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Differences and Similarities Between the Rastafari Movement and the Nation of Islam

Author(s): Michael Barnett


Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 36, No. 6 (Jul., 2006), pp. 873-893
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES
BETWEEN THE RASTAFARI
MOVEMENT AND THE
NATION OF ISLAM
MICHAELBARNETT
Florida InternationalUniversity- UniversityPark Campus

Thetwo Black social movementsunderconsiderationin this articlearenow


well established among Black communities in America and, although
widely thoughtto be distinctfrom each other,have much in common. As
such, this article seeks to explore the similaritiesand differencesbetween
the movements. One overarchingsimilarityis that both movements em-
power their largely Black adherentsby providing them with a positive
Black identity. This may be viewed as an outcome of both movements
being inspiredby MarcusGarvey.In addition,because these movements
emphasizechangewithinthe individualratherthanchangein the surround-
ing social structure,they areconsideredto be expressivesocial movements.
A key difference between the movements is the specific type of posi-
tive Black identitythat is inculcated.For the Rastafarimovement,it is an
African-centered,Afrocentricidentity,whereasfor the Nationof Islamit is
a Blackcentricidentity(thatis not geographicallyanchored).

Keywords: Blacksocial movements;empowerment;positive Blackiden-


tity;Afrocentricidentity;Blackcentricidentity

The two Black social movements under considerationin this


articleare now well establishedamong Black communitiesin the
United States, and althoughwidely thoughtto be clearly distinct
from each other,have more in common than the casual observer
would suspect. As such, this article seeks to explore and investi-
gate, with a reasonabledegree of depth, the similaritiesand dif-
ferences thatboth movementshave with each other.

JOURNALOF BLACKSTUDIES, Vol. 36 No. 6, July 2006 873-893


DOI: 10.1177/0021934705279611
© 2006 Sage Publications
873
874 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

The ethnographicmaterialthathas helped to inform and shape


this article was carriedout largely in South Florida, by this re-
searcher,when he was writing his dissertation.South Florida is
characterizedby the significant number of African Americans
and African Caribbeanswho reside there. This interestingdemo-
graphichas been an importantcontributorto the relatively large
number of Rastafariand Nation of Islam adherentsthat can be
foundthere.In SouthFlorida,therearetwo separateRastafariman-
sions, that of the Boboshantelocated in LibertyCity, Miami, and
thatof the TheocracyReign Ancient Orderof Nyahbinghi,whose
headquartersused to be located in the Redlandsdistrictin Home-
stead.As regardsthe Nation of Islam, the centralmosque or head-
quartersof Region#7 (whichcorrespondsto Floridaandthe Carib-
bean) is the Miamimosque,Mohammed'sMosque#29, locatedin
the heartof LibertyCity.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE MOVEMENTS

One general and importantsimilaritybetween the movements


is that both are liberation theological movements that seek to
empowerBlacks by providingthem with a positive self-identity:
one thatpurgesthe mindsof its membersof notionsof White supe-
riorityandBlack inferiorityandthataddressesthe vicious cycle of
false identity and self-hatred(Chevannes, 1994; Rashad, 1995).
Another general similarity is that of the millenarianismof the
Rastafari and the Nation of Islam movements. Talmon (1968)
wrote that the characteristicsof millenarianmovementsinclude a
vision of a golden age here on Earth,whereall the problemsof the
membersof the groupwould be solved. She arguedthat there are
five characteristicsthatmillenarianmovementsshare.First,all the
faithfulof the groupwould sharein the salvationof the millennium;
second, the millenniumis "this-worldly,"that is, the golden age
will occuron Earth;third,the millenniumis imminentin thatit will
occur very soon and very likely duringthe lifetime of the believer;
fourth,the millenniumwill be ultimate,thatis, it will bringabouta
final stateof history;andfifth, the millenniumwill be total, in that
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 875

the world will become the total incarnationof perfection.Talmon


furtherarguedthatby adoptingmillenarianbeliefs, which involve
apocalypticexpectationsandthe notionof a chosenpeople, a group
caneffectivelygive itself a separateidentitywith anelevatedstatus.
In short,she arguedthatmillenarianmovementsemerge from the
searchfor a new identity,an identity that will provide a renewed
sense of dignity and self-respect. From this perspective,millen-
arianismcan be conceived of in a positive empowering light as
opposedto being a negativeor backwardcharacteristicof any par-
ticulargroup.Detailedresearchrevealsclearlythatfor both move-
ments,"JudgmentDay,"the day of reckoning,or "Armageddon" is
fast approaching.In other words, we are living in the final days
before the inevitable and imminent Armageddonbefalls us, and
only the Chosen will be saved.
Yetanothersimilaritybetweenthe two movementsis the impor-
tance thatGenesis 15:13-14 holds. This reads:

Andhe saiduntoAbram,Knowof a suretythatthyseedshallbe a


stranger in a landthatis nottheirs,andshallservethem:Andthey
shall afflictthemfor four hundredyears.And also thatnation,
whomtheyshallserve,will I judge:andafterward shalltheycome
outwithgreatsubstance.

