 The human body contains approximately 37 trillion cells.

 These cells create tissues from which organs form

 Each cell serves a purpose, communicating and carrying out the reactions that make life possible
 Bacteria outnumber the eukaryotic cells in our bodies about 10 to 1.
 There are more bacteria than all the plants and animals combined on earth
 ____________________________
 The basic structural unit of every organism is one of two types of cells – prokaryotic or
eukaryotic.
 Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells.
 Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells.
 __________________________
 In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered cells. Hooke saw dead cell walls of plant cells.
 In 1674, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to view a living cell under a microscope.
 Cell Theory was proposed in 1839 by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann: All living things
are composed of cells. The cell is the basic functional unit of life. Cells arise only from preexisting
cells. Cells carry genetic information in the form of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), which is the
genetic material that is passed on from parent to daughter cell.
 Viruses are unable to reproduce on their own. This violates the 3rd and 4th rule, because viruses
can only replicate by invading other organisms and because they may contain ribonucleic acid
(RNA) as their genetic information. Thus, viruses are not considered living organisms.
 _______________________________
 All cells have several basic features in common: They are all bounded by a selective barrier,
called plasma membrane
 Enclosed by the membrane is a semifluid, jellylike substance called cytosol, in which
components like organelles are found.
 All cells contain chromosomes, which carry genes in the form of DNA.
 All cells have Ribosomes, complexes that make proteins directed from the genes.
 PROKAROTIC CELLS
 Prokaryotes are the simplest of all organisms and include all bacteria.
 Prokaryotes do not contain any membrane-bound organelles.
 Their genetic material is organized into a single circular molecule of DNA concentrated
in an area of the cell called the nucleoid region.
 Prokaryotes are incredibly diverse, and knowledge of this diversity is essential for the
study of medicine.
 Cytoplasm: houses organelles and other components
 Fimbriae: serves as attachment structures for some prokaryotes ONLY
 Nucleoid: ------- ONLY
 Ribosomes: -----
 Plasma membrane: ----
 Cell wall: ------composed of peptidoglycan KINDA
 Capsule: third layer of many prokaryotes ONLY
 Flagella:-----
 Plasmid: Plasmids carry DNA that is not considered part of the genome of the
bacterium. But provide an advantage against pathogens and antibodies.
 To humans some bacteria form symbiotic relationship: both benefiting. Others can be
pathogenic: cause disease.
 Bacteria can be distinguished by its shape. They exist in three shapes: Spherical bacteria,
known as cocci. Rod-shaped bacteria, known as bacilli. Finally, spiral-shaped bacteria,
known as spirilli.
 o NUCLEUS AND RIBOSOMES
o Two cellular components involved in the genetic control of the cell: the nucleus, which houses most
of the cell’s DNA, and the ribosomes, which use information from the DNA to make proteins.
o
o The control center of the cell, the nucleus, contains all the genetic material necessary for replication
of the cell
o The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane, a double membrane that maintains a nuclear
environment separate and distinct from the cytoplasm.
o Nuclear pore in the nuclear membrane allow selective two-way exchange of material between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus
o DNA contains coding regions called genes. Linear DNA is coiled around organizing proteins known as
histones and is then further coiled into linear strands called chromosomes.
o Finally, there is a subsection of the nucleus known as the nucleolus, where the ribosomal RNA (Rrna)
is synthesized. The nucleolus takes up approximately 25 percent of the volume of the entire nucleus.
o Also, in the nucleolus, proteins imported from the cytoplasm are assembled into ribosomal subunits.
These subunits then exit the nucleus through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, where they can
assemble into a ribosome.
o
o Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein, are the cellular components that
carry out protein synthesis.
o Ribosomes synthesize protein in two cytoplasmic locations: free ribosomes are suspended in the
cytosol, their products function mostly within the cytosol (enzymes that catalyze sugar breakdown).
Bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum, their products are
generally destined for packaging (lysosomes), insertion (membranes), or secretion (export).
o
o The nucleus directs protein synthesis by synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA) according to
instructions provided by the DNA. The mRNA is then transported to the cytoplasm viz the nuclear
pores. Once an mRNA molecule reaches the cytoplasm, ribosomes translate the Mrna’s genetic
message into polypeptides.
o
 THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
 The endomembrane system carries out several tasks in the cell. Which includes synthesis of
proteins and their transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism
and movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons
 This system consists of nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membrane.
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of interconnected membranes that are
continuous with the nuclear envelope.
 There are two varieties or ER: smooth and rough. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes,
the ribosomes permit the translation of proteins destined for secretion via in transport
vesicles. (Glycoproteins are secretory proteins that function as membrane proteins). The
smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is utilized primarily for lipid synthesis (phospholipids,
steroids=sex hormones) and the detoxification of certain drugs and poisons (adding hydroxyl
groups, making them more soluble)
 The Golgi apparatus consists of stacked membrane-bound sacs. Materials from the ER are
transferred to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles.
 Once in the Golgi apparatus, these cellular products may be modified by the addition of
various groups like carbohydrates, phosphates or in shape.
 After modification and sorting in the Golgi apparatus, cellular products are repackaged in
vesicles, which are subsequently transferred to their designated location. (Secretory storage
vesicle: exocytosis or Lysosomes for degradation)
 Lysosomes are membrane-bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes that are capable
of breaking down many different substrates, including substances ingested by endocytosis
and cellular waste products.

