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IDGH VOLTAGE ~,j
Measurement,
Testing and Design
T. J. Gallagher

Department of Electrical Engineering

University College, Dublin

A. J. Peannain

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Queen Mary College, University of London
The LIbrary
U.rverelty of !tetro/ellm & Mlnerale
o.barllft, bud! Arabi.

A wtley-Interscience Publication

JOHN WILEY & SONS

- Chichester . New York . Brisbane . Toronto . Singapore

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Thelma, Siobhan, Kathleen and Colm
Rosalind and Erica

Copyright © 1983 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may "be reproduced by any means, nor

transmitted, nor translated into a machine language without the
written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data;

Gallagher, T. J.
High voltage measurement, testing and design.

'A Wiley-interscience publication:

Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Electric engineering. 2. High voltages. I. Pearmain, A. J. II. Title
TK153.G33 1983 621.31 82-20308

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data:

Gallagher, T. J.
High voltage measurement, testing and design.
1. High voltages
I. Title II. Pearmain, A. J.
621.3 TKl53

ISBN 0 47J 900966

Typeset by Unicus Graphics Ltd, Horsham

Printed in Great Britain by Pitman Press, Bath l.

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Contents
Preface . xiii

.
1 High-voltage technology
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of voltage levels . 2
1.3 Historical development of high voltage 4
1.4 Electricity supply network 6
1.5 Components of a high-voltage system 7
1.5.1 Synchronous generators 7
1.5.2 Transformers. 8
1.5.3 Circuit breakers 11
1.5.4 lightning arresters (surge diverters) "IS
1.5.5 Shielding of transmission lines 17
1.5.6 Overhead lines 19
1.5.7 Cables. 21
1.6 Overvoltages. 30
1.6.1 lightning discharge 30
1.6.2 lightning frequency 31
1.6.3 lightning characteristics. 34
1.6.4 Travelling waves and their shapes 36
1.6.5 Switching surges . 37
1.7 Insulation co-ordination . 39
References . 41

2 Electrical insulating materials . 43

2.1 Introduction 43
2.2 Insulation behaviour of gases 44
2.2.1 Impact ionization by electrons. 45
2.2.2 Photoionization 45
2.2.3 Negative-ion formation . 46
2.2.4 Simple theory of Townsend breakdown 47
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2.3 Practical factors affecting the breakdown voltage 49 4.3 Impulse voltages . 103
2.3.1 Corona. 50 4.3.1 Single-stage generator 104
2.3.2 Non-uniform fields. 52 4.3.2 Multi-stage Marx generator 105
2.3.3 Time lag to breakdown 54 4.4 Practical rnul tistage generators. 108
2.3.4 Compressed gases . 55 4.4.1 Nominal characteristics of generators. 108
2.3.5 Vacuum as an insulator 56 4.4.2 Tripping of generator 112
2.4 Liquids as insulators 58 4.4.3 Recording of impulse 114
I
2.4.1 Transformer oil . . . . . 59 4.4.4 Polarity of impulse. 114
2.4.2 Electric~l properties of an insulating liquid. 60 4.5 Impulse currents 115
2.4.3 Breakdown in liquids 63 References . 116
2.4.4

2.5.1
Synthetic liquids
2.5 Solids as insulators
Classification of solids
64
65
65
Is High-voltage measurement

5.1 Introduction
117

117
2.5.2 Breakdown in solids 66 5.2 Electrostatic voltmeters. 117
2.6 Liquid-solid insulators 72 5.3 Flashover between spheres 118
References . 73 5.4 Voltage measurement using an ammeter and series resistor 120
5.5 Low-voltage instruments with potential dividers. 121
3 Field plotting 76 5.5.1 Resistor dividers 121
3.1 Introduction 76 5.5.2 Capacitor dividers . 125
3.2 Curvilinear squares: an approximate graphical method. 77 5.5.3 Mixed dividers 127
3.3 Analogue methods. 79 5.5.4 Low-voltage measuring instruments 127
3.3.1 Conducting paper . 79 5.6 Measurement of peak voltages. 129
3.3.2 The electrolytic tank 79 5.7 The field-mill (generating) voltmeter. 132
3.4 Analytical methods 80 5.8 Voltage transformers 133
3.4.1 Direct solution of Laplace's equation. 81 5.9 Current measurements . 134
3.4.2 Using a conformal transformation 81 5.9.1 Current transformers 134
3.5 Numerical methods 86 5.9.2 Current shunts 135
3.5.1 Monte Carlo methods 86 5.9.3 The Rogowski coil . 137
<
3.5.2 Integral methods 87 5.9.4 Hall-effect probes . 137
3.5.3 Differential methods 89 5.9.5 Faraday-effect current transformers 137
3.5.4 Comment on numerical methods 91 -I. 5.1 0 Measurement of dielectric loss . 138
3.6 Use of field plots in high-voltage design 92 5. 10.1 The Sche ring bridge 139
References . 93 5.1 0.2 Bridges for measuring low losses 141
References . 141
J 4 Generation of high voltages 94

4.1 Alternating voltages 94 6 High-voltage testing 143

4.1.1 Single step-up transformers 94 6.1 Introduction 143
4.1.2 Transformers in cascade . 95 6.2 Types of test 143
4.1.3 Voltage control of testing transformers 96 6.3 Power-frequency tests 144
4.1.4 Series resonant circuits 98 6.3.1 Dry withstand test. 144
4.2 Direct voltages 99 6.3.2 Wet withstand test. 145
4.2.1 Half-wave and full-wave rectification. 99 6.3.3 Separate-source-voltage withstand test 146
4.2.2 Voltage doubler and cascade circuits 100 6.4 Impulse withstand test . 147
4.2.3 Electrostatic generators . 102 6.4.1 Impulse voltage distribution in transformers 149

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6.4.2Testing a transformer 1::;1 8.3.6 Compressed gas-insulated designs 196
~h 6.4.3Transmission-line insulators 155 8.3.7 n.e. transmission cables In
6.4.4Cables. IS? 8.3.8 Other cable designs. 198
6.4.5Circuit breakers ISH 804 Transformers 199
l< References .
~ 1(,0 8.4.1 Transformer insulating materials 199
8.4.2 Winding design 200
7 Partial discharges. ! 1(,2 8.4.3 The surge voltage problem 201
I 8.5 Switchgear . 202
7.1 Introduction / 1()2
8.5.1 Insulation in switchgear . 202
7.2 The discharge process 163 8.5.2 Oil circuit breakers. 204
7.2.1 TIle process in voids 163 8.5.3 Air-blast circuit breakers. 205
7.2.2 The process at electrodes. 164 8.5.4 Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers. 206
7.2.3 Discharge patterns in cavities 165 8.5.5 Vacuum circuit breakers. 207
7.2.4 The energy in a discharge. 166 8.6 Overhead lines 208
7.2.5 Damage to the dielectric . 168 8.6.1 Conductor arrangements. 208
7.3 The detection and measurement ofdischarges 169 8.6.2 Insulators 209
7.3.1 The observable effects of discharges . 169 8.7 Applications. 212
7.3.2 Power loss in the dielectric 169 8.7.1 Electrostatic precipitators 212
7.3.3 Straight current-pulse and voltage-pulse techniques 171 8.7.2 Paint spraying and powder coating 213
7.3.4 Balanced methods . 172 8.7.3 Ore separation 214
7.3.5 Discharge measurement in power-sys tern apparatus 174
8.7.4 Propulsion of space vehicles 214
7.3.6 Calibration methods 176
8.7.5 High-energy physics 215
~ 7.4 The location of discharges 177
8.8 Electrosta tic hazards 215
7.1.1 Electrical methods. 177
8.8.1 Sources of unwanted charge 215
7.4.2 Acoustical methods 179
8.8.2 Problem situations. 215
7.4.3 Other methods 180 8.8.3 Prevention of hazards 216
7.5 Surface discharges. 180
Bibliography 216
7.6 Discharges in direct-voltage systems 182
7.6.1 The discharge process 182 Appendix 1 An analysis of the single-stage impulse generator 218
7.6.2 Discharge detection 183
7.6.3 Conclusions 183 Appendix 2 Screening of resistors 222
References. 184
Problems 225
8 High-voltage design and applications 185
8.1 Introduction 185 Answers to Problems 233
8.2 High-voltage bushings 185
8.2.1 The simple bushing. 185 Subject Index . 237
8.2.2 Grading of bushing insulation I ~l6
8.2.3 Other design considerations 188
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8.3 Power cables 189
8.3.1 Historical problems and solutions 189
8.3.::: Self-contained oil-filled designs. 190
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8.3.3 High-pressure oil-filled cables 192
8.3.4 Solid dielectric cables 193
8.3.5 Accessories . 1<)4

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Preface
The aim of this book is to provide a wide-ranging account of high-voltage tech-
nology. In the past 20 years, several books have been published which deal only
with some major branches of the subject and they have been mainly directed at
the research worker or development engineer. This book is an attempt to include!
in one volume the various major topics of high-voltage technology: to this end it
contains a broad account of each branch and it includes a source of recent refer-
ences for further specialized reading. The book is intended as a suitable text for
a . final-year undergraduate course or a first-year postgraduate M.Sc. course in
Electrical Engineering departments of universities and polytechnics. Parts of the
book have been used for a one-semester ftnal-year undergraduate course at Univer- <;
sity College, Dublin, and a two-semester M.Sc. course at Queen Mary College,
London. Furthermore, we hope the book will be of interest to practising eleci'rical
engineers, especially those in the utility companies who are concerned with the
reliable operation of distribution and transmission networks, since this reliability is
largely governed by the behaviour of insulation under high voltage.
Each chapter deals with a specific aspect of the subject and can be read as a self-
contained unit with inclusive references. In the first chapter, the reader is given a
brief historical account of the development of high-voltage technology, together
with a general perspective of the equipment used in a high-voltage network. The
chapter ends with a description of transient overvoltages arising from lightning
strokes and switching operations. Chapter 2 is devoted to a detailed survey of the
mechanisms of breakdown under 'high electric stresses in the gaseous, liquid, solid
and mixed insulation systems that are used in high-voltage equipment, whilst
Chapter 3 describes the various experimental and theoretical techniques which
permit electric stresses to be estimated. Chapters 4 and 5 contain a discussion of the
methods for generating and measuring high voltages, whilst Chapter 6 is concerned
with the high-potential testing of equipment. Because of the importance of partial
discharge measurements as a diagnostic tool for assessing the quality of insulation,
Chapter 7 has been devoted solely to the treatment of this topic. The final chapter
contains accounts of the design of high-voltage power equipment and the applica-
tions or high voltages. Some problems for student solution have been included at
the end of the text.

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xiv

Although an effort has been made to use SI units throughout this book, it will
;.
be noted that data on some figures are expressed in the original non-SI units as this
reflects their continued use in the literature.
Our thanks must go first to Professor J. O. Scanlan who encouraged us to write
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this book when we were both lecturing at University College, Dublin. TJ.G. wishes
to acknowledge the help of colleagues who took over his laboratory duties,
Professor A. M. de Paor.for facilities provided, and Professors B. K. P. Scaife and
1
E. A. McGennis who rkad his manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.
A special word of thanks is due to his wife and children, especially Kathleen who
sustained his efforts at writing with invigorating cups of tea. A.J .P. wishes to thank
his wife, both for her typing from an illegible manuscript and for her forbearance,
High-voltage technology
together with his daughter, during the gestation period. We both wish to thank
Mr L. Clarke for painstaking work on the illustrations. 1.1 INTRODUCTION

T. J. Gallagher A. J. Pearrnain High-voltage technology developed originally because of the need to transfer large
University College, Dublin. quantities of electrical energy economically at high levels of voltage. Today the
Queen Mary College, London.
technology has spread from energy transmission to encompass many other areas of
electrical engineering and science. For example, the methods of circuit analysis are
.June 1982
used to predict the electrical performance of high-voltage synchronous generators,
transformers and transmission lines; reliable measurement techniques are necessary
to determine accurately voltage and current magnitudes; sophisticated electronic
apparatus is needed to record fast transients whilst the reliability of power equip-
,.- ment is assured by high-potential testing. Physics and chemistry also play prominent
roles in high-voltage technology. The physical and chemical phenomena governing
the electrical properties of insulating materials are of fundamental significance to
high-voltage engineers. The weak link in the chain of reliability of equipment
is still the insulation, and the science of materials has contributed greatly to the
development of improved insulation systems for high-voltage apparatus.
The interdisciplinary nature of high-voltage technology is fully apparent from
the numerous and varied industrial processes in which it appears. For instance,
it plays a major role in maintaining a clean environment; electrostatic precipitators
annually remove vast quantities of dust from the flue gases of factories and power
stations which would otherwise pollute our atmosphere, whilst high-voltage ozone
generators eliminate the obnoxious smells from urban waste as it passes through
sewage-treatment plants. Other common electrostatic processes employing high-
voltage techniques include spray-painting, powder coating and xerography. The
medical and scientific professions require high-voltage power supplies for X-ray
equipment, electron microscopes etc. and for nuclear research. The modern
electronics industry utilizes high-voltage techniques for ion implantation in semi-
conductors and for power supplies in television sets, oscilloscopes etc. These are
only some of the industries and processes which use high-voltage and it is obvious
that the continued development of high-voltage technology is of importance not
only to the electrical industry but also to many other modern industries .

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1.2 CLASSIFrCATION OF VOLTAGE LEVELS' mediate value. Hence this is one reason for the apparent confusion in Table 1.1.
Another reason possibly stems from an economic viewpoint since equipment c<"
The International Electrotechnical Commission (lEe, 1970) has defined a high
manufacturers could have a vested interest in designing their products for rated
voltage as being greater than 1000 V when it is alternating, and greater than 1200 V
voltages nominally different from their foreign competitors. Only two frequencies
when it is direct. For the purposes of discussion in this book a high voltage is
are mentioned in Table 1.1. The incentive for countries, large or small, to standardize
considered to be greater than' 10 000 V. However, even this assessment needs
on frequency is obvious. Otherwise, expensive frequency conversion equipment
modification. The voltages used in the transmission of electrical power are now in
would be needed for interconnected power systems.
excess of 700 kV and it ~ common practice to divide this wide span of voltage into
several classes. Table I. Llists the classes and some of the more common three-phase
alternating voltages in each range. In a book of this type it is not feasible to deal in
detail with topics which are specific to only one voltage range. Instead, we shall Distance
1000
discuss the general principles of the whole area of high-voltage technology. References
in the book offer a source for further specialized reading.
i km
600
1.00
It would appear from Table 1.1 that the international voltage position is a little
confused. However, several interesting points emerge from an examination of
200
the data. The variation in standard levels amongst countries arises from their different
operating limits. Every national transmission system has a minimum and maximum
1~
voltage with, usually, a permissible difference of about' 20% between these extremes. 60
The nominal voltage for each system can be either of the extremes or some inter-
La

Table 1.1 Some European and American standard operating 20

voltages. Other countries, e.g. Australia, Canada and Japan,
use similar standards 101 i', I'll \ i , ,
n 20 40 60 100 200 1.00 MW lCXll
Normal line voltage
~Power
Europe USA Figure 1.1 Economic HVAC transmission voltage
Voltage class (50 Hz) (60 Hz) as a function of power level and distance (after
Ehmcke, 1981)
Low (LV) 220/240 120 (Single phase)
380/415 208
650 600
1000 An observant student will have noticed that the voltage levels in Table 1.1 jump
kV kV by a factor of about two at each change. There are no theoretical reasons for this'
Medium (MHV) 2.4 type of multiplication but there are several practical and economic reasons which
5 6.9 probably contributed to this step-wise behaviour. Firstly, based on their knowledge
II 12.47
22 23 and experience, design engineers felt reasonably safe in doubling existing voltage
33 34.5 levels. Secondly, during the first 50-60 years of this century the consumption of
66 69.0 electricity in industrialized countries, on the average, doubled abou t every 10 years.
High (Hy) 110 115 Meeting this demand created an incentive to transmit electric power at progressively
132 138 higher voltages. The economic reasons for high-voltage transmission are fairly
156 161
220 230 obvious (Jones, 1972). For a given power a higher voltage requires smaller current
Extra High (EI'IV) 275 287
and, therefore, smaller conductor cross-sectional area and lower conductor costs.
380 345 Moreover, the varia ble or current-dependent copper losses (commonly called the
400 500 /2R losses) are reduced. Since the cost of these losses can amount to about 3-4%
800 (USSR) 765
of the total cost or the energy delivered, any saving in them can be worthwhile.
UIIV 1000 -. J 600
Figure 1.1 dearly shows that higher transmission voltages for a.c. become economic- t.
under consideration
ally viable as both the voltage and power levels are increased.
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1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE (SCR), or thyristor. The high reliability of these solid-state converters, along with
~M other technical and economic advantages shown in Figure 1.3, makes d.c. transmission
The phenomenal growth in the consumption of electricity can be gauged by
preferable to a.c. transmission in certain circumstances.
examining the historical development of alternating voltage-alternating current (a.c.)
transmission systems. TIle trend to higher voltages is shown in Figure 1.2. Around
the year 1910 voltages up to 100 kV were used and from about 1920 several
Economic odvantoges Methods of transmission
higher-voltage systems were developed in various parts of the world. Powers of Technical prooertles

50 MW or so were transmitted over distances of approximately 50 km. During the

No transmission distance No otl1er,••dYllCal solution
period from 1930 to 19~O many hydro-electric schemes were constructed through- limit, no stability problems possibl ••
out the world which could deliver 250 MW for 400 km at voltages between 200 kV ~
and 300 kV. In 1954 a voltage of 380 kV was adopted as an international standard
No reoctlv••po•••••r problems ~ Low transmission CDStS
and during the 1960s powers up to 1000 MW were transmitted over long distances in the transmission system
of 1000 krn, first at a voltage of 550 kV and then at 765 kV or 800 kV. The Coble transmission

ultra-high transmission voltages under consideration now are in excess of 1000 kV, Ind"p •••.•
d••nt at th" Savings in the AC system
Ir"Qu"nci"s 01 the J,------i and reserve copcoty, by- ~~
with predicted power capacities of 10000 MW. Experimental sections for voltages passinq 01 voltoge I"vels
AC systems
up to 1600 kV are already in operation (Busch and Stamer, 1978; Lloyd and
Zaffanella, 1981; Retallack and Bourdon, 1981). Hlgh-sp""d controt ImPf(UI!",,,,,tat pertormance
Intercomected system
ind"p"nd"nt 01 system ~ 01 AC system, b"",,r ooerctlon
Some of the earliest electricity supply systems used constant voltage, direct conditions utilization 01 tl1eACsystem
current (d.c.) for the transmission and distribution of electric power. With the []--O-[]
advent of the transformer, however, these d.c. systems were quickly replaced by No contribution to AC Load flaw control, bl>tter
short circuit power utilIZatIOn 01 the ACsystem
a.c. systems where transmission at much higher voltages was economically more
attractive. Nevertheless, in recent years high-voltage direct current (HVDe) trans-
mission is regaining some of its earlier popularity. This greater use of d.c. is because
switching devices, or valves, have been developed which make it easier to convert
from a.c. to d.c. or to invert from d.c. to a.c. The early valves were mercury-arc
Simple arranqement 01 the
transmissionline and cables
I ~I Smcil right 01 way wldtl1s,
r--I l!nvlronmentol advanta9"S 1~1
Figure 1.3 Technical properties, economic advantages and methods of transmission for
rectifiers but they have been superseded by the solid-state silicon controlled rectifier HYDC (after Povh, 1981)