The argumentmadeby the membersof the Boboshantehouse and


of the Nyahbinghihouse who were interviewedandquestionedon
this, as well as MinisterRasul MuhammadRegion #7 ministerfor
the Nationof Islam,was thatthis prophecyappliedto Blacks in the
Westwhose ancestorshadbeenbroughtinvoluntarilyto the Ameri-
cas andthe Caribbeanfor the purposeof slavery.Some respondents
arguedthatthis was a repetitionof prophecy,whereasothersargued
that the prophecy really applied only to the particularsituation
broughtaboutby the middlepassage,on the pretextthatin realityit
is only Blacks in the new world that have been afflicted for 400
years in the land of a stranger.Whateverthe specific argument
expressed,one theme is apparenthere:thatessentially Blacks are
the chosen people. Thus, we see that membershipin either the
Nyahbinghi or Boboshante houses of Rasta or in the Nation of
Islam leads to a positive reinforcementof Black identity. Inter-
876 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

views with the White Rastafarirespondents,who attendedRasta-


fari gatheringsin SouthFlorida,reinforcedthe researcher'sobser-
vationthatone's racialidentityis still significantin the Nyahbinghi
and Boboshante houses (at least in Miami) and that the claim
thatthe Rastafarimovementhas now been deracializedcould only
really be leveled at the Twelve Tribes of Israel house and at the
widely contested Coptic house. (Because the Coptics do not be-
lieve in the divinityof Haile Selassie, manyRastafarischolarscon-
test theirmembershipin the movement.)
Anothersimilaritybetween the movementsis the centralityof a
messiah figure for both movements.For the Nation of Islam, the
messiah figure (God in the flesh) is MasterFardMuhammad;and
to a certain extent, it is also Elijah Muhammad(Gardell, 1996;
Rasul Muhammad,personal interview, April 30, 2000; Ronald
Muhammad,personalinterview,April 16, 2000), whereasfor most
of the mansionsof the Rastafarimovement,the embodimentof the
messiah (God in the flesh) is Haile Selassie I (Barnett,2000; L. E.
Barrett,1997). This is probablyone of the more notableparallels
between the Rastafarimovementand the Nation of Islam in terms
of the ideologicalramificationsfor bothorganizations.If the image
of Jesus Christcan be equatedwith that of a Black man, then this
leads to the implicationthat God himself is Black. Undoubtedly
the portrayalof oneself as godlike is absolutelyempoweringto the
spiritof a people who have suffereddenigrationandstigmatization
for centuries.
Another noteworthysimilaritybetween the movements is the
conception that Blacks are the original and God-like people of
the planet. This is apparentparticularlyamong the Boboshante
Rastafarimansion and the Nation of Islam, who emphasize pro-
fusely in theirteachingsthatBlackpeople arethe originalpeople of
the planet. Notions of the humanityof God and correspondingly
the divinityof Man formcommontheologicalthreadsbetweenthe
Rastafarimovement and the Nation of Islam. Both memberships
profess that God is man and man is God; that is the idea that God
lies withinpeople ratherthanoutside(Priest-X,personalinterview,
March21, 2000; Rasul Muhammad,personalinterview,April 30,
2000). If God lies within, then it follows that people can become
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 877

more godly by connectingwith theirinner selves. By establishing


these connectionsthey, in a sense, discovertheirtrue"self."It fol-
lows thatif one adheresto the respectiveteachingsof the founderor
messiah of one's organization(MasterFardMuhammador Elijah
Muhammadin the case of the Nation of Islam, andHaile Selassie I
or PrinceEmmanuelin the case of the Rastafarimovement),one is
able to realizeone's Godliness.The theologicalconceptionof "the
humanityof God"allows for the possibilityfor the manifestationof
God in the flesh, as is the case for the Nation of Islam and for the
Rastafarimovement.This may be contrastedwith the more limit-
ing view of consideringGod only in the spiritualsense, as in main-
streamChristianity.The articulationthatGod has manifestedhim-
self in the flesh here on Earthis perhapsthe key andmost enduring
similaritybetweenboth groups.In the case of the Nation of Islam,
MasterFardMuhammadis consideredto be the manifestationof
God in the flesh, whereasin the case of the Rastafarimovementit is
Haile Selassie I thatis God in the flesh. (In addition,what follows
fromthe correspondingconceptionof the "Divinityof Man"is that
the humanbody is the temple of God; and, therefore,one should
takegreatcareof it. As a result,bothmovementsadvocatea healthy
dietthatservesto maintainthephysicalbody as best as is possible.)
JosephOwens (1976) who researchedthe theological elements
of Rastafariextensively in the 70s, arguedthat for the Rastafari
movement,God is to be foundin everyman;however,theremustbe
one man in whom he exists most eminently and completely; and
that is the suprememan, Rastafari,Haile Selassie I (p. 116). He
went on furtherto quote PrinceEmmanuel(founderof the Ethio-
pian AfricanBlack InternationalCongress [EABIC])as sayin,g

Them say God is a spiritin the sky. And yet you could not go in the
sky to find a spiritup there The have-notsof the Earthcould not
hearus becausethey thinkthatGod is a spiritin the sky.They could
hearno one. When you say a Man is God you marvelto them. We
are coming to tell the world that man is God and God is man!
(Owens, 1976, pp. 116-117)