 Food vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within a cell, which contain food matter to be
digested. They fuse with lysosomes to digest.
 In plants, which lack lysosomes, vacuoles carry out hydrolysis and play other roles as well.
Mature plant cells generally contain a large central vacuole. The central vacuole plays an
integral part of a plant cell’s endomembrane system by holding materials and wastes. It also
provides structure and support for the plant cell.
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS
Organisms transform the energy they acquire from their surroundings.
In eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplast are the organelles that convert energy to
forms that cells can use for work.
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration= the metabolic process that generates ATP by
extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels with the help of oxygen.
Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis. They convert solar
energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic
compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
Mitochondria have two membranes: The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane
is convoluted, with infoldings called cristae. The inner membrane contains the mitochondrial
matrix. The matrix contains different enzymes which are responsible for catalyzing cellular
respiration, as well as the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.
Chloroplasts have three membranes: the intermembrane space, the stroma which contains the
chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. - and the thylakoid space which contains green
pigment chlorophyll, along with other molecules that function in the photosynthetic production
of sugar.
The membrane proteins of mitochondria and chloroplast are made by free ribosomes in the
cytosol and by ribosomes contained within theses organelles themselves.
These organelles also contain a small amount of DNA. It is this DNA that programs the synthesis
of the proteins made on the organelle’s ribosomes.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are semiautonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within
the cell.
Mitochondria are founded in nearly all eukaryotic cells including plants and animals.

Peroxisomes contain hydrogen peroxide. One of the primary functions of peroxisomes is the
breakdown of very long chain fatty acids that can be transported to mitochondria, where they
are used as fuel for cellular respiration.
 CYTOSKELETON ORGANIZES STRUCTURES AND ACTIVITIES IN THE CELL
 The cytoskeleton, a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. It plays a major role
in organizing the structures and activities of the cell, is composed of three types of structures:
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

 All eukaryotic cells have microtubules, it is constructed from protein tubulin.
 Microtubules shape and support the cell, serves as tracks along which organelles equipped with
motor proteins can move, guide secretory vesicles from the golgi apparatus to the plasma
membrane, separate chromosomes during cell division.
 In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome. Within the centrosome are a pair of
centrioles. (Help with cell division)
 Some eukaryotic cells have flagella, which are microtubule-containing extensions. (Male
gamete)

 Microfilaments are also called actin filaments because they are constructed from protein actin.
 The structural role of microfilaments in the cytoskeleton is to apply tension.
 In the plasma membrane, microfilaments help support the cell’s shape. This network gives the
outer cytoplasmic layer of the cell, called the cortex.
 They also function in contracting muscle cells.

 In plant cells, the interactions of actin filaments cause cytoplasmic streaming, a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells.

 Just like the microfilaments, intermediate filaments are specialized in bearing tension, making
the cell structure more rigid, help anchor organelles, including the nucleus.
 Plasma Membrane and the Cell Wall
o The cell wall is an extracellular structure of plants that distinguishes them from animal
cells. The wall protects the pant cell, maintain its shape, and prevents excessive uptake
of water.
o Plant cell walls are much thicker than the plasma membrane. They are made of
polysaccharide cellulose.
o Cell walls are perforated with plasmodesmata. It provides channels through the cell wall
allowing molecules and substances to move and back and forth between adjacent plant
cells.
o The outermost component of animal cells is the plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane consists of phospholipid bilayer.
o This membrane is unique in that its surfaces are hydrophilic, electrostatically interacting
with the aqueous environments inside and outside of the cell, while its inner portion is
hydrophobic, which helps to provide a highly selective barrier between the interior of the
cell and the external environment. Molecules must undergo simple or facilitated diffusion
in order pass through the membrane. (facilitated with the use of integral protein
channels)
 CONTRASTING ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
 In animal cells=Lysosomes: digestive organelles where macromolecules are hydrolyzed,
centrosomes with centrioles contains the cell’s microtubules, and flagella: locomotion organelle
present in some animal cells composed of microtubules.
 In PLANT CELLs=chloroplasts: photosynthetic organelle, converts energy of sunlight to chemical
energy stored in sugar molecules, central vacuole: functions include storage, breakdown or waste
products, hydrolysis of macromolecules. Cell wall: outer layer that maintains the cell’s shape and
protects cell from damage, made of cellulose majorly. Plasmodesmata: channels through the cell
walls that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.
 CONTRASTING EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYTIC CELLS