The d.c. line is not without its disadvantages, however. Unlike a.c. systems it is
1600 I I I I I I I I I I I difficult to tap off power at points along a line so that doc. lines usually run direct
kV
from generating source to load centre. Furthermore, although the line costs are
1'00
lower (two wires instead of three for an a.c. system), the station costs for d.c. are
/
1200 Increasing / higher than for a.c. transmission because the conversion equipment is complicated
at about / and expensive. As a result, there is a critical distance at which d.c. transmission is
1000 3·/. per /
year / more economical than a.c. - advances in the power ratings of thyristors and the
/
600 735 kV / development of d.c. switchgear has reduced this distance to between 500 km and
800 km (Povh, 1981).
600 The first major d.c. system was installed in 1954 when a 96 km submarine cable
was laid between Sweden and the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. The single-
400
conductor cable delivered 20 MW at 100 kV. However, th.ese large currents through
the ground or sea could cause serious electrolytic corrosion to underground pipes
200~
and interference with communications circuits etc., so that most modern d.c. lines
O~I I I I
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are bipolar. The common ground electrode carries any unbalanced current between
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1960 1990 2000
the lines and, under normal operating conditions, this current is small, Moreover,
~Yeor
Figure Lz Development of transmission voltages in a.c. power systems transmission towers can easily accommodate two lines, thereby doubling the
~I (after Ehmcke. 1981) power; if one line fails, the other can carry half the load.
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Figure 1.4 A 220 kV electricity supply system. Transmission volt-
ages higher than 220 kV are connected to the system from other
generating stations
Some large overhead bipolar installations include: (I) the Pacific Intertie (1970)
between Oregon and California in the USA which operates at ±400 kV and delivers
1440 MW over 1370 km; (2) the Nelson River (1973, 1976) project in Canada
which has two bipolar lines operating at ±450 kV with each line carrying 1620 MW;
and the Cahora Bassa (1975-1979) system in Africa which transmits 1920 MW at
± 533 kV over 1400 km (see Kline et al., 1974, for a description of this system).
For long overhead, or submarine, routes, for reinforcement of urban power networks
and as asynchronous links between a.c. lines, d.c. lines will continue to offer an
important alternative to a.c. systems.
1.4 ELECTRICITY SUPPLY NETWORK
The separation of voltage levels into distinct classes as in Table 1.1 can be associated
with the general layout of an electricity supply system. A simple line diagram for
a typical system is shown in Figure 1.4. Modern power supply networks are usually
very complex. with many generating stations, a variety of transmitting voltages and
alarge number of interconnection and distribution points. At a generating station
'"
a prime mover supplies mechanical energy which is converted to electrical energy
by a synchronous generator at a medium voltage in the region of 15 kV. For the ,,'"
purposes of transmission, a transformer is used to step-up this voltage to a high, or
extra high, level. The demarcation line between 'HV' and 'EHV' is set at about
'"
300 kV. Up to this level the insulation of the transmission system is determined
largely by lightning overvoltages but above 300 kV switching surges dictate the
insulation requirements (see Section 1.6). The choice of an optimum transmission
voltage is strongly influenced by the power to be delivered and the distance to be
covered. Long lines (from 100 km to 1500 km) transferring large blocks of power
generally operate at EHV levels because they combine a minimum of lines with
minimal losses. Short lines are normally sited in, or near, large urban areas and can
operate at HV or EHV levels. In these cases the emphasis is more on high current
ratings in an effort to keep the cost of switching and transforming stations within
acceptable limits. A classic paper was given by Booth et al. (1962) detailing the
reasons for extending the existing 275 kV network in Great Britain to 400 kV.
The transmission system in Figure 1.4 uses switching stations to interconnect
the various generating stations and to direct electric power to load centres such as
cities, towns and large industries. At these centres the voltage is stepped down
(usually to a medium value of 38 kV or 66 kV) and power is delivered into the
distribution system (Figure 1.4). Transformer substations in the distribution
system further reduce the voltage to 10 kV to supply power to localized networks.
These networks have other substations where the voltage is again stepped down to
the normal low voltage (LV) of 380/220 V for supply to consumers in the immediate
neighbourhood. In passing, it is worth noting that the consequences of electric shock
to the domestic consumer are far more serious, and often fatal, at the European
"
level of 220-240 V compared with the much lower, safer, American standard of
120 V. Electric power systems are treated thoroughly in the book by Weedy (1979).
1.5 COMPONENTS OF A HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEM
The nature and operation of apparatus in a high-voltage system will be discussed in
detail in Chapter 8. For newcomers to the study of high-voltage technology, however,
we feel that a description of some of the more important items of this equipment
would be helpful at this stage. Figure 1.5 shows a possible connection arrangement
between synchronous generators, power transformers, switchgear and transmission
lines. Only the main components are indicated in Figure 1.5; control and instru-
mentation equipment such as current and voltage transformers, relays etc. are
omitted, as well as cables and shunt, and series, inductors.
1.5.1 Synchronous generators
,.,
In the decade 1970-1980 the development of nuclear power plants with capacities
between I GW and 2.5 GW necessitated a corresponding development in the ratings
of steam-tu rhine driven round rotor generators (synchronous generators), represented ..•
by the letter A in Figure 1.5. Single units with capacities greater than 1000 MVA
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k VA/tm'tr/min I
.. L.V.bars
C.B.
H.V.bars 50I
Cu . +_ .•
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T,
40
~ I
I L.A. L.A.
30
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+
I ! 20
I I
I -= -4'-1
I 10 .+
I Figure 1.6 Coefficient of utilization as a function of
I 0' I , ! I alternator power (courtesy of ACEC, Belgium)
I o 500 1000 1500
! MVA
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I
I
I This gives some idea of the magnitude of transformer capacity in service throughout
GEN ERA TlNG I ':' -e- TRANS!o!ISSION
STATION I NETWORK the industrial nations of the world and of the importance and vital role of trans-
Figure 1.5 Components of a high-voltage network: A, turbo-synchronous-generator; formers in the electricity supply industry.
CB, circuit breaker; T, transformer; LA, lightning arrester; IS, isolating switch; LT, line The power transformer is designated by the letter T in Figure 1.5. A transformer
trap for communications signals; TL, transmission line is required at any point where there isa change of voltage; modern units have
voltage, current and power ratings exceeding 700 kV, 20 kA and 1 GW, respectively.
Two basic types are used in high-voltage systems: generator transformers which
are now being installed, the largest being the 1.5 GW turbo-alternator manufactured
transfer the synchronous generator output power, at a suitably high voltage, to
by Kraftwerk Union for use in the nuclear station at Biblis in West Germany. These
overhead lines, and substation transformers which couple together sections of
huge synchronous machines are three-phase, four-pole generators with working
transmission network operating at different voltages. Because there are no moving
voltages usually between 15 kV and 24 kV. Through improvements in stator and
parts in a transformer, transfer efficiencies approaching 100% are achieved.
rotor design and by using intense cooling methods engineers have increased, by a
Many texts have been written about transformers and students will be fully
factor of almost three, the performance of synchronous generators without a
acquainted with the basic principles of their operation and equivalent circuits etc.
corresponding increase in their physical dimensions. This gain in power output per
Here we shall only mention some facts which are a feature of power transformers
kilogram mass of machine is of vital importance because of the limitation in size
and which are generally omitted from the less specialized texts on the subject.
and weight of plant which can be transferred by road or rail from the manufacturer
Almost always the windings of this type of transformer are connected in delta on
to the generating station. The effect of cooling on machine rating is indicated in
the low-voltage (LV) side and in star on the high-voltage (HV) side. This connection
Figure 1.6, which shows the coefficient of utilization ell plotted as a function of
of the HV winding permits a tap changer, if one is fitted, to be at relatively low
power. e
u is a measure of the torque developed per unit volume of rotor and, as
voltage and electrically adjacent to the neutral point which is usually directly
e
such, is an index of performance for a machine. Level I for u in Figure 1.6 corres-
earthed. Tapping ranges are chosen to allow variation of the full-load voltage
ponds to machines with indirect stator- and semidirect rotor-cooling by hydrogen
within desired limits. The choice of winding arrangement on the core depends on
gas at a low pressure of 3 bars. The second level refers to machines with direct
the reactance required. One set-up is the so-called double concentric winding,
cooling of both stator and rotor by hydrogen at a higher pressure of 5 bars. The
where the HV winding is in two parts, an inner and an outer, with the LV winding
machine of 1330 MVA rating at Level III in Figure 1.6 has direct rotor cooling by
between. However, care is needed to provide adequate insulation between the
hydrogen at 6.5 bars and stator cooling by water which is pumped through the
various parts of the windings. For large-output power transformers manufacturers
centre of the conductors. A view of a 1330 MV A turbo-synchronous generator is
shown in Figure 1.7. have now, generally, adopted the shell-type winding because it lends itself more
easily to mass-production techniques, has reduced overall dimensions and is readily
] .5.2 Transformers dismantled for repairs.
As with synchronous generators, transport difficulties tend to limit the size of
In 1980 the installed generator capacity in Europe was approximately 800 GW. The generator transformers. though a three-phase 400 kV, 600 MVA unit, weighing
associated installed transformer capacity is almost seven times the generator capacity. approximately 2.3 x I OS kg without oil, has been moved in the United Kingdom.
,.,
~
 ~l.."W'"

10
11
-- :--, However, it is more common to use three identical single-phase transformers
mechanically and electrically coupled together on site to form a three-phase bank. «'"
In the event of a failure this arrangement allows a significant reduction in outage
time Of the bank since one damaged unit can be quickly replaced by a spare.
;~.J The continuous loading of power transformers requires cooling by natural or
forced circulation of oil through an oil-air, or oil-water, heat exchanger. Manufac-
turers indicate each cooling method by four letters: the first two letters for the oil
and the last two for the external cooling medium, that is, air or water. Table 1.2 lists
the cooling methods used for transformers in the order of increased rating. For large
units either OFAF or OFWF is used, the latter method having the advantage that it
needs a smaller heat exchanger and cooling water is generally available at power
stations. Cooling methods per se have not been responsible for the growth. in

Table 1.2 Cooling methods for transformers

ONAN natural oil cooling (ON)

natural air cooling (AN)

ONAF natural oil cooling (ON)

forced air cooling (AF)

OFAF forced oil cooling (OF)

forced air cooling (AF)

OFWF forced oil cooling (OF)

forced water cooling (Wf)

output from transformers. Figure 1.8 shows that, for constant physical size, the
rating of a transformer grew tenfold between 1940 and 1970_ Better electrical
design contributed to this growth but Figure 1.8 also shows that it was due largely
to the remarkable improvement in the quality of the silicon steel used for the core
laminations. The various parts of a large power transformer are illustrated in Figure
..;,i1= 1.9(a) and (b).
If.t..~;;~/
~ Transmission transformers to interconnect n~two_rks at different voltages may be
!il ~ I' auto- or two-winding transformers. The choice of unit is determined by a compro-
mise between electric and economic factors. Because of its smaller cost and power
losses an auto-transformer can be used when the networks are in phase, their
neutrals solidly earthed, and the transformation ratio is less than about 3 to L For
example, in Great Britain the 400 kV and '275 kV networks have been coupled with
auto-transformers of 1000 MVA throughput rating and it has been economical to
use smaller units to join the 400 kV and 132 kV systems. A recent hook, edited by \.

Feinberg (1979), contains an excellent account of modern power transformer

practice and design.

15.3 Circuit breakers

Fii!tJH'I.7 ..\ IJJO ~I\,:\ lt1rhn·"ynl·I!rlllldll\-gl'IIL'r:t!or: LI) \l:lllIr. (h) rotor. IRL'prl)dlll:~d by Fuses, overload relays, current transformers and circuit breakers (en ill Figllre 1.5, ••
1"'1111
;";011 ,,( .\l 'FC. fll'I~;IIIl1) pa!!,l! Xl arc the main itL'IIIS Ill' switchgear which arc used fill' the IlVl!IClII r~1I1
 123F
12 13
1'6, , , , i I I I
'" ;'\t"'
, .I

H
01
x
,. ~ 1·2
~
~
<,
1·0 1000
VI!

P' 0.6
; 600

~ 0·6 600
VI
VI
<
a >
....J 0., TRANSFORMER / 400:2:
UJ
IX
MVA I
a for ,~
u 0.2 oonstant size I 200
I
,,/
o I , , , , , I 10
191020 30 IIJ 50 60 70
YEAR
Figure 1. 8 Growth in transformer
MVA for constant size during 1940-
1968 (dashed line). Also shown is
the improvement in the quality of
silicon steel, measured in core loss at
15 kgauss (1.5 'n, 1910-1968 (solid
line). (From Jacobs, I. S. (1969).
1. Appl. Phys., 40, 922. Reproduoed
by permission of the American
Institute of Physics)

protection of electric circuits. The, simplest and oldest protective device is the fuse
consisting of a wire link of such a cross-section that it melts before an excessive
cu rrent can damage the circuit. However, fuses are cheap devices which are only
used to protect less important circuits. The overload relay provides protection in
the sense that its operation is a switching action which triggers a much larger
device, the circuit breaker.
A circuit breaker is a mechanical device which can open and reclose a circuit
under normal, or fault, conditions. Basically it is a switch which can interrupt the
highest short-circuit fault currents on a system and it must do this without being
damaged by the arcing which inevitably occurs when its contacts separate. Circuit
breakers are designated according to the medium in which the arc is quenched. It
may be a stream of air (air-blast breakers), the gas sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), oil
(OCB) or vacuum. Nuclear power stations with output ratings of 1.5 GVA require
switchgear which can cope with short-circuit fault currents as high as 80 kA to
100 kA. Figure 1.1 0 shows a row of single-pressure (puffer) SF6 breakers in a
420 kV substation.
The central problem with circuit breakers is that they must break a fault rapidly
Figure 1.9 (a) Core, windings and cleat bars of a 675 MVA, 380 kV/22 k V, ]·phase generator
and only isolate that section of a circuit which is faulty. Fault conditions, which transformer; (b) a view of the transformer in the high-voltage test area. showing the air blast
may be sustained or temporary, can arise in several ways: coolers. (Reproduced by perm ission of GEe Power Transformers, England)
,..,
('04
 14
Figure 1.10 SF. single-pressure circuit breakers in a 420 kV substation. (Photograph
of Siemens AG)
(I) from internal short-circuits which can occur on synchronous generators and
transformers through deterioration of insulation,
(2) through faulty synchronizing of systems which are 1800 out of phase,
(3) from voltage surges on equipment due to switching operations on the system
(Section 1.6),
(4) by natural hazards such as lightning (Section 1.6) or trees falling on trans-
mission lines causing line-to-ground faults, or by ice loading and wind movement
causing lines to swing together for a line-to-line fault,
(5) from damage to cables and transmission lines by workmen using excavators etc.
To sense whether a fault is temporary or persistent the overload relay holds the
breaker open for a preset period to allow the fault to clear if it is an arcing fault
before reclosing and reconnecting the circuit. Modern auto-reclosing circuit breakers
15
are set to clear a fault within about 20-40 ms, that is one or two cycles of a 50 Hz
wave. The problems of interrupting currents in high-voltage networks have been «:
discussed recently (Ragaller, 1980) while a more complete description of switchgear
operation is given in Chapter 8.
~
1.5.4 Lightning arresters (surge diverters)
Lightning arresters, or surge diverters, are indicated by the letters LA in Figure 1.5.
While a circuit breaker provides protection against abnormally high currents, an
arrester guards equipment against excessively high surge voltages which can be
impressed on transmission lines by direct (or even near miss) lightning strokes or
by switching operations (Subsection 1.6.5). These voltage surges can cause tlashover
across insulators on lines and insulation failure in transformers and generators.
Moreover, an arrester has the capacity to discharge the high currerit impulses which
accompany overvoltages. A rated discharge capacity of 10 kA is recommended for
EHV installations.
In principle, a lightning arrester is a switch which closes momentarily (for about
10 ms) on an overvoltage. In this way it connects the line conductor to ground,
thereby diverting the surge safely away from equipment. In reality, however, a
reliable HV or EHV arrester is a sophisticated and therefore expensive piece of
apparatus. A section through a modern arrester is shown in Figure 1.11(a), while
~
a schematic diagram of the unit is given in Figure 1.11 (b). The most important
part is the active column. It consists of several short spark gaps of low current-
interrupting capacity, in series with discs of nonlinear resistors which are usually
made of silicon carbide. These resistors offer low resistance to high currents and
high resistance t;"low currents. The number of gaps and discs, and thus the height
of the active column, depends on the desired rated voltage. Modern EHV units may
contain 10-20 gaps in series, the voltage distribution across each gap, under normal
duty, being carefully graded by shunt resistors and capacitors. An arrester which
courtesy uses a zinc oxide ceramic as the nonlinear resistor material is under active develop-
ment (Menth et al., 1980).
When the surge voltage across an arrester exceeds a certain level the spark gaps
break down, thus connecting the high-voltage line to ground. The silicon carbide
resistors limit the 50 Hz current (known as the power follow-througb current
drawn from the line to between about 100 A and 100000o that the shortg;ps
can interrupt it at its next current zero. Some modern arresters have active gaps
where the arc is extinguished even more quickly by being increased in length and
blown-out through interaction with a permanent magnetic field. The response of
an arrester to an impulse voltage is shown in Figure 1.12. The gaps spark over at
Vs, simultaneously discharging the surge to ground through the discs and developing
the residual voltage Vr across the arrester. When the impulse ceases, the voltage
reverts to the normal power-frequency line voltage.
The voltage rating of a lightning arrester, or surge diverter, is the power-frequency
voltage against which the arrester, after sparkover of the gaps, will reseal and cease
conducting. To accommodate power-frequency overvoltages its rated voltage is
,J £ll
 123F

16 ·17

..
3/~:1R-~!~6
·7
~- 6
~)l
somewhat higher than the nominal line-to-earth Lm.S. voltage of the network. For
EIIV networks, for example, a value of 1.4 per unit (p.u.) may be desired and as
this level is 1.4/0 == 0.8 times the system voltage, the arrester is described as an
80% arrester.