In Message to the Black Man Elijah Muhammad (1965) wrote,


878 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

Godis a manandwejustcannotmakeHimotherthanaman,lestwe
makeHiman inferiorone;for man'sintelligencehasno equalin
otherthanman.His wisdomis infinite;capableof accomplishing
anythingthatHisbraincanconceive.A spiritis subjectedto us and
notwe to thespirit,(p. 6)

A glaringsimilaritybetween some of the mansionsof Rastafari


(Boboshantehouse and the Nyahbinghihouse) and the Nation of
Islam is a racializedtheology thatarguesthatthe Black man came
first (i.e., he is the original man) and the White man came last.
Nicholas (1979) notedsome NyahbinghiRastacite Genesis 1:26 as
a basis for arguingthatBlacks arethe originaland Godlikepeople
of the planet. Genesis 1:26 reads,

Letus makemanin ourimage,afterourlikeness:andletthemhave


dominionoverthefishof thesea.

The contentionhere is thatthis chapterand verse alludesto Black


people, who created other people, whereas the later chapterand
verses, specificallyGenesis2:7 and2:22 alludeto AdamandEve as
the progenitorsof the Whiteracewho were createdlater(Nicholas,
1979).
The Nation of Islam professes that Whites were made by the
Black mad scientist, Yakub(Muhammad,1965, p. 9). From the
originalpeople who wereBlack camethe Brownman,thenthe Red
man, then the Yellow man, and then finally the White man (Lieb,
1998, p. 141). The aboriginalpeoples encompass all those who
came from the originalpeople but before the White people. Thus,
the Red man, the Yellow man, andthe Brownman arecollectively
groupedwith New WorldBlacks as the aboriginalpeople (Brother-
TX, personal interview, April 11, 2000). The researchernoted
duringhis attendanceat severallecturesat the Miami mosque and
his interview with MinisterAbdullahMuhammad,the Nation of
Islam's nationalrepresentativefor Latin Americans,thatthe term
aboriginalis used synonymouslywith the termoriginal.This illus-
tratedto the researcherthatthe distinctionin the Nation is now not
so much Black and White but ratherpeople of color (non-Whites)
and Whites.
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 879

A somewhat ironic similarity for this researcheris that both


movementsemergedin the sameyear, 1930. The literatureinforms
us that the Nation of Islam was founded in Detroit, America, by
MasterFardMuhammadin 1930 (Essien-Udom, 1962; Lincoln,
1969). In the case of the Rastafarimovement, we noted that this
emergedin JamaicaafterNovember2, 1930, the grandcoronation
day when Ras Tafariwas crowned"HisImperialMajestyEmperor
Haile Selassie I" in Ethiopia(Campbell, 1987; Hill, 2001; Tafari,
1995). Anotherseemingly ironic coincidence is that the messiahs
for both movements, Elijah Muhammadand Haile Selassie I,
transitionedfrom the physical realm in the same year, essen-
tially 1975. (From the perspectiveof the respective movements,
Haile Selassie I departedto the spiritualrealm, whereas Elijah
Muhammaddepartedto the MotherShip.)
There is also commonalitywith regardto the gender relations
within the movements. The Nation of Islam and the Rastafari
movementshold patriarchalconservativepositionson genderrela-
tions. This is expressedparticularlyduringthe religious and cere-
monialactivitiesof the respectivemovements,in which the women
are separatedfrom the men (this is trueof the Nation of Islam and
the BoboshanteRastafarimansion and partiallytrue of the Nyah-
binghiRastafarimansion).The leadersof the religious services are
overwhelminglymale.Both movementsarealso characterizedby a
religious conservatism,emphasizingthe family as the cornerstone
of society. As such, both movements castigate homosexuality
based on it being consideredimmoral,ungodly, and forbiddenby
the Bible and the Quran.Greatemphasisalso is placed on gender
roles withinthe family,with the womanas the primarycaretakerof
the childrenand the house, and the man as the provider.
In addition,in our discussion of the similaritiesbetween both
movements,we shouldconsiderthatboth were significantlyinflu-
enced by MarcusGarvey.This shouldnot be really surprisingcon-
sideringthat Garveyhad such a majorimpact on Pan-Africanism
and Black Nationalism (Deburg, 1997; Geiss, 1974; Pinkney,
1976). Garvey perfected the Ethiopianist ideology that
provided the theological and ideological foundation for the
Rastafarimovement(L. E. Barrett,1997). He also developed the
880 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

