UNIT 1- SCHOOL ORGANIZATION OF PLANNING AND

MANAGEMENT

1.CONCEPT OF PLANNING:

 Planning is one of the important attributes of educational

management.
 To achieve the aims and objectives of education, effective planning
with organizing, staffing, directing and controlling are required.

Features of a plan:
1. Planning is a process rather than behavior at a given point of time. The
process determines the future course of action.
2. Planning is primarily concerned with looking into future, which
requires forecasting of the future situation.
3. Planning involves selection of suitable course of action.
4. Planning is undertaken at all levels of management and is concerned
with the future course of action.
5. Planning is flexible as commitment is based on future conditions which
are always dynamic.
6. Planning is a continuous managerial function involving the process of
perception, analysis, conceptual thought, communication, decision and
action..

Management:
 Management is an art and a science; it is an art as it involves
application of skills and it is a science as it is a body of systematic
body of knowledge developed through experimentation and
observation.

School management:
 School management is a process of leading the school towards
development through not only the optimum use of the human
resources, physical sources, principles and concepts that help in
achieving all the objectives of the school but also the proper
coordination and adjustment among all of them.
Thus, school/classroom management
 Is a process
 Is a social process
 2

 Involves group effort

 Aims at achieving pre-determined goals
 Is a distinct entity
 Is system of authority
 Is required at all levels of organization.

Objectives of school management:

• To determine the objectives of the processes involved in the school
organisation and the management.
• To formulate a system of co-ordinated activities for classroom
processes.
• To determine the quality index for the processes involved in the school.
The school management requires leadership, team building,
cooperativeness, goal attainment.
Objectives of planning, organisation & management of school
processess
1. Understanding the vision, mission and goals of an institution in the
planning process.
2. Become aware of different plans and organizing skills required as an
elementary school teacher and head of the institution.
3. Develop an insight into the responsibilities and the leader in
professional growth, commitment, competencies, attitudes, school
development plan, physical and human resource management, time
management and community relations.
4. Train the teachers and head teachers in planning and executing the
curricular programs of the school.
5. Adopt ICT in the process of Planning and Organisation of school
activities.
6. Understand the needs of alternative education and integrate it into the
curriculum.
7. Develop in the student teachers the classroom management skills.
8. Prepare the student teachers in using different tools and techniques for
continuous and comprehensive evaluation.

CONCEPT OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION:

Definition and Meaning

 An organization is defined as the necessary combination of human
efforts, material equipments brought together in a systematic and
effective correlation to accomplish the desired results.
 School organization comes under the broader umbrella of school
management.
 3

 The school management deals with the overall policy framing and
ensuring the smooth functioning of the school, while the school
organization is about the actual organization of resources, events,
personnel of a school.
 In a school, we find the distribution of work. Different people are
assigned duties and made responsible for the same.
 They are also given due powers to discharge their duties
effectively.
 The co-ordination between different personnel is also ensured to
organize the activities of the school properly.
 There is also a clearly laid down organizational structure which
exists in the school and which also help in effective organization of
the school activities.
Thus school organization means

 Organization of different types of activities of a school

 Organization of Material resources of a school
 Organization of a school personnel
 Organization of Ideas and Principles into school system which
includes building relationships, creating conducive climate for work at
the school etc.
A concept also includes characteristics. Hence the characteristics of
school organization are given below
Characteristics of an ideal school organization
Following are the characteristics of an ideal organization. An ideal school
organization should have all these characteristics.
Simplicity: This means there should be clarity of roles, duties,
responsibilities and powers on the part of each person working in a
school.
 This avoids confusion and chaos leading to better organization of
the activities of the school.
Dynamism/Flexibility: An ideal school organization is one in which any
kind of change can take place without disturbing any other activity.
 It should have scope for additions and alterations.
 The rules and regulations should be flexible to meet the needs of
the school.
Stability: A school organization should be dynamic but it does not mean
that it should be in fluid condition without any norm or standard rules and
regulations.
 What is expected is the balance between rigidity and flexibility.
Clarity about Powers and Duties: There should be clear understanding
of the powers and duties of individuals working together in a school.
 4

 It is necessary to avoid confusion and laying down

responsibilities. Similarly there should be balanced allotment of
powers and duties.
Coordination: In an ideal school organization there should coordination
between different activities and also coordination between physical
resources and human resources.
 The school should bring together all people and all things to
contribute for the realization of objectives.
Acceptance of human elements: An ideal school organization should
accept human elements.
 Here the personnel should be free to express their feelings,
opinions, offer constructive suggestions and bring about healthy
changes in the school.
Control: Control is the element which puts a break to an activity and
then evaluates the results.
 It is required to safeguard against the misuse of powers in the
school.
 There are different models available to understand the concept and
nature of school organization.
 They are bureaucratic model, system and community model.

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR:

 Organizational behaviour is based on a few fundamental concepts

which revolve around the nature of people and organizations.
There are two fundamental concept of organizational behaviour, such as

1. The nature of people

2. The nature of organization

1.The nature of people:

There are six basic concepts about the nature of people;

 Individual Difference
 Perception
 A Whole Person
 Motivated Behaviour
 Desire For Involvement
 Values of the Person
 5

Individual Difference: Each and every person in the world is individual

different.
 The idea of individual difference is supported by science. A person
is different in millions of ways.
 Each person’s DNA profile is different. Originally, the idea of
individual difference comes from psychology. From the day of
birth, each person is unique.
 So management can motivate employee by different ways.
Management should consider carefully the law of individual
difference.
Perception: People look at the world and see things differently.
 Two people may view the same object in two different ways.
Employees see their work worlds differently for a variety of
reasons.
 They may differ in their personalities needs, demographic factors
(Age, Gander, Income, Marital status), past experience and so on.
Management learns to guide their employees who have perceptual
difference.
A Whole Person: Some organization may wish that they could employ
only a person’s skill or brain.
 They forget that they actually employ a whole person rather than
certain characteristics.
 Skill doesn’t exist apart from background or knowledge. Home life
is not totally separate from their work life.
 Similarly emotional conditions aren’t separate from physical
conditions. People work, as total human beings.

Management needs to care about the whole person. Authority should

recognize them inside and outside of firm. If the whole person can be
improved, the organization will be benefited.

Motivated behaviour: Motivation is essential to the operation of

organization.
 An organization with sophisticated technology and equipment can’t
work if the human resources aren’t motivated and guided properly.
 So the authority should inspire or more motive the human resources
by proving different kinds of facilities.
Desire for Involvement: Today many employees are actively seeking
opportunities at work to become involved in relevant decisions.
 They want to make a contribution by their talents and ideas for the
organization.
 6

 So organization needs to provide opportunities for their meaningful

improvement.
Value of the person: People deserve to be treated differently from other
factors of productions (Land, Capital, and Technology).
 They want to be treated with caring, respect and dignity. They
refuse to accept the old idea that they are simply economic tools.
 They want to be valued for their skills and abilities.
 Organization should provide opportunities to the workers to
develop themselves.

2.The nature of organization

There are three key concepts about the nature of the organization. They
are

1. Social system
2. Mutual system
3. Ethics

Social System: Organizations are social system.

 People have psychological needs; they also have social roles and
status.
 Their behaviour is influenced by their groups as well as by their
individual drives.
 Two types of social systems exist in organizations. One is formal or
official and other is informal social system.
 All parts of the social system are inter-depended and each part is
subject to influence by other.
 Everything is related to everything else.
The idea of social system provides a frame work for analyzing
organizational behaviour issues. It helps make organizational behaviour
problems understand able and manageable.

Mutual System: Organizations need people and people need

organizations.
 Organizations have a human purpose.
 They are formed and maintained on the basic of some mutuality of
interest among their participant’s managers need employees to help
them reach organizational objectives.
 Mutual interest provides a supportive goal that can be attained on
attained only through the integrated efforts.
 7

Ethics: In order to attract and retain valuable or experienced employees

ethical treatment is necessary.
 This is very important that organization must ensure a higher
standard of ethical performance by managers and employees.
 Companies have established codes of ethics, statements of ethical
values, provided ethics training, rewarded employees for notable
ethical behaviour and so on.

2A.THE 5 FUNDAMENTALS OF MOTIVATION:

 Motivation is a psychological factor that is undeniable in any feat

or performance.
 The winners in life would never have been there if they hadn’t
taken inspiration from something and been motivated enough to
achieve.

 Life is hard in society and achievements are even harder to succeed

with.

 If you cannot control your actions and direct them in the right
channels, you’ll never get things done successfully.

 There are some experts who can help motivate you better. Here are
the 5 fundamentals of motivation that will help you control your
future and success better .

1.The Power of ‘You’

 Remember that ‘You’ are the most important aspect of your

success. Without your own power of self motivation, you cannot
achieve anything.
 You are your biggest inspiration and your determination is your
biggest asset.

 Whenever you feel alone and incapable, look into ‘You’ for
assistance before looking towards friends, colleagues, or family –
only then will success find you.

2. Believe in your Goals

 Goals are set by ourselves, for ourselves.

 8

 Your company or employer may set your objectives, but the scope
of ‘goals’ is much wider than merely ‘objectives’.

 These goals are markers you set out to achieve which will act as
guiding lights in your path towards success. Follow them with
diligence, and you will never stray from a path that will eventually
give you success.

3.Failure is Good

 OK, don’t judge this one without hearing it out completely.

Repeated failure is never positive, but failing itself is one of the 5
fundamentals of motivation.
 Without failing, you will never be able to gather enough experience
to succeed.

 No achievement in human history was a one shot deal –

everything had a slow start and a gradual or sudden success.

 In between, it was the trials, errors, and failures that led to victory.

4. Commitment is Virtue Beyond All Else

 If you don’t have the heart to completely immerse yourself into a

task, don’t expect success.
 Motivation comes when you have worked towards a goal and find
the zeal to stick to it within yourself.

 Commitment is a promise to yourself, so the only person you fail

when you aren’t committed is yourself.

 Grit your teeth, dig in hard and give it everything you have –
results may vary, but satisfaction is guaranteed.

5. Success is Relative

 This is perhaps the most important of the 5 fundamentals of

motivation.
 Never get de-motivated if your results aren’t equal to or better than
others’.

 Remember, all that matters is whether you are happy with your
achievements. There is always a second try, but never lose faith.
 9

2B.CONCEPT OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:

Definition: There are several Theories of Motivation that are developed

to explain the concept of “Motivation”.

 The motivation is a drive that forces an individual to work in a

certain way.
 It is the energy that pushes us to work hard to accomplish the
goals, even if the conditions are not going our way.

With the establishment of human organizations, people tried to find out

the answer to, what motivates an employee in the organization the most.
This gave birth to several content theories and process theories of
motivation.

The content theories deal with “what” motivates people, whereas the
process theories deal with, “How” motivation occurs. Thus, theories of
motivation can be broadly classified as:

1.CONTENT THEORIES: The content theories find the answer to what

motivates an individual and is concerned with individual needs and
 10

wants. Following theorists have given their theories of motivation in

content perspective:

1. Maslow’s need Hierarchy

2. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
3. McClelland’s Needs Theory
4. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

1.Maslow’s Need Hierarchy:

Definition: The Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is given by Abraham

Maslow, who has explained the strength of certain needs at the different
point of time.

 Maslow has given a framework that helps to understand the

strength of needs and how a person moves from one need to the
other when the basic needs are fulfilled.
 These needs are arranged in the hierarchical form as shown below:
 11

1.Physiological Needs: These needs are the basic needs, a prerequisite for
the survival of the human being.

 Air, water, food, sleep are the physiological needs which must be met,
in order to go further in the hierarchy.
 If these needs are not met, then an individual will be highly motivated
to satisfy these first, while the other levels of needs would provide him
with a little motivation.

Safety Needs: Once the physiological or basic needs are fulfilled, the other
needs become important.

