In general, the factors which influence whether a landslide will occur typically include slope angle,

climate, weathering, water content, vegetation, overloading, geology, and slope stability.

Human causes include:

removal of vegetation

interference with, or changes to, natural drainage

leaking pipes such as water and sewer reticulation

modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways, buildings, etc

overloading slopes

mining and quarrying activities

vibrations from heavy traffic, blasting, etc

excavation or displacement of rocks.

It is important for engineers and geologists to evaluate slope stability and any landslide threat during
development assessments so that effective and timely remedial measures can be implemented.

Three distinct physical events occur during a landslide:

the initial slope failure, the subsequent transport, and the final deposition of the slide materials.

Landslides can be triggered by gradual processes such as weathering, or by external mechanisms

including:

Undercutting of a slope by stream erosion, wave action, glaciers, or human activity such as road
building,

Intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or sharp fluctuations in ground-water levels,

Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or construction activity,

Loading on upper slopes, or

A combination of these and other factors.

People increase the risk of landslides by modifying the landscape, for example, by building on unstable
slopes or in the path of potential landslides. Unfortunately, many people are unaware of their exposure
to landslide risks.
Heavy rain is the main trigger producing landslides and slope failures on both natural and constructed
slopes. Here are some things you can do to prepare yourself and your property when heavy rain is in the
forecast.

*Clean out ditches and culverts so that stormwater will flow through them freely.

*Make sure your house downspouts are not flowing onto any fill slopes.

*Don’t drive during the heavy rains, as that is when many roads are impacted by landslides.

*If your house is near a mountain stream, (or one of the “Where debris flows might go” areas on ALC’s
landslide maps or “Potential Debris Flow Pathways” on the NCGS landslide maps), keep an eye out for a
sudden rise in water level, increased sedimentation, sounds of trees and boulders falling or crashing
together. If you observe these things, get to higher ground away from the stream immediately.

Pre-Construction:

Before building on a site, it is important that you are familiar with the characteristics of the land.
Landslides can happen on natural slopes or slopes that have been modified by human activity (fills, cuts,
waste piles).

One of the best ways to protect yourself from naturally occurring landslides is to avoid building in or
modifying areas in which they may start or impact.

Measures to reduce the chance of landslides:

Vegetation cover protects land from landslides and soil erosion. Therefore, efforts should be made to
maintain greenery particularly on slopes. Provisions should be made at community level to prevent
people from excavating, removing materials from the soil or cutting trees.

Trees should be planted on slopes and slope base to prevent erosion. Records of erosion, landslide
masses and falling rocks should be maintained. Before building house information should be gathered
about site and history of landslides in the area.

During constructing a building on a slope design that suits the natural slope should be adopted.
Vegetation and large trees should not be removed while constructing. Natural streams or drainage paths
should not be obstructed during construction. Surface water should be diverted towards the natural
galley enabling water to quickly drain away from the slope

What are hazards due to tropical cyclones?

Storm surge is simply water that is pushed toward the shore by the force of the winds swirling around
the storm. This advancing surge combines with the normal tides to create the hurricane storm tide,
which can increase the average water level 15 feet (4.5 m) or more.
In addition, wind driven waves are superimposed on the storm tide. This rise in water level can cause
severe flooding in coastal areas, particularly when the storm tide coincides with the normal high tides.

Flash Flooding. Flash floods are rapid occurring events. This type of flood can begin within a few minutes
or hours of excessive rainfall

Flooding in Urban Areas

Urban/Area floods are also rapid events although not quite as severe as a flash flood. Still,
streets can become swift-moving rivers and basements can become death traps as they fill with water.
The primary cause is due to the conversion of fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots.

* River floods are longer term events and occur when the runoff from torrential rains, brought on by
decaying hurricanes or tropical storms, reach the rivers.

A lot of the excessive water in river floods may have began as flash floods. River floods can occur in just a
few hours and also last a week or longer.

What are hazards due to tornadoes?

Tropical cyclones can also produce tornadoes that add to the storm's destructive power. Tornadoes are
most likely to occur in the right-front quadrant of the hurricane relative to its motion. However, they are
also often found elsewhere embedded in the rainbands, well away from the center of the tropical
cyclones.

Tornado (ipo-ipo) is a narrow, violently rotating column of air that extends from the base of a
thunderstorm to the ground.

How the tornado is formed? Like all winds and storms, tornadoes begin when the sun heats up the
surface of the land. As the warm, less heavy air begins to rise, it meets the colder, heavier air above land.
Note that wind shears make it even easier to set them off. A wind shear is when two winds at different
levels and speeds above the ground blow together in a location. The faster moving air begins to spin and
roll over the slower wind. As it rolls on, it gathers pace and grow in size. At this stage, it is an invisible,
horizontal wind spinning and rolling like a cylinder. As the winds continue to build up, stronger and more
powerful warm air forces the spinning winds vertically upward, causing an updraft. With more warm air
rising, the spinning air encounters more updraft. The winds spin faster, vertically upwards, and gains
more momentum.

At this stage, the spinning wind creates a vortex and the wind has enough energy to fuel itself.

The tornado is fully formed now and moving in the direction of the thunderstorm winds. When the
pointed part of the tornado touches the ground from the cloud, it is often referred to as ‘touch down’
and as it moves, it rips off things along its path.

Tornadoes are sometimes called twisters because they move as if they are being twisted.
What are hazards due to monsoons?

A monsoon, which is a large sea breeze, occurs when the wind blows from the cooler ocean to the much
warmer land mass. This seasonal weather pattern is a result of changes in the circulation of the
atmosphere and the rain resulting from the warming of both the land and the sea.

Monsoons are most often associated with the Indian Ocean. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm
regions. The summer monsoon or the southwest monsoon and the winter monsoon or northeast
monsoon determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia.

*Summer monsoon is locally referred to as hanging habagat;

*Winter monsoon is hanging amihan

These two wind systems influence almost all aspects of life of the Filipinos.

Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) – officially

declares the start of both southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon.

What are some of the practical ways to cope?

*Help injured or trapped persons. Give first aid where appropriate. Do not move seriously injured
persons unless they are in immediate danger of further injury. Call for help.

*Avoid loose or dangling power lines and report them immediately to the power company, police, or fire
department. Be careful and not step onto objects in contact with downed power lines.

*Beware of snakes, insects, and animals driven to higher ground by flood water.

*If your home has been damaged, open windows and doors to ventilate and dry your home.

*Take pictures of the damage, both to the house and its contents and for insurance claims.

*Drive only if absolutely necessary and avoid flooded roads and washed-out bridges.

*Use telephone only for emergency calls.

*Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear blowing or hissing noise, open a window and quickly leave
the building. Turn off the gas at the outside main valve if you can and call the gas company from a
neighbor's home. If you turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned back on by a professional.

*Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed wires, or if you smell hot
insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse box or circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to
get to the fuse box or circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice.
*Check for sewage and water lines damage. If you suspect sewage lines are damaged avoid using the
toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are damaged, contact the water company and avoid the water
from the tap. You can obtain safe water by melting ice cubes.

For your peace of mind, always heed your local officials instructions. It is their responsibility to serve
your community. If you follow their guiding, you will make their job much easier.

If they ask you to evacuate, do so immediately. This way, you will not be a burden on the local rescue
teams so they can better assist the ones who may need rescue through no fault of their own.

Your evacuation will also aid the police after the storm passes. Unfortunately, some people try to take
advantage of others going through difficult situations.

The coastal zone is that part of the land surface influenced by marine processes. It extends from the
landward limit of tides, waves, and wind blown coastal dunes, and seaward to the point at which waves
interact significantly with the seabed.