political ideology- Africa for the Africansat home and aboard-


which laid the foundationfor the repatriationistzeal of Rastafari-
ans. Garvey,in his culturalnationalistthreadof ideology, empha-
sized the proudhistoryof Black people, theiraccomplishmentsin
ancienttimes, andthe impactthatthis has madein moderntimes.In
doing this, he instilled a sense of pridein being Black and encour-
aged racialsolidarity.This strategywas employedby the Rastafari
movement and the Nation of Islam. In his economic-nationalist
threadof ideology, Garveyprofessedeconomic self-determination
for Blackpeople, andthe economicnationalistthreadof his nation-
alism has observedlymade a majorimpacton the ideology of the
Nation of Islam. Garvey'sexample of educationalnationalismis
also employed by the Nation of Islam in that they have their own
educationalsystem. The Nation of Islam is highly critical of the
Americanschool system, which is seen by them as the principal
means of perpetuatingWhite supremacyby systematic misedu-
cation(Gardell,1996). It is arguedthatthe White-centeredcurricu-
lum is designed to make invisible the history and achievementsof
the non-White peoples and to imprintthe false doctrineof White
superiority and Black inferiority in its pupils (Gardell, 1996,
p. 323).
In 1989, the Nation of Islam opened its first MuhammadUni-
versity of Islam since the second resurrectionof the Nation (i.e.,
since the departureof ElijahMuhammad).Since then a numberof
MuhammadUniversitiesof Islam have been establishedunderthe
auspices of the Nation of Islam Board of Education on which
TynettaMuhammadandAbdulAlim Muhammadserveas officials
(Gardell,1996, p. 323). As was the case duringthe firstresurrection
of the Nation,most of the MuhammadUniversitiesof Islamareele-
mentary schools with a few offering secondary education. Chi-
cago's MuhammadUniversity of Islam provides classes right up
throughhigh school. A primarythemeof the educationprovidedby
these Universitiesof Islam is a knowledge of God and knowledge
of self. The universitiesalso focus on Black history,mathematics,
Englishlanguage,andscience. They also attemptto cultivatemoral
conductanddiscipline.Boys andgirls aretaughtin separateclass-
rooms that according to Minister Farrakhanfacilitates learning
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 88 1

withoutdistraction(Gardell,1996, p. 324). It shouldbe noted that


Rastafariadherentsdo aspire to implementeducationalnational-
ism and economic nationalism,but clearly lag the Nation of Islam
in both areas.
In ourdiscussionof the similaritiesof bothmovements,we may
summarizeby noting thatthe overarchingsimilaritythatbecomes
evidentfor bothmovementsis the conceptionthatBlack people are
the chosen people, who will rise to prominencein the time of judg-
ment as a result of prophecy.Also thereis an additionalemphasis
on ancientBlack cultureprovidingthe bedrockfor civilization,and
Blacks as principalactorsof the Bible, includingbeing the people
of the covenant.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MOVEMENTS

Afterexaminationof ethnographicdataandliteratureregarding
both of the movements,Rastafariand the Nation of Islam, several
discernablefeaturescome to light regardingthe issue of identity.
Firstandforemost,the currentstudyrevealsthatthereis a marked
degree of variationof identity orientationamong membersof the
Rastafarimovementthatis in starkcontrastto thatof the Nation of
Islamwherethe variationof identityorientationis negligible.What
becomes apparentis the relativelygreaterdegree of individualism
thatis expressedandexhibitedby membersof the Rastafarimove-
ment (specificallyin termsof theirideological orientation,style of
dress, and theologicalperspectives),in contrastto the membersof
the Nation of Islam where thereis greaterconsistency in all three
categories.This may be attributedlargelyto the differencein struc-
tureof the respectivemovements.The Nation of Islam is a highly
centralizedhierarchicalmovement with one overall leader and,
ultimately, one overall message for its members. The Rastafari
movement,on the other hand, is a polycephalous (many-headed)
one with no overallleaderandno one absolutedoctrine.Whatulti-
mately connects the variousmansions of Rastafaritogetheris the
belief in the divinityof Haile Selassie I. Arguably,the structureof
the organizationaffects the identities of its members. The more
882 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

structurednatureof the Nation of Islam leads to less individuality


amongits membersthanexists in the Rastafarimovement.In addi-
tion, there is a greaterdegree of uniformityand conformityof its
membersthanthatof the Rastafarimembers.
Anothermajordifferenceis thatthe Nation of Islam is a move-
mentthathas, underclose inspection,a theology based on a fusion
of Islam and Christianity,whereas the Rastafarimovementhas a
theology that is essentially Judeo-Christian,albeit an Afrocentri-
cized blend of Christianityand Judaism.It should be noted, how-
ever, that both movements allude to the perpetuationof White
supremacyby mainstreamChristianity.
Yet anothermajordifferenceis the distinctlyAfrocentricorien-
tation of the Rastafarimovement,which puts "MotherAfrica"at
the center of their ideological stance and is concerned with the
reconnectionof New WorldAfricanswith the continentof Africa.
In contrast,the Nation of Islam focuses primarilyon people of
color in the New World(MinisterAbdullahMuhammad,personal
interview, February7, 2000; Rasul Muhammad,personal inter-
view, April 30, 2000). This can be attributedto the Rastafarimove-
ment following the Pan-Africanistdimension of Garvey (Tafari,
1995), whereasthe Nationof Islamhas arguablytakenon the Black
Nationalist elements of Garvey's philosophy. Lieb (1998) in his
book, Childrenof Ezekiel (p. 139), detailed the Nation of Islam
conceptionof the Black man'sidentityandorigins.The conception
is as follows: In the beginning,AfricaandAsia were one continent,
andthe populationwas entirelyBlack.The mostpowerfultribewas
the originalAsian Black nationknownas the tribeof Shabazz.The
Tribeof Shabazzis the source of the so-called Negro in America.
Knowingthathis originis in the Tribeof Shabazz,the Negrois now
able to understandthat he really is a descendentof the powerful
Black people of Asia. The originalman is the Black man, the pri-
mogenitorof all the otherraces.He is the Alphaandthe Omega.All
stemsfromhim, andall is resolvedin him.The tribeof Shabazzwas
the firstto explore the continentduringthe primordialperiod.It is
these people who discoveredthe most desirableplaces to inhabit,
includingthe Nile Valley and the place known as the Holy City of
Mecca in Arabia.In knowing this, the Negro becomes awarenot
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 883