I Rod gaps These are a simple, cheap form of surge diverter and can therefore be
used in large numbers. An air gap between two rods is set to a spacing which will
,;: I flashover in the event of an unacceptable surge voltage. Usually the spacing is set to
break down at a level not less than 30% below the impulse voltage withstand level
~ of the protected apparatus (see Section 1.6). Typical curves of breakdown voltage
i
against time to breakdown for rods at different spacings are shown in Figure 1.13.
la)

1 Non linear ser~s resisto r 5 Grading resistor,

,\
grading Capacitor \
2 Insulating part \
6 Insulating body ;;;1500[1
3 Flange with
gas flow dlverter 7 Blow-out coil and V V
OIL.
I'
by-puss o U
4 Rupture diaphragm
8 Series gap ~>
~ ~ 1000
V VI 50"11270mm)
VI ::t
Line -0
u» 5.~
L \ ~2mm)
E~
g
500
X--series
gaps ~
non-)jnea~ ~1254mm)
resistor

Fizure 1.11 (a) A section through a modem o 5 10

arrester unit, and (b) a schematic diagram Breakdown time
(,uS)
Fig. 1.13 Breakdown characteristics of rod gaps

Generally both parameters in Figure 1.13 are l~~ositive ~ for negative &::
impulses. Unfortunately, as a main protective device, a rod gap has several limita-

l
iliJns.<)nce it arcs over it cannot clear itself but will appear as a short circuit
I \
I
1
\ .
I I between the line and ground which is sustained by the 50 Hz line voltage. A circuit
breaker must operate to remove the fault. Another disadvantage is that, at failure,
I \
I rod gaps chop the surge voltage to zero in a very short time of about 100 ns. This
i
4>
I
I
I
\
\

\
extremely rapid decay of voltage creates severe stresses which can damage the
C>
I insulation of the apparatus under protection (Subsection 6.4.2). An improvement
+
2 \ Figure 1.12 Response of a light.ning arrester to an impulse
g .(
4
,
\

1'. protect ive' voltage, showing its protective qualities: on the rod gap, without much extra expense, is the expulsion tube gap which uses
r. \ mar~in./ 1 impulse without arrester, a fibrous tube to extinguish the arc.
!- 5~ 2 arrester sparkover voltage I'~,
tr2 '3
---. :--7,\ , 3 arrester residual voltage Vr'
4 impt . e withstand level of substation equipment,
1'\ 5 protection level (see Section 1.7). 1.5.5 Shielding of transmission lines
- t-6
I
i
r-, 6
7
peak value of the system voltage,
impulse with arrester We have just described devices for protecting equipment from excessive over-
10 2'J Xl voltages. A discussion of the magnitude of these surges is deferred until Subsection
Time in IJS-+
1.6.3. If a lightning stroke could be blocked from directly hitting a transmission
.r<)
N
 -···
-.;.to ~

18
line then it follows that equipment which is connected to that line would be
automatically screened from the lightning also. By the use of an overhead earth
(ground) wire above the line conductors these can be shielded from direct lightning
strokes and the effects of induced surges from indirect strokes reduced. The lightning
is intercepted by the earth wire and drained off to ground. TIle earth wire is con-
nected to ground at regular intervals along its length and it is accepted practice to
shield HV and EHV ;s!ystems in regions where there is a high incidence of lightning.
fl Where the frequency of lightning is low, the risk of a temporary interruption in
supply is small, and, to protect a substation from overvoitages (Subsection 1.6.4),
it may only be necessary to run an earth wire above the last kilometre of transmission
line b~h~ ef!..!~Jhe subs~n. It is unusual to shield distribution lines as
this would be very expensive. .
For efficient shielding it is important that the ground wire be located at an
adequate distance above the conductors, giving a shielding cone whose apex is twice
the angle 8 shown in Figure 1.14. There are various opinions about the optimum
value of the shielding angle 8 but, in general, a figure of 30°-45° predominates for
lines with one earth wire. Figure 1.14 clearly demonstrates the influence on the
'Standard Tripout Rate' (STR) of shielding angle, tower height and the geometrical
arrangement of conductors. The STR is defined as the number of power outages
caused by lightning per 100 km per year. A virtual immunity to lightning can be
achieved if two earth wires are fitted (Figure 1.14), but the improved reliability
50
- Positive exposure
1 '.
19 •
must be balanced against the extra cost of the second earth wire. Depending 011 the
height of an object above the earth, an angle of 30° provides good shielding with an
.•..
exposure of only 0.1 %, that is, of 1000 strokes to the shield or shielded object 999
terminate on the earth wire and only one on the line (Beck, 195-l).
The existing literature on the protection of transmission systems against lightning
is extensive and further references may be found in the excellent book by Lewis
(1965) and in a Committee report of the AlEE (1950). The safeguarding of tall
buildings, important monuments etc. from lightning is discussed fully in the books
by Marshall (1973) and Golde (1973).
1.5.6 Overhead lines
The transmission of electric power from the source of supply to the place where it
is to be utilized is accomplished by overhead lines and underground cables (Sub-
section 1.5.7). Figure l.l 5 shows a portion of a double-circuit 400 kV three-phase
transmission line in Great Britain which has been refitted with new conductors. The
lines are supported between steel towers at a basic span of approximately 400 m.
Each phase of the left-hand circuit has twin (a bundle of two) conductors which are
each made of a central core of seven steel strands for increased tensile strength,
surrounded by 54 stranded aluminium wires, as shown in cross-section in Figure
1.16. All conductors are bare for easy dissipation of heat to the surrounding air.
Traditionally, overhead lines have been constructed using steel-reinforced aluminium
conductor (a.c.s.r.). Smaller, so-called quad (a bundle of four), conductors were
used on earlier sections of the 400 kV network in Great Britain. Recently, because
arcs

, . -rn- of mechanical considerations and the increased cost of steel, an all-aluminium-alloy

Negative exposure arcs ,
,
.
1.0l \ 31" 1.0
'-'r-H'f" conductor (a.a.a.c.) has been used for the new twin bundle in the right-hand circuit
'I
r(/ ..
..• 'f'"
of Figure 1.15. Flexible metallic spacers are evenly distributed along the spans to
- 30l ,
\
/. il

30 hold the twin, or quad, conductors together as shown in Figure 1.17. Bundled
E
~
• 1 . • '-11/
I 5' II "11-/ 11.· conductors reduce corona loss and radio interference (Su bsection 2.3.1), allow
stranded conductors to be employed and increase the current-carrying capacity
01
.ij
20l. • Ii', • ~:20
I
• • ~ • • I~ •• compared with a single conductor of equivalent cross-sectional area. Basic dimensions
for the conductors used over a range of voltages aie included in Table 1.3 while
10l

oI

SIR=
50 50

5·70 SJ.R.= 3·70 S.TR=0·21.

Tso 50 1-
SJ.R. =0 19 S.TR.=0·09
0
o

oI
Table 1.4 shows that a particular choice for the system of conductors has an
important influence on the total cost of an overhead line. The various factors
influencing the choice of conductors have been treated thoroughly in a recent
G.G.RE. 32 C.i.G.R.E.31 C.i.G.R.E.30 C.I.G.RE. 39 CI.G.R.E.1.0
paper (Ash et al., 1979).
The overhead earthed shielding wire is located at the top of the tower as shown
Figure 1.1" Standard tripout rates (STR) for different types of in Figure 1.15. The line conductors are insulated from the earthed tower by porcelain,
tower construction with one or two shield wires. (From Berger, K.
or toughened glass, insulators. A simple, economic and efficient method for support-
(1980). In K. Ragaller (Ed.), Surges in 1I. V. Networks. Plenum. New
York. Reproduced by permission of Plenum Publishing Corporation.) ing conductors at voltages up to 33 kV is provided by the pin-type insulators shown
The figures refer to a ClGRE (Paris) study of five IIV and EHV lines in Figure 1.18. TIle leakage path between conductor and earth is increased by the
which arc identified by the following. Line 32: 345 kV double-
insulator sheds, or petticoats, which are shaped to conform as closely as possible to
circuit ver tical conductor arrangement with one shield wire. Line
31: 3"5 kV double-circuit vcr ucal conductor arrangement with IWO the equipoteutial surfaces between the live and earthed metal parts or the system.
shield wires. Lines 30, 39. "0: 230 kV. H5 kV and 220 kV, respec- For lines above 33 kV suspension, or cap and pin, insulators are used. These arc single
tively; single-circuit horizontal conductor arrangement with two
discs oi" porcelain Dr glass. as shown ill Figure 1.19. which can be easily assembled
shield wires
:J C zI
 123 F

20 , 21

ii,
;~~
,. ~
I':
.. :

I)'
J
I
,i '~~)"'"
.1 Figure 1.16 Aluminium conductor steel-reinforced
3DAlI7S1 (a.c.s.r) cross-section (30 A1/7 51.)

/I~~~~~::r

"

j.
~
-.. .:
,;.;....-

~
. - ;'j ..-
• I
;

Figure 1.17 Flexible spacers for quad

and twin conductors, showing the
method of attachment

We have deliberately omitted any consideration of the electrical parameters of

Figure L 15 400 kV double-circuit three-phase transmission line in Great Britain.
Gibbon. R. (1980). Electronics and Power, March 1980. Reproduced by permission
author)
into a string of interlocking units. The overall length of a string is determined by
the line voltage and the conductors are clamped at the bottom of the string which
in turn is suspended from the tower. Insulators are a vital, yet vulnerable, link in a
transmission network. Because of deposits on them due to rain. dirt, salt from the
sea etc. they are prone to surface flashover (Subsection 2.5.2). Consequently,
lines such as equivalent circuits or power, voltage, current and impedance ratings.
(From Extensive treatments of these topics can be found in the numerous texts on electric
of the power systems and in the reference book of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation
(1964). The mechanical design, construction and maintenance of overhead lines is
covered thoroughly by McCornbe and Haigh (1966).
1.5.7 Cables
The bulk (about 99%) of electrical power is transmitted by overhead lines because
at HV and EHV levels they are at least an order of magnitude cheaper than under-

,.., o atmospheric pollution is an essential design factor in the insulation of overhead

lines.
ground cables. At the time of writing the world's longest 400 kV underground city
cable is being installed to augment London's electricity supply (Electrical Review,

N
1
22
:23
Table 1.3 Typical conductors for a range of line voltages. (From Ash,
D. D., et al. (1979). Proc. fEE, 126, 333-341. Reproduced by permission ",..
of the Institution of Electrical Engineers)

Conductors E
E
o
Number per GO
N
bundle and
Line vel tage .: nominal area
(kV) Diameter
I Material (rnrn ') (mm) Figure 1.18 A typical porcelain pin-type insulator

a.c. lines
Low voltage Al 25-100
11-13 7.2-13.2
a.c.s.r. 25-200 7.08-19.3
220 a.c.s.r. 2 X 300 25.97
275 a.c.s.r.
2 X 400 28.6 ~
2 X 175 o
19.6 ~
2 X400 28.6
330 a.c.s.r. 2 X 350 26.73
400 a.c.s.r. 4 X 400 28.6
alloy 2 X 800 37.26 Figure 1.19 A typical glass cap and pin insulator
500 a.c.s.r. 2 X 800 40.70
4 X 445 29.52
735 a.c.s.r. 4 X 689
765
35 1981). Part of the route for this cable is along the towpath of a canal. The trenching
a.c.s.r. 4 X 765 38
1100 a.c.s.r. 6 X 765
arrangement for the cable and associated water-cooling system is shown in Figure
38
1500 a.c.s.r. 12 X 765 1.20. Quite apart from the cost of the cable, when we include the extra costs of
38
digging a trench, laying and jointing the cable, providing adequate cooling, back-
d.c. lines
filling the trench, and all other related activities, one can appreciate why the
± 250 a.c.s.r. 2 X 930 38.43 installation of overhead lines is so much cheaper than cables.
±375 a.c.s.r. 2 X 1165 45.7
±450 a.c.s.r. 2 X 933 Nevertheless, despite their high costs, cable systems are becoming much more
43.2
numerous and, in the future, a greater percentage of transmission will occur under-
ground. Among the reasons for this trend are:

Table 1.4 Breakdown of typical overhead line construction costs. (From Ash, D. D.,
(1) at the EHV and UHV levels in the future it will be more difficult to obtain
et al. (1979). Proc. fEE, 126,333-341. Reproduced by permission of the Institution of adequate rights-of-way in densely populated urban areas for the erection of
Electrical Engineers) overhead lines,
Percentage cost of line components (2) cables provide ready, hidden, access to substations in these areas, whereas
- overhead lines would be unsightly,
Insulators,
fittings, 1·275 m
Conductors Supports foundations,
Type of line (%) (%) and erection
cement- I "'-.,
l.v. wood pole 23 22 55
bound ..,
•. ,....,.
"...,
.-.
'i"' .1
11 kV single-circuit wood pole 22 sand
20 58
33 k V single-circuit wood pole 22 23 55
132 kV double-circuit steel-tower 20 38 42
single-zebra a.c.s.r. (400 mm ')
conductors per phase
275 kV double-circuit steel-tower 21 concrete
35 44
twin-lynx a.c.s.r. (175 nun') Figure 1.20 Arrangement of the cables and pipes
conductor per phase in the canal towpath. (From Elec. Review, 209,
400 kV double-circuit steel-tower 24 29 47 No.1). 33-34, 1981. Reproduced by permission
quad-zebra a.e.s.r. (400 mm') of CEGIJ.) • Auxiliary alarm and control cables;
conductors per phase W, water cooling pipes (8:9 em diameter); C. 400
k V cables (1).8 em diameter)
 1231'
25
24

(3) underground circuits are especially suited to long river crossings, and they
eliminate dangerous aerial crossings in the vicinity of airports,
(4) as electricity consumption continues to grow there will be increased pressure
from the public to install underground the large capacity transmission lines
that will be required to deliver the huge quantities of power to the principal
service areas.
During the last 30 years there have been major improvements in all sections of cable
technology. Voltage-levels have been extended from 132 kV to 525 kV and currents
have risen from 600 A to 4000 A. Circuit ratings with one cable per phase have
grown fifteen-fold from 200 MVA to 3000 MVA, whilst conductor sizes have
increased from 400 mm 2 to 2700 mm 2. Conductors are sized by their cross-sectional
a-reas, which in Europe are quoted in mm? but in America are given in circular mils
(eM) or in thousands of circular mils (MCM). One circular mil is defined as the area
of a circle of diameter 10-3 inch. Thus a 1000 MCM stranded a.c.s.r. conductor has
a nominal diameter of one inch since stranding prevents a perfect circular cross-
section from being obtained. To convert rnrn? to CM we need to multiply by 1970.
/7 ~-----------------

Cable materials (0) ( b)

The electrical design, construction and performance of cables will be considered in

Chapter 8 but here we show in Figure 1.21 several of the many types of oil-filled
cables now in use. Copper or aluminium is the conductor in acable and the insulating t~.;" ::':) .. ~
material is either an oil-paper combination, a plastic (polymer), a rubber or a gas.
In the cable industry the foremost position for reliability and power-handling ..t~
";;
.:~,
'::"
capacity is occupied by the xiil-filled cable, consisting of a conductor insulated ;":;-
with paper tape which is then impregnated with a very fluid oil. For some cables
the oil is replaced by a gas such as nitrogen or SF 6 under pressure, Basic data are
given in Table 1.5 for a 27 5 kV pipe-type oil-filled cable which was installed in
Tokyo (Tsumoto, 1973).
There is a variety of polymers that might be suitable as dielectrics for power

\ cables (Gibbons and Stannet, 1975) but generally the most popular plastic has
been cross-linked polyethylene (Eichhorn, 1981). With plastics there is a choice
between extruding the polymer directly onto the conductor to make a solid wall,
or to extrude it into film before lapping the conductor with tape, cut from the
(c)

132 kV oil-filled; (b) single-core, 1000 mm' conductor,

.,1
Figure 1.21 Cut-away views of power cables: (a) 3~ore, 400 mm' conductors, paper-insulated,
paper-insulated, 525 kV oil-filled
(reproduced by permission of BlCC Supertension Cables Ltd); (c) single-core, 600 mm' con-
film, using conventional cable-making machinery. At present, solid-type cables are ductor, cross-linked polyethylene-insulated, 275 kV (reproduced by permission of Hitachi
limited to a rating of 154 kV mainly because of gaseous voids which remain in the Cable LId)

solid after ~n. Discharges in these voids weaken the insulation, leading
are:
ultimately to failure of the cable (Subsection 2.5.2).
Conventional high-voltage cables are also available where the impregnating oil (I) the dielectric losses are negligible,
is replaced by a gas. such as nitrogen or sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), under pressure. (2) because gases have low permittivities, the charging current is substantially
Moreover. in recent years, coaxialcables, with conductors insulated by compressed reduced compared with conventional cables,