The coastal zone is a dynamic part of the Earth's surface where both marine and atmospheric processes
produce rocky coasts, as well as beaches and dunes, barriers and tidal inlets, and shape deltas.

The atmospheric processes include temperature, precipitation, and winds, while the major marine
processes are waves and tides, together with water temperature and salinity.

The coast also supports rich ecosystems, including salt marshes, mangroves, seagrass, and coral reefs.
The diverse coastal ecology is favored by the shallow waters, abundant sunlight, terrestrial and marine
nutrients, tidal and wave flushing, and a range of habitat types.

What is coastal erosion?

Erosion is the wearing away of the land by the sea. This often involves destructive waves wearing away
the coast.

Five main processes which cause coastal erosion:

Corrasion is when waves pick up beach material (e.g. pebbles) and hurl them at the base of a cliff.

Abrasion occurs as breaking waves which contain sand and larger fragments erode the shoreline or
headland. It is commonly known as the sand paper effect.

When waves hit the base of a cliff air is compressed into cracks. When the wave retreats the air rushes
out of the gap. Often this causes cliff material to break away. This process is known as hydraulic action.

Attrition is when waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into each other and break up.

Corrosion/solution is when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak acids in the sea.

What is submersion?
Submersion is when the sediment is submersed under water and eventually replaced back to its original
location.

This often takes place during violent storms, when sand is dragged or pushed underwater, and it tends to
return back to the visible place (via wave action) it had previously been when the seas have calmed
down. At its most extreme, submersion can temporarily submerse an island, and create islands as well.

What is saltwater intrusion?

Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to
contamination of drinking water sources and other consequences.

Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic
connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saline water has a higher mineral content than
freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push inland beneath
the freshwater.

Coastal hazard area mapping

Coastal hazard areas consist of areas at risk from sea erosion or permanent inundation from tidal water
and areas of temporary inundation resulting from a defined storm tide event. The mapping products
include erosion prone area maps as well as storm tide inundation area maps.

While the erosion prone area plans specify the linear inland extent of the erosion prone area from tidal
waters, the coastal hazard area maps interpret this and indicate the footprint of these areas on the
ground. Care should be used when referring to the indicative map as the erosion prone area location
may change over time. If there is any doubt about the location of the erosion prone area, then the
declared erosion prone area plan prevails over the indicative footprint maps and a ground survey may be
required to accurately define the location.

*Limiting the environmental impacts of land development requires careful planning which considers the
natural ecological function of the watershed and ensures cross-jurisdictional cooperation throughout the
watershed.

In the past, poorly planned land development has led to urban sprawl. This growth pattern typically
reduces green space and farmland, increases our dependency on our automobiles and compromises
environmental quality.

This includes significant impacts on water quality and quantity. Impervious surfaces and drainage
systems designed to quickly remove stormwater alter the natural hydrology of the watershed.

Often the stormwater was routed to natural streams resulting in reduced water quality, higher peak
flows, lower base flows, erosion, sedimentation and decreased ground water recharge.

Siting and design considerations that mitigate impacts include:

Prepare a comprehensive list of all hazardous materials to be used, stored, transported, or disposed of
during all phases of activity.

Develop a hazardous materials management plan addressing storage, use, transportation, and disposal
(interim and final) for each item in the comprehensive list. The plan should identify specifics regarding
local and federal emergency response.

Develop a waste management plan identifying anticipated solid and liquid waste streams and
addressing determination, inspection and waste minimization procedures, storage locations, and waste-
specific management and disposal requirements. Include a recycling strategy to be practiced by workers
during all project phases.

Develop a spill prevention and response plan for addressing storage locations of hazardous wastes, spill
prevention measures, training requirements, waste-specific spill response actions, spill response kits,
and notifications to authorities.

Develop a stormwater management plan to ensure compliance with regulations and prevent off-site
migration of contaminated stormwater or increased soil erosion.

Develop a pesticide/herbicide management plan.