory system.
 Regular exercise strengthens the muscles and improves muscle tone.
 Regular exercise can improve body shape and posture
 Regular exercise strengthen the heart and improves your blood flow
 Regular exercise promote sound sleep and rest.

Part II: ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Competency No.1 Analyzing body parts in relation to movement.

1. The skeletal system being the framework of the body got each of its part connected through joints.
The degree of its motion at a joint is determined by:
A. the amount of synovial fluid in a joint
B. the number of bursa around a joint
C. the bone shape and joint structure
D. the unusual amount of exercise

The correct answer is C

The joint is a point where two bones meet. They are classified into three main types according to the
degree of movement: They are immovable, partially movable and the freely movable. The skull has an
immovable joint that protects the brain, eyes and ears. The rib cage are slightly movable that helps in
the breathing process while the shoulder, hip, elbow and knee joints allows a wider degree of
movement.

Competency No.2 Identify components of Physical Fitness

2. The lasting power of the heart, lungs and skeletal muscle during hard work as a result of ones
regular physical activities and exercise is referred to as
A. Flexibility
B. Strength
C. Power
D. Stamina

The correct answer is D

Stamina refers to the ability of the body to exert energy for extended period of time. Stamina is
derived from a combination of cardio-respiratory and muscular endurance acquired from regular
aerobic exercise that strengthen the heart and increased lung capacity.

Competency No. 3 Demonstrate lifetime wellness program and activities

3. When the body systems work together smoothly to carry out your daily life activities, you are said
to have:
A. Strength
B. Physical Fitness
C. Full of energy
D. Healthy lifestyle

The correct answer is B

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Physical Fitness is an important part of health which simply means that when there is a smooth
relationship with the work of you body systems, you are fit and keeping fit will help you lead a more
active life.
4. On the process of walking energy is produced but when you stop from walking the energy
dissipates. This motion is an example of
A. Catalyst
B. Kinetic energy
C. Matter
D. Potential energy
5. The forward movement of a part of the body in a plane such as the arm or leg is called
A. Insertion
B. Flexion
C. Protraction
D. Extension
6. When Joseph reach out for his arm to receive money from his father which pair of action are
involved
A. pronation and rotation
B. flexion and abduction
C. flexion and supination
D. extension and supination
7. The component of a second-class lever are positioned in this sequence
A. Pivot , resistance, effort
B. Resistance, pivot, effort
C. Pivot, effort, resistance
D. Effort, pivot , effort
8. The carpometacarpal joint of the thumb is the only finger that allows several types of movement
that makes the hand a very useful part of the body. This joint is known as a
A. Saddle joint
B. Pivot joint
C. Hinge joint
D. Gliding joint
9. The longest and strongest bone in the body
A. Humerus B. Tibia C. Femur D. Fibula
10. The muscle in the upper arm used as the injection site
A. Biceps B. Deltoid C. Triceps D. Trapezius
11. Regular physical exercise is being recommended to avoid muscle fatigue caused by a built-up of :
A. ATP B. Oxygen C. Lactic acid C. Glycogen
12. The strongest muscle that generally gives the body its beautiful shape is the buttocks also called
A. Gastrocnemius B. Trapezius C. Gluteus D. Rectus femoris
13. The largest and most superior part of the human brain responsible for consciousness consisting of
the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobe is the
A. Cerebellum B. Midbrain C. Cerebrum D. Brain stem
14. The nerve which contains fibers that both send and receive messages to and from the brain is called
A. Afferent nerve b. Efferent nerve c. Mixed nerve d. Sensory nerve
15. The blood type found be in the largest percent of the world population is
A. Type AB c. Type B
B. Type A d. Type O
16. When deoxygenated blood returns to the heart to the right atrium and down to the right ventricle,
its back flow is prevented by the strong valve called
A. Tricuspid valve
B. Aortic semi-lunar valve
C. Bicuspid valve
D. Pulmonary semi-lunar valve
17. The blood circulation that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs and the oxygenated
blood from the lungs back to heart is said to be
A. Coronary
B. Fetal
C. Cardiopulmonary
D. Portal
18. The blood vessel that carries blood with carbon dioxide from the heart to the lungs is
A. Pulmonary artery
B. Pulmonary vein
C. Aorta
D. Vena cave
19. In archery, the amount of pull given to the bow will determine the speed and distance of
the arrow upon its release.
A. First Law of Motion
B. Second Law of Motion
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 C. Third Law of Motion
D. Newton’s Law of Gravitation
20. The type of bones that usually function as levers are the
A. Flat bone C. Irregular bone
B. Short bone D. Long bone
21. During moderate exercise the amount of blood that flows to the brain
A. Increases
B. Decreases
C. Remains unchanged
D. Initially increase then decreases
22. A person’s blood pressure is generally taken with a cuff around the humerus over the
A. The subclavian artery C. Brachial artery
B. The humeral artery D. Radial artery
23. Lifting a 2 pounds dumbbell with a bent elbow of one arm is considered to be a
A. Third class lever C. Second class lever
B. First class lever D. Inclined plane
24. While swimming in a pool, the force that pushes your body off the water is
A. Gravity
B. Hydraulics
C. Pressure
D. Buoyancy
25. In the game basketball, dribbling the ball is a required skill as the player in ball possession moves
round the court. This proves the Newton’s Law of Motion on
A. First Law of Motion
B. Second Law of Motion
C. Third Law of Motion
D. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

10 ITEMS PRE-BOARD EXAMINATION

1. In the gymnastics VAULT event, a gymnast runs fast as preparatory movement before a take
off on the vault.
A. First Law of Motion C. Third Law of Motion
B. Second Law of Motion D. Newton’s Law of Gravitation
2. The muscle around the shoulder is a powerful abductor, used to raise the arm
overhead
A. Deltoid B. Pectoral C. Trapizius D. Biceps Brachii
3. One way of developing muscular strength is through the use of muscle
contraction characterized by an absence of joint movement.
A. Isotonic B. Isokinetic C. Isometric D. Concentric
4. When the posture of any individual is affected by an excessive curvature of the
thoracic spine , this condition is know as
A. Kyphosis B. Lordosis C. Scholeosis D. Osteoporosis
5. The part of the brain that helps control voluntary movement of muscles such as
coordination, posture and balance
A. Cerebrum C. Mid brain
B. Brain stem D. Cerebellum
6. When oxygen is not readily met by the circulatory system during exercise, this
condition is called.
A. Cramps C. Oxygen debt
B. Second wind D. Anaerobic
7. The carpometacarpal joint that moves thumb while texting message on your cell phone
A. Saddle C. Ball and socket
B. Gliding D. Hinge
8. The following are the basis of naming muscle except one
A. Shape C. Strength of contraction
B. Function D. Sites of attachment
9. The muscle that flexes the joints between the lumbar vertebrae that cause the
body to bow
A. Internal abdominal oblique
B. Transverse abdominis
C. Rectus abdominis
D. External abdominal oblique
10. A gymnast in his performance on any heavy apparatus, uses chalk in his hands to
increase a kind of force that will prevent his body to be thrown out of the apparatus
he is into.
A. Gravity C. Buoyancy
B. Friction D. Balance
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 I. ANSWER KEY

1. C 6. C 11. C 16. A 21. C

2. D 7. A 12. C 17. C 22. C
3. B 8. A 13. C 18. C 23. B
4. B 9. C 14 D 19. B 24. D
5. D 10. B 15. D 20. D 25. C

II. ANSWER KEY

1. B 4. A 7. A 10. B
2. A 5. D 8. C
3. C 6. C 9. C

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St. Louis Review center, Inc-Davao Tel. no. (082) 224-2515 or 222-8732 21