I
.I
SF6, are being developed. These compressed-gas-insulated (CGI) systems can match
overhead lines in voltage and power capability. The advantages of this type of cable
(3) the electrode geometry of rigid conductors supported at intervals by solid
epoxy insulators reduces the cable capacitance,
.t<")
('4
 26 '27 '"
Table 1.5 Basic data for a 275 kV pipe-type oil-filled cable total three-phase reactive volt-amperes (V ARS) is
Conductor Nominal area (rnrn") 1000 1400 V 21TEoEr
..~
Material Tinned soft copper Q = V3V7e = v'3V· - • 21T!' --
Shape Four segmen tal V3 In (R/r)
Diameter (mm) 40.0 47.0
6
Binder Stainless steel tape (mm) 0.15 41T2fV2EoEr X W- MV AR/metre
( 1.3)
Carbon black paper tapes (mm) 0.15 X 2 In (R/r)
Insulation (mm) ,
I-
Carbon black paper tape with insulating
<, coating on one side For example, in the USA a 345 kV oil-impregnated paper cable (e, = 3.5) with a
Insulating paper 19.5
Metallized paper tapes
25 mm thickness of insulation has a value of Ie of 18.5 A/km, equivalent to a total
_Anti-moisture layer three-phase load of II MVAR/km of circuit. The critical length for this cable is
Metallized polyester tapes (mm) Approx , 0.2
42 km.
Reinforcement Two layers of stainless steel tape intercalated
with polyester tape (rnrn)
Another consequence of the high capacitance of a cable is the substan tial dielectric
Approx. 0.5
Skid wire power loss which occurs in the insulating material surrounding the conductor. For
4-D-shaped stainless steel wires (mm) Height 2.5
Width 5.0 the 345 kV cable referred to earlier this loss amounts to 26 W/m of circuit (Avila
Approx. diameter of cable (mm) 87 94
and Corry, 1970). The total permissible power loss is 72 W/m, leaving only 46 W/m
Approx. weight of cable (kg!m) 16.4
to account for the copper losses in the conductor. As a result the 345 kV cable is
20.9
limited to a power capacity which is only 4.2 times that for a 69 kV cable system.
A quintupling of voltage level for overhead lines would produce a 25-fold increase
in transmission capability. A further difficulty with cables is that under light or no
(4) the rigid CGI cable offers voltage insulating properties which can be applied load conditions the large capacitive currents produce a rise in the system voltage
to all present voltage levels and which can be extended to the highest voltages (hitherto known as the Ferranti effect - the rise of voltage which takes place when
contemplated for the future. an alternator is switched on to an unloaded feeder having considerable capacity,
owing to the resonance produced) which can cause problems with voltage control
A detailed account of the design, installation and testing of the first 275 kV in areas with extensive high-voltage cable installations.
CGI system to be installed in Japan has been given by Watanabe et al. (1981).
I
Capacitance effects if) Compensation

To counter the effects of capacitance shunt inductors may be installed at intervals

A high-voltage cable constitutes a very good capacitor. Consequently, where a long along the cable network. Neglecting losses, the purely 90° lagging current of the
length of cable is installed, the associated charging current can be considerable. A inductor may be chosen to compensate for the leading current taken by the cable.
critical cable length is reached when the charging current on no load is equal to the Since ·the current in both the inductor and cable is proportional to the system
thermally rated current since it is no longer possible to deliver any useful load voltage, their combination is self-compensating; a rise of leading current in one is
current without an excessive increase in temperature. If we consider the cable as a counterbalanced by a rise of lagging current in the other. However, inductors are
coaxial transmission line with inner conductor and outer screen of radii rand R, expensive, costing between one-tenth and one-fifth of the cost of the cable, and also
respectively, separated by a dielectric of relative permittivity e, then the capacitance occupy a large space. Incidentally, shunt inductors may also be used in association
per metre is given by with long-distance overhead lines where capacitive currents can also reach high
21TEoEr values. Several 100 MVAR three-phase units are used on the British EHV system
C= Farads. (1.1) while the highest-voltage inductors in service are probably the 735 kV, 110 MVAR
In (R/r) single-phase units of the Hydro-Electric Commission of Quebec, Canada, installed
as 330 MVAR banks.
TIle magnitude of the charging current per metre is
'7
V
I, =- D.c. cables
_1TfC
V3 ') Amps (1.2)
There are numerous reliable underground trunsrmssion systems operating at high -r
. where V is the line voltage of the system and! is its frequency. Consequently, the constant voltages in many parts of the world, as is evident from Table 1.0. These
,1 E c: I
 I
I
123F
I
I 28 . 29
Ii Table 1.6 Some high-voltage d.c. cable systems. (From Weedy, B. (1980). Underground Trans-
Jlr~ mission of Electric Power. Wiley, Chichester. Reproduced by permission of John Wiley and Sons)
time hopes for higher cable ratings appeared to lie in improvements
techniques. Thus, to operate a cable at very low temperatures
in cooling
seemed a logical
Approxi- solution to this problem. Two schemes were proposed: one with liquid nitrogen,
!
mate and the other with liquid helium as the refrigerant. Liquid nitrogen has a temperature
route
Cable length Date Rating Conductor of 77 K and was attractive because it is one of the safest,cheapest and most plentiful
Location Type of cable voltage (km) installed (A) area (mm') of cryogenic liquids. On the other hand, liquid helium at 4 K is scarce and expensive
. ~
but it offered the tempting prospect of a superconducting cable capable of trans-
Sweden ~ubmarine
Mainland to Gotland -'Solid type 100 kV 100 1954 200 90
mitting enormous powers with little or zero conductor losses. In the past 20 years a
England/France Submarine considerable worldwide research effort has been devoted to the development of
Cross Channel link Solid type 100 kV 64 1961 800 344 both a liquid-nitrogen-cooled cryoresistive, and a helium-cooled superconducting
Submarine cable. Some of the important achievements of this research are now outlined.
New Zealand High pressure 520 and 805 Aluminium and niobium were the conductors for the cryoresistive and super-
Cook Strait Gasfilled 250 kV 41 1965 1200 3 cables conducting cable, respectively, but three insulation schemes were investigated (or
(Nitrogen)
each cable:
Submarine
Solid type (I) vacuum insulation with solid support insulators for the conductor,
(Swedish side) 250 kV 74 1965 1000 625
Sweden/Denmark flat pressure (2) liquid cryogen insulation with solid support insulators, and
Konti-Skan (Danish side) (3) tape insulation impregnated with liquid cryogen.
Submarine
Sardinia/Italy Solid type
In 1971 research workers at the Hitachi Cable Co. in Japan transmitted 38 MVA
200 kV 118 1968 1000 420
through a 38 kV single-phase cable with tape insulation cooled to 77 K, while
England Land
Kingsnorth/Willesden oil-filled 266 kV 81 1973 1200 800
Graneau et 01. (1976) in the USA reported the successful demonstration of 400 MW/
Vancouver Is. to Submarine phase power transmission through a short loop of cryoresistive cable. Several
British Columbia, Solid type 300 kV 36 1976 1200 800 designs have been suggested for superconducting cables: a flexible construction
Canada
using helium-impregnated tape insulation is shown in Figure 1.22. A sample of this
cable on no load has successfully withstood dielectric aging tests in the laboratory
(Pearmain et 01., 1980). However, to date, there are no reports of commercial
systems have been installed to meet special needs, usually in connection with long power transmission by superconducting cable at even modest voltages and most of
submarine routes. The absence of charging currents obviates the need for compen- the research effort has, apparently, ceased.
sating shunt reactors, while the only dielectric losses arise from a, small leakage For further reading on the underground transmission of electric power the
current through the paper-oil insulation. However, these major advantages over a.c. recent books by Graneau (l979) and Weedy (l980) should be consulted.
cables must be offset against the cost of rectifier and inverter stations. A comparison fA.
between the costs of a.c. and d.c. cables carried out in 1971 in the USA by the
I <r-:~
Arthur D. Little Co. for the Electric Research Council indicated that a d.c. system
was cheaper for distances in excess of 80 krn, with a breakeven distance as low
as 32 ken if both cables used a paper-oil combination as the insulation.
CA \ b

-;; Cryogenic cables su

perconducting
layer.;~

At the time of writing, the mechanical complexities and high cost make it appear
that, in the near future, cryogenic cables are unlikely to be economically attractive
alternatives to conventional cables. However, for completeness abrief description
of this type of cable is included here. outer conductor
In the I 960s fears were expressed in the electrical industry that the huge quantities
inner conductor
or power which would need to be transmitted underground by the year 2000 could
Figure 1.22 The core structure of a flexible superconduct-
not be carried without a major advance in the existing technology of cables. At that ing cable. (Courtesy of Brookhaven National Laboratory)
fY)
N
30 31
1.6 OVERVOLTAGES positive charges drift to the upper layer of a cloud and the bulk of the cloud
Unipolar overvoltages are termed impulses, surges or transients. Impulses can be
becomes negatively charged with a small positive zone near the bottom. Figure .-
1.23 shows schematically the probable distribution of charge for a thundercloud
impressed upon a system by lightning discharges in which case they are called
(Malan, 1952, 1963). The separation of charge sets up electric fields within the
'lightning overvoltages' or by switching operations, when they are classified as
cloud, between neighbouring clouds and between the cloud and earth. A lightning
'switching overvoltages'. Lightning can cause frequent interruptions to the power
discharge is initiated when the field becomes sufficiently intense to cause local
supply and damage to transmission equipment. Golde (1966) reported that about
breakdown of the air. In a thundercloud the required field is 500 kV/m to 1000 kV/m,
15000 interruptions/per year occurred on high-voltage lines in Britain. As the level
which is only one-sixth to one-third of the 3000 kV/m necessary in air at sea level.
of transmission voltages increased so did lightning strikes to the network because of
Intracloud discharges are the most frequent, but for overhead lines cloud-to-ground
the higher towers and wider crossarms needed to support the lines. Consequently,
discharges are the most dangerous.
for many years a capacity to cope with lightning surges has been the dominant
After a lightning flash is initiated it develops towards the earth by a stepped
factor in determining the necessary insulation level of equipment on a high-voltage
discharge called a leader or leader stroke. The leader is a highly ionized channel
network. With the advent of EIN systems, however, switching transients have also
which is preceded, and surrounded, by a corona sheath (Subsection 2.3.1). The tip
become a major consideration. For the UIN systems now under investigation the
of the leader moves in luminous steps of about 10 m-200 m before pausing for
insulation needed to withstand internal switching surges is so high that most lightning
about 50 JlS. During this interval negatively charged streamers (Subsection 2.3.2)
strokes can be endured and safely diverted to ground, but pollution of insulators
emerge from the ionized channel to charge the corona sheath, thus allowing the
will remain a critical factor in the level of insulation. Before considering the effects
leader to propagate at an average speed of 100 km/s. As the charged leader head
of lightning on power lines it is necessary to discuss briefly the mechanism of a
lightning discharge. approaches the ground the resulting high electric field at the ground is sufficient to
generate short positive streamers from the earth towards the tip of the leader. These
streamers develop into an upward positive arc which meets, and neutralizes, the
1.6.1 Lightning discharge downward negative leader. This is the start of the return stroke. The physical
mechanisms creating a lightning flash are analogous to those occurring in a spark
During thunderstorms a charge separation takes place in a cloud by a process which
discharge in air for a non-uniform electrode geometry (Subsection 2.3.2).
is the subject of several theories but is still not fully understood. Nevertheless, the
The return stroke has a high velocity in the region of 101 m/s and constitutes an
results of experimental observations have elucidated some definite facts. Usually,
intensely luminous discharge which may be regarded either as a positive current
from ground or a negative current to ground. Transmission networks, if they are
struck by lightning, need protection against the possible destructive effects of this
current which, on the average, is 20 kA. After the first return stroke has neutralized
14 -61.
.P a portion of charge on a cloud there is usually enough remanent charge to initiate
E12 -55 ~- another dart leader, which moves along the channel of the first stroke to ground at
.:L

vlO
u
-45 e~
:J
a velocity higher than that of the stepped leader. Again a return stroke follows. The
process may repeat itself at 40 ms to 50 ms Intervals. Three or four return strokes
:J
58 -33 E are common, but there can be up to 40. The temporal development of a lightning
~6 -16 2L.
flash is illustrated in Figure 1.24, while information regarding the discharge is
'0
4 summarized in Table 1.7.
~
L.
2 u..

I 1+30 1.6.2 Lightning frequency

Figure 1.23 Probable distribution of
cloud charge for a typical South African The danger of lightning strikes to transmission networks is related to the degree of
thundercloud (after Malan, 1952, 1963). thunderstorm activity. Reliable information on the frequency of lightning flashes to
The solid black circles indicate locations earth is still inadequate but some indication is available from national meteorological
of effective point charges, typically
p= .;.40.N=-40 3ndp=+ 10 Coulombs. offices. Figure 1.25 shows the worldwide distribution of thunderstorms prepared
(Illustration from Uman, M. A. (1969). by the World Meteorological Organization in Geneva. The lines which connect
Lightning , McGraw Hill, New York. places having the same number of thunderdays (days when thunder is heard) are
Reproduced by permission of Martin A.
Urnan) called isokeraunic lines and the average annual number of rhunderdays at any
:Jf;(; I
 123 F

32 33

70~ 6OusE'C trnsec

" m~~/I-m::-~'Irn!:--Hf-60USOC
n n"n "''' "'" = , n , • . , T '-
o
c:
o
.i:j
·e.,
~E a.

'"
.D

.,
-e

"'"Fl.,
u
::I
-e
g
.,a.
c:.:
, F fal fbl
'"

--o
VI
Figure 1.24 The temporal development of a lightning flash; (a) the luminous features
as would be recorded by a camera with fixed lens and moving film, (b) the same light- '"
ning flash as recorded by a camera with stationary film. for clarity the time scale is N
distorted (after Uman, 1969)
Z
c:~
..• -
-.-
o c:
.- 0

Table 1.7 Quantitative aspects of c1oud-to-ground lightning discharges (after Uman, 1969). The
words maximum and minimum are used in the sense that niost measured values fall between :g ·2
u '"

those limits. (Reproduced by permission of Martin A. Uman) ~b'.

00
Minimum Representative Maximum ;:;:-;:;
::t .~ OIl

Stepped leader E.Q

o 0
Length of step (m)
Time interval between steps (ps)
Average velocity of propulsion (m/s)
30
1.0 XlO'
3 50
50
1.5 XIO'
200
125
2.6xIO·
~o
~.,
.
>.;:;:
.,
.f3:g
Charge deposited on channel (e) 3 5 20 E ::;
~::t
Dart leader ~
< 0:;
Velocity of propulsion (m/s) 1.0 X 10' 2.0 X 10' 2.1 X 10'
Charge deposited on channel (C) 0.2 1 6 '"c:::l:
-5
Return stroke '-o
Velocity of propulsion (m/s) 2 X 10' 5 X 10' 1.4XI0· '"c:
u
Rate of current increase (kAIIls) I 10 80 OJ
:::l
Time to peak current (;.s) 1 2 .30 0-
<>
Peak current (k A) 10-20 110 <!::
Time to fall to half peak current (ps) 10 40 250 -;;
::I
Charge transferred, excluding continuing
current (e) 0.2 2.5 20 ~
Channel length (krn) 2 5 14
.,.,
"!
Ligh tning f1ash
Number of strokes per flash 3-4 26 ";;
Interval between st -kes in absence of 40 .~
100 u,
continuing current (ms)
Duration of flash r s) 10-' 0.2 2
Charge transferred. including continuing J 25 90
current (C)

.f")
C'4
 34 35

particular location is called the isokeraunic level. This assessment of thunderstorm
activity is a poor guide to an electrical engineer about to decide whether or not to
protect a system from lightning. lsokeraunic level does not distinguish between
strokes to ground and strokes to other clouds and it ignores the wide variation in
the duration and severity of thunderstorms. Lightning flash counters have been
developed (Prentice and Mackerras, 1969; Prentice, 1972) but unless they are
properly calibrated }hey will also include i,!:!.tracloud flashes. Nevertheless, data on
~ lightning and its affects on transmission networks continue to accumulate. For
instance, from their findings a committee of the AlEE concluded (1950) that in
areas where the isokeraunic level is 30 about 100 strokes would occur per 160 km
sf line per year. More recent data have been collected in reports by Gilman and
Whitehead (1973), Whitehead (1974) and Berger (1980) while important articles
on many aspects of the subject are contained in the two volumes of Lightning
(Golde, 1977).
1.6.3 Lightning characteristics
Figure 1.26 shows oscillograms of the currents in a six-stroke negative lightning
flash, and in a positive flash which, almost always, has only one stroke per flash.
s- '. \ "7 In temperate climates the ratio of negative to positive strokes is about five to one.
The first negative flash, (a) in Figure 1.26, indicates an initial high-current portion
which rises to a peak of 80 kA in about lOps to IS us, while subsequent flashes
rise to 20 kA in less than I us. Fifty percent of stroke currents have a rate of rise
exceeding 7.5 kA/ps. The initial high current persists for some tens of microseconds,
falling to half its peak value in about 40 us, and is followed thereafter by a low
current which can last for hundreds of milliseconds. Only a small current of 50 A-
300 A flows in a leader stroke whereas the average current in a return stroke is
/1 20 kA and may reach 200 kA. c: /
Direct contact of lightning with an overhead line injects the stroke current into .~
the conductor. When a line is hit the magnitude of the overvoltage produced on the
line is determined by the stroke current and the impedance of the network through
which it flows. This impedance Z is called the surge impedance and is composed of
the distributed inductance L and capacitance C of the conductor relative to ground.
In its simplest form Z ='VL/C which for an overhead line corresponds to a resistance
of about 400 ohms. A current surge i with a peak of 20 kA through 400 ohms
impedance will generate on the line a voltage surge of Zi volts with a crest value of
8000 kV. This voltage is high enough to t1ashover any practical degree of line
insulation.
Direct lightning strikes to a transmission line are rare, especially if the system is
shielded by an overhead ground wire (Subsection 1.5.5). When a ground wire is
struck, however, the impedance Z through which the current i flows is very small
as it only consists of the ground wire-tower-earth impedance. Generally, this
impedance is in the region of 15-25 ohms. Therefore, a surge flashover-level of
1 MV, say, for the line insulators, and a value for Z of 20 ohms, will then afford
protection against stroke currents to the tower or ground wire with magnitudes up
to 50 kA. However, when i is high enough, or the line insulation is low enough, to
create potential differences that exceed the breakdown voltage of the insulation
a phenomenon called 'back flash' then occurs; this is a flashover from the tower,
which is momentarily at high voltage, to the phase conductors. This situation is
equivalent to a fault from line to ground and can only be removed by activating
circuit breakers to de-energize the line.
A lightning stroke which discharges directly to the ground may induce severe
overpotentials on nearby transmission lines. However, the potentials associated
with direct-stroke contact are usually much higher than these induced potentials.
Furthermore, the insulation level of lines is designed on the basis of direct strokes
and, consequently, it is generally sufficient to withstand induced overvoltages.

