Ultrasonic testing

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An example of Ultrasonic Testing (UT) on blade

roots of a V2500 IAE aircraft engine.
Step 1: The UT probe is placed on the root of the
blades to be inspected with the help of a special
borescope tool (video probe).
Step 2: Instrument settings are input.
Step 3: The probe is scanned over the blade root. In
this case, an indication (peak in the data) through
the red line (or gate) indicates a good blade; an
the red line (or gate) indicates a good blade; an
indication to the left of that range indicates a crack.

Principle of ultrasonic testing. LEFT: A probe sends

a sound wave into a test material. There are two
indications, one from the initial pulse of the probe,
and the second due to the back wall echo. RIGHT: A
defect creates a third indication and simultaneously
reduces the amplitude of the back wall indication.
The depth of the defect is determined by the ratio
D/Ep

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-

destructive testing techniques based on
the propagation of ultrasonic waves in
the object or material tested. In most
common UT applications, very short
ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz,
and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are
transmitted into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize
materials. A common example is
ultrasonic thickness measurement,
which tests the thickness of the test
object, for example, to monitor pipework
corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on

steel and other metals and alloys, though
it can also be used on concrete, wood
and composites, albeit with less
resolution. It is used in many industries
including steel and aluminium
construction, metallurgy, manufacturing,
aerospace, automotive and other
transportation sectors.

History
On May 27, 1940, U.S. researcher Dr.
Floyd Firestone of the University of
Michigan applies for a U.S. invention
patent for the first practical ultrasonic
testing method. The patent is granted on
April 21, 1942 as U.S. Patent No.
2,280,226, titled "Flaw Detecting Device
and Measuring Instrument". Extracts
from the first two paragraphs of the
patent for this entirely new
nondestructive testing method succinctly
describe the basics of such ultrasonic
testing. "My invention pertains to a
device for detecting the presence of
inhomogeneities of density or elasticity
in materials. For instance if a casting has
a hole or a crack within it, my device
allows the presence of the flaw to be
detected and its position located, even
though the flaw lies entirely within the
casting and no portion of it extends out
to the surface. ... The general principle of
my device consists of sending high
frequency vibrations into the part to be
inspected, and the determination of the
time intervals of arrival of the direct and
reflected vibrations at one or more
stations on the surface of the part."

James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer) of

Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El
Segundo, California, an early improver of
the many foibles and limits of this and
other nondestructive testing methods,
teaches in further detail on ultrasonic
testing in his U.S. Patent 3,260,105
(application filed December 21, 1962,
granted July 12, 1966, titled “Ultrasonic
Testing Apparatus and Method”) that
“Basically ultrasonic testing is performed
by applying to a piezoelectric crystal
transducer periodic electrical pulses of
ultrasonic frequency. The crystal vibrates
at the ultrasonic frequency and is
mechanically coupled to the surface of
the specimen to be tested. This coupling
may be effected by immersion of both
the transducer and the specimen in a
body of liquid or by actual contact
through a thin film of liquid such as oil.
The ultrasonic vibrations pass through
the specimen and are reflected by any
discontinuities which may be
encountered. The echo pulses that are
reflected are received by the same or by
a different transducer and are converted
into electrical signals which indicate the
presence of the defect.” To characterize
micro-structural features in the early
stages of fatigue or creep damage, more
advanced nonlinear ultrasonic tests
should be employed. These nonlinear
methods are based on the fact that an
intensive ultrasonic wave is getting
distorted as it faces micro damages in
the material.[1] The intensity of distortion
is correlated with the level of damage.
This intensity can be quantified by
acoustic non-linearity parameter (β). β is
related to first and second harmonic
amplitudes. These amplitudes can be
measured by harmonic decomposition of
the ultrasonic signal through fast Fourier
transformation or wavelet
transformation.[2]
How it works

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline

weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased array
instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame
with magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact
with the pipe by a spring. The wet area is the
ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to pass
into the pipe wall.

Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing

spline cracking
spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound

transducer connected to a diagnostic
machine is passed over the object being
inspected. The transducer is typically
separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in
immersion testing. However, when
ultrasonic testing is conducted with an
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT) the use of couplant is not
required.

There are two methods of receiving the

ultrasound waveform: reflection and
attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo)
mode, the transducer performs both the
sending and the receiving of the pulsed
waves as the "sound" is reflected back to
the device. Reflected ultrasound comes
from an interface, such as the back wall
of the object or from an imperfection
within the object. The diagnostic
machine displays these results in the
form of a signal with an amplitude
representing the intensity of the
reflection and the distance, representing
the arrival time of the reflection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission)
mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound
through one surface, and a separate
receiver detects the amount that has
reached it on another surface after
traveling through the medium.
Imperfections or other conditions in the
space between the transmitter and
receiver reduce the amount of sound
transmitted, thus revealing their
presence. Using the couplant increases
the efficiency of the process by reducing
the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy
due to separation between the surfaces.

Features
Advantages

1. High penetrating power, which

allows the detection of flaws deep
in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the
detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface
needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other
nondestructive methods in
determining the depth of internal
flaws and the thickness of parts
with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the
size, orientation, shape and nature
of defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the
structure of alloys of components
with different acoustic properties
 7. Non-hazardous to operations or to
nearby personnel and has no effect
on equipment and materials in the
vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly
automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on
the spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages

1. Manual operation requires careful

attention by experienced
technicians. The transducers alert
to both normal structure of some
materials, tolerable anomalies of
other specimens (both termed
“noise”) and to faults therein severe
 enough to compromise specimen
integrity. These signals must be
distinguished by a skilled
technician, possibly requiring follow
up with other nondestructive testing
methods.[3]
2. Extensive technical knowledge is
required for the development of
inspection procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in
shape, very small or thin, or not
homogeneous are difficult to
inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by
cleaning and removing loose scale,
paint, etc., although paint that is
 properly bonded to a surface need
not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide
effective transfer of ultrasonic wave
energy between transducers and
parts being inspected unless a non-
contact technique is used. Non-
contact techniques include Laser
and Electro Magnetic Acoustic
Transducers (EMAT).

Standards
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
ISO 2400: Non-destructive testing -
Ultrasonic testing - Specification for
calibration block No. 1 (2012)
ISO 7963: Non-destructive testing —
Ultrasonic testing — Specification for
calibration block No. 2 (2006)
ISO 10863: Non-destructive testing of
welds -- Ultrasonic testing -- Use of
time-of-flight diffraction technique
(TOFD) (2011)
ISO 11666: Non-destructive testing of
welds — Ultrasonic testing —
Acceptance levels (2010)
ISO 16809: Non-destructive testing --
Ultrasonic thickness measurement
(2012)
ISO 16831: Non-destructive testing --
Ultrasonic testing -- Characterization
and verification of ultrasonic thickness
measuring equipment (2012)
ISO 17640: Non-destructive testing of
welds - Ultrasonic testing - Techniques,
testing levels, and assessment (2010)
ISO 22825, Non-destructive testing of
welds - Ultrasonic testing - Testing of
welds in austenitic steels and nickel-
based alloys (2012)
ISO 5577: Non-destructive testing --
Ultrasonic inspection -- Vocabulary
(2000)
European Committee for
Standardization (CEN)
EN 583, Non-destructive testing -
Ultrasonic examination
EN 1330-4, Non destructive testing -
Terminology - Part 4: Terms used in
ultrasonic testing
EN 12668-1, Non-destructive testing -
Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic examination equipment -
Part 1: Instruments
EN 12668-2, Non-destructive testing -
Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic examination equipment -
Part 2: Probes
EN 12668-3, Non-destructive testing -
Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic examination equipment -
Part 3: Combined equipment
 EN 12680, Founding - Ultrasonic
examination
EN 14127, Non-destructive testing -
Ultrasonic thickness measurement

(Note: Part of CEN standards in Germany

accepted as DIN EN, in Czech Republic
as CSN EN.)

See also
Non-Contact Ultrasound
Phased array ultrasonics
Time-of-flight diffraction ultrasonics
(TOFD)
Time-of-flight ultrasonic determination
of 3D elastic constants (TOF)
 Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS)
ultrasonics for tubes
EMAT Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducer
ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology)

References
1. Matlack, K. H.; Kim, J.-Y.; Jacobs, L.
J.; Qu, J. (2015-03-01). "Review of
Second Harmonic Generation
Measurement Techniques for
Material State Determination in
Metals". Journal of Nondestructive
Evaluation. 34 (1): 273.
doi:10.1007/s10921-014-0273-5 .
ISSN 0195-9298 .
 2. Mostavi, Amir; Kamali, Negar;
Tehrani, Niloofar; Chi, Sheng-Wei;
Ozevin, Didem; Indacochea, J.
Ernesto (2017). "Wavelet Based
Harmonics Decomposition of
Ultrasonic Signal in Assessment of
Plastic Strain in Aluminum".
Measurement. 106: 66–78.
doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2017.0
4.013 .
3. U.S. Patent 3,260,105 for Ultrasonic
Testing Apparatus and Method to
James F. McNulty at lines 37-48 and
60-72 of Column 1 and lines 1-4 of
Column 2.

Further reading
 Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing.
Detection and location of defects in
electronic devices by means of scanning
ultrasonic microscopy and the wavelet
transform measurement, Volume 31, Issue
2, March 2002, Pages 77–91, L. Angrisani,
L. Bechou, D. Dallet, P. Daponte, Y. Ousten
Charles Hellier (2003). "Chapter 7 -
Ultrasonic Testing". Handbook of
Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-028121-9.

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