only of his or her genealogy but also of his or her ultimateplace of


origin that for the Negro of America is the spiritual center of
Islamicworshipandidentity.By virtueof this, the Negro discovers
his or her Islamic heritage. When he or she understandsand
acknowledgesthis heritage,he or she will take pridein who he or
she is.
This conception of identity clearly does not put sub-Saharan
Africa at the center;ratherit puts Mecca in Arabiaat the center,or
at the very best, Egypt of NorthernAfrica at the center.Although
thereis a clearconceptionof identityhere,the fact thatAfricais not
at its centerpurgesit of much Afrocentricpotentialin the opinion
of this researcher.However,one thing must be said: This concep-
tion emphasizesthatBlack people are the originalpeople. In this
regard,the ideology is clearlyBlackcentricas opposedto the more
geographicallyorientedideologyof Afrocentricism(Asante,1989).
As mentionedpreviouslyfor the Rastafarimovement,the iden-
tity thatis internalizedis an Afrocentricone, specificallythatof an
exiled African.For formalevents, and sometimesin casual every-
daycircumstances,Africangarmentsarewornby sistrenandbreth-
renalikeas an affirmationof this Africanidentity.Forthe Nationof
Islam, the identity internalizedis fundamentallythat of a chosen
people whose religion is Islam. Racial solidarity is encouraged
based on the notion that people of color in the New World are
aboriginalpeople. A key ideological differencebetweenthe move-
ments thatmanifestsitself because of this differencein identityis
thatconcerningthe matterof repatriation.For the Rastafarimove-
ment, repatriationis a centraltenantof their ideology. This is not
the case, however,for Nation of Islam adherentswho do not see
Africa as the motherlandor homelandor as the primarybasis of
identityas do theirRastafaricounterparts.
Anotherkey differenceis in the use of the holy herb(marijuana),
which for Rastafariis a sacrament.The Nation of Islam, however,
preachescomplete abstentionfrom anythingthat may be consid-
ered as a recreationaldrugin America.Anothernotabledifference
is thatthe lifestyle andattitudeof membersof the Nationof Islamis
extremely discipline oriented with an emphasis on structureand
order.This is not the case among the Rastafarimemberswho tend
884 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

to take a less dogmatic and less formularizedapproachto doing


things.In manyinstances,they areaccusedof being less organized
than the Nation of Islam, however, in other instances are highly
regardedfor the higher degree of individualismthat they are per-
ceived to express.
Yet another(andinteresting)differenceis the zealous economic
nationalismof the Nation (which some Blacks criticizeas amount-
ing to no more than Black capitalism;Gardell, 1996, p. 321). A
numberof businessventureshavebeen establishedin differentsec-
tors by the Nation of Islam, especially the chain of Salaamrestau-
rants,shabazzbakeries,Islamicclothingstores,the Nationof Islam
securityagency,the Final Call newspaper,andClean'N Freshskin
and hair products.In addition,there is real estate in a numberof
states,fish markets,farmland,anda Chicagomall of supermarkets
and restaurants.This scale of business enterpriseis not replicated
by the Rastafarimovement,largely because of the conflict within
the movementaboutengaging to such a extensive level in what is
regardedas the Babyloniansystem of capitalism.

INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF IDENTITIES
WITHIN THE RASTAFARI MOVEMENT
AND THE NATION OF ISLAM

Murrell(1998) wrote that "Rastasoften argue that every true


Black personis Rasta(theyjust need to discoverit)" (p. 2). In this
vein, it may be arguedthat the criteriafor identifying and being
identifiedas Rastaarenot as limiting or constrainingas thatof the
Nation of Islam. Thereis more freedom,flexibility,and fluidityin
the adoptionof a Rastafariidentity.Notably,one of the researcher's
Rastafarirespondents(I-Tafari,telephoneinterview,November7,
1999) commented,"Rastafariis not as limited,rigid or boundedas
the Nation of Islam."In an interviewwith LindaJones, staff writer
of the Dallas MorningNews (August 11, 1996), JimmieMoore, a
Rastafarianwho was once a member of the Nation of Islam re-
marked,"Whenit came to having shaved faces and bald heads, I
couldn't deal with it. It seemed too much like what I was tryingto
Bamett / BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 885

get awayfrom."An interestingfeatureof the institutionalizationof


identityin the case of the Nationof Islamis thatthereis an inherent
assumptionthatthe perspectivememberdoes not know who he or
she is untilhe or she becomes partof the organization;thatis, until
one becomes a processedmemberof the Nation, one remainsas a
nonbelieverwho has yet to acquirea trueknowledge of self. Con-
versely,for the Rastafarimovement,one does not need to join any
organizationor mansion to be considered a Rastafari;through
one's own volitionone can come to identifyas Rastaindependently
of any organization.This distinctionhighlightsthe greaterindivid-
ualistic natureof the Rastafariidentitythatwas discussed earlier.
In consideringthe characteristicsof the groupidentitiesthatare
institutionalizedin bothmovements,we need to considerthe inter-
nal component,which is essentiallythe belief system andideology
of the institution,which is instilledin its members,andthe external
componentthat is the body symbolism of the member.The body
symbolism of the person may be consideredto be an externalex-
pression of the internalizedidentity of the memberand serves to
reinforcethis identity(R. Barrett,1991, p. 139).
The belief system of Rastafari(the internalcomponentof their
identity)may be summarizedas follows: First, Haile Selassie I is
divine. He representsGod in the flesh for some Rastafari,some
referto him as the returnedmessiah,for othershe is one thirdof the
God-Headtrinity,and for othersstill, he representsthe entiretrin-
ity, the Father,Son, and Holy Ghost (Barnett, 2000; Williams,
2000). Second is the belief that salvation is earthly,ratherthan
heavenly. Third is the belief in the supremacyof life; in other
words,the celebrationof the temporalexistence of people, without
so much focus on an afterlife.Fourthis the belief in the corporate
dimensionof evil, thatis, the notionthatcorporationsandbig busi-
ness are inherentlyevil and oppressive.Fifth is the belief that one
shouldlive in harmonywith nature;as such, humanbeings should
aspireto protectthe environmentby reducingpollution. In addi-
tion, they shouldendeavorto eat naturalfoods. Sixth is the belief in
the priesthoodof Rasta;the notion thatRastasare the chosen peo-
ple of Jah, whose role it is to manifest God's power and promote
peace in the world. Seven is the notion of repatriation;that is, at
886 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

some point in one's life one should leave the Westernhemisphere


for Africa, the much-celebratedmotherlandand homeland for
Rastafari.Eight is the belief thatMarcusGarveyshouldbe revered
as a prophet, who prophesized the crowning of H.I.M. Haile
Selassie I and laid the ideological and philosophicalfoundations
for the Rastafarimovement.(The precedinglist is not necessarily
exhaustivebut makes up what this researcherconsiders to be the
core beliefs of the Rastafarimovement. In addition,it should be
noted thatbecause the Rastafarimovementis not a homogeneous
movement, membersneed not necessarily subscribeto all of the
above beliefs to be consideredRastafari.)
Contrastingly,the internalcomponent of the institutionalized
identityfor a memberof the Nationof Islam (i.e. the belief system)
is as follows: first,thatthe originalpeople of the planetwereBlack;
second,thatthe heritageof the aboriginalpeoples in the Westis that
of the Asiatic Blackmanof the tribeof Shabazzandthatthey are a
chosen people because of Biblical prophecy;third, that Islam is
the naturalreligion of the Black man (Ronald Muhammad,per-
sonal interview,April 16, 2000); fourth,thatthe messiah is Elijah
Muhammadand the great Mahdi was Master Fard Muhammad
(Gardell, 1996; Rasul Muhammad,personal interview,April 30,
2000; RonaldMuhammad,personalinterview,April 16, 2000). A
fifth element of the belief system of the Nation of Islam is thatthe
sacredtexts of aboriginalpeople are the Quranand the Bible. Six,
in acquiringa new identity as a memberof the Nation of Islam,
theremustbe the adoptionof a new nameto replacethe slave mas-
ter'sname (unless one is directlyfromthe continent,in which case
one can keep his or her originalname). Seven, thatthe millennial
age (the golden age) will be here on Earth,or on the mothership
itself, but not in Heaven;and eight, thatthe sexes should be sepa-
rated,in the practiceof religious ritualsand ceremoniallife. (On a
side note, whatbecame evidentfrom the interviewswith members
of the Nation of Islam [Brother-XX,personalinterview,March19,
2000; Rasul Muhammad,personalinterview,April 30, 2000] was
thatthe completeseparationof Blacks andWhitesin Americais no
longer advocatedand thatthe aspirationof Blacks having the five
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 887

southernstates [or at the very least one separatestate], for them-


selves, is no longer actively pursuedby the Nation.)
The researcherfound the responses among the membersof the
Nation regardingtheir identity to be interestingin that the Black
respondentsinterviewedreferredto themselves either as Blacks
who are Muslims or Blacks with a knowledge of self with the
exception of one memberwho answeredthe researcheremphati-
cally thathe was an Asiatic Black man from the tribeof Shabazz.
This indicated to the researcherthat although the teachings of
ElijahMuhammademphasizethatthe heritageof Black people is
Asiatic, manymembersstill thinkof themselvesin the morefamil-
iarracialsense or were not as likely to verbalizetheirAsiatic roots
unless prompted.The Latino members that the researcherques-
tioned seemed more comfortableidentifying along religious lines
thanalongraciallines; thatis, they felt thatbeing a Muslimwas the
really importantthing with the racial considerationscoming sec-
ond. The researcherwas unableto speak at length with any of the
femalemembersof the Nationbecauseof the extremegendersepa-
rationthat occurs at the mosque. The key thing that was stressed,
however,was that they were believers, which, in Nation of Islam
terms,means simply that they had committedand attachedthem-
selves to the organizationand the faith of Islam. The researcher
observedhow closely knitthe membersof the Miamimosquewere,
an observationthatreally drovehome a sense of this groupbeing a
communitywithin a community.
Now thatwe have addressedthe internalcomponentsof identity
for RastafariandNationof Islammembers,we shouldalso address
the externalcomponentsof identity.So far as the Rastafarimove-
ment is concerned, the most distinguishing external feature of
many of the members is the hair, which is worn as dreadlocks.
R. Barrett(1991, p. 139) arguedthatthe care with which we adorn
our bodies, or leave them in a state of relative abandonment,is a
powerfulmeans of expressingour relationshipto the social order.
He arguedthatpeople who belong to groupswhose membersthink
of themselves as alienatedin some way from mainstreamsociety
tend to adopta looser, less managedstyle of dress andbodily care;
thatis, the clothing is more likely to be of a casual natureand the
888 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

hairis commonly wornlonger and less restrainedthanthe prevail-


ing style of the society. In addition,if beard and moustachesare
grown they are more likely to be shaggy than carefully cropped
(R. Barrett,1991, p. 140). He furtherarguedthatvarioustypes of
individuals,for diverse reasons, endeavorto express their alien-
ation from the society, the most notablebeing religious devotees.
What these religious devotees all have in common, and what they
all apparentlyexpress, is that they obey a higherlaw. Theirrejec-
tion of worldlyvanityandmaterialcomfortssuggests thatthe con-
ventionsof society areirrelevantto them.It shouldbe noted,at this
point, thatmany Rastafarimembersdo not cut theirhairand have
an aversionto Westernsuits andthe wearingof ties thatareassoci-
ated with Babylon. We may, thus, considerthatthe disregardfor a
groomed appearance,with a rejectionof worldly vanity and crass
materialism,that characterizesmany of the Rastafaribrethren(if
not the sistren)suggests an outrightrejectionof many of the soci-
ety's norms and values and a strong correlationwith the proto-
typical religious devotee that R. Barrett(1991) described in his
treatiseon body symbolism. Rastafariadherents,just as the reli-
gious devotees detailed by R. Barrett,exist in effect outside of
the common society, obedient only to Jah the Almighty, Haile
Selassie I.
R. Barrett(1991) commendablynoted thatif long andunkempt
hairrepresentsfreedomfrom social control,the opposite, which is
closely croppedor shornhair,is often a sign of strictobedienceor
conformity.If one examines the situationsin which people shave
their heads or have them shaved in Westernsociety such as the
army,arguedR. Barrett,the symbolismis clear.The particularindi-
viduals areunderstrictdiscipline,andjust as they have sacrificeda
partof theirphysicalbeing to the organization,so too do theyowe it
a partof theirmoralbeing. A similarcorrelationcanbe madefor the
male membersof the Nation of Islam, who are characterizedby
their shorthaircutsand, in many cases, completely shavedheads.
Givingup the hairserves as a symbolic statementby the entrantsto
the organization,or even by the entrantsto the outside world, that
they have given up a significantdegreeof personalchoice in deter-
miningtheirown conductanda significantdegreeof theirindividu-
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 889

ality andthatthey arewilling to abideby the strictruleswhich ema-


natefromthe organization(RasulMuhammad,personalinterview,
April 30, 2000; RonaldMuhammad,personalinterview,April 16,
2000). In an interview with the researcher,Ronald Muhammad
(April 16, 2000) mentionedthata sense of structureanduniformity
and conformityof the memberswas an importantcharacteristicof
the Nationof Islam.He told the researcherthatbeing clean-cutwas
importantin reinforcinga sense of discipline and orderamongthe
members.This, in turn,encouragedstrictadherenceto the rules of
the Nation.R. Barrett(1991, p. 143) furtherarguedthatit is highly
significantthat in conjunctionwith having their heads shorn, the
membersof these highly disciplinedinstitutionstend to place their
bodies in uniform. He contendedthat the uniform is perhapsthe
ultimateexpressionof the harnessedbody. For him, it is emblem-
atic of a regimentedorderand signifies thatthe individualis at the
service of the organization.R. Barrettinsightfullypointedout that
if the body is held in check, if it is symbolicallyharnessedby virtue
of a uniformandshorthair,thenthe behavioris constrainedin some
way, and the individualis likely to behavein a predictablemanner
(i.e., in a uniformmanner).Notably,this model of haircuttingand
the wearingof uniformsas symbols of institutionalizedconformity
correlateswell with the distinctivelyorganizedstructureandopera-
tion of the Nation of Islam. The men are either requiredto wear
suits with bowties or suits with ties, or as in the case of the Fruitof
Islamguards,uniforms,which are strikinglymilitaristicin appear-
ance. In all instances, the men are expected to be clean-cut, with
shorthair and shaved faces.
The women of the Nation of Islam are also requiredto wear a
specific uniform as members when they attend the Mosque. In
addition,when out in publicthe Nationof Islamwomen areencour-
aged to cover their heads; however,this is ultimatelyoptional for
them. (In the case of the Nyahbinghimansionandthe Boboshante
mansion,of the Rastafarimovement,women are requiredto have
their heads covered when in public.) In addition, women of the
Nationof Islamarenot allowedto weartrousersjust as is the case of
the Rastafarimovement.
890 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ JULY 2006

CORRELATION OF THE TWO GROUP IDENTITIES

In termsof whetherthe two types of groupidentityfor bothinsti-


tutionscan be correlatedpositively or not, one should note thatin
realitythereis a greatdeal of subjectivismhere.Forthis researcher,
it is the conceptof Black unity,which is at the very core of the ide-
ologies of both movements and is the main reason why both of
them devote so much energy to developing and articulatinga par-
ticularidentity in the first place. Thus, in the sense that the iden-
tities institutionalizedby each movement are directedtowarden-
couraging Black unity, the researcherconcluded that there is a
positive correlationof these aforementionedgroupidentities.
When we consider the reasons why membersjoin one move-
ment as opposedto the other,the consensus of the Rastafariadher-
ents was that the Nation of Islam was too Arab centeredand not
Afrocentric enough. In addition, Rastafariansthought that the
Nation of Islam was too rigid and constricting. In the case of
the Nation of Islam members,the consensus seemed to be thatthe
Rastafarimovement lacked structureand discipline and did not
have a specific programof action.

A SOCIAL MOVEMENT PERSPECTIVE ON THE


RASTAFARI MOVEMENT AND NATION OF ISLAM

Another key point, though a tenacious one, is the degree to


which the Nation of Islam and the Rastafarimovement may be
regarded as political movements. Essien-Udom (1962, p. 286)
arguedthatthe Nationof Islamis not a politicalmovement,noris it
a revolutionaryone. For him, it is apolitical. He claimed (p. 287)
that the political ideology of the Nation of Islam amounts to no
more than a rationalizationof the existing distributionof political
power between Blacks and Whites in the United States, offering
nothingmore than an eschatology that predictsthat the judgment
of the world will gratify the oppressed.The attainmentof Black
Power is relegated to the interventionof Allah sometime in the
future.In this respect,the Nation of Islam may be consideredto be
Barnett/ BLACK SOCIALMOVEMENTS 89 1

an expressive social movementratherthan a revolutionarysocial


movement as many people presume. Ratherthan trying to effect
social change by attemptingto change the social structureof soci-
ety, they are primarilyconcernedwith changingthe attitudeof the
individual.As Minister Ronald Muhammad(personalinterview,
April 16, 2000) put it, "The Nation is about a revolution of the
mind."In this regard,however,he arguedthat the movementis in
fact a revolutionaryone.
So far as the Rastafari movement in Miami is concerned,
although the desire for political activity has been expressed by
some of the members,some moredefinitivelines of actionhaveyet
to materialize.Admittedlythere are political initiativespresently
underway in Jamaicaby Rastafariadherents,such as the filing of
lawsuits againstthe British governmentvia the Jamaicangovern-
ment, specifically by the RastafariLegal Council, in the fight for
reparations.In addition, Marcus Garvey's formerpolitical party,
the Peoples Political Party,has been restartedand revampedby
Rastafaribrethrenin Jamaica. Also pressure to bring about the
completelegalizationof marijuanais still being maintained.How-
ever,having said this, at the beginningof the 21st century(andthe
end of the 20th centuryon the Ethiopiancalendar),manyRastafari
still do not advocatedirect political agitationagainst mainstream
social structuresof the Westernhemisphere,preferringinstead to
disconnectthemselvesfromBabylon andto aspireto live a livitical
(naturalandrighteous)lifestyle. This is all well andgood; however,
as Ras Sam Brown (personal interview,August 19, 1998) com-
mented, it arguablycompromisesthe potential of the movement,
particularlythe political one.
Ras Don Rico Ricketts,at a lecturehostedby The Associationof
AfricansReclaiming(their)Identity(T.A.F.A.R.I.)at FloridaInter-
nationalUniversity in November 1999, arguedthat the Rastafari
movementneededto place moreof its energieson politicalissues if
the movementwas to effect real social change.L. E. Barrett(1997)
arguedthat in considering the movement as it stands at present
there is a distinct millenarian orientation with its considerable
emphasison divine interventionas the path of salvationfor righ-
teous Black people. Thus, from this perspective, the Rastafari
892 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES / JULY 2006

movementmay be consideredto be an expressivemovement,just


as in the case of the Nationof Islam.Havingsaidthis, however,this
authormust point out that the Rastafarimovement,as a whole, is
undisputedlyagitatingfor social changein termsof its advocacyof
reparationsfor all Black people and repatriationfor all those
Blacks in the Westwho desireit. In addition,it has initiatednumer-
ous "legalizationof marijuana"campaigns globally. It has also
fielded several of its members as candidatesin nationalpolitical
elections in the Caribbean.Therefore,an argumentcan be madefor
the Rastafarimovement approachingthat of a revisionarymove-
ment, althoughit mustbe acknowledgedthatit is still incorporates
many of the characteristicsof an expressive one.

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Michael Barnettis currentlya professor at the departmentof sociology and anthro-


pology at Florida InternationalUniversityin Miami,Florida. He receivedhis M.A.
and his Ph.D. in sociologyfrom Florida InternationalUniversity.

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