_/./S

~~OWSO 100 ISO

lightning stroke
-40 a
-60 1000 kV 1000 kV
-80 clipped
wave
-.gPO"
-
Front
'i b
-2gp , , , , 'c
~
-.gp d

/
travelling wave
OF
-20 i
e
-~f' 'i if 200 400 600 800 roo 1200/./ s
transmission
line
Figure 1.26 Current oscillogram of a negative flash with six strokes
(a-f) and a positive flash with one stroke. (From Berger, K. (1980). In =
K. Ragallcr (Ed.), Surges ill H. V. Networks. Plenum, New York. Repro- Figure 1.27 Travelling waves on a transmission line and clipping of the wave by a lightning
duced by permission of Plenum Publishing Corporation) arrester
:J£'<:I
 123 F
36
1.6.4 Travelling waves and their shapes
If we assume that a lightning strike occurs in the middle of a long conductor span
between two towers then the high local overvoltage immediately splits into two
waves, each of magnitude Zi/2, that travel in opposite directions at a velocity
approximately equal to the speed of light (300 m/l1s). If there is no insulator flash-
over it follows that each voltage wave will have the same shape as the current surge
in the stroke. The situation is illustrated in Figure 1.27 which shows travelling
waves with a steep rate! of rise to their peaks but a much slower decay to zero. As
each wave propagates it is attenuated by the distribu ted line parameters of resistance,
inductance and capacitance, by corona losses, and by a series of lumped capacitances
arising from the insulators on the line. An insulator string is subjected to the
impulse wave for as long as it takes to travel past it and, if the string cannot with-
stand the voltage, a flashover to its earthed support on the tower will occur. An
interruption to power supply will ensue since the 50 Hz follow-through current will
cause circuit breakers to open (Subsection 1..5.3).
Alternatively the insulator string may not fail, in which case the wave continues
un til it is reflected from the end of the line or it meets a substation, as in Figure
1.27. Here, the surge may cause severe damage to the insulation of transformers,
reactors, circuit breakers etc. Expensive repairs are required and, unless similar
standby plant is available, long and costly interruptions to supply occur. Lightning
arresters are installed on the lines to prevent a damaging surge from penetrating
into the substation.
As we have seen in Subsection 1.5.4 an arrester will clip off any surge above its
threshold triggering level, say 400 kV. The insulation of substation equipment, if it
is chosen properly, will withstand repeated impulses higher than the arrester clip-off
voltage, say 800 kV. Therefore, if a lightning surge of 1000 kV peak hits the
transmission line it is clipped off at 400 kV by the arrester and most of its energy
diverted to ground. The remainder of the surge is a 400 kV peak impulse which
does not damage the substation apparatus because it can cope fully with impulses
of 800 kV peak. The proper choice of arrester and insulation level of equipment to
prevent damage by overvoltage is known as insulation co-ordination (Section 1.7).
Since the surge current can vary in shape (Figure 1.26) so also can the voltage.
Obviously, laboratory attempts to study lightning discharges cannot duplicate each
and every voltage shape. Therefore, to allow comparison between the results of
research workers, and for test purposes (Chapter 6), it is necessary to adopt a
standardized waveform and to describe it in a simple and convenient way. From the
beginning of the wave to its crest is called the wave front, and from the peak to its
end is termed the wave tail. TIle shape is described by two measures which are
expressed in microseconds: the time from zero to the peak f1, and the time f2
from zero to the point where the voltage (or current) has dropped to half its peak
amplitude. The shape is then given as the ratio f1/f2, which is 1/50 for the waves
already shown in Figure 1.27. A slightly more exact definition of the wave is
given in Chapter 6.
.r)
C'I
37
1.6.5 Switching surges
TIle term switching surges is a generic name for transient overvoltages caused by a
variety of switching operations. Table 1.8 lists some of these operations. In addition
to those mentioned in Table 1.8 we can include (l) a sudden loss of load when a
transmission line is disconnected, which produces a transient rise in both the speed
and voltage of the supply synchronous generator (load rejection) and (2) unbalanced
ground faults. The magnitude, duration and propagation of switching surges depends -c.,
largely on the nature of the network, the item of plant undergoing connection and
the behaviour of the switch. These properties of surges have been treated in detail
elsewhere (Bewley, 1963; Rudenberg, 1968; Diesendorf, 1974) and will not be
repeated here. Suffice it to say that, generally, switching overvoltages rarely exceed
2.0 per unit (p.u.) where the p.u, base is the peak of the line-to-neutral voltage.
However, values greater than 2.0 p.u. and as high as 4.5 p.u. (Bickford and Doepel,
1967) occur during certain switching operations, and these surges are especially
important for EHV networks where, as we have stated already (Section 1.4), they
chiefly determine the levels of insulation.
Table 1.8 Some important switching operations
1. Disconnecting (chopping) small inductive current (unloaded transformer).
2. Connecting capacitive loads (capacitor banks, transmission lines, cables on no-load).
3. Interconnecting two out-of-phase systems.
4. Fault clearing.
Two switching operations are responsible for these major overvoltages on EHV
systems (Diesendorf, 1974): (1) energizing a line which is either on open-circuit
or feeding a transformer at its remote end, and (2) re-energizing a line which has
charges remaining on it after an earlier interruption. Surges of 2.5 p.u. to 3.0 p.u.
arise from energizing a line while those due to re-energizing a line are typically
2.6 p.u. for an uncharged line but can reach 4.5 p.u. for a line with trapped charges.
The general size and shape of some switching transients are shown in Figure 1.28.
Two features distinguish them from the travelling waves of Figure 1.27. Firstly,
their shape may be unipolar, oscillatory, or may even include a reversal of polarity.
Secondly, their duration is significantly longer and they can persist for several
milliseconds. This is reflected in test specifications, especially in the USA, where
switching-surge tests on equipment require the application of waves of 250/2500 I1S.
In fact, tests aimed at simulating switching transients on UHV lines have used
impulses with very long wave fronts ranging from 1000 I1S to 4000l1s (Uoyd and
Zaffanella, 1981).
When we note that the magnitude of overvoltages due to lightning surges is
higher than that from switching surges we may wonder why, for EHVand UHV
systems in particular, more importance is attached to switching than to lightning
 ""-":..'

38 39

Various techniques are available for reducing the amplitude of switching surges
.~
:~~~ ms ~~
(Diesendorf, 1974). Briefly, they can involve (1) the insertion of resistors for about
10 ms before final closure of a circuit breaker, or (2) phase-controlled closing of
circuit breakers to provide, as near as possible, simultaneous closing of the switch
poles on each phase, or (3) the provision of resistors to leak any trapped charge to
(a) Ibl lc) ground, or (4) the use of shunt reactors or (5) surge diverters (Subsection 1.5.4),
/Figure 1.28 Typical switching transient which are suitably rated to absorb the long duration, and high energy content, of
.' waveshapes: (a) fault initiation; (b) fault switching overvoltages.
I clearing; and (c) line energizing. (From
Diesendorf, W. (1974). Insulation Co-
ordination in High Voltage Systems, Butter-
worth, London. Reproduced by permission
1.7 INSULATION CO-ORDINA nON
of Butterworth and Co.)
Insulation co-ordination is the proper correlation of the insulation of equipment
and networks with the characteristics of protective devices so that the insulation
transients. There are two reasons for the emphasis on switching surges. Firstly, is protected from surge overvoltages. In order to regulate the amount of insulation,
because a large number of switching operations must be performed it is essential the various standardization bodies have recommended basic impulse levels (BlLS)
that they are accomplished without simultaneously introducing dangerous over- for all the apparatus on a network and in a substation; moreover, manufacturers
voltages and faults which would affect the operation of the whole electricity build their equipment to meet these levels. A summary of the lEe recommendations
network. Secondly, in recent years tests in various laboratories have shown that the is given in Table 1.9 where it is seen that particular impulse levels are referred to
breakdown strength of an air gap, or flashover across an insulator string, for impulses the highest system voltages, which are stated in Lm.S. values. The peak of the full-
with long wave fronts of the order of 200 p.s is much lower than that for the same wave impulse voltage is used to specify the BIL of equipment. Thus, a 245 kV
peak value on a short-fronted I p.s wave or even a 50 Hz sine wave. The results in transformer that can withstand a 1.2/50 full-wave surge with a crest value of
Figure 1.29 show the electric strength as a function of electrode separation for a 1050 kV has a basic impulse insulation level of 1050 kV. Repeated impulses at this
rod-rod gap subjected to lightning impulses, power-frequency voltages and switching level to the complete transformer will not produce a flashover across its bushings,
surges, The drastic fall of the switching impulse strength with increasing gap is
obvious. To allow for this fall in EHV and UHV systems necessitates very large
clearance between lines, long insulator strings and very expensive support towers. Table 1.9 Specifications of full and reduced .insulation levels for equipment operating at
different levels of system voltage. {Extract from IEC 71 (1967).) (Reproduced by permission
In passing, it is worth noting as a reference from Figure 1.29 that a l rn gap flashes
of the International Electrotechnical Commission)
over at about 500 kV.
Insulation level
System
highest Surge test voltage Power-frequency test voltage
E voltage
3; 0'6 (kV (r.rn.s.I) Full (kV (peak» Reduced full (kV (r .m.s.j) Reduced
:I
s: 3.6 45 16
0, ---- __ 2
~ 0'4
L-

v; L _ --- 7.2·
12
17.5
60
75
95
22
28
38
24 125 50
U
'c 36 170 70
U 0·2 95

l---~~ Of 52 250
.9l 72.5 140
325
w 380 185 150
100 450
123 550 450 230 185
145 650 550 275 230
o 2 4 6
170 "50 650 325 275
Gop(ml 245 1050 900 460 395
300 1050 460
Figure 1.29 Electric strength as a function of elec-
420 1425 630
trode separation for a rod-rod gap: (1) 1.2/50 J.lS
impulse; (2) power-frequency voltages; (3) 200/2000 "s 525 1800 790
positive impulse with dry rod gap and 11/0 ~ 1.0

:J £: <:: I
 123 F
41
40

puncture its winding insulation or do any other damage to it. The reduced BILS in had time to operate. A rod gap with a characteristic such as curve C would improve
Table 1.9 are used for switching surges and were introduced in parallel with the the situation but is liable to flashover for some fast wavefronts. It must be remem-
gradual improvement in the protection given by better surge diverters. bered that it is not sufficient to protect, in isolation, individual components of a
In order to achieve correct insulation co-ordination so that damage by surges is network. Rather, the system insulation as a whole must be co-ordinated. This is
prevented or, at least, minimized, it is vital to establish the response of insulation to made difficult by the different voltage-time characteristics of insulation, plant
impulse voltages and, especially, to know how much voltage they can withstand and protective devices. Nevertheless, sufficient impulse data are now available for
without breakdown. However, some care must be exercised when using values of the proper design of the insulation both for high-voltage stations and outdoor
the impulse strength of insulation as they refer to a particular type or shape of test overhead lines (Diesendorf, 1974). The various mechanisms of breakdown in
voltage. An air gap, fdr instance, can have an impulse strength which is 50% higher insulation are treated in the next chapter.
for a wave with a front of 511S than for one with a front of 20 JiS, while liquid or
solid insulants may exhibit entirely different values also.
One method of describing the impulse response of insulation or equipment is to
plot its withstand voltage as a function of time. Such a voltage-time characteristic REFERENCES
is shown in Figure 1.30 which illustrates the withstand behaviour of a 132 kV AlEE Transmission and Distribution Committee Report (I 950). A method of
transformer over a range of impulse durations. Obviously, to co-ordinate the insula- estimating lightning performances of transmission lines. Trans. AlEE, 69, 1187-
tion of this transformer with its protective device, the impulse characteristic of the 1196.
device should lie below the withstand level of the insulation in any time region in Ash, D.O., Dey, P., Gaylard, B., and Gibbon, R. R. (1979). Conductor systems for
overhead lines: some considerations in their selection. Proc. lEE, 126,333-341.
which protection is required. The principle of protection of the transformer. by a
Avila, C. F., and Corry, A. F. (1970). Underground transmission in the United
surge arrester or by rod gaps is shown in Figure 1.31. The transformer characteristic, States. IEEE Spectrum (March), 7, 42-48.
represented by curve A, is fully above that of the arrester, curve D, over the whole Beck, E. (1954). Lightning Protection for Electric Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York.
time range shown. One rod gap, curve B, provides adequate protection against Berger, K. (1980). In K. Ragaller (Ed.), Surges in High-voltage Networks, Plenum,
surges with front slopes less than OX, such as line 1. However, steeper surges (line New York, pp. 25-62.
Bewley, L. V. (1963). Travelling Waves on Transmission Systems, Dover, New
2, for example) intersect curve A before they reach curve B. Consequently, the
York.
steeper surges will break down the transformer insulation before the rod gap has Bickford, 1. P., and Doepel, P. S. (I967). Calculation of switching transients with
particular reference to line energization. Proc. lEE, 114,465-477.
Booth, E. S., Clark, D., Egginton, J _ L., and Forrest, J. S. (1962). The 400 kV grid
1000 Figure 1.30 Voltage-time characteristic system for England and Wales. Proc_IEE, 109, Pt. A, 493-519.
of a 132 kV transformer. (From Diesen- Busch, H. G., and Stamer, J. H. (I978). Netzplanung. Elektrotech Z., 99A, 729-
\ dorf. W. (1974). insulation Co-ordination 732.
> \
-'" I'--... ill High Voltage Systems, Butterworth,
London. Reproduced by permission of
Diesendorf, W. (1974). Insulation Co-ordination in High-voltage Electric Power
g, soo) --......... Butterworth and Co.) Time regions are:
Systems. Butterworth, London.
E t--- 1. steep-fronted lightning surges; 2, slow-
Ehrncke, B. (I 981). HVAC transmission. Siemens Power Engineering, 3,4-10.
g fronted lightning surges; 3, fast switching
Eichhorn, R. M. (1981). A critical comparison of XLPE and EPR for use as electrical
insulation on underground power cables. IEE£ Trans., EI-16, 469-482.
.1 2 3 4 surges; 4. slow switching surges; 5, 1
~ I- minute power-frequency test
Electrical Review (1981). Canal-side circuit boosts London's supply. 209, No. II,
0,' , 10 1()2103104 106 108 33-34.
Time (",sl Feinberg, R. (Ed.) (I 979). Modern Power Transformer Practice, Macmillan, London.
Gibbon, R. (1980). Overhead line conductors - the prospect for aluminium alloy.
Electronics and Power, 26, 234-236.
Gibbons, J. A. M., and Stannet, A. W. (1975). Synthetic insulation to replace oil-
impregnated paper in mains transmission cables? Electronics and Power, 21,
Figure 1.31 Principle of protection of 492-495.
a 132 kV transformer by a lightning Gilman, D. W., and Whitehead, E. R. (973). The mechanism of lightning flashover
"--- arrester or rod gap. (From Diesendorf', on HV and EHV lines. Electra, 27, 69-89.
W. 11974). Insulation Co-ordination in
7- _ ------ Golde, R. H. (1966). Lightning performance of British high-voltage distribution
High Voltage Systems, Butterworth,
London. Reproduced by permission of systems. Proc. lEE, 113, 601- 61 O.
Butterworth and Co.) Golde, R. H. (1973). Lightning Protection, Edward Arnold, London.
6 8" 100 500 Golde, R. H. (1977). Lightning, Vols I and II, Academic Press, London.
Time (j.JSI Graneau , P. (1979). Underground Power Transmission, Wiley, New York.
..t?
('4
 -....

42
Graneau, P., Thompson, L. B., and Hoenig, M. O. (I976). High power transmission
tests of short VI-LN2 crycocable loop. IEEE Underground T and D Conference,
431-436.
IEC (1967). 4th ed. Insulation Co-ordination, Publication 71.
IEC (1970). Standard Voltage Levels, Publication 80.
Jacobs, S. I. (I 969). Role of magnetism in technology. J. Appl. Phys., 40, 917-
928.
Jones, B. (1972). New Approaches to the Design and Economics of EHV Trans-
2
mission Plant, Pergamon, London.
Klein, M., Linnenkchl, J., and Heidenreich, H. (1974). HVDC to illuminate darkest
Africa. IEEE Spectrum, II, No. 10,51-58.
Lewis, W. W. (1965). The Protection of Transmission Systems Against Lightning,
Dover, New York.
Electrical insulating materials
Lloyd, K. J., and Zaffanella, L. E. (1981). Switching impulse tests at project UHV
using long wave fronts. IEEE Trans., PAS-100, 510-517.
Malan, D. 1. (1952). Les d echarges dans l'air et la charge inf'erieure positive d'un 2.1 INTRODUCTION
nuage orageux. Ann. Geophys., 8, 385-401.
Malan, D. J. (1963). Physics of Lightning: English Universities Press, London. The materials used in the manufacture of high-voltage electrical equipment may
Marshall, J. L. (1973). Lightning Protection, Wiley, New York.
be broadly divided into three classes: (I) conductors, such as copper and iron, to
McCombe, J., and Haigh, F. R. (1966). Overhead Line Practice, Macdonald, London.
carry current and magnetic flux, and to provide mechanical support for windings,
Menth, A., Streit, P., and Knecht, B. (1980). In K. Ragaller (Ed.), Surges in High-
voltage Networks, Plenum, New York, pp. 283-297. (2) coolants, either in gaseous or liquid form, to remove the heat generated by
Pearmain, A. J., Forsyth, E. B., Kosaki, M., and Thomas, R. A. (I 980). Preliminary dissipative processes, and (3) insulators to confine the high-voltage and current to
ageing tests on a superconducting cable dielectric. Proc. IEEE International the desired paths. Classes (I) and (2) mainly determine the efficiency of the equip-
Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Boston, pp. 132-135. ment, but its reliability is largely governed by Class (3). High efficiency is an
Povh, D. (1981). HVDC transmission. Siemens Power Engineering, 3, 11-18.
obvious goal for power-station engineers but, for everyone in the electrical power
Prentice, S. A. (1972). CIGRE lightning flash counter. Electra, No. 22, 149-169.
Prentice, S. A., and Mackerras, D. (1969). Recording range of a lightning-flash industry, reliability of equipment is of the utmost importance. In this chapter,
counter. Proc. lEE, 116,294-302. therefore, by setting out the electrical properties of insulators, i.e. Class (3) above,
Ragaller, K. (Ed.) (1980). Surges in High-voltage Networks, Plenum, New York. the authors hope to make the reader more aware of the quality, quantity, limitations
Retallack, R. L., and Bourdon, P. (1981). American Electric Power - UHV bundle and reliability of the insulation which is used in high-voltage equipment.
conductor tests at Magdalen Islands. IEEE Trans., PAS-100, 4926-4934.
By definition an insulator, or dielectric, is a nonconductor of electricity. No
Rudenberg, R. (1968). Electrical Shock Waves in Power Systems, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Mass. material is perfectly insulating, however, and for practical purposes an insulator is
Tsumoto, M. (1973). Installation of 275 kV pipe-type oil-filled cable in Tokyo. a material which, for a particular application, limits the flow of current through it
Fujikura Technical Review, Tokyo. to a value small enough to be ignored. A measure at" the difficulty with which a
Uman, M. A. (1969). Lightning, McGraw-Hill, New York.
current can be established in a dielectric may be obtained from a knowledge of its
Watanabe, Y., Mori, S., Ninomiya, K., Hata, H., Yoshida, Y., and ltaka, K. (1981).
Construction of first gas-insulated transmission line in Japan. IEEE Trans., resistivity and its electric strength. Data for some 'common insulators are given in
PAS-IOO, 4319-4329. Table 2.1. These values are approximate only, as experimental results are affected
Weedy, B. M. (1979). Electric Power Systems, 3rd ed., Wiley, Chichester. by many factors such as the shape of the electrodes and the thicknesses of the test
Weedy, B. M. (1980). Underground Transmission of Electric Power, Wiley, Chichester. sample etc. From Table 2.1 it may be seen that polystyrene and mica are nearly a
Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1964). Electrical Transmission and Distribution
million times more resistive than glass, a material, however, which finds widespread
Reference Book, 4th ed., Pittsburgh, USA.
Whitehead, E. R. (1974). CIGRE survey of the lightning performance of extra-high- use as an excellent insulator. Glass insulator strings are used, mechanically, to
voltage transmission lines. Electra, 33, 63-89. suspend power transmission lines and, electrically, to isolate these lines from earthed
supporting structures. In this use of material, therefore, not only are the electrical
properties of glass considered but due account is also taken of its mechanical,
physical and chemical characteristics. Unfortunately, it frequently happens that a
material which is especially good in one quality is just as bad in others. Materials
such as glasses and ceramics, which may be ideal for certain electrical applicauons,
may, because of their brittleness, low physical strength, lack of flexibility etc. be
quite unsuitable in others. A further complication arises from the fact thai, in