 The next comes the safety or security needs. People begin to feel the
need for a safer place to live in, i.e. shelter, safe neighborhood, steady
employment, etc.
 Thus, at this stage, the need for self-preservation i.e. a need for being
free of physical danger, emerges.

Social Needs: After the first two needs of the hierarchy are met, people tend
to move further and seeks to satisfy their social needs.

 Since a human being is a social animal who lives in the society, has an
urge to belong to and be accepted by all.
 The need for love, affection, belonging emerges at this stage. Thus, the
relationships are formed at this level.

Esteem Needs: Once the above needs are fulfilled, an individual strives to
achieve the esteem needs, concerned with self-respect, self-confidence, a
feeling of being unique, social recognition, personal worth, etc.

 On the satisfaction of these needs, an individual feels the sense of

power and control and becomes more confident.

Self-Actualization Needs: The next and the final need on the Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy is the Self Actualization Need.

 It refers to the need to maximize one’s potential.

 These needs are related to the development of one’s intrinsic
capabilities that can be utilized in different real life situations.
 It can be rephrased as, a desire of becoming, what one is capable of
becoming.
 12

Thus, according to this theory, the behavior of an individual is determined

by his strongest needs, i.e. a person is motivated to fulfil the unsatisfied
needs.

2.Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Definition: The Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory is given by

Fredrick Herzberg and his associates, who studied the variables that are
perceived to be desirable to achieve goals and the undesirable conditions
to avoid.

 In this context, the study was conducted wherein the experiences

and feelings of 200 engineers and accountants were analyzed.

 They were asked to share their previous job experiences in which

they felt “exceptionally good” or “exceptionally bad.”

 Through this study, Herzberg concluded that there are two job
conditions independent of each other that affect the behavior
differently.

 The first set of job conditions has been referred to as maintenance

or hygiene factor, wherein the same job conditions provide the
same level of dissatisfaction, in case the conditions are absent,
however, their presence does not motivate in a strong way.

 The second set of job conditions is referred to as motivational

factors, which primarily operate to build strong motivation and
high job satisfaction, but their absence does not result in strong
dissatisfaction.
 13

Hygiene Factors: Herzberg identified ten maintenance or hygiene

factors, that are not intrinsic parts of a job, but are related to the
conditions in which the job has to be performed.

 These are company policy and administration, technical

supervision, job security, working conditions, interpersonal
relationship with peers, subordinates and supervisors, salary, job
security, personal life, etc.

Motivational factors: These factors have a positive effect on the

functioning of the employees in the organization.

 There are six factors that motivate employees: Achievement,

Recognition, Advancement, Work-itself, Possibility of growth and
Responsibility.

 An increase in these factors satisfies the employees and the

decrease in these will not affect the level of satisfaction.
 14

Thus, Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory studied the variables which

were responsible for the level of satisfaction and had been applied in the
industry that has given several new insights.

3.McClelland’s Needs Theory:

Definition: McClelland’s Needs Theory was proposed by a

psychologist David McClelland, who believed that the specific needs of
the individual are acquired over a period of time and gets molded with
one’s experience of the life. McClelland’s Needs Theory is sometimes
referred to as Three Need theory or Learned Needs Theory.

 McClelland has identified three basic motivating needs, Viz. Need

for Power, Need for Affiliation and Need for Achievement and,
along with his associates performed a considerable research work
on these basic needs.


Need for Power (n-pow): What is Power? Power is the ability to induce
or influence the behavior of others. The people with high power needs
seek high-level positions in the organization, so as to exercise influence
and control over others. Generally, they are outspoken, forceful,
 15

demanding, practical/realistic-not sentimental, and like to get involved in

the conversations.

Need for Affiliation (n-affil): People with high need for affiliation
derives pleasure from being loved by all and tend to avoid the pain of
being rejected. Since, the human beings are social animals, they like to
interact and be with others where they feel, people accept them. Thus,
people with these needs like to maintain the pleasant social relationships,
enjoy the sense of intimacy and like to help and console others at the time
of trouble.

Need for Achievement (n-ach): McClelland found that some people

have an intense desire to achieve. He has identified the following
characteristics of high achievers:

 High achievers take the moderate risks, i.e. a calculated risk while
performing the activities in the management context. This is opposite
to the belief that high achievers take high risk.
 High achievers seek to obtain the immediate feedback for the work
done by them, so as to know their progress towards the goal.
 Once the goal is set, the high achiever puts himself completely into
the job, until it gets completed successfully. He will not be satisfied
until he has given his 100% in the task assigned to him.
 A person with a high need for achievement accomplishes the task
that is intrinsically satisfying and is not necessarily accompanied by
the material rewards. Though he wants to earn money, but satisfaction
in the accomplishment of work itself gives him more pleasure than
merely the cash reward.
Hence, McClelland’s Needs Theory posits that the person’s level of
effectiveness and motivation is greatly influenced by these three basic
needs.
 16

4.Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Definition: Alderfer’s ERG Theory is the extension of Maslow’s Needs
Hierarchy, wherein the Maslow’s five needs are categorized into three
categories, Viz. Existence Needs, Relatedness Needs, and Growth Needs.

 An American psychologist Clayton Paul Alderfer had proposed this

theory and believed that each need carries some value and hence
can be classified as lower-order needs and higher-order needs.

 He also found some level of overlapping in the physiological,

security and social needs along with an invisible line of
demarcation between the social, esteem and self-actualization
needs.

 This led to the formation Alderfer’s ERG theory, which comprises

of the condensed form of Maslow’s needs.

Existence Needs: The existence needs comprises of all those needs that
relate to the physiological and safety aspects of human beings and are a
prerequisite for the survival. Thus, both the physiological and safety
 17

needs of Maslow are grouped into one category because of their same
nature and a similar impact on the behavior of an individual.

Relatedness Needs: The relatedness needs refer to the social needs, that
an individual seeks to establish relationships with those for whom he
cares. These needs cover the Maslow’s social needs and a part of esteem
needs, derived from the relationship with other people.

Growth Needs: The growth needs cover Maslow’s self-actualization

needs as well as a part of esteem needs which are internal to the
individual, such as a feeling of being unique, personnel growth, etc. Thus,
growth needs are those needs that influence an individual to explore his
maximum potential in the existing environment.

2.PROCESS THEORIES: The process theories deal with “How” the

motivation occurs, i.e. the process of motivation and following theories
were given in this context:

1. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

2. Adam’s Equity Theory
3. Reinforcement Theory
4. Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation

Thus, these theories posit that how an individual gets motivated to

perform the task and what are the factors that contribute towards the
motivation.

1.Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:

Definition: Vroom’s Expectancy Theory was proposed by Victor. H.

Vroom, who believed that people are motivated to perform activities to
achieve some goal to the extent they expect that certain actions on their
part would help them to achieve the goal.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is based on the assumption that an

individual’s behavior results from the choices made by him with respect
to the alternative course of action, which is related to the psychological
 18

events occurring simultaneously with the behavior. This means an

individual selects a certain behavior over the other behaviors with an
expectation of getting results, the one desired for.

Thus, Vroom’s Expectancy Theory has its roots in the cognitive concept,
i.e. how an individual processes the different elements of motivation. This
theory is built around the concept of valence, instrumentality, and
Expectancy and, therefore, is often called as VIE theory.

The algebraic representation of Vroom’s Expectancy theory is:

Motivation (force) = ∑Valence x Expectancy

Valence: It refers to the value that an individual places on a particular

outcome or a strength of an individual’s preference for the expected
rewards of the outcome.

 To have a positive valence, one should prefer attaining the outcome

to not attaining it.

 For example, if an employee gets motivated by promotions, then he

might not value offers of increased incentives. The valence is zero
 19

if an individual prefers not attaining outcomes to attaining it. In the

above example, an employee agrees with the increased incentives.

Instrumentality: Another major input into the valence is the

instrumentality of first level outcome in obtaining the second level
outcome, i.e. a degree to which the first level leads to the second level
outcome.

 For example, suppose an employee desires promotion and he feel

that superior performance is a key factor to achieve the goal.

 Thus, his first level outcomes are superior, average and poor
performance and the second level outcome is the promotion.

 Hence, the first level outcome of high performance acquires the

positive valence so as to have the expected relationship with the
second level outcome of the promotion.

 Thus, an employee will be motivated to perform efficiently with a

desire to get promoted.

Expectancy: Expectancy, another factor that determines the motivation,

refers to the probability that a particular action will lead to the desired
outcome.

 The expectancy is different from the instrumentality in the sense; it

relates efforts to the first level outcome, whereas the instrumentality
relates to first and second-level outcomes to each other.

 Thus, expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to

a particular first-level outcome.

2.Adam’s Equity Theory:

 20

Definition: The Adam’s Equity Theory posits that people maintain a

fair relationship between the performance and rewards in comparison to
others. In other words, an employee gets de-motivated by the job and his
employer in case his inputs are more than the outputs.

The Adam’s Equity Theory was proposed by John Stacey Adams, and is
based on the following assumptions:

 Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect

certain rewards (outcomes).
 To validate the exchange, an individual compares his input and
outcomes with those of others and try to rectify the inequality.
There are three types of exchange relationships that arise when an
individual input/outcomes are compared with that of the other persons.

Overpaid Inequity: When an individual perceives that his outcomes are

more as compared to his inputs, in relation to others. The overpaid inequity
can be expressed as:

Underpaid Inequity: When an individual perceives that his outcomes are

less as compared to his inputs, in relation to others. The Underpaid Equity

can be expressed as:

Equity: An individual perceives that his outcomes in relation to his inputs

are equal to those of others. The equity can be expressed

Thus, Adam’s equity theory shows the level of motivation among the
individuals in the working environment.
 21

An individual is said to be highly motivated if he perceives to be treated

fairly. While the feelings of de-motivation arise, if an individual perceives to
be treated unfairly in the organization.

Thus, an individual’s level of motivation depends on the extent he feels

being treated fairly, in terms of rewards, in comparison to others.

3.Reinforcement Theory of Motivation:

Definition: The Reinforcement Theory of Motivation was proposed by
B.F. Skinner and his associates. This theory posits that behavior is the
function of its consequences, which means an individual develops a
behavior after performing certain actions.

 The reinforcement theory of motivation is based on the “Law of

Effect” concept, i.e. an individual is likely to repeat those actions
having the positive consequences, and will avoid those behaviors
that result in negative or unpleasant outcomes.

 The behaviors that elicit consequences is called as operant behavior

and reinforcement theory work on the relationship between the
operant behavior and the associated consequences and, therefore, is
often called as Operant Conditioning.

 Operant conditioning means, the change in the behavior caused due

to the reinforcement (Positive reward or punishment) given after
the response.

 The reinforcement theory lay emphasis on the environmental

factors that shape the behaviors and thus, Skinner believed that
environment external to the organization must be designed
effectively so as to increase the motivation among the employees.

 Thus, the reinforcement theory of motivation mainly focuses on

what happens when an individual takes some action.

 It is observed, that people tend to repeat those activities which

gives them pleasure and avoid the activities with negative
consequences.
 22

4.Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation

Definition: The Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation is a
traditional motivation theory that asserts, in motivating people to elicit
desired behaviors, sometimes the rewards are given in the form of money,
promotion, and any other financial or non-financial benefits and
sometimes the punishments are exerted to push an individual towards the
desired behavior.

The Carrot and Stick approach of motivation is based on the principles of

reinforcementand is given by a philosopher Jeremy Bentham, during the
industrial revolution.

 This theory is derived from the old story of a donkey, the best way
to move him is to put a carrot in front of him and jab him with a
stick from behind.

 The carrot is a reward for moving while the stick is the punishment
for not moving and hence making him move forcefully.

 Thus, an individual is given carrot i.e. reward when he performs

efficiently and is jabbed with a stick or is given a punishment in
case of non-performance.

 While giving the punishments, the following points need to be

taken care of:

1. Punishment is said to be effective in modifying the behavior if an

individual selects a desirable alternative behavior.
2. If the above condition does not occur the behavior will be
temporarily suppressed and may reappear after the punishment is over.
3. The punishment is more effective when given at the time the
undesirable behavior is actually performed.
4. The management should make sure, that punishment is properly
administered and does not become a reward for the undesirable behavior.

Thus, carrot and stick approach of motivation should be applied carefully

such that, both have the positive motivational effect on the people in the
organization.
 23

2C.WORK MOTIVATION:

Meaning of motivation

Motivation is one's willingness to exert efforts towards the

accomplishment of his/ her goal. Let us consider a few important
definitions on motivation that will help us understand the meaning of
motivation in more clear sense.

Motivating

 It is an act of stimulating emotion or desire and promoting it to

action.
 It may be positive motivation (i.e., incentive motivation based on
reward) or negative motivation or fear motivation (based on
force).

 Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation of

employees and they have a feeling of happiness. Negative
motivation is commonly used to achieve desired results.

Classification of Needs :

Needs are classified into : (i) Primary and (ii) Secondary.

1. Primary or Basic or Innate or Physiological Needs : These

needs are important and necessary for the survival of man. These
are universal and cannot be ignored though their intensity may
differ. Some of such needs are food, shelter, clothing, sex, etc.
2. Secondary or Acquired Needs : These needs are related to mind
and spirit. These needs are acquired from the society as one grows
or gets educated. These include rivalry, self-esteem, recognition,
etc. Secondary needs vary among people and affect their
behaviour.

WORK MOTIVATION:

 It is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as

beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and
to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration"
 Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is
central to the study of I–O psychology.
 24

 Motivation is a person's internaldisposition to be concerned with

and approach positive incentives and avoid negative incentives. To
further this, anincentive is the anticipated reward or aversive event
available in the environment.

 While motivation can often be used as a tool to help predict

behavior, it varies greatly among individuals and must often be
combined with ability and environmental factors to actually
influence behavior and performance.

 Results from a 2012 study, which examined age-related differences

in work motivation, suggest a "shift in people's motives" rather
than a general decline in motivation with age.

 That is, it seemed that older employees were less motivated by

extrinsically related features of a job, but more by intrinsically
rewarding job features.

 Work motivation is strongly influenced by certain cultural

characteristics. Between countries with comparable levels of
economic development, collectivist countries tend to have higher
levels of work motivation than do countries that tend toward
individualism.

 Similarly measured, higher levels of work motivation can be found

in countries that exhibit a long versus a short-term orientation.

 Also, while national income is not itself a strong predictor of work

motivation, indicators that describe a nation’s economic strength
and stability, such as life expectancy, are.

 Work motivation decreases as a nation’s long term economic

strength increases. Currently work motivation research has
explored motivation that may not be consciously driven.

 This method goal setting is referred to as goal priming. Effects of

primed subconscious goals in addition to goals that are consciously
set related to job performance have been studied by Stajkovic,
Latham, Sergent, and Peterson, who conducted research on a CEO
of a for-profit business organization using goal priming to motivate
job performance.
 25

 Goal priming refers to the achievement of a goal by external cues

given. These cues can affect information processing and behaviour
the pursuit of this goal.

 In this study, the goal was primed by the CEO using achievement
related words strategy placed in emails to employees.

 This seemingly small gesture alone not only cost the CEO very
little money, but it increased objectively measured performance
efficiency by 35% and effectiveness by 15% over the course of a 5
day work week.

 There has been controversy about the true efficacy of this work as
to date, only four goal priming experiments have been conducted.

 However, the results of these studies found support for the

hypothesis that primed goals do enhance performance in a for-
profit business organization setting.

2D.REINFORCING STUDENT’S BEHAVIOR:

 Reinforcement refers to “a stimulus which follows and is

contingent upon a behavior and increases the probability of a
behavior being repeated” (Smith, 2017).
 The simplest way of conceptualizing positive reinforcement is that
something pleasant is ‘added’ when a specific action is performed
(Cherry, 2018).

Positive Reinforcement in the Classroom

Broadly speaking, examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom

fall into five categories:

Direct reinforcement: this refers to a type of reinforcement that, as the

name suggests, directly results from the appropriate behavior.

 The example given by Smith (2017) is that if a child interacts

appropriately with their peers in a group activity, this will most
 26

likely lead to further invitations to join in on such activities in

future.

Social reinforcers – these are mediated by others (e.g. teachers, parents,

other adults, peers). They involve an expression of approval and praise
for appropriate behavior – for example:

a. Comments (later I will share the words and phrases to use!)

b. Written approval (e.g. writing ‘super’ on a completed
worksheet) and
c. Other expressions of approval (such as smiling, nodding
your head, clapping, a pat on the back) (Smith, 2017)

Activity reinforcers – involves allowing students to take part in their

preferred activities if they behave appropriately.

 This is especially effective if they are allowed to choose a

classmate with whom they can, for example, play a game or spend
time on the computer with.
 This provides social reinforcement from their partner, too. More on
this a bit later.

Tangible reinforcers – for example, edibles, toys, balloons, stickers, and

awards.

 However, edibles and toys must be used mindfully. For example, if

a student has a weight problem their parents may have reason to
oppose the use of edibles as reinforcement.
 Furthermore, handing out toys may make other students envious.
Instead, awards such as certificates, displaying work in the
classroom, or a letter sent home to parents praising students’
progress can be used as reinforcement (see positive reinforcement
parenting).
 27

Token reinforcement – occurs when points or tokens are awarded for

appropriate behavior.

 The rewards themselves have little value but they can be collected,
then exchanged for something valuable to the student.
 For example, every time a student shows a certain behavior, the
teacher could give them a ticket.
 At the end of the week, tickets can be exchanged for a prize.

Benefits and Advantages of Using Positive Reinforcement

The benefits of using positive reinforcement are academic, behavioral,

social, and emotional (Rumfola, 2017). Advantages of using positive
reinforcement are, as described in Rumfola (2017):

 Students can learn through the social cues of their teachers as to

what constitutes acceptable behavior. For example, if one student is
praised for a desired behavior, other students also learn that this
behavior is acceptable and that it will be praised.
 One important advantage of using positive reinforcement is that
students actively enjoy being present and learning in the classroom.
 Use of positive reinforcement leads to heightened enthusiasm in
students – and even the teacher!
 Furthermore, it can allow accomplishment to be celebrated as a
class.
 Positive reinforcement leads to a greater sense of community in the
class.
 Use of positive reinforcement is related to increased student
attendance.
 When positive reinforcement is used, students are more motivated.
 28

BASIS FOR POSITIVE NEGATIVE

COMPARISON REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT

Positive Negative
Reinforcement Reinforcement is one
implies a process of in which an
introducing a unfavorable stimulus
Meaning stimulus, to increase is removed for the
the probability of purpose of
recurrence of a encouraging good
pattern or behavior behavior.

Stimuli Added Removed

Consequences Stimuli have pleasant Stimuli have

consequences unpleasant
consequences

Reinforcer acts as Reward Penalty

Results in
Strengthening and Avoiding and
maintaining responses escaping responses
 29

3.COMMUNICATION:

Definition:

 The Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in

the form of ideas, thoughts, feelings, opinions is transmitted
between two or more persons with the intent of creating a shared
understanding.

 Simply, an act of conveying intended information and

understanding from one person to another is called as
communication.

 The term communication is derived from the Latin

word“Communis” which means to share.

 Effective communication is when the message conveyed by the

sender is understood by the receiver in exactly the same way as it
was intended.

Communication Process:
 The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the
conceptualizing of ideas by the sender who then transmits the
message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the
feedback in the form of some message or signal within the given
time frame.

 Thus, there are Seven major elements of communication process:

 30

Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the
conversation and has conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to
others.

Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses
certain words or non-verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures,
etc. to translate the information into a message. The sender’s knowledge,
skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the
success of the message.

Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he
intends to convey. The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal
such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any other signal that
triggers the response of a receiver.

Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which

he wants to convey his message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully
in order to make the message effective and correctly interpreted by the
recipient. The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal relationships
between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message
 31

being sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the
commonly used communication mediums.

Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or
targeted. He tries to comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the
communication objective is attained. The degree to which the receiver
decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject matter,
experience, trust and relationship with the sender.

Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to
understand it in the best possible manner. An effective communication
occurs only if the receiver understands the message in exactly the same way
as it was intended by the sender.

Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the
receiver has received the message and interpreted it correctly as it was
intended by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of the communication
as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of
the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are

chances when the message sent by the sender is not received by the
recipient.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION WITH SCHOOL SYSTEM:

Class room communication exists in three categories:

 Verbal

 Non-verbal

 Written

Verbal communication means anything that a teacher or student speaks

aloud.

Nonverbal communication refers to body language that people express.

 32

Written communication is writing directed at a specific audience, such as

report card comments or student assignments.

Teachers and students interact with one another in many different

contexts, and use all three of these types of communication.

Teacher/class communication:

 Teacher/class communication exists when a teacher communicates

with his entire class.

 Verbal communication exists when a teacher tells students

information they neet to know.For example, if a teacher asks a
student to “stop talking”, this is a direct form of verbal
communication.

 There are ways for teachers to communicate nonverbally with their

classes, such as through their posture, gesticulations and proximity
to the students.Instead of telling a student to stop talking, a teacher
could use non verbal communication by moving toward the
disruptive student’s desk.

 Not only does the disruptive student receive the message,but other
students in the class who observe the intervention receive it as
well.Written instructions for an assignment are given from the
teacher for the whole class.

Teacher/Student communication:

 Teacher/student communication occurs when a teacher interacts

directly with a particular student.

 Since a teacher interacts with her students mostly in front of the

whole class,it can be difficult to distinguish teacher/student
communication from teacher/class communication.
 33

 Teacher/student communication requires that the teacher act one-

on-one with a student,such as in a conference during class
activities,before or after class or after school.

 This type of communication is effective for teachers who want to

communicate a private message, such as a talk about constant
inappropriate behavior or about taking more of a leadership role in
class.

Student/Teacher communication:

 Student/teacher communication is also direct communication

between a student and the teacher, but this time it is the student
who initiates the conversation.

 Also,this can occur during whole class participation.For,example,a

student who asks a teacher a question during class discussion
engages in student/teacher communication because it is a single
student communicating with a single techer.

 The reason the reverse situation constitutes teacher/class

communication and not teacher/student is that the teacher’s actions
and messages are directed toward the whole class while the
student’s questions here are only directed at the teacher.

 When students write emails to their teacher on graded

assignments,this constitutes a written form of student/teacher
communication.

Student/student communication:

 Student/student communication exists when a student or group of

students direct their messages to the entire class.

 Whole class discussion can alo stimulate this type of

communication.For,example, if a student asks the class a question
 34

during a discussion, the student’s message is directed at the entire

class.

 Individual or group presentations also constitute student/class

communication, and it is this type of communication about which
students feel most nervous or self-conscious.Nonverbal
communication often includes fidgeting or looking away.

ESSENTIAL TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMUNICATION

A. Communication According to Organisational Structure:

1. Formal Communication:
 Such a communication is that which is associated with the formal
organisation structure and the official status or the position of the
communicator and the receiver.

 It travels through the formal channels officially recognised

positions in the organisation chart. Formal communication is
mostly in black and white.

 Thus, it is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow of

communication so as to ensure that information flows smoothly,
accurately and timely.

 Formal communication is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow

of communication so as to ensure that information flows smoothly,
accurately and timely.
 35

We frequently come across the phrase ‘through proper

channel’. It emphasises the essence of formal channel of communication.
For example, when the General Manager issues instructions (because of
his senior position in the organisation), it is formal communication.
, The forms of formal communication are as under:
(i) Departmental meetings,

(ii) Conference

(iii) Telephone calls,

(iv) Company news bulletins,

(v) Special interviews and special purpose publications and messages.

The main advantage of the formal communication is that the official

channels enable the routine and standardised information to pass without
claiming much of managerial attention.

Essentially, executives and managers may devote most of their precious

time on matters of utmost significance.

But at the same time, the weakness of formal communication should not
go unaccounted. Communication through channel of command greatly
obstructs free and uninterrupted flow of information.
 36

2. Informal Communication:
 Informal communication is also known as ‘Grapevine’.

 It is free from all sorts of formalities because it is used on informal

relationships between the parties, such as friendship, membership
in the same club or association.

 Persons at the executive levels also use informal communication

when they find it difficult to collect information from the workers.
Such communication includes comments, suggestions etc.

 It may be conveyed by a simple glance, gesture, smile or mere

silence.

 Managers and executives also favour the growth and development

of informal network of communication off and on.

 This process, In fact, serves a very useful purpose in disseminating

certain information which, in the general interest of the
organisation, cannot be transmitted through the official channels.

 Apart from that, it also offers the high and higher ups a clearer
insight into what the subordinates think and feel.

 But at the same time, the weaknesses of the informal

communication are also worth noting. It may be mentioned that
this process very often tends to pass distorted, misinterpreted, and
inaccurate and half- truth information and facts, depending on the
circumstances and the message. But still, executives and managers
cannot do away with informal communication.
 37

B. Communication According to Direction:

1. Downward Communication:
 Communication which flows from the superiors to subordinates is
referred to as downward communication.

 In an organisational structure, the executives must exercise their

powers to achieve the desired objectives which imply that they
may be engaged in issuing orders, instructions and policy
directives to the persons at the lower levels.

 This may be called downward communication. Under downward

communication, immediate performance of a job is expected.

Katz And Kahn Have Identified Live Elements of Downward

Communication:
1. Specific task directives; Job instructions.

2. Information designed to produce understanding of the task and its

relation to other organisational tasks; job rationale.

3. Information about organisational procedures and practices.

4. Feedback to the subordinate about his performance.

5. Information of an ideological character to inculcate a sense of mission,

indoctrination of goals.

Communication from superior to subordinate can be face to face as well

as through written memos, orders, job descriptions etc.
 38

2. Upward Communication:
 In an upward communication, the persons from the lower level are
expected to have communication with those who are above them.

 It is just the reverse of downward communication. This sort of

communication includes reactions and suggestions from workers,
their grievances etc.

 Contents of upward communication are reports, reaction,

suggestion statements and proposals prepared for the submission to
the boss.

Upward Communication can be divided into four categories on the

basis of what employee says:
(i) about himself, his performance and problems,

(ii) about others and their problems,

(iii) about organisational policies and practices, and

(iv) about what needs to be done and how it can be done.

The main features of upward communication are:

(1) it is condensed and summarised as it passes through various levels in
the hierarchy. It gives feedback on the extent of effectiveness of
downward communication. This feedback is used for improving
communication effectiveness.

(2) It provides the management about the viewpoints, reactions, attitudes,

feelings and morale of employees
 39

(3) It provides means of control.

(4) Finally, it gives information and date for decision making.

 Upward communication may get distorted owing to the nature of

superior- subordinate relationships.

 An employee is not likely to give any information which may

affect him adversely. Moreover, he may transmit wrong
information to impress his superiors.

 It flows through many media e.g. chain of command, suggestion

boxes, personal contacts, attitude and morale surveys, grievance
procedure, private lines, labour unions etc.

3. Horizontal Communication:
 When the communication takes place between two or more persons
who are subordinates of the same person or those who are working
on the same level of organisation, the communication is known as
horizontal (lateral) communication.

 The communication between functional managers or among

subordinates working under one boss, the communication between
managers of various factories is the examples of such
communication. Horizontal communication may be oral as well as
written.

 Horizontal Communication satisfies peoples’ needs to know from

their own peers without taking into account other levels in the
organisation. It is really difficult for an organisation to function
efficiently without such horizontal communication flows. Although
 40

the formal organisation design does not provide for such

communication flows, it is needed for the coordination and
integration of diverse organizational functions.

Since organizational horizontal communication ordinarily do not exist in

facilitation is left to individual managers. Peer to peer communication
necessary for co-ordination and can also provide social need satisfaction.

C. According to Way of Expression:

1. Oral or Verbal Communication:
 Oral communication is a direct communication between two
individuals. In oral communication both the parties i.e., sender and
receiver exchange their ideas through oral words either in face to
face conversation or through any mechanical or electrical device
such as telephone, teleconference etc.

 When it is face to face, the person communicating can ask

questions or explanations or sometimes when the communication is
not properly understood, he can clarify meaning.

 Oral communication is generally possible where there can be either

a direct contact or message to be conveyed is not of permanent
nature. Meetings and conferences, lectures and interviews are other
media of such communication

Oral communication enjoys certain advantages communication

which may be enumerated as follows:
(i) Oral communication has the distinct advantage of being quick and
prompt. It provides the opportunity to both the transmitter and receiver of
the message to respond directly.
 41

(ii) Oral communication facilitates close contact and thus fosters mutual
exchange of ideas, facts, understanding and cooperation.

(iii) Oral communication through direct contact undoubtedly inculcates in

the subordinates a sense of self-importance which in turn acts as a
motivating factor.

(iv) Oral communication further enables the superior to make a quick

appraisal of subordinate’s action and reaction to any message transmitted.
This obviously helps the superior to minimise and avert conflicts,
redesign plans and programmes according to the need of time and
circumstances.

(v) The personality of the communicator is brought to bear in the

communication process. This has good effect on the subordinates and
they understand the communication properly.

(vi) It can bring a friendly and co-operative team spirit.

However, the following are the disadvantages of the oral communication:

(i) There is a possibility that the spoken words may not be clearly heard
or understood.

(ii) It is not good for lengthy communications.

(iii) It requires the art of expressing accurately and appropriately, and

listen to others emphatically.

(iv) It is inadequate where specific performance of policies and rules is

needed.
 42

(v) The inexperienced subordinates do not follow the facial expressions

and the tone of manager’s voice.

2. Written Communication:
 When the communication is reduced to black and white (writing),
it is called written communication.

 This includes written words, graphs, diagrams, pictures, etc.

Written communications are extensively used in organisations.

 Sometimes, this form of communication becomes indispensible as

in the case of rules, orders, schedules or policy matters etc.

 The circulars, magazines, notes and manuals are some common

forms of written communication.

 It may be asserted from general observations that in all types of

organisations both oral and written communication is in practice.
Which form should be used and applied? Much depends on the
message, its importance to receiver, and implication to functional
aspects of the organisation.

The Following List Presents Some Commonly Used Forms of

Communication in Different Directions:

Oral Written

(1) Personal instructions. (1) Rules and instructions handbook.

(2) Lectures, conferences, (2) Letters, circulars and memos.

meetings.
 43

(3) Grapevine rumours. (3) Posters.

(4) Interviews. (4) Bulletin and notice Boards.

(5) Face to face (5) Handbooks and Manuals.

conversation.
(6) Annual Reports.
(6) Telephone etc.
(7) House Magazines.
(7) Union channels.
(8) Union Publications.

(9) Personal letters and suggestions.

(10) Complaint Procedure.

4.Leadership-Meaning:

 An educational leader serves as a guide and influences other

educators in an administrative setting.
 In some cases, it may be a team of educational leaders. Leaders in
these executive roles work toward finding ways to improve
learning and to improve the process of educating students.
 They serve in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary
institutions as well as early childhood education centers.
 School site leaders, directors, principals, and assistant
administrators are employed to work either as the sole educational
leader or in small teams.
 Typical positions for educational leaders in administrative settings
are:
 Principal
 Superintendent
 Academic dean
 Director
 Head of school
 Department chair
 44

 Provost, or
 President

Leadership Styles:

The question of a leader's effectiveness has become a central issue
in organizational research.

Recent studies have attempted to develop an integrative leadership
model combining leader characteristics (gender, intelligence,
personality, etc.) and his behaviors (transformative-rewarding,
consideration, etc.).

The integrative model may serve as a predictor of leadership
efficiency, which would assist organizations in improving their
choice of leader and developing effective work methods.

Therefore, identification and study of a leader's prevalent personal
style is an important, central element in the development of
leadership.

In addition, it is important to distinguish between leadership style
and behavior, where style refers to something that characterizes a
specific person throughout different situations, and this is what
many researchers in the 21stcentury espouse and try to prove.

Leadership style is the manner in which the leader undertakes the
process of convincing and recruiting people for specific objectives
and retaining them throughout all of the tasks until the objectives
are attained .

There are many ways to describe leadership styles, and the variety
increases with every book or paper published on leadership.

Lewin, Lippit, & White's study [78] served researchers as a basis on
which to lean and continue in their own research.

This study examined the effect of three leadership styles:
autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire.

The study revealed that an autocratic style was an advantage in
attaining a high level of performance short-term, but was
accompanied by negative feelings.

The democratic style was advantageous in team members' feelings,
although their performance levels were lower .

This discussion continued from study to study, accompanied by
additional hypotheses – from one-dimensional, in Lewin, Lippit &
White's study , to two-dimensional in the Ohio contingent's study,
which proposed the possibility of combining two styles.

A leadership style is determined by the leader's approach in the
active process. Since the leader's main role is to bring about the
 45

execution of tasks by other people, he must focus on his followers'

productivity while maintaining good relations with them .
According to a managerial grid approach of Blake & Mouton
(1964), the ideal leader is the one with the highest score from both
a task-oriented aspect and a human relations aspect.

Leadership styles in the educational organization are no different
from leadership styles in other organizations.

In addition, they include aspects of task-orientation and orientation
towards people. As a school principal is the leader of a team, his
leadership style has great impact.

The school principal's leadership style is one of the crucial factors
in team success, due to its effect on satisfaction, commitment,
motivation, quality and level of teacher performance, as well as its
indirect effect on student achievements.

Leadership style affects the ability of the school to cope with
changes occurring around it and on its level of effectiveness ,
teacher satisfaction both directly and indirectly through their
perceptions of their role , the nature of thought and types of coping
and teachers' feelings regarding the extent of autonomy they feel in
their work.

A study among 160 teachers in Israeli schools revealed that the
principal's support of the teacher and participation in decision-
making and in determining school policy contributed to a sense of
more freedom and initiative in their work.

TEACHER’S ROLE AS A LEADER:

 Teacher leaders assume a wide range of roles to support school and

student success.
 Whether these roles are assigned formally or shared informally,
they build the entire school's capacity to improve.
 Because teachers can lead in a variety of ways, many teachers can
serve as leaders among their peers.
 So what are some of the leadership options available to teachers?
The following 10 roles are a sampling of the many ways teachers
can contribute to their schools' success.

1. Resource Provider
 Teachers help their colleagues by sharing instructional resources.
These might include Web sites, instructional materials, readings, or
other resources to use with students.
 46

 They might also share such professional resources as articles,

books, lesson or unit plans, and assessment tools.
 Tinisha becomes a resource provider when she offers to help
Carissa, a new staff member in her second career, set up her
classroom.
 Tinisha gives Carissa extra copies of a number line for her students
to use, signs to post on the wall that explain to students how to get
help when the teacher is busy, and the grade-level language arts
pacing guide.

2. Instructional Specialist:
 An instructional specialist helps colleagues implement effective
teaching strategies.
 This help might include ideas for differentiating instruction or
planning lessons in partnership with fellow teachers.
 Instructional specialists might study research-based classroom
strategies (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001); explore which
instructional methodologies are appropriate for the school; and
share findings with colleagues.
 When his fellow science teachers share their frustration with
students' poorly written lab reports, Jamal suggests that they invite
several English teachers to recommend strategies for writing
instruction.
 With two English teachers serving as instructional specialists, the
science teachers examine a number of lab reports together and
identify strengths and weaknesses.
 The English teachers share strategies they use in their classes to
improve students' writing.

3.Curriculum Specialist:
 Understanding content standards, how various components of the
curriculum link together, and how to use the curriculum in
planning instruction and assessment is essential to ensuring
consistent curriculum implementation throughout a school.
 Curriculum specialists lead teachers to agree on standards, follow
the adopted curriculum, use common pacing charts, and develop
shared assessments.
 Tracy, the world studies team leader, works with the five language
arts and five social studies teachers in her school.
 47

 Using standards in English and social studies as their guides, the

team members agree to increase the consistency in their classroom
curriculums and administer common assessments.
 Tracy suggests that the team develop a common understanding of
the standards and agrees to facilitate the development and analysis
of common quarterly assessments.

4. Classroom Supporter:
 Classroom supporters work inside classrooms to help teachers
implement new ideas, often by demonstrating a lesson, coteaching,
or observing and giving feedback.
 Blase and Blase (2006) found that consultation with peers
enhanced teachers' self-efficacy (teachers' belief in their own abilities and
capacity to successfully solve teaching and learning problems) as they
reflected on practice and grew together, and it also encouraged a bias for
action (improvement through collaboration) on the part of teachers. (p.
22)
 Marcia asks Yolanda for classroom support in implementing
nonlinguistic representation strategies, such as graphic organizers,
manipulatives, and kinesthetic activities (Marzano et al., 2001).
Yolanda agrees to plan and teach a lesson with Marcia that
integrates several relevant strategies.
 They ask the principal for two half-days of professional release
time, one for learning more about the strategy and planning a
lesson together, and the other for coteaching the lesson to Marcia's
students and discussing it afterward.
5. Learning Facilitator:
 Facilitating professional learning opportunities among staff
members is another role for teacher leaders.
 When teachers learn with and from one another, they can focus on
what most directly improves student learning.
 Their professional learning becomes more relevant, focused on
teachers' classroom work, and aligned to fill gaps in student
learning. Such communities of learning can break the norms of
isolation present in many schools.
Frank facilitates the school's professional development committee and
serves as the committee's language arts representative. Together, teachers
plan the year's professional development program using a backmapping
model (Killion, 2001). This model begins with identifying student
learning needs, teachers' current level of knowledge and skills in the
 48

target areas, and types of learning opportunities that different groups of

teachers need. The committee can then develop and implement a
professional development plan on the basis of their findings.

6. Mentor:
 Serving as a mentor for novice teachers is a common role for
teacher leaders.
 Mentors serve as role models; acclimate new teachers to a new
school; and advise new teachers about instruction, curriculum,
procedure, practices, and politics.
 Being a mentor takes a great deal of time and expertise and makes
a significant contribution to the development of a new professional.
 Ming is a successful teacher in her own 1st grade classroom, but
she has not assumed a leadership role in the school.
 The principal asks her to mentor her new teammate, a brand-new
teacher and a recent immigrant from the Philippines.
 Ming prepares by participating in the district's three-day training
on mentoring. Her role as a mentor will not only include helping
her teammate negotiate the district, school, and classroom, but will
also include acclimating her colleague to the community.
 Ming feels proud as she watches her teammate develop into an
accomplished teacher.

7. School Leader:
 Being a school leader means serving on a committee, such as a
school improvement team; acting as a grade-level or department
chair; supporting school initiatives; or representing the school on
community or district task forces or committees.
 A school leader shares the vision of the school, aligns his or her
professional goals with those of the school and district, and shares
responsibility for the success of the school as a whole.
 Joshua, staff sponsor of the student council, offers to help the
principal engage students in the school improvement planning
process.
 The school improvement team plans to revise its nearly 10-year-old
vision and wants to ensure that students' voices are included in the
process.
 Joshua arranges a daylong meeting for 10 staff members and 10
students who represent various views of the school experience,
from nonattenders to grade-level presidents. Joshua works with the
 49

school improvement team facilitator to ensure that the activities

planned for the meeting are appropriate for students so that
students will actively participate.

8. Data Coach:
 Although teachers have access to a great deal of data, they do not
often use that data to drive classroom instruction.
 Teacher leaders can lead conversations that engage their peers in
analyzing and using this information to strengthen instruction.
 Carol, the 10th grade language arts team leader, facilitates a team
of her colleagues as they look at the results of the most recent
writing sample, a teacher-designed assessment given to all
incoming 10th grade students.
 Carol guides teachers as they discuss strengths and weaknesses of
students' writing performance as a group, as individuals, by
classrooms, and in disaggregated clusters by race, gender, and
previous school. They then plan instruction on the basis of this
data.
9. Catalyst for Change:
 Teacher leaders can also be catalysts for change, visionaries who
are “never content with the status quo but rather always looking for
a better way” (Larner, 2004, p. 32).
 Teachers who take on the catalyst role feel secure in their own
work and have a strong commitment to continual improvement.
They pose questions to generate analysis of student learning.
 In a faculty meeting, Larry expresses a concern that teachers may
be treating some students differently from others.
 Students who come to him for extra assistance have shared their
perspectives, and Larry wants teachers to know what students are
saying
 . As his colleagues discuss reasons for low student achievement,
Larry challenges them to explore data about the relationship
between race and discipline referrals in the school.
 When teachers begin to point fingers at students, he encourages
them to examine how they can change their instructional practices
to improve student engagement and achievement.
 50

10. Learner
 Among the most important roles teacher leaders assume is that of
learner. Learners model continual improvement, demonstrate
lifelong learning, and use what they learn to help all students
achieve.
 Manuela, the school's new bilingual teacher, is a voracious learner.
At every team or faculty meeting, she identifies something new
that she is trying in her classroom.
 Her willingness to explore new strategies is infectious. Other
teachers, encouraged by her willingness to discuss what works and
what doesn't, begin to talk about their teaching and how it
influences student learning.
 Faculty and team meetings become a forum in which teachers learn
from one another. Manuela's commitment to and willingness to talk
about learning break down barriers of isolation that existed among
teachers

Responsibilities of a teacher:
1. Knowledge of the Subject

 To have expert knowledge of the subject area

 To pursue relevant opportunities to grow professionally and
keep up-to-date about the current knowledge and research in the
subject area

2. Teaching

 To plan and prepare appropriately the assigned courses and

lectures
 To conduct assigned classes at the scheduled times
 To demonstrate competence in classroom instruction
 To implement the designated curriculum completely and in
due time
 To plan and implement effective classroom management
practices
 To design and implement effective strategies to develop self-
responsible/independent learners
 51

 To promote students’ intrinsic motivation by providing

meaningful and progressively challenging learning
experiences which include, but are not limited to: self-
exploration, questioning, making choices, setting goals,
planning and organizing, implementing, self-evaluating and
demonstrating initiative in tasks and projects
 To engage students in active, hands-on, creative problem-
based learning
 To provide opportunities for students to access and use
current technology, resources and information to solve
problems
 To provides opportunities for students to apply and practice
what is learned
 To engage students in creative thinking and integrated or
interdisciplinary learning experiences
 To build students’ ability to work collaboratively with others
 To adapt instruction/support to students’ differences in
development, learning styles, strengths and needs
 To vary instructional roles (e.g. instructor, coach, facilitator,
co-learner, audience) in relation to content and purpose of
instruction and students’ needs
 To maintain a safe, orderly environment conducive to
learning
 To comply with requirements for the safety and supervision
of students inside and outside the classroom

3. Assessment

 To define and communicate learning expectations to students

 To apply appropriate multiple assessment tools and strategies to
evaluate and promote the continuous intellectual development of
the students
 To assign reasonable assignments and homework to students as per
university rules
 To evaluate students’ performances in an objective, fair and timely
manner
 52

 To record and report timely the results of quizzes, assignments,

mid- and final semester exams
 To use student assessment data to guide changes in instruction and
practice, and to improve student learning

4. Professionalism

 To be punctual and be available in the university during official

working hours
 To comply with policies, standards, rules, regulations and
procedures of the university
 To prepare and maintain course files
 To take precautions to protect university records, equipment,
materials, and facilities
 To participate responsibly in university improvement initiatives
 To attend and participate in faculty meetings and other assigned
meetings and activities according to university policy
 To demonstrate timeliness and attendance for assigned
responsibilities
 To work collaboratively with other professionals and staff
 To participate in partnerships with other members of the
university’s community to support student learning and university-
related activities
 To demonstrate the ability to perform teaching or other
responsibilities, including good work habits, reliability, punctuality
and follow-through on commitments
 To provide and accept evaluative feedback in a professional
manner
 To create and maintain a positive and safe learning environment
 To carry out any other related duties assigned by the department
chairman

5. Good Behaviour

 To model honesty, fairness and ethical conduct

 To model a caring attitude and promote positive inter-personal
relationships
 To model correct use of language, oral and written
 53

 To foster student self-control, self-discipline and responsibility to

others
 To model and promote empathy, compassion and respect for the
gender, ethnic, religious, cultural and learning diversity of students
 To demonstrate skill when managing student behaviour,
intervening and resolving discipline problems
 To model good social skills, leadership and civic responsibility

6. Specific Deadlines

Task Deadline

Course During the first lecture of the course, course specifications

Specifications should be shared with the students

Class Activity Class activity report must be prepared for each class
Report lecture and placed in the course file

Course file for each course must be kept updated all the
Course File time for periodic review by the Chairman and random
checks by the QAD

After every 8 weeks of the semester, a copy of the

Attendance attendance summary sheet must be displayed on notice
board and a copy should be placed in the course file.

Within one week of every quiz, a copy of the result must

be displayed on notice board and a copy should be placed
Quizzes
in the course file. (Note: Quizzes/Assignments should be
equally distributed before and after the mid exam).

Assignments Within one week of receiving every assignment, a copy of

 54

the result must be displayed on notice board and a copy

should be placed in the course file.

Within one week of the exam, a copy of the result must be

Mid Semester
displayed on notice board and a copy should be placed in
Exam
the course file.

Final A copy of the final student attendance report must be

Attendance submitted to COE office before the end-semester
Report examination

All examination papers should be set from within the

Setting of Mid
prescribed course made known to the students by the
& Final Papers
teacher.

Within one week of the exam, submit the comprehensive

End Semester
results to the controller of examination along with answer-
Exam
sheets of mid and end-semester exams.

HEADMASTER DUTIES AND QUALITIES:

Importance of a Headmaster:
1. Key Stone of the School:
 The headmaster of the school is the key stone of every aspect of it.
It means he is the seal and school is the waze…….. He is the
organizer, leader, governor, business director, teacher, coordinator,
friend, philosopher and guide.
 55

2. Gardener of the School:

 As every headmaster starts his career as a teacher his position is
like a gardener who tends every plant in the school garden with his
love, affection and guidance.

3. Unique Status:
 . In a school the headmaster occupied a unique position as he is the
centre of maintaining instructional relationships-teacher-pupils,
teacher-parents, teacher – teacher.

4. Leader of the Society:

 The headmaster is not only the leader of the school administration
and management but also a leader of the society as the school is a
society in miniature and the entire societal picture is reflected in
school.

 He is also regarded as the leader of the society. Hence the

headmaster, who is he leader of the school, has also to act as the
leader of the society.

5. A good Business Manager:

Changing nature and condition of the society compels the school or
educational institution for adopting business techniques in a
desirable manner. For this the headmaster should be a good business
manager. For ensuring proper management of educational
programme he has to look after the school plant and the school
activities in a business – like manner.
 56

6. Coordinating Agency:
The headmaster is the coordinating agency who keeps the balance and
ensures harmonious development of the institution. As the coordinating
agency he co-ordinates between the society and the institution or school
and its various human elements.

7. A visionary Figure:

 The headmaster of a school should be a man of sound morale

character, an able administrator, an efficient organizer,
competent manager and a role model for his students and
society.

 In this regard he can be regarded as a visionary figure for his

students and society and he shows new light and vision to
them.

8. Prestigious Place:
 The headmaster occupies a very prestigious place in the school as
well as in the society. For giving a concrete shape he should have a
balanced and dynamic personality in the one hand and should be
capable of wiping out the social evils through education.

Qualities of a Headmaster:
The headmaster should have some distinguished qualities with him which
will certify his integrity as a good headmaster and good-man.
For this he should have the following qualities:
1. Personal Qualities:
The headmaster should have the following personal qualities with
him:
 57

(а) Devoted and dedicated.

(b) Just and fair.

(c) Open-minded.

(d) Self-confidence and courage.

(e) Creative and constructive.

(f) Identification with work.

(g)Painstaking.

(h) Objective-outlook.

(i) Sincere, Punctual and regular.

(j) Problem-solving centered etc.

2. Physical Qualities:
The headmaster in order to be a good one should have good
physique.

For this he should posses the following physical traits with him:
(a) Attractive and clean appearance.

(b) Natural and good manners.

(c) Regular habits.

(d) Active, smart and strong etc.

 58

3. Social Qualities:
The headmaster for becoming a good social being should have the
following social qualities:
(a) Good human relations.

(b) Good relationships with colleagues.

(c) Co-operations.

(d) Active and socialized citizen.

(e) Goodwill for all.

(f) Honest in dealings.

(g) Devoted to social progress.

(h) Interest to know about others’ problems.

(i) Insight into social problems.

(j) Creating awareness to eradicate social evils.

4. Intellectual Qualities:
The headmaster should possess the following intellectual qualities
with him:
(a) Growing mind.

(b) Initiating capacity.

(c) Resourcefulness.

(d) Knowledge of pedagogy,

 59

(e) Highly intelligent.

(f) Excellent communication skills both spoken and written.

(g) Good exposition and expression.

(h) Knowledge of child growth and development,

(i) Sense of systematic and planned work.

(j) High achiever.

(k) Knowledge of social problems and possible solutions

5. Emotional Qualities:
A good headmaster should have following emotional qualities with
him:
(а) Cheerful and pleasant to talk to or work with.

(b) Optimistic and hopeful in nature and approach.

(c) Enthusiastic and inspiring bent of mind.

(d) Emotional stability.

(e) Free from anxiety, conflicts and mental tension.

(f) Strong motivation in doing any work.

(g) No harassment while facing confrontations.

 60

UNIT 2-SCHOOL HEALTH PROGRAMME

1.LOCATION OF BUILDING-ACCESSIBILITY:

School accessibility

 Schools and the Education Authority must not discriminate against

pupils with special educational needs due to their disability.
 They should promote the inclusion of special educational needs
pupils in their admission arrangements and in all aspects of school
life.

Accessibility plans and 'reasonable adjustments':

 Schools will vary widely in how accessible they are to individual

pupils. You should check what improvements have been made to a
school and what is being planned when considering which school
you'd like your child to go to.
 Every school must have a school accessibility plan, which shows
how they plan to improve accessibility for special educational
needs pupils and when these improvements will be made. To
prepare the plan a school must first commission an Access Audit.
The plan must be published and you can ask to see it. It will outline
how the school will:

 improve the physical environment

 make improvements in the provision of information
 increase access to the curriculum

Schools can also increase access for individual pupils by making

‘reasonable adjustments’.

 These can be simple changes such as making sure that all lessons
take place in ground floor classrooms for a class where one of the
pupils uses a wheelchair and the school does not have a lift.
 61

 You should always talk to a school to discuss what it can

reasonably do to include your child.

Improvements to the physical environment:

Changes to the physical environment that a school could make to increase

access might include:

 lighting and paint schemes to help visually impaired children

 lifts and ramps to help physically impaired children
 carpeting and acoustic tiling of classrooms to help hearing
impaired pupils

Improving the way information is delivered to pupils with disabilities

Information that is normally provided in writing (such as handouts,

timetables and textbooks) can be made more accessible by providing it:

 in Braille
 in large print
 on audio format
 using a symbol system

School curriculum:

Adjustments that would help children with disabilities have better access
to the curriculum might include:

 changes to teaching and learning arrangements

 classroom organisation
 timetabling
 support from other pupils

Assistive technology:

Technology suited to your child's needs can help them learn faster and
more easily. This can increase their access to the curriculum. Examples of
technology that can help include:
 62

 touch-screen computers, joysticks and trackerballs

 easy-to-use keyboards
 interactive whiteboards
 text-to-speech software
 Braille-translation software
 software that connects words with pictures or symbols

Some schools may already have this technology available or may be

planning to get it.

Arrangements for distributing resources and funding for equipment vary

throughout the UK. If your child has a statement of special educational
needs, the help that is detailed on their statement (which may include
special equipment) must be provided.

School transport:

 While the same basic rules apply to all children, the Education
Authority can decide to provide transport on a case by case basis
for a child with disabilities.
 Your Education Authority region office will assess your child's
needs when making a decision, taking into account your child's
health and/or disability.

 If your child is offered school transport, the vehicle should have the
relevant equipment to suit your child's needs, for example,
wheelchair restraints, ramps or lifts.

 For more detailed information about approved transport

arrangement, refer to your local Education Authority region office
Transfer Booklet.

 The Education Authority also provide escorts on school transport if

needed.
 63

 You may be able to get help with your own costs for taking your
child to school. Your Education Authority region office will be able
to tell you if this is possible.

2.CLEANLINESS AND MAINTENANACE OF SCHOOL

PREMISES:

How to keep your school clean?

Keeping your school clean isn’t just the janitor’s job.By helping to keep
your school clean,you’ll begin to take pride in your school’s appearance
and you’ll gain valuable experience caring for your environment.Whether
you take small steps each day or you participate in a school-wide
cleanup,you can help keep your school clean!

Practicing everyday cleaning habits:

1.Wipe your feet on mats before you enter the school building.

Dirt,pollen, and leaves can all be tracked in by students feet, making the
floors look dirty.Help keep this from happening by wiping your feet
before you come in the door.

 If your school doesn’t have mats,lightly scuff your feet on the

sidewalk before you walk inside.
 Ask your principal about getting mats if your school doesn’t have
any.Offer to start a fundraiser to pay for the mats if your school
doesn’t have room in the budget.

2.Throw any trash you see into wastebaskets:

It might not seem like a big deal if a candy wrapper falls out of your
pocket,but overtime,trash and litter can build up to make your school
seem messy.If you notice someone else drop something,pick it up and
throw it away.
 64

 If you see a used tissue or something gross on the ground,use a

napkin to pick it up so you don’t have to touch it with your hands.
 Encourage your friends to follow your example in picking up trash
when they see it.

3.Recycle paper,glass and plastic:

Recycling helps reduce the amount of trash that goes into the landfill, so
you’re helping the environment and keeping your school clean at the
same time.

 If your school doesn’t participate in a recycling program,ask your

teachers or your principal about starting one.

4.Put things away after you use them:

 I f you get a book out of a shelf in your classroom or you use a

microscope in the science lab,make sure you put it back when
you’re finished using it.Leaving things lying around leads to
cluttered,messy classrooms.

5.Make sure your lunch table is clean before you leave:

 Don’t leave milk cartons,balled-up napkins,or pieces of food on

your table.Push in your chairs as you leave the table,and remember
to check the floor to make sure you didn’t drop anything.

6.Mop up any spills right away:

 If you spill your drink, clean it up right away.Use paper towels or

ask a teacher if there is a mop you can use to clean up your mess.

7.Take care not to damage displays around school:

 Sometimes teachers might put dioramas,artwork,or science projects

around the school to show off their student’s hard work.
 65

 If you see any of these displays,take care not to bump into them or
knock them over,since this can lead to a big mess.

3.BEAUTIFICATION OF SCHOOL PREMISES:

1.Ask your school’s administration for permission to organize a

cleaning event:

Have an event at your school where a group of students,teachers, and

even parents can help deep clean your schools campus.Your event can
take place over a lunch period,after school,or on a weekend.

 Visit the office and ask the secretary if you can set up an
appointment to talk to the principal about organizing an
event.Make notes beforehand about some of the specific things
you’d like to accomplish during the event.
 For instance, you might say,”we’d like to have a group of students
come in on a Saturday to pick up trash on the playground and wash
windows in the classrooms.
 Before your meeting,ask teachers and students to sign a petition
showing their support for the event.

2.Gather your cleaning supplies:

If your school already has supplies,you may be able to borrow them for
your cleaning event.Otherwise,you may need to hold a fundraiser so you
can purchse the cleaning supplies you’ll need.Depending on what you
decide to clean,you’ll need:

 Rubber gloves
 A bleach cleaner
 Clothes
 Trash bags
 Feather dusters
 Toilet brushes
 Gardening supplies.
 66

3.Spread the word about the event:

If you get permission to host your cleaning day,ask if you can put up
flyers publicizing the event.You may also be able to advertise the event
during an assembly or morning announcements.

 Don’t underestimate the power of word of mouth.Ask your friends

to help you find other students who are interested in signing up.
 Try saying something like,”Hey, a few of us are getting together on
Saturday to clean up around the school.We might even meet up for
pizza afterwards.You should come by and help!

4.Organize students into groups on the day of the event:

Have each group be responsible for accomplishing a certain task.This will

help ensure that you don’t have anyone wandering around aimlessly or
cleaning something that someone else has already done.

 For instance,you might want to have one group cleaning marker off
of bathroom walls, while another group could pull weeds and rake
around the outside of the school.

5.Focus on cleaning areas that are often ignored:

There’s no need to spend your cleaning event doing chores that the janitor
already does on a regular basis.Make the most of the day by working on
things that don’t get done often,like cleaning the chairs in the auditorium
or dusting the tops of lockers.

 If you like,you could ask for persmission to plant some flowers

around campus,like in a flower bed near the schools entrance.

6.Practice safe cleaning practices:

As you clean, make sure you carefully read and follow all of the labels on
any cleanings suppies.Wear rubber gloves while you’re cleaning with
chemical like bleach.
 67

 To avoid getting sick,avoid touching used tissues when you empty

waste baskets.Wear disposable gloves or wash your hands with
soap and water after you’re finished.

7.Start a club to make this a regular event:

 If the event is a success,consider getting permission to start a club

that cleans the school on a regular basis.
 You might want to meet once a week,every day at lunch,or only
once a semester,depending on how much needs to be done and how
often your principal will approve it.

4.FACILITIES FOR INDOOR,OUTDOOR PLAY:

 Indoor activities are carried out inside a space. They are limited to
the conditions of the place where they are held, to the number of
people participating in the activities, among other factors.
 Outdoor activities are carried out in an outdoor space. It can be a
green space on a property or in contact with nature

Outdoor space

Essential: A minimum of 15x20x30 sq. meters of outdoor space should

be provided for a groupof 25 children.

Area should ensure safety of children i.e. prevent them from running out
and getting hurt from grievous injury.

Desirable: Area may include both paved and cemented as well as

kachcha/grass covered surfaces.

 Small slopes and steps may be provided for specific activities like
climbing and sliding etc.
 Note: in situations where outdoor area is not available then
provision for this may be made while planning the indoor space.
 68

 Provision for a variety of activities like running, jumping,

climbing, cycling, sand and water play, gardening etc. may be
made.
 Sand pit may be created under some shady place like under tree.
Water play area can be created in both indoor as well as outdoor
area.
 A balance between sunny and shaded areas may be ensured.
 There may be a storage space for keeping play equipments.
 A tree to hang swings may be useful.

Indoor space:

Essential: A minimum 5x7 =35 sq meters indoor space should be

provided for a group of 25 children.

 Rooms should be adequate in size for groups of up to 25

children to be able to sit, move about and participate in
activities.
 Indoor space must include adequate classrooms, storage space
and child friendly toilets.
 Classrooms, corridors and outdoors must be kept clean and
walls well plastered.
 Rooms should be well ventilated and have adequate light by
means of windows that can be opened, a working air coolers
and fans.
 Windows must extend below the height of children to view
outside and get plenty of sunlight and fresh air.
 All windows must have grills and net to prevent mosquitoes
and curtains to adjust light and to prevent dust coming inside
the classroom.
 Stairs must have handrails to facilitate children and prevent
fall. Provide ample space for display of children’s work and
other pictorial material at children’s eye level i.e.
approximately 3 to 4 feet above the ground.
 69

 A durry/mats and a set of low and light tables/nest of tables

for a group of 5-6 children for art work, paper work etc. are
essential.
 Provision of running blackboard/ whiteboard at low level for
scribbling, free drawing by children should be provided.
 Furniture and equipments must be of correct size and height of
the children.

Desirable : There should be a library in each centre having appropriate

resource material and educational audio-visual aids for practitioners and
young children.

 In case of inadequate space in the classrooms, a separate

activity room can be created with ‘interest areas’ where
there should also be a provision of ICT such as Television/
Smart Board/ Computer etc.

Outdoor equipment/material :

 Commercially available or improvised equipments for

providing experiences like climbing, jumping, balancing,
swinging, swaying, cycling etc. should be provided.
 Large and small balls, old tyres and rings etc. should be
provided for throwing rolling, catching and kicking
experiences.
 Sandpit/sandbox, trays, plastic strainer, sievers, containers,
plastic mugs, katoris etc. should be provided.
 A big tub, bucket, mugs and cups of different sizes, sieves
and floating toys for water play should be provided.

Indoor equipment/material:

 Material for manipulative play: form boards, mosaic, tiles, nesting

toys, beads, wire, leaves, twigs, pebbles, puzzles, clay and sand
etc.
 70

 Material for constructive play: wooden/plastic blocks, boxes,

plastic tubes, carton etc.
 Material for imaginative play/role-play: dolls, puppets, doctor set,
old dresses, masks, toys, kitchen utensils, mirror, old spectacle
frames, purses, old shoes, weighing scales and clock etc.
 Commercially available or indigenously available materials to
foster specific skills.

5.IMPORTANCE OF PLAYGROUND-ITS
DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE:

Why Are Playgrounds Important For Children’s Development?

The developmental benefits of playgrounds are many and varied:

Playgrounds get children into action so they can grow physically.

 Play equipment can encourage children to be more active, building
their muscle groups and fine motor skills in the process.
 Swings, slides, climbers and other types of equipment encourage
children to develop their balance, speed, agility and coordination.
Getting kids in the habit of exercise and making it a fun activity
can help encourage kids to stay active throughout their lives.
Playgrounds encourage children to build social skills.
 When children meet others on the playground, they learn to get
along, agree on rules and resolve conflict – all of which are
necessary when building social skills.
 Children can overcome shyness when they play together on
playground equipment, and they can learn fundamentals about
sharing and friendship.
 Additionally, playgrounds can be more diverse places than a child’s
classroom, since they invite children of all different ages and
backgrounds to play together.
Playgrounds help with cognitive development.
 Playtime helps children learn to problem-solve and to think
creatively, which helps with cognitive development.
 71

 For example, as children figure out different ways to get over a

climber or to cross a balance beam, they are working on their
cognitive skills.
 In addition, some playgrounds have activity panels that help
children explore numbers, letters, shapes and other educational
concepts they’ve been exposed to in the classroom.

Playgrounds help children build sensory activity.

 Unlike many other types of play, playgrounds encourage children
to explore with all senses.
 Children can have fun with movement on the swings or can enjoy
the texture of a climber. They can explore the bright colors of an
activity panel and use music-making equipment to play with sound.
Playgrounds encourage healthy emotional development.
Children who get to romp around a playground get physical exercise,
which can help them deal with stress and boredom and serve as a
healthy means of dealing with emotions.
When children are upset, for example, they may find the physical
activity and distraction of play can help.

These should be performed and documented by someone specifically

responsible for facilities maintenance: a facilities director, staff at
the school or park, or members of a volunteer maintenance group.

Maintenance of playground:

These tips will help to keep your playground equipment well maintained
and safe for children to use:

Plan before you buy

Before buying new equipment think about how it will fit into the
environment in which it will be installed.

If the environment means that the equipment will have to withstand a

lot of heavy use then you should ensure that the equipment you buy
 72

is able to withstand tough physical play without needing to be

repaired every month.

Also take into account the age range of children using the equipment.

By planning ahead and thinking about the environment and the way
the equipment will be used it will help to ensure that you buy the
right equipment for that type of playground.

Inspect your equipment

 Whatever the type of environment in which your playground

equipment is installed, regular inspections will allow you to make
sure the equipment is safe to use and in good condition.

 Inspecting your playground equipment once a month will ensure

that you are able to spot any small damages early so that they can
be repaired before the equipment becomes too damaged to use.

Make repairs quickly

 Once you do spot any damage, however small, ensure that you
make the repairs as quickly as possible or risk the damage getting
worse and eventually unrepairable.

 Most playground repairs can be carried out by the school

maintenance team, however if the damage is too difficult for your
in-house team to repair you will need to hire experts to ensure that
the repairs are carried out and the equipment remains safe for
children to use.

Ensure repairs are correct

 Along with making repairs quickly, it is also important that repairs

are made correctly.

 This means sourcing the right spare parts for the individual piece of
playground equipment and making sure the replacement part is as
high a quality as the rest of the equipment.

 Not only will ensuring that repairs are carried out correctly keep
the equipment well maintained, but will also that it is safe and
won’t need constant repairing.

Make use of school holidays

 73

 When children are on holiday it is the ideal time to carry out

upkeep to your playgrounds.

 This is the perfect opportunity to repaint fences, ensure the right

playground furniture is installed, and re-evaluate the security of the
playground.

 Summer is a particularly good time to carry out general

maintenance to your playground and ensure everything is ready for
the new school year.

While eventually over time all playground equipment becomes worn

through constant use, by following our tips it will help to keep your
playground well maintained so that the equipment lasts for as long as
possible.

6.CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TOYS/BOOKS AND OTHER

PLAY EQUIPMENTS:

WHAT MAKES GOOD PLAYTHINGS?

 Simplicity of design
 Involve child in play
 Versatile in use
 Easily comprehended & manipulated
 Encourage cooperative play
 Material that is warm and pleasant to touch
 Durable
 Work as intended
 Safe
 Generous in proportion and quantity
 Price based on durability and design

DESIGN

 Simplicity is the key. A young child’s playthings should be as free

from detail as possible, allowing her to express herself by creating
her own childlike world.
 Too much detail limits a child.

 The more versatile and unspecialized playthings are, the more

creative and absorbing the play.
 74

 Unit blocks, one of the most essential pieces of equipment for the
preschooler, are perhaps the best example of “unstructured” toys.

 These permit a child to create as he wills, with the next step

determined by him, not by the structure of the play material.
Blocks, construction sets, clay, sand, and paints allow the
imagination free rein and are basic playthings.

CHILD INVOLVEMENT

 A good plaything should involve the whole child—body, mind, and

spirit.
 Such a toy will stimulate children to do things for themselves.
Equipment which makes the child a spectator, such as a windup
dog which turns somersaults, may entertain for the moment, but
has little or no play value.

 Their play equipment should encourage children to explore and

create, or offer the opportunity for dramatic play.

 Materials which allow a child only a passive role are not tools of
play, but objects of diversion.

VERSATILITY

 Some equipment in the classroom must be provided to satisfy the

need of growing muscles to push, climb, run, bend, and lift.
 A gym that can keep half a dozen children playing at one time is a
valuable asset.

 Hollow blocks use large muscles, too. The wood used for hollow
blocks must stand rough usage and have all-rounded edges,
satisfying to handle.

 Their design must allow small hands to get a firm grip. Such blocks
involve the whole child and are ideal for group use in dramatic
play.

COOPERATIVE PLAY
 75

 Teachers should ask themselves “Will the equipment encourage

cooperative play?” Happy hours of self-forgetful play with peers
can be a cornerstone of a child’s life.
 A child’s play experiences are foundational for every area of his
adult life, and we should provide the opportunity for it to take
place.

 A housekeeping corner with child-size furniture fulfills both the

need for dramatization and cooperative play. You may see your
children create a train out of hollow blocks and thin air!

MATERIALS

 Children love their playthings, and should be able to depend on

them.
 They need time to develop a relatedness to them, time for the
playthings to become trustworthy friends.

 Playthings which do not last are educationally as well as

economically unsound.

 Wood and cloth are materials children find particularly appealing.

A wooden toy has a warm, friendly feel that is satisfying and
reassuring to small hands.

 Wood like maple, hard and split-resistant, also fulfills the

requirement of durability.

 A solid, generously proportioned wooden truck will afford many

miles to the muscle, providing all its materials—wooden body,
rubber wheels, bearings, and steel axles—are selected with real
large-muscle use in mind.

FUNCTIONALITY

 The playthings’ materials must also insure that the toys really
“work.” What frustration when a cupboard door won’t shut, or the
 76

wheels on a truck stop turning! Children feel insulted when given

“kids’ stuff.”
 The tools at the workbench should be real tools, not cheap copies
sure to break on a real job.

 Likewise all hinges, casters, wheels, door knobs, and handles

should be “real”, of high quality industrial-type construction,
designed to take the beating which is the reality of play.

SAFETY

 Materials also affect the safety of a plaything. Look for wood that
doesn’t splinter, wheels that won’t pinch, corners and edges
carefully rounded.
 Designs, too, must be safety conscious, stable and secure without
small openings to catch fingers or limbs.

 True play will always involve an element of risk, but good

equipment will minimize it.

GENEROSITY

 Play equipment should offer sufficient roominess or quantity to

fulfill children’s intentions in play.
 In housekeeping play, four and five-year-olds want to bake pies
and wash dishes.

 They need roomy ovens, dishpans big enough for soap and water
and dirty dishes. Some of your wheeled toys should be big enough
for children to ride on and to haul big loads of blocks or other
materials.

 Provide enough blocks for the children to complete the structure he

has in mind. Having a generous enough supply of equipment helps
children play together harmoniously and helps the teacher relax!

PRICE
 77

 The play value and durability of a plaything should be taken into

account when comparing prices.
 A higher initial investment often proves more economical because
equipment does not have to be replaced repeatedly.

 The durable, well-designed plaything not only outlasts cheaper

toys, but also fulfills the above-mentioned criteria for good play
equipment.

UNIT3:PLANNING OF PROGRAMME

1.TIME TABLE(KINDS,USES,PRINCIPLE)
 A time table is a detailed plan showing the schedule of time
allotment to various subjects and activities.
 Usually,time table is prepaid for a week, to be repeated.All the
work in school is carried out systematically in tune with the time
table.
 The successful working of a school depends on a suitable time
table. Hence time table is said to be second school clock.

NEED FOR A TIME TABLE:

 A time table is necessary for the proper management of the
affairs of a school.
 Through this, the head master knows the work every class and
every teacher.
 78

 The time table will help him in carrying out the work of the
school effectively.

USES OF TIME TABLE:

i) It ensures orderly work.It assigns proper persons for particular
classes during appropriate periods in a proper manner
ii) It saves the time and energy of teachers and pupils by preventing
duplication and overlapping.
iii) It ensure right allocation of time for different subjects and
activities by giving proper weightage according to needs.
iv) It ensures proper distribution of work among teachers.
v) It indicates habits of orderliness, steadiness, regularity and
alertness among pupils and teachers.
vi) It help to maintain discipline and order.

CONTENT OF TIME TABLE

i) Time of beginning and ending of the school days.
ii) Time of beginning and ending of each period.
iii) Subjects and activities assigned a specific period.
iv) Days on which and time during which each subjects and each
activity is to be handled.
v) Name of the teacher engaging each subjects and each activity
during the respective period.
vi) Name of the teacher in charge of each division of each period.
vii) Room in which each class meets.
viii) Details regarding the recess periods.

KINDS OF TIMETABLE
There are three kinds of time table
i) CLASS TIME TABLE:-
 This is meant for the classes this will show the distribution of
subjects. There should be a general time table showing
classwise distribution of subjects.
ii) TEACHERS TIME TABLE:-
 Every teacher should have a copy of his time table of his work.
This time table will show the class in which he is to teach in a
particular period.

iii) MASTER TIME TABLE:-

 This is the consolidated time table for the whole school. This
will give a complete picture of the work of a school. It should
be available with the head master.
 79

In addition to the above it is better to prepare and maintain separate time

table such as:-
 Teachers leisure time table
 Activities time table
 Room time table
 Home work time table. etc…

PRINCIPLES OF TIME TABLE CONSTRUCTION

Time table gives a clear vision and comprehensive picture of school

activities ie,what work is being done during which period, where by
whom and when. The following principles have to be kept in mind during
preparation of a good time table.

1. TYPE OF SCHOOL
 We see firstly whether the school is girls/boys oriented or co
educational, rural, or urban, secondary or senior secondary.
We determine the nature of activities involved in the school is
to be taken in to consideration while framing the time table.

2. AMOUNT OF TIME AVAILABLE

Time table is framed keeping in view available time i.e., the length
of the school year and total number of holidays.

3. DEPARTMENT REGULATION
 The state department of education fixes length of the school
year, and its terms i.e., when an academic year starts and
when its ends, the duration of the school day and even the
number of periods for each subjects.

4. PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE.
While assigning work, special care has to be taken that.
A). Each teacher is assigned those subject who he/she feels his/her best
qualified to teach
B). He/she does not teach in more than two departments
C). Teaching load for every teacher is about equal to that of others.

5. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND DIFFICULTY VALUE OF

SUBJECTS
 80

 The time dedicated to a subject should be at per the

importance of it and its difficulty value there are certain socio-
economic consideration that determine the importance of a
subject in the school curriculum and accordingly time is
allotted to them in the time table.

6. INCIDENCE OF FATIGUE
 The elements of fatigue influence the construction of school
time table a number of ways.
 Children are fatigued at certain periods of certain days. it is
not only physical but also physiological in nature. it result in a
definite weakening of attention and diminishing interest and
effects of learning.

7. PRINCIPLES OF VARIETY
 It has been seen experimentally that change of room seat and
posture usually is an antidote against weakness.
 It is applied on both students and teachers variety can be
introduced in the following manners.

A) No subject expect science practical should be kept far two consecutive

periods.
B) The same class should not set in the same room far the whole day.
C) The same teacher should not have two consecutive periods in the
same class.
D) If subject is taught only 2/3 time a week, period should follow at
intervals.
E) The physical training periods, science practical and drawing work
follow a change.

8. FREE PERIODS FOR TEACHERS.

 We should provide free periods for teachers so as to increase
their efficiency and also to provide time for their correction
work.

9. PRINCIPLES OF PLAY AND RECREATION

 Careful attention needs to be given to provide fir rest and
recreation and provision for various co-curricular activities
should also be made in the time table, to avoid monotony.

10. MAXIMUM UTILISATION OF RESOURCES.

 The qualification, experience, room size should always kept in
mind.
 81

 so as to make the maximum use of all the resources and

avoided wastage or under utilisation of resources.

11. ELASTICITY
 The time table should have a flexibility so as to work the
teachers smoothly.

2.STUDENT ACTIVITIES:

1.ASSEMBLY:
 Assemblies are an important part of the school experience.
They bring students, teachers, staff, and other members of the
school community together, and provide opportunities for
enriching the students’ education.
 You might be called upon to conduct an assembly at some point
if you are a school administrator, teacher, or student council
leader.
 Organizing and conducting an assembly can be a complicated
and stressful task, but with good planning, you can make your
next assembly a positive experience for your school.
Activities:
Planning Your Assembly
 Determine a theme for the assembly.
 Keep a checklist of things to do before and during the assembly.
 Enlist 1 or more speakers.
 Plan activities for your assembly if you wish.
 Make a list of people who will attend the assembly.
 Schedule your assembly at a convenient time.
 82

 Meet with the school staff to create an agenda and management plan.
 Send a written agenda to everyone participating in the assembly.
 Request any necessary audio-visual equipment.
 Book your assembly space in advance.
 Create assembly programs.
Organizing the Assembly Space
 Make sure all audio-visual equipment is set up and working.
 Examine the space to make sure it is clean and in good repair.
 Have programs and other documents on hand.
 Get any refreshments set up.
 Check in with all participants to make sure they are ready.
Holding the Assembly
 Invite your guests and participants into the space.
 Signal for attention once everyone is seated.
 Present a brief welcoming speech.
 Announce the start of any other activities or events.
 Dismiss your guests and students once the assembly is done.
 Ask your participants for feedback.
 Take care to clean up the space after the event is done.

2.DRAMAS:
 Create an Imaginative Opening.
 Introduce Yourself.
 Learn Names.
 Drama Icebreakers.
 Talk about Acting.
 Drama Classroom Management.
 Perform a Short Pantomime.
 Introduce a Closing ritual.

3.DEBATE:
 A Four Corners Game. This debate game uses four corners of the
classroom to get students moving.
 Card Game. ...
 Quick Debates/ Hat Debates. ...
 Inner Circle/Outer Circle Debate Strategy. ...
 Role Play Debate. ...
 National and International Topics. ...
 83

 School and Local Issues. ...

 Creative Debate.

4.Organizing children competitons in creative writing:

 Choose the fundamental guidelines.
 Establish the person to be in the panel of judges.
 Define the prizes to be won.
 Advertise the contest early and thoroughly
 Ensure that you encourage participation.
 Ensure the use of technology.
 Ensure that you give your comment to each essay.

Art:
 Salt Painting Over Art Work, Sand Art. ...
 Paper Towel Art with Watercolors ,Evolving Canvas Art. ...
 Paint Dot Mural Contact Paper Mural. ...
 Mixed Media Collage Recycled Shape Art. ...
 Pumpkin Decorating with Tinker Trays Nature Table. ...
 Tire Painting Repainting Thrift Store Canvases.

Tour:
 Know your goals. ...
 Decide on a format. ...
 Identify partners. ...
 Determine oversight. ...
 Develop a marketing plan. ...
 Select the homes/gardens/walking tour stops. ...
 Research the history of the places selected. ...
 Prepare the tour brochure.
Exhibition:
 Assessment
 Planning
 Requsites
 Demonstration
 Preparation
 Selection of place
 Display
 84

 Evaluation

3.UTILIZATION OF COMMUNITY RESOURCES:

There are basically two ways in which the teacher may make use of
community resources. One method is to take the school to the
community; the other method is to bring some portion of the community
to the classroom.
3.1. Taking the School to the Community :
 They say ‘the emotions of children are most easily reached not
by words but by sights and sounds. It is actually when they see
the things, that they remember them .
 This is possible through field trips surveys, camping, services
projects etc.
1. Field Trips:
 Few social teaching programmes are complete without a field
trip.
 Field trips may be undertaken for securing information,
changing attitudes, awakening interest, developing
appreciation, promoting ideals, enjoying new experiences.
 They can initiate a unit of study, they can be a part of the core
of it or they can give it the finishing touch.
 They are a very good means of getting knowledge first hand of
confirming and supplementing second hand knowledge.
 They are a means for sharpening observation, testing principles
and doing everything which social studies requires.
 Field trips are useful for educational purposes in ways more
than one: (i)They stimulate imagination and learning by
providing sensory perceptions e.g. the breath taking heat of a
glass furnace, the metallic hum of a weaving room. The sights
of real things in the real world of adults.
 (ii) They integrate classroom instruction by exposing the
artificially of traditional senable the pupils to view facts and
forces as they exist in their everyday relationship in living
communities.
 (iii) Through the filled trips, the students may come to realize
community in ways which bookish learning cannot by its very
nature allow.
 85

 (iv) They enable the pupils to learn the art of living with others
such as travelling in the same conveyances, sharing rooms,
sitting at the same table.
 (v) They expand emotional and intellectual horizons by making
them acquainted with people whose manner, customs, living
standards, outlook and interests may be quite different from
their own.
2. Community Surveys:
 Community surveys can provide excellent educational experience
particularly senior pupils.
 They are one of the organized and systematic methods for an
accurate determination of social or physical data.
 Survey foster comprehensive understanding of community
structure and processes in their everyday operation interaction and
complexity.
 They are extremely useful in stimulating depth of insight into vital
community problems which should be met. Also, they suggest
possibilities for student participation in the affairs of the
community.
 Any aspect of the community which has meaning for young
people may be considered an appropriate field for school survey.

3. School Camping:
 The camp, a classroom in the woods, is a part of the larger
community.
 The outdoor environment, in and around the camp, offers
tremendous possibilities for true education.
 The opportunities to learn, work and play amidst the natural
resources of the area stimulate interest and concern for the
protection and wise use of the natural resources of the community.
 The drift to cities and the rapid tempo of modern living is creating
a need for people in cities to find more opportunities for roots in
the soil, thus developing a closer relationship between human
beings and natural resources.
 86

 School camping encourages directs learning experiences and has

potential life – situations that are conducive to the most effective
teaching methods, that is, through learning by done, seeing,
hearing, testing, smelling and feeling with a minimum of answers
givens by teachers and resource leaders.
The following service projects can prove quite useful:
1. Social service among the backward population of the town such as
cleanliness, anti mosquito campaigns, bathing young children,
attending on the sick.
2. School labor service being organized on special occasions such as
republic day, Independence Day, activities like planting of trees, road
repairs and erection of platforms, cleaning of lanes, digging of
manure pits and drains, may be taken up.
3. Animal welfare through provision of water facilities, fodder and
medical aid.
4. Beautification of villages through planting of trees, lying out of
avenues, clearing up of public places like streets, temples, drains, etc.

3.2 The community can be brought to the school in a number of ways

1. Inviting Resource Persons: Every community, no matter how small or
isolated, has within it, the score of people of rich and varied background
who can “open doors” to vivid learning experiences.
 The banker, the doctor, the engineer, the editor all these and many
more are community’s human resources which can be utilized by
the enterprising teacher to enrich and vitalize the school
programmes.
 These distinguished persons can explain to students their own
important role in the community and services rendered by them to
community in the different directions.

2. Parent – Teacher Association: They say people “cares when they

share”. The constructive involvement of parents in the school
policy and programme planning, execution and evaluation is very
useful. Parent – teacher association can co-operate in efforts to
make the school a real community centre, to locate and list
resource visitors to the school.
 Parents will know what is going on in the school and what is
expected of their wards.
 87

 Parents have the opportunity to appreciate the work of teachers

in the school.

3.Social Service Activities: School map can be made the centre of social
education. Bulletin boards may be set up, containing daily news and other
useful information about the local community in particular and the
country in general.
 The school furniture, the rooms, the towns, the playgrounds, the
school hall, the school gymnasium and audio – visual aids may
be freely lent to the adult community for purposes of education
and recreation.

4.Celebration of fairs, festivals and national days. Social studies can

be very well taught with the help of fair, festivals and national days to be
celebrated in the community.
 Every child is interested to know the significance of these social
events. These opportunities provide extremely dynamic,
interesting, real life opportunities for learning.
 Celebrations of the birth and death anniversaries of great men
can make the children familiar with the noble ideas and deeds of
the great men.
 Not only that, there are certain national days – these can help to
indicate a sense of patriotism in the children.
 These are U.N. Day, Human Rights Day and Red Cross Day
which can very well develop international understanding and
make the children understand the rights of human beings all
over the world.
 Celebration of children’s day will enable them to realize their
own charter of rights.

5. Arranging talks on national and international problems adults are

interested in current problems of national and international interest.
When such talks are arranged by the school authorities’ members of the
community may be cordially invited to listen and participate in the
discussion.
 88

6. Financial aid by the community members. Well – to – do members

of the community can help the school enterprise financially too?
7. Local trades can provide apprenticeship experiences to the students.
 89

UNIT 4 - CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management:
 It’s effective discipline
 It’s being prepared for class
 It’s motivating your students
 It’s providing a safe, comfortable learning environment
 It’s building your students’ self esteem
 It’s being creative and imaginative in daily lessons