:J C zI
 I 1:2;31'
I
! • 44 45

Table 2.1 Dielectric strength, resisnvuy ~!1t1 relative permittivity 2.2.1 Impact ionization by electrons
of some common insulating materials
- i Suppose electrons are somehow introduced into the gap between an anode and a
- >
Dielectric cathode. At low applied fields they are accelerated towards the anode and, in their
strength Resistivity Relative
Material
drift, they~ake elastic ~ollisions with the molecules (or atoms) of the gas. If
MV/m 11m (lO-IO) permittivity
treated by classical mechanics, the result of an elastic electron-molecule collision
Air 3 1 is simply that the electron is bounced away with a change in direction without
Amber 100 > 10' 2.8
Bakelite
losing much speed or energy. Eventually, the electron attains an average drift
24 >1 4.9
CeUu'lose pap~r 10 >10' 3.8
v.eJgcity such that in each mean-free-path between collisions it gains as much energy
Mica 100 > 10· 5.4 as it k,ses at the next collision. As the applied field is increased to a value wherein
Oil 10 > 10' 2.2 energy above a certain threshold is imparted to the electron, as shown in Figure
Perspex IPlexiglass) 40 >10' 3.4
Polysryrcne 24 >10' 2.5
2.1(a), inelastic collisions occur. These modify the electronic condition of the
Porcelain 10 >20 5-7 molecule, placing it in an excited or ionized state. Molecular excitation processes
Barium titanate 5 >10-1 1200
Glass (Pyrex)
present a serious barrier to ionization energies being reached by electrons. Neverthe-
17 >20 5
less, when excitation collisions occur, some ionizing collisions also take place due
to the distribution of electron energies about a mean value. As shown in Figure
general, good electrical insulators are poor thermal conductors. Consequently, 2.I(b), each ionization produces not only a positive ion which drifts towards the
Joule heating losses may not be dissipated rapidly enough to prevent hot-spot cathode but also an extra electron capable of producing yet more ionization. Now,
temperatures being developed in excess of the rated temperature. The electrical and two electrons are capable of gaining energy in the field to ionize further molecules
mechanical properties of insulators, especially those formed from organic materials,
,j
and so an electron avalanche'is generated, The situation is analogous to positive
deteriorate rapidly at elevated temperatures. - - feedback in an electronic amplifier. As the applied voltage is raised still higher, a
Thus, the use of a particular insulating material in high-voltage apparatus is a critical value of field strength is reached wherein the gas catastrophically loses its
result of several compromises between electrical, mechanical, physical, thermal and insulating properties to become, if conditions are right, an exceedingly good con-
chemical.iproperties. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that combinations of the ductor. The condition recognized as Townsend breakdown has taken place - the
three states of matter, gas, liquid and solid, are to be found as insulating media. term is associated with the pioneering work on electrical discharges by J. S. Towns-
In the following sections we shall concern ourselves, primarily, with their electrical end (1910). A typical example of the general pattern of a current-voltage discharge
behaviour, and especially with their reliability to withstand high voltage. While characteristic for a gas is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
there are many similarities there' are also major differences in the factors affecting
the insulation behaviour of gases, liquids and solids, making it necessary to describe
(al (bl
separately, for each of the states, the various events leading to tryeir dielectric c:
breakdown. o
c::;:;
e-
.~ ~ e- ~o
:= t
o~O
" INSULATION BEHAVIOUR OF GASES 8~
e mOlecule~

A detailed survey of the insulation behaviour of gases would be mere repetition of ~,~'\ u "
Eex
I

Elon
;)
(fJ
Ion
the comprehensive treatments which can be found in the literature (see references x- s~~ ) Electron energy
in Meek and Craggs, 1978). Here, we shall discuss the more significant factors Figure 2,1 (a) Inelastic excitation and ionization collision cross-
that contribute to a discharge in a gas, and its subsequent development into a sections Q as a function of electron energy; (b) an ionizing collision
visible spark or flashover when breakdown has occurred. In a gas-insulated gap
between two electrodes at high voltage the formation of a high conductivity path
giving spark breakdown requires two conditions: (1) the production of electrons in
2.2.2 Photoionization
the gap by emission from the cathode or, in extreme cases, by cosmic
.- ..
radiation, and
(2) multiplication of the charge by various processes of ionization leading to current Most excited mo-icules (or atoms) have a lifetime in the region of 1O-8s before
• growth and. ultimately. to breakdown. The ionization processes of importance are they return to their ground state with the consequent emission of a photon. These
impact ionization by electrons, photoionization and negative ion formation. The low-energy photons may strip off an outer electron from another molecule but
latter is essentially an ionization damping process leading to current decay. high-energy photons, such as cosmic rays, may cause photoionization from a much
J") ~.
11
N
 ~~'c;·

46 47
IOZ I--" -,---. -"-----'- I I Table 2.2 Relative electric strength of various
gases at atmospheric pressure
100
Air

::( lO-Z N, 1
•..... abnormal glow SF, 2.5
normal glow 30% SF; + 70% Air
C 10-4 2
negatiw rsststc C/L.<vK ~ C, F, (Freon) 5.5
~ H,
L
~e;~ " 0.5
<310-6
Ir-Q <.

10-8 Townsend
discharge
the molecular ion may lose its excess energy in a three-body collision to form a
stable negative ion. This is represented by
100 200 300 LaO (XY) + e" + B "'" (XY)- + B + energy. (2.3)
Voltage V (VI
Neutral molecules may act as a third body in stabilizing the attachment reaction in
Figure 2.2 Current-voltage characteristic of a gas
discharge. The current and voltage art; markedly in-
equation (2.3). In the above reactions (X) is usually a carbon or sulphur atom
fluenced by gas pressure and electrode geometry whilst (Y) is usually either fluorine or chlorine. Electronegative gases find widespread
use in the insulation of high-voltage equipment, the most commonly used gases,
apart from air itself, being sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6) and commercial fluorinated
deeper energy level within the molecule. The process is represented as gases marketed under the trade names Arcton-12 (CCl1F1) and Freon (CsFs) (see
Subsection 2.3.4)_
A* ..•. A + hv ..•. A+ + e" (2.1)
where hv is the photon energy radiated when the excited molecule A * relaxes to 2.2.4 Simple theory of Townsend breakdown
its neutral state. Photoionization is an important agent in the breakdown of gaseous-
mixtures, especially those composed of the rare gases whose excited states can have In order to quantify the extent of collision ionization in a gas under a given pressure
lifetimes in the region of I ms; for example, at 2 ern electrode spacing and a pressure p and electric field E, Townsend (\ 910) defined a coefficient a to represent the
of 8 mm Hg, about 10-2% of argon added to neon can lower its breakdown voltage average number of ionizing collisions produced by an electron moving unit distance
from I kV to 200 V. Photo ionization is believed to be very important also in the in the direction of the applied field. It is readily shown that ifn(O)primary electrons
breakdown of gases under non-uniform fields (Subsection 2.3.2). Note that for all set out from the cathode, which is at a distance d from the anode, then, due to
practical purposes a pressure of 1 mm Hg = \ torr = 133.3 Pa. ionization, the number n(d) of electrons arriving at the anode is given by
n(d) = n(O) exp ad, (2.4)

$ 2.2.3 Negative-ion formation If we consider n(O) as the number of electrons released from the cathode per
There is abundant evidence in the literature to show that some gases can readily second then equation (2.4) can be rewritten as
attach to electrons to form negative ions of low mobility. TIle most familiar example led) = 1(0) exp ad (2.5)
is oxygen, but the halogen gases also are strongly electronegative. Because of their
high mass, negativ~not accelerated to ionizing energies, and the attachment where led) is the current in the external circuit. At the anode the total current
process, by removing free electrons, can produce an elevated breakdown voltage for led) is carried by electrons, whereas at the cathode the current is composed of
the gas. Table 2.2 shows the relative electric strength of various gases at atmospheric /(0) primary electrons and led) - 1(0) positive ions which have drifted there.
pressure. This feedback of positive ions to the cathode is capable of causing secondary
Electron capture may occur by either of two mechanisms. Firstly, dissociative electrons to be emitted there. These electrons may generate new avalanches to
attachment can take place ar.d the process is expressed in reaction form by increase the current at a rate faster than given by equation (2.5) as shown in Figure
2.3. Townsend described the extra production of electrons by a second coefficient
(XY) + e- ..•.(XY)~nstabl •..•. (X) + (yr (2.2) "( which he defined as the mean number of electrons released per positive ion
where the dissociated particles carry away any excess kinetic energy. Secondly, incident on the cathode. Values for "( depend on the gas and the cathode surface
.J"') I (' ~".I
 · ".v·

48 49
106 1.,-,.
_.
~' M_~" -;:' -'-' ---r'--,.---
'77-77; Gaseous , I
~
g' 105
"0
>-
1n(4) Figure 2.3 Variation of Townsend current
with spacing: (1) secondary amplification
c: 1) 104
~"O
showing ")'-process; (2) primary amplification 0>
"0-
(o-process); (3) ")'-process; (4) attachment .x 103
I process ~
ill
Gap !iPoeing {dl 102 I I I " ~"-,II '''"111!'''''' I I I I

10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 ro-2 10-1 t 10 102

Pressure x Electrode separation {alm-em I

condition but it is always less than unity and values around 10-2 are common. Other
secondary amplification processes are possible such as (a) photoelectric emission due Figure 2.4 Breakdown voltage in nitrogen, illustrating Paschen's law.
(From Cooke, C. M., and Cookson, A. H. (1978). IEEE Trans., EI-13,
to excitation in the electrode gap, (b) gas ionization by positive ions and (c) cathode August 1978. Reproduced by permission of IEEE)
emission due to impact of excited metastable atoms. In general, however, these
processes are insignificant compared with the r-process.
Table 2.3 Minimum sparking voltages for
Any elementary text on gas discharges (Howatson, 1965) will show that, if both various gases
primary and secondary electron emission are occurring, the current flowing through
the gas (and in the external circuit) obeys the equation pd for Vs (rnin)
Gas Vs (rnin) (torr em)

expO'.d He 150 2.5

i(d) = i(O) 1 -)'(expad - 1) (2.6) Ne 244 3
A 265 1.5
N, 275 0.75
0, 450 0.7
From equation (2.6) it is obvious that when feedback drives the term )'(exp ad - 1) Air 330 0.57
towards unity i(d) will rise rapidly towards infinity. This condition defines the H, 295 1.25
onset of a spark. Clearly, the Townsend criterion for breakdown occurs when CO, 420 0.5
Hg 425* 1.8
r(expO'.d-l)= 1. (2.7)
• Depends considerably on cathode material
As exp ad will be very large then)' exp ad "'" 1 represents the condition such that
the current becomes self-maintaining and the voltage Vs at which this occurs is
independent of the initial current i(O). The Townsend equations (2.5), (2.6) and The Paschen curve can be shown to have the general form outlined in Figure 2.4
(2.7) can be modified to make quantitative allowance for negative-ion formation (Meek and Craggs, 1953), and it is easily interpreted on a physical basis (Kuffel and
(Subsection 2.2.3). By introducing an attachment coefficient 17 analogous to 0'. and Abdullah, 1970). For any combination of gas and electrode material the Vs-pd
r a new breakdown criterion can be defined. The derivation is left to the reader as curve has a unique minimum which is of the order of several hundred volts, as
a problem at the end of the book. shown in Table 2.3. It might be thought that high-voltage engineers need not be ~
\

Because 0'. is determined by the type of gas, its pressure p and the electric field concerned with the low voltages in the region of the Paschen minimum. However, "
E, we would expect the sparking voltage J'~ to depend on all these factors. TI1is the pd value for minimum sparking voltage could be significant in determining the
dependence was determined experimentally by Paschen (1889). He deduced from failure by internal discharges of impregnated or solid insulation containing small
his results that Vs depended on the product of gas pressure and inter-electrode gaseous cavities (Subsection 2.5.2).
,.
spacing rather than on either of these parameters separately, that is Vs = f(pd) for
uniform fields. TIle wide range of pressures available in the ~aseous state is accorn-
2.3 PRACTICAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE BREAKDOWN VCLTAGE
e, panied by a wide range in breakdown voltages. Figure 2.4 shows the results for
nitrogen between parallel plane electrodes at different electrode separations. TIle The primary purpose in this chapter has been to acquaint the reader with the
large breakdown voltages achieved with either high vacuum or high pressure is terminology of gas discharges and to introduce the more important processes which
reflected in their use as insulation media for high-voltage switchgear (Chapter 8). can initiate breakdown. Throughout, we have assumed a uniform electric field but,
.f")
N
 .•••
~q"...::.
'y

50
in high-voltage equipment, non-uniform fields are often unavoidable. The operating
stresses to which practical apparatus is subjected are often a half, or even much less,
of the breakdown strengths achieved under controlled conditions in the research
laboratory. The principal factors causing such departures from the ideal are: (I) non-
uniform fields due to the shape and geometry of the electrodes, (2) the waveform
of the applied voltage, (3) the pressure, or density, of the gas, (4) support insulators
of solid dielectrics ~n
the gas space and (5) solid particle contaminants.
51
lines, as a luminous halo surrounding the wires. In wet weather, the halo may extend
as a visible discharge over the surface of supporting insulators. Corona introduces a
power loss to the transmission system since some of the conductor current is now
carried by the ionized air surrounding the conductor. Power is dissipated in main-
taining the corona current but, in fair weather conditions, the losses have little
technical or economic importance. A formula for fair-weather single-phase corona
loss was given by Peterson 0933) as:

2.3.1 Corona p = 3.37 X 10-5 fv2 F

When there are points, sharp edges, surface roughness or curvatures of small radii on
electrodes, the stress on the surrounding gas at these places is enhanced, often by
as much as ten times (Lewis, 1955), relative to the average stress. In point-plane
electrode geometries an electron emitted from the point, at negative potential, is
accelerated in the high field near the point and may have ionizing collisions. However,
as the gap is traversed, the electron moves into a region of low field, as shown in
Figure 2.5, and the ionization drops to a negligible value. A partial discharge, or
localized breakdown, takes place in the vicinity of the point without actually
bridging the gap between it and the anode. In an attaching gas (Subsection 2.2.3)
these discharges are in the form of pulses which are known as Trichel (1939) pulses.
As the voltage is increased, partial discharges are produced at a faster rate until, at
a critical field, a steady corona glow is obtained. The critical field strength Ec at
which ionization begins for dry air was given by Peek (1929) as: . Another undesirable feature associated with corona from transmission lines is
0.3 ]
Ec =30am [ 1 + v'ai kV/cm
where a = relative air density = 3.92b/T
b = atmospheric pressure in em Hg
T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin
r = conductor radius in ern
m = stranding factor (0 < m < 1), and is typically 0.9 for weathered stranded
conductors.
For air this critical field value for the onset of corona is about 30 kV/cm. Since
air, to some extent, is used as an insulator in practically all high-voltage apparatus,
the phenomenon of corona is of special importance in high-voltage engineering. In
air, corona is accompanied by the generation of ozone and an audible, hissing noise.
The condition may sometimes be seen after dark, near high-voltage transmission
'[IOglO(2S/d)]2 kW/phase/mile (2.9)
where V = r.m.s. line to ground voltage in kV
f = frequency in Hz
F = corona factor determined by test
S = spacing between conductors
d = conductor diameter.
The computed power loss is small, with typical measured values of a total of
2-8 kW/km for the three conductors of a 500 kV, three-phase transmission line.
Foul-weather conditions, however, produce in the region of 20 to 30 times more
severe losses, with heavy rain and frost being the worst situations (see EHV Trans-
mission Line Reference Book, 1%8).
the radio interference it can generate. The radiation from the discharge occurs over
a wide frequency range but especially from about 200 kHz to 4 MHz, and it increases
(2.8) with humidity and increasing rainfall. The effects of corona can be very serious if
it takes place at the surface, or in internal voids, of solid insulation. In electrical
machinery it frequently occurs that air adjacent to solid dielectrics is under electric
stress. For example, as shown in Figure 2.6 a portion of a lead from the high-
voltage winding of a transformer to its bushing may pass through air (a), or the
end portion of a high-voltage stator coil in a synchronous generator may be partly
B
~

-:·~~I.v·
(al (bl (el
figure 2.6 Air and solid insulation simultaneously subjected to
electric stress: (a) high-voltage lead. A passes through air and is
also insulated from the low-voltage winding B; (b) stator coil A
emerging from its slot and insulated from its metal yoke 0;
Figure 2.5 Variation of electric field in a point-plane gap \c/ conductor A insulated from its metal framework II
-M
 52 53,

insulated with a solid dielectric and partly by a definite thickness of air (b), or a known as a streamer, may be propagated very quickly across the gap toward the

- . high-voltage connection may be insulated from a metal framework (c). Electrons

from the corona discharge may bombard the molecules of the insulation with
sufficient energy to cause rupture of the chemical bonds, often producing volatile
products. Organic materials are especially susceptible to decomposition by corona
but inorganic materials are not quite so sensitive. Corona discharges produce local,
in tense heat which tends to destroy the insulation, causing carbonization or melting
which will lead to ultimate breakdown. TIle rapidity with which this destruction
oceu rs depends on the Iseverity of the corona condition and its duration. Under
constant voltages, a corona discharge adjacent to solid insulation merely charges
its surface to a voltage which inhibits further discharges until the applied voltage
changes or until the surface charge leaks away by surface or bulk conduction.
Corona appears only intermittently, but if the solid surface is polluted the repetition
rate is greatly increased. With alternating voltages the surface charges tend to
migrate during each half-cycle so that the repetition rate is a function of frequency.
However, all is not bad with corona. The corona discharge is used to advantage in
several devices, the most important of which is probably the electrostatic precipitator
(Chapter 8).
2.3.2 Non-uniform fields
anode. For the effect to be significant the field at the head of the streamer must
be sufficient to give ad a value of about 20 (Raether, 1964). The speed of propaga-
tion of the streamer is often greater than 107 cm/s and its rapid development is
further enhanced by photoionization. In this situation a single avalanche can result
in spark breakdown. The growth of streamers exhibits phenomena which are very
similar to processes occurring in lightning strokes (Su bsection 1.6.1). However, in this
book we will not consider the physical processes since many investigators, notably
Meek (I 940), Raether (1964) and Loeb (1965), have discussed the theoretical
and experimental mechanisms of streamer formation.
With a positive point-plane geometry there is no source of readily available
electrons. In this case, streamer propagation is from the point towards the cathode
and develops only by photoionization. Now, the build-up of positive space charge
around the anode tip increases the field in the rest of the gap. Thus, although
negative-point corona starts at a lower voltage than at the positive point, the
breakdown voltage with the positive point is lower, provided the gap is large enough.
The polarity effect under direct voltage is clearly shown by the experimental
results for various electrode geometries in Figures 2.8 and 2.9.
The breakdown characteristics of gaps between points and between rods have
been extensively studied. This is largely because of their frequent use in high-

For all practical purposes the onset voltage for corona is lower than that necessary
for breakdown in the presence of a non-uniform field. Nevertheless, it is also
> 2S
.>(.
necessary to be aware of the significant polarity effect which can arise in break-
down measurements for non-uniform electrode arrangements .. With a point-plane 8, 20
2
geometry, for instance, the curve of breakdown voltage against gap spacing has the
g 15
general shape shown in Figure 2.7. At small gaps the interelectrode field is fairly c
Figure 2.8 D.c. breakdown voltage in air for
uniform, there is little polarity effect and the breakdown curves for positive and ~ 10
various electrode geometries. The sphere diameter is
negative points are close together. However, for a negative point, as the gap is ~ 5 cm. (From Meek, J. M., and Craggs, 1. D. (1953) •
.~ Electrical Breakdown of Gases. Oxford University
increased, the field non-uniformity allows corona pulses to develop. The positive
I!l Press, Oxford. Reproduced by permission of OUP)
ion space charge near the tip of the point reduces the field in the main part of the
0·4 o·a 1·2 1·6
gap. but, if the applied voltage is raised sufficiently, ionization can occur across all the d leml
gap. Under these conditions, a highly conducting, luminous, f1iamentary discharge,

t40' • I I A

,arge ~ t20

L
sptiere
breakdown
c curve ~IOO
~ dJ corona 2
001
Ua .~ ,,·otzz ~ eo •
U-1
.>(.- c
J
~ g~
L. ~ 60
I!l d o Figure 2.9 D.c. breakdown voltage in air between a 30°
T77"7"7f ~
CD conical point and a plane. (From Meek, J. M.• and Craggs,
J. D. (1953). Electrical Breakdown of Gases, Oxford
Gap spacing University Press, Oxford. Reproduced by permission of
Figure 2.7 General shape of the breakdown volt- OUP)
3 6 9
age against gap spacing for a point-plane geometry d (eml
.I")
N
 54
voltage apparatus, e.g. rod gaps across the bushings of transformers to protect
them against lightning strokes (see Section 1.7). The results are intluenced by
several factors such as humidity, wave-shape, polarity and amount of overvoltage in
excess of the d.c. breakdown voltage. For detailed numerical values of breakdown
voltages the reader is referred to the recent extensive survey of the literature by
Waters (1978).
As mentioned !I~arlier, the streamer mechanism of breakdown is fast. On the
other hand, the Townsend mechanism is relatively slow as it requires time for the
feedback of slow-moving positive ions to the cathode. However, the two different
processes are not in competition but are complementary. A system which normally
- fails by the Townsend mode may be caused to break down by any method which
increases the electron density at the head of the avalanche. One way is to overvolt
the gap, by raising the applied voltage above the static breakdown voltage. Experi-
ments have shown that the Townsend regime should apply at low pressures, short
gaps and uniform fields, for pd values up to about 8000 rnm Hg ern. The transition
from Townsend to streamer breakdown Occurs where large electron multiplication
is found in the gas. For air at atmospheric pressure this takes place at gaps of about
5 ern or greater.
2.3.3 Time lag to breakdown
While breakdown by ionization in a gas is very fast it is not instantaneous. If a
step-function of voltage greater than the static breakdown value Vs is applied to a
gap a finite time is required before the gap breaks down. The total time lag t to
breakdown is the sum of two components, that is, t = ts + tt where (i) the statistical
55
transmission lines, transformers etc. (Section 1.7). Furthermore, a high-frequency
voltage may reverse the applied field in less time than an avalanche can advance to
the anode; therefore, many cycles of voltage may be necessary before an avalanche
can progress to a breakdown.
2.3.4 Compressed gases
In Subsections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4 we mentioned the topics of electron attachment and
Paschen's law, respectively. Obviously then, as a gas having electronegative properties
is compressed, it should yield higher breakdown voltages. This is clearly evident in
the results of Figure 2.10. SF6 has an electric strength about two to three times
that of air at the same pressure (Howard, 1957), while at two bars (2 x 10-1 MPa) its
strength is comparable to that of transformer oil. For pressures above about 10 bars
(1 MPa), however, deviations from Paschen's law begin to occur. A major contributor
to this deviation is the cathode material, and its surface. Cohen (1956) found that
in nitrogen, for example, at about 28 bars the electric strengths were 1170 kV/cm
and 770 kV /cm with electrodes of stainless steel and aluminium, respectively.
Furthermore, at these high pressures a process known as 'electrode conditioning'
is often noticed. It is observed that during the first few discharges the electric
strength generally increases towards a steady level and is thought to arise from the
burning-off of microscopic irregularities or impurities on the electrode surfaces.
;; 250[
j
:.::
200 A,,,,,,,,,,,,, I
sulphur

lag ts is the average time required, after the voltage is applied, before an electron
which can initiate an avalanche appears in the gap, and (ii) the formative lag If is ~ 150
the time the discharge takes to develop completely from the insfant at which the '- 100
initiating electron appears. ~
Unless the cathode is irradiated with ultra-violet illumination or is situated near ~ 50
o
a radioactive source ts is usually considerably longer than te- On average it is about u:::
2
10- s (Morgan, 1978). However, it can be made much shorter by proper irradiation o 10 20 30 1.0 50
Gas pressure
of the cathode or large overvolting of the gap. In practice, the voltages occurring
Iblin2 (gouge)
in equipment due to lightning or switching surges are sufficiently high to induce
Figure 2.10 Breakdown voltage of SF.
field emission from the cathode and reduce ts to microseconds or less. The statistical and N, for a 1 em uniform-field gap
lag is also strongly intluenced by surface layers on the cathode, size of the gap and (after Legg, 1968)
the gas pressure.
The formative time decreases from about 10-4 s to about 10-9 s as the over- Gas mix tures
voltage, or impulse, ratio O~pplied - Vs)IVs is increased. The long time lags at small
Mixtures of compressed gases can also achieve a good insulation performance. In
overvoltages result from the gradual build-up of current due to multiple avalanching.
the case of N2 and SF6, for example, Mulcahy et al. (! 970) have found that the
For large impulse ratios of two to three the electron density can reach a value of
8 3 addition of 20% by partial pressure of SF6 to N2 raises the strength to about 80%
abou t 10 /L:n and streamer propagation is assumed to occur (Raether, 1964). It
of that for pure SF6. TI,e possibility exists that future developments in compressed
should be obvious from the foregoing discussion that a short high-voltage pulse may
gas insulation will arise from 'blending' various gases to provide even higher break-
not have time to produce breakdown, whereas a smaller pulse of longer duration
down strengths. Together with their high strengths, compressed gases also offer low
could. This fact is of special importance in the co-ordination of insulation for
dielect ric losses, low dielectric constants and relatively low cost and they are self-
M
 I ~ ,j t-

56
healing after a discharge. These properties should all combine to render
eminently suitable as insulation media for high-voltage equipment.
- >
Contamination
In practical apparatus, such as circuit breakers, contamination due to the presence
of dust and solid particles can cause serious reductions in the breakdown voltage
of compressed gases. Systematic studies of particle behaviour under electric stress
have attempted to identify their effects on the insulation qualities of high-pressure
gases. The observations have shown that when particles are near an electrode, they
can often initiate a spark at a substantially lower voltage than for the particle-free
situation. The results in Figure 2.11 indicate a lO-fold reduction in the breakdown
voltage of SF 6 due to the deliberate in troduction of conducting particles into a
nominally 'clean' system. Manufacturers cannot hope to eliminate completely solid
particles from their apparatus bu t it is realized by them that equipment assembly
should be carried out under carefully controlled conditions in an effort _to reduce
the effect of contamination. The mechanism of particle-initiated breakdown has
yet to be fully clarified but it is influenced by particle shape, size, gas pressure and
electrode configuration. References to recent research on the subject have been
given by Cooke and Cookson (1978) and by Laghariand Qureshi (1981).
~ 0r--r--,-,...,-.--,--,--"..,...-----.,
I·
c: ~
VI
,57
them 4 5
at a pressure of about 10- torr to 10- torr. In practice, vacuum devices such as
fuses and circuit breakers (Chapter 8) have small physical dimensions but they
operate at much lower pressures (or much higher vacua), typically 10-6 torr to
10-8 torr, corresponding to mean free paths of at least 50 m. Why then do we
get vacuum breakdown under high voltage? It is now believed that the most likely
mechanisms of failure involve the heating of both electrodes by electrons produced
through field emission from microscopic protrusions on the cathode surface. The
anode is heated locally by electron-beam bombardment which causes the release of
a metallic particle from the anode (Davies and Biondi, 1971, 1977), or gas and
vapour ejection from the anode (Slivkov, 1968). Eventually, sufficient vapour is
produced to give a low-pressure gas discharge. Readers should be aware that under
normal conditions metals contain a large amount of dissolved gas, and often absorbed
gases as well. As soon as an electron stream impinges on the anode, gas is released
with devastating effect on the vacuum. For the failure mechanism associated with
cathode heating it has been suggested by Charbonnier et al. (I 967a, b) that the
electron emission current density is high enough to melt, or even explode, the fine
tips on the cathode surface to yield metallic ions for the spark. Neither mechanism
has been established as being uniquely responsible for vacuum breakdown and it
seems likely that failure occurs as a result of more than one process acting concur-
rently. For further reading on the subject the articles by Hawley (1968) and Farrall
(I 980) and the book by Latham (1981) should be consulted.
Vacuum, therefore, is not the perfect insulator. Like compressed gases, its

i
U
08
,
,'<>,'- Particle effects dielectric strength is limited by factors such as electrode material, surface and
~~ . '-'-'-'<~insF6 geometry, by particles and conditioning, and by residual gases and oil vapours in the
-0 ~ 0·6 "<, Pressure
-a~~ 0·1. vacuum chamber. Nevertheless. we have already seen in Figure 2.4 that high with-
Q

~atm-
~ l j • ~IO stand voltages are achieved under high vacuum and this is reinforced by the results
CD ~ ~ solid·50 Hz AC i'7 shown in Figure 2.12_ For very small gaps less than 1 mm and a vacuum of only
!:S·0·2 open-DC
=~ =~
o
a0~·,~--~~'.70~~~~,~0·~0---J
c 4'4
~8 10-3 torr the dielectric strength is in excess of 375 kV/cm. The strength of air at
atmospheric pressure and I ern gap is only 30 kV/cm. The possibility of exploiting
Particle length
Imml
Figure 2.11 Reduction in the breakdown voltage
of SF, due to conducting particles. (From Cooke, >
C. M., and Cookson. A. H. ()978). IEEE Trans., ~
[1-\3, August 1978. Reproduced by permission ~ 30~
..9 ••• --' *-
of IEEE)
~ 20~ •. V ~x. • •
c: * •

~ 10
2.3.5 Vacuum as an insulator
~ 0..,--
/i5 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1
A vacuum, which is a gas at very low pressure, would appear to be the ideal insulator.
3xHf9 Pressu re !torr!
In the absence of gas molecules we cannot generate, by collision ionization, the
Figure 2.12 Breakdown voltage for steel
extra electrons essential f. ( breakdown. The actual level of vacuum is dictated by electrodes in hydrogen as a function of
engineering compromises. If the residual gas concentration is such that the mean pressure. (From Farrall ('1980). In J. M.
free path between molecules is long compared with the interelectrode gap then the Lafferty (Ed.). Vacuum Arcs, Wiley. New
York. Reproduced by permission of John
probability of ionization is sI11311. The mean free path is of the order of a few metres
Wiley & Sons lnc.)
,.,
~
 r'--'~--'
58 I 59

the high strengths of vacuum for power system switching applications has been
under investigation for nearly 50 years but vacuum circuit breakers were not
available commercially until the early 1960s (Chapter 8). In passing, it is worth
noting that departures from Paschen's law are also illustrated by Figure 2.12 since
none of the curves indicates a pressure effect below about 10-3 torr.
, some countries and 'diminished in others. A synthetic ester fluid, known by the
J 2.4 LIQUIDS AS INSULATORS
A first assessment of the situation suggests that liquid dielectrics should be of
considerable usefulness as practical insulating materials, in fact more useful perhaps
than either solid or gaseous materials. Several reasons for this favourable judgement
are immediately obvious. Firstly, since liquid and solid insulants are usually 103
times more dense than gases it follows from Paschen's law that they should possess
much higher electric strengths. Extrapolation from the gas phase to the liquid
phase on a density basis yields strengths greater than 109 V 1m for a liquid. Secondly,
like a gas but unlike a solid, a liquid will fill a space to be insulated and, sirnul-
, tarieously by convection, will help to dissipate thermal energy losses. Oil is 20 to 30
times as effective as air in the removal of heat generated in the windings and magnetic
core of a transformer. Thirdly, like a gas but unlike a solid, a liquid tends to be
self-healing should a discharge occur in it. However, as may be seen from Table 2.4,
only aTew liquids are employed as insulants but stressed only to 100 kV/cm rather
than to 107 V/cm.
An account of the manufacture, uses and properties of insulating liquids can be
found in the recent book by Wilson (1980). When one considers that high-voltage
equipment annually uses millions of litres of liquid .as an insulant, one can appreciate
the very large saving in size, and operating efficiency, of equipment that would
follow on the development of liquids with better electrical properties. The economic
importance of a good insulating liquid has been emphasized rather dramatically by
Wilson (I980): he estimated that it would cost £~m to change the oil in a 500 MVA
generator transformer, whereas the value of the oil in the transformer was only
£20000. The 'hidden' extra costs essentially derive from the running 'down' and
'up' of the associated 500 MW turbine-generator unit, a procedure which could
take several days.
In passing, it may be apposite to recall to our readers the toxic nature of some
of the isomers of poly-chlorinated biphenyls (p.c.b.s), known generically as askarels
..
(Table 2.4). Because of their excellent fire-resistant qualities and high permittivities
p.c.b.s have been used extensively as insulating liquids. However, they are now
recognized as dangerous poisonous substances and their use has been stopped in
trade name Midel, has been developed as a satisfactory replacement for p.c.b.s
(lEE Colloquium, 1980). Nevertheless, askarels will still be found for many years to
come in sealed capacitors and transformers which are used in high-fire-risk areas.
2.4.1 Transformer oil
Of the insulating liquids listed in Table 2.4 petroleum mineral oils are the most
common and are by far the cheapest. Of these oils, transformer oil enjoys the most
extensive use and we shall discuss its chemical and electrical properties briefly.
Capacitor oil is similar to transformer oil but it is subjected to a very high degree of
purification. It is used to impregnate paper and polymer film for capacitors, thereby
raising their permittivities and dielectric strengths and reducing their size, mass and
cost. Cable oils of various kinds are used as impregnants for paper insulation and
also to improve its heat-transfer ability. Transformer oil can be an almost colourless
to yellow liquid depending on its geographical origin. Chemically, it consists of a
mixture of hydrocarbons which include paraffins, isoparaffins, naphthenes and
aromatics, as indicated in Table 2.5. When in service the liquid in a transformer
(or other oil-immersed equipment) is exposed to prolonged heating at elevated
temperatures, up to a limit of about 95 C, and, consequently, it undergoes a gradual
aging process. The oil gets darker with time, the change in colour being accompanied
by the formation of acids and resins, or sludge, in the liquid. Some of the acids may
attack solid insulating material and may corrode the metal parts of the transformer.
Table 2.5 Some physical and chemical characteristics of three modern transformer oils. Data
taken from Zaky, A. A., and Hawley, R. (1973). Conduction and Breakdown in Mineral Oil,
Peter Peregrinus, Stevenage, UK

Dill Oil 2 Oil 3 Typical

Table 2.4 Insulating liquids: their usage and relative cost. Data taken from Wilson, Density (20 C) 0.869 0.856 0.861
A. C. M. (l980).iflSuialing Liquids, Peter Peregrinus, Stevenage, UK. (Reproduced Refractive index 1.477 1.473 1.473
Relative permittivity (20 C) 2.14
by permission of the Institution of Electrical Engineers)
Viscosity (cS) 37
Relative Molecular weight (average) 282 296 287
Liquid Equipment cost Percentage of paraffinics 50.7 63.9 61.7 "
Percentage of naphthenics 45.8 28.7 29.9
Petroleum oils all types Percen tage of aromatics 3.5 7.4 8.4
1
Syn thetic hydrocarbons cables, capacitors Neutralization number 0.15 0.22 :'.22
2-3
Askarels transformers, capacitors Loss factor (% at 90 C) 105 253 280
(Chlorinated hydrocarbons) and switchgear Sludge (%) 0.04 0.07 0 .•)6
8
Halogenated hydrocarbons electronic Flash point (C min) 146.1
10-40
Silicones transformers Pour point (C rnax ) - 31.7
10
------------

,...
 123F
60 61

Deposits of sludge on the transformer core and coils reduce the rate of heat dissipa- permittivity of a nonpolar liquid is independent of frequency but for a polar material
tion to the oil and clog oil ducts, reducing oil circulation and the rate of cooling. it can change markedly with frequency, For example, at 50 Hz water has a relative
~ Sludge may also act as a catalyst to increase the rate of aging of the oil. For new oil permittivity of 78, which decays to about 5 at microwave frequencies.
the acid, or neutralization, number should not exceed about 0.03 (see IEC 296,
1969) and the sludge content should be about 0.05% (IEC 474, 1974). With modern
oils, it is doubtful if sludge or acidity will reach dangerous concentrations in a Power factor
transformer operating in normal service conditions. Two types of test are generally The power factor of an oil under high, alterneting stress will determine its perform-
used to ascertain whetherI
oil is suitable for further transformer service. Firstly, ance under load by inf1uencing the amount of dielectric loss and thermal stability.
direct tests of electric strength, acid number and sludge content reveal the extent Power factor as a measure of power loss is an important parameter for cable and
to which the properties of the oil have deteriorated. Secondly, tests of power factor, capacitor systems but in transformers dielectric losses in the oil are quite negligible
interfacial tension, resistivity and colour measure properties which, in themselves, compared with the copper and iron losses. For a good, dry oil the 50 Hz power
a~e not vital for transformer operation, but which indicate comparative changes in factor at 20 C should be less than 10-4 rising to about 10-3 at 90 C. The power
these qualities which may ref1ect undesirable characteristics. They convey an overall factor test is normally carried out at 90 C (IEC 247, 1967) but its temperature
picture of whether some change has occurred in the oil. However, because of the dependence should have the shape typical of a good oil as shown in Figure 2.13.
complex nature of oil and the ways in which it can change in service, probably no
single test will replace all others in determining its suitability for further service.
While absolute values of physical, chemical and electrical properties are desirable,
·0020
more information can be gained from a record of the way these factors have been S '0025[21
'0015
~anging witj:J. time. The oil should be replaced if a raJ?ld deteri~~i2.!l,occUrs in 8 ,0010
Figure 2.13 Typical power factor-temperature curve for
any of the characteristics we have discussed. The complete specifications for ·0005
transformer oil at 50 Hz
insulating oils for transformers can be obtained in BS 148. (! 972) and IEC 296 'a 50 100
(! 969). Ten-peroture
(oGI
r.

2.4.2 Electrical properties of an insulating liquid

Electric strength
The electrical properties that should determine the performance of a liquid as a
Following on the study of gas discharges where the breakdown strength could
dielectric are:
be quantitatively related to atomic or molecular properties of the gas, many early
(I) its ability to withstand breakdown under electric stress, investigators of discharges in liquids looked for a so-called intrinsic electric strength.
(2) its electrical capacitance per unit volume which is determined by its relative This strength would be characteristic of the liquid itself and would involve an
permittivity, electronic mechanism of failure. However, it became obvious that the experimental
(3) its power factor or loss tangent which is an indication of the energy loss under results were not determined by the liquid itself but by the overall electrode-liquid
a.c. conditions and system. Because of electrode effects, impurities etc., it is doubtful whether an
(4) its resistivity. electric strength, which could be termed intrinsic for a liquid, will ever be measured.
Nevertheless, by controlling experimental variables such as electrode material,
Resistivity temperature, type of applied stress, gas content of the liquid etc., one can observe
changes in strength due to changes in the molecular properties of liquids. Under such
A liquid may be classed as an insulator if its resistivity is greater than 109 nm. On conditions, dielectric strengths greater than 1 MVfcm can be achieved with highly
this basis distilled water is an insulator but for high-voltage systems the resistivities purified oils (laky and Hawley, 1973) and with less complex liquids (Gallagher,
of insulating liquids are 1016 nm or better. 1975). Controlled conditions were used to obtain the results in Figure 2.14 which
shows the breakdown voltage and electric strength of a small volume of transformer
Permittivity oil con taining various additives as a func tion of gap between the electrodes. However,
measurements on small volumes of oil and in the clean environment of a laboratory
Because they are mixtures of hydrocarbon liquids, petroleum oils are effectively are not a reliable guide to the technical performance of an insulant In large-volume
nonpolar substances. having relative perrnit!ivities between about 2 and 2,5 (see service equipment. This fact is reflected in the results of Figures 2.15 and 2.16
Table 2.5). The reader should remember that for practical purposes the relative which show a marked reduction in strength with increasing volume for power
J"")

C'I
 62
63

4J
~ 15
II
0 1'5 ~
_
Figure 2.14 Breakdown voltage
electric strength of transformer oil con-
taining various gassing inhibitors as a
and Table 2.6 Power-frequency design stresses for insulation systems compared
down stresses for highly purified liquids
with break-
~ .
gC 10
~7
1'0 C E
function of gap setting. (From Zaky,
A. A., and Hawley, R. (1973). Conduc- Insulation
Design
stress
Breakdown
stress
~> ~u tion and Breakdown in Mineral Oil, The
.g:.: -8> lEE and Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London.
system (MV/m) Liquid (MV/m)
.:.! .:.!Z Reproduced by permission of the
o 5 059 Transformers 2-6 Transformer oil 100
Institution of Electrical Engineers.) A,
~ ~ Cables 12-20 n-hexane (hydrocarbon) 130
al al pure transformer oil; B, transformer Capacitors 10-25 Polybutene (synthetic
V1 2.. "~:CI ':'ft;~..L. , 0 oil + azoxybenzene, concentra tion = hydrocarbon) 110
4.59 X 10-' moi/IOO g; C, transformer
oil + azoxybenzene, concentration =
4.59 X 10-3 mol/IOO g; D, transformer
oil + benzophenone,
4
concentration = 2.4.3 Breakdown in liquids
4.59 X 10- moi/IOO g; a, b, c, d, corre-
sponding electric strength/gap charac- Particles As with compressed gases impurities playa major role in the breakdown
teristics
of insulating liquids in service. Dust particles, or more especially' cellulose-based
fibres from neighbouring solid dielectrics, always remain in the liquid. When an
200 ~ x electric field E is applied these particles are polarized. If a particle has a permittivity,
III
III
~ E 1501-
>~~'I<
• .~
* .•
f2' greater than that of the liquid, fl (which is generally the case), a force will act
_v xX • ______". on the particle driving it towards the area of maximum electric stress between the
IIl-

~
••
~ 100 <; ..•...........
Figure 2.15 Power-frequency
strength of transformer
electric
oil in uniform electrodes. For a spherical particle of radius r the magnitude of the force F was
.2> field at 90 C. (From Palmer, S., and given by Abraham and Becker (1942) as:
&"'" 50 Sharpley, W. (1969). Proc. fEE, 116,
2029. Reproduced by permission of the f2 - f1
01 ,! " r Institution of Electrical Engineers) F= 1r3 --- gradE2• (2.10)
10 SO 100 SOO1000 SOOO 2€1 +€2
Volume of Oil, em3
Because of the high permittivity of water this force is greatly enhanced if the
particle is moist or wet. Other particles will be attracted into the region of highest
Ill' 800 stress until, eventually, particles will be aligned end-to-end by the field. Thus a
short-circuiting bridge is formed between the electrodes. Current flow along these
~III V
E 600
bridges produces localized heating causing breakdown. The particles may be metallic,
~~ "i---*.>I< Figure 2.16 Impulse electric strength of
~ Z 400
l(
!r·VI--..
in which case f1 ...•. 00 and equation (2.10) reduces to F=!r3gradE2• Krasucki
Ea. transformer oil in uniform field at 90 C.
~ It - '"--' (From Palmer, S.• and Sharpley, W. (i 966) has estimated that a single, spherical, metallic particle between the electrodes
~ ~ 200 will enhance the field at its surface by three times.the applied field, which may be
6. (1969). Proc. lEE, 116, 2029. Reproduced
by permission of the Institution of sufficient to initiate a breakdown. Many workers have described particle motion
~ O' I I I ! Electrical Engineers)
1 10 102 103 104 under alternating fields, and photographs of bridge formation in transformer oil
Volume of oil,em3 have been shown by Kok (1961), Darveniza (1969) and Roach et al. (1980). It is
now generally accepted that dispersed metallic and moist solid particles, especially
fibres, contribute to breakdown (Palmer and Sharpley, 1969; Abgrall and Cardon,
1975) but it has not been possible, yet, to quantify accurately their effect on the
breakdown strength. Nevertheless, Trinh et al, (1980) have suggested that particle
frequency and impulse voltages. Furthermore, in Table 2.6, design stresses for content in the oil can be related to its dielectric strength and that it constitutes
several insulation systems are compared with typical breakdown strengths for highly
a good indication of the overall performance of apparatus in service.
purified liquids. In engineering parlance factors of safety of about 10 are indicated
in Table 2.6. It would seem th~otentialities of liquid insulants are hardly Water Quite apart from moist particles, water itself will be present in an oil in
being exploited at the present time. The reasons for this ultra-conservative approach service. However, normal operating conditions of equipment tend to restrict the
in design will become more apparent when we examine the various mechanisms of moisture content to less than 10-3% or about 20 p.p.m. An electric field will cause
fuilure in cornme rcial Iiquids.
globules of water suspended in the oil to elongate in the field direction and, at a
M
«=--
 '_Vi

64 65
critical field, they become unstable. Breakdown channels then propagate from the to other types of transformer oil will require the introduction of improved specifica-
ends of the elongated globule to produce total breakdown. Krasucki (1966) has tions for evaluating and comparing these liquids (Hosticka, 1979; Perret, 1981).
- , photographed the sequence of events leading to elongation of a water drop in a
highly viscous silicone fluid and, ultimately, to breakdown of the fluid. A concen-
2.5 SOLIDS AS INSULATORS
tration of about 50 p.p.m. of water may be sufficient to halve the electric strength
of a transformer oil (Zaky and Hawley, 1973). ~
2.5.1 Classification of solids

Bubbles A third mec~anism of': failure has also been proposed for commercial
liquids. Its features are somewhat akin to the 'globule process' except that it
involves gas bubbles r;ther than liquid globules. The bubbles may be formed by
gas pockets in pits or cracks on the cath'OdeSUrface, by dissociation of the liquid
molecules to produce gaseous products, or by local liquid vaporization through
electron emission from sharp points on the cathode. In their book Zaky and Hawley
(I973) describe the gassing properties of oils under electric stress. Electrostatic
forces elongate the bubble as soon as it is created and, as the breakdown strength
of gases is much lower than that of liquids; the field inside the bubble is likely to
exceed the strength of the vapour. This causes a discharge inside the bubble, which
can chemically degrade the liquid, producing in turn more vapour and so the bubble
grows. Eventually it bridges the whole gap and a complete discharge ensues.
Standard methods are prescribed for the determination of the electric strength
of insulating oils. These tests only allow comparison between oils since the results
obtained are essentially independent of the chemical constitution of the oil but are
very sensitive to contaminants such as particles, fibres and water. One method is
specified in IEC 156 (1963). The breakdown voltage of an oil at 20 C is measured
between spherical, or mushroom-shaped, electrodes at a gap of 2.5 mrn. A badly
contaminated oil should fail at about 10 kV (40 kV/cm) compared with about
60 kV (240 kV/cm) for a good, clean, dry oil. Changes in the electrode shape, gap
and oil temperature, among other variables, affect the results. Kok (1961) has
reported experiments in which the strength increased with rising temperature but,
now, it is generally accepted that an increase in temperature, especially near its
boiling point, will reduce the strength of an oil. In order to relate their results on
oil at 90 C to values at 20 C Palmer and Sharpley (!969) applied correction factors
of 1.55 and 1.19 for power-frequency and impulse tests, respectively.
A large proportion of commercial insulating systems are solids. They can be classified
broadly into three groups: organic and inorganic materials and synthetic polymers.
Some examples are listed in Table 2.7.
In general, organic materials, that is those which have been produced from either
vegetable or animal matter, have similar characteristics. They are easy to apply to
equipment and they are all fairly good insulators. A disadvantage, however, is that
their mechanical and electrical properties almost always deteriorate rapidly if the-
temperature excee-ds about 100 C. In this group are most of the absorbent solids,
that is those which are employed as insulation after being treated with a varnish or
Impregnated with an oil. Consequently, paper or pressboard are the raw materials
largely used for insulation in liquid-filled equipment such as cables, capacitors and
transformers.
Inorganic materials are distinctly different from organic substances. As a rule
they do not show any appreciable fall in either mechanical or electrical quality at
100 C and many retain their properties up to a working temperature of 250 C.
Because of their compact physical structure they do not absorb oil or varnish, with
the exception of the fibrous asbestos material. Inorganic solids are difficult to
fabricate but they are very good insulators. The most important members of this
group are probably glasses and ceramics. Glass serves as a material for power-line
insulators and porcelain in the form of a bushing was the first ceramic material to
be used by the electrical industry.
The group of synthetic polymers embraces all polymeric materials which have
been produced by industrial methods. They have superb insulating properties and
are easy to fabricate and apply to apparatus. In practice, it is common to divide
polymers into two groups, thermoplastic and thermosetting. The former have low
melting temperatures, in the range 100-120 C. However, they are flexible and can

2.4.4 Synthetic liquids

Table 2.7 A broad classification of commercial insulating solids

Transformer oils are derivatives of naphthenic crude oils which may be in short Organic Inorganic Synthetic polymers
supply in the next 10 to 20 years. Consequently, fluids which are refined from (Derived from (Derived from
paraffinic crudes, as well as synthetic liquids, are now being examined as potential life) the earth) Thermoplastic Thermosetting

.~ insulants for transformers. Amongst the synthetic insulating oils polybutene liquids Amber
have been used for some years in cables and as impregnants for paper capacitors. Cotton Asbestos Perspex (Plexiglass) Bakelite
They are superior to natural mineral oils in various electrical properties, one of which Paper Ceramics Polyethylene Epoxy resins
Pressboard Glass Polypropylene
is dielectric strength (Gallagher and Pearmain, 1979). Fluorocarbon and silicone
Rubber Mica Polystyrene
liquids also find use in specialized electrical applications (Wilson, 1980). The Waxes Polyvinyl chloride
development of new dielectric fluids and the gradual changeover from conventional Wood
-;.-
J'l
Ct
 '~T""
'J.

66 67

be moulded and extruded at temperatures below their melting points. These proper-
ties make thermoplastics extremely desirable as insulants for high-voltage cables
(Chapter 8). Thermosetting polymers are heat-curing solids: on heating they acquire us:
·co.
substantial mechanical strength and hardness. They are fairly good insulators but tic
.!f
UJ_
their electrical use stems mainly from their ability to prevent moisture entering •• Figure 2.17 Variation of electric strength with time of
applied stress
equipment. This is, made possible by potting the equipment in a thermosetting Log lime
resin, or sometimes by using a synthetic laminate. Synthetic resin-bonded paper
(s.r.b.p.) bushings- are widely used in the electrical industry, especially in indoor
situations, as no outer porcelain case is required. A good treatment of the electrical
properties of polymers has been given by Blythe (1979). Ll (:(~(l:o y+

II
It should be obvious from the foregoing discussion that the reasons for choosing
particular types of solid are often dictated by factors other than their behaviour
under high voltage. Nevertheless, a solid which is to be used primarily for high-
/7777777)777)

L»t; d»L
IF-
barrier
cylindric.al
spacer
voltage insulation should have (a) a low permittivity to keep the capacitance lal u» leI
between conductors low, (b) a low power factor to reduce heating effects, (c) a Figure 2.18 (a) Disc-shaped cavity in a dielectric; (b) solid
high insulation resistance and, above all, (d) an ability to withstand high electric insulating barrier in an air gap; (c) solid cylinder between
electrodes
stress. In the next subsection we shall describe' briefly the processes of breakdown
in dielectric solids.
with air or other gas whose permittivity and dielectric strength are considerably
less than for the solid. Figure 2.18(a) illustrates a slab of dielectric which contains a
2.5.2 Breakdown in solids disc-shaped cavity, the axis of the disc lying perpendicular to an alternating electric
It is apposite here to remind ourselves that, unlike gases or liquids, a solid is not field Ed in the dielectric. It is readily shown that the electric stress in the cavity is:
self-healing after breakdown. The insulation is actually punctured and usually the Ed
discharge channel is carbonized. The solid will not support the voltage that it could Ec =- Ed (2.11)
Ec
withstand prior to failure. Any attempt to raise the voltage across the solid causes
a large increase in leakage current through it, long before the previous withstand where Ed and Ec are the permittivities of the dielectric and the substance in the
voltage can be reached. cavity, respectively. For air Ec ~ I and for most insulating solids Ed lies between 2
and 3. Consequently, equation (2.11) predicts a substantial enhancement of the
Intrinsic strength When solids are tested to breakdown under carefully controlled field in the cavity above that in the dielectric. Corona discharges will occur across
laboratory conditions, extremely high strengths, in the range I MV/cm to IS MV/cm, the void when its peak stress equals the breakdown strength of the air, and the
can be obtained. If a strength is solely dependent on the chemical composition and voltage at which this occurs is known as the discharge inception voltage. The partial
dielectric properties of a material it is known as its intrinsic electric strength (IES) discharges will repeat every cycle, causing gradualerosion and chemical deterioration
(see Subsection 2.4.2). For practical insulation systems, however, the IES is never of the cavity surface. Research on partial discharges by Mason (1959, 1978) and
obtained, except possibly under impulse voltages of short duration and the highest others has shown that the temperatures produced at the extremities of a discharge
working stress of dielectric solids in service is only about 200 kV/cm (0.2 MV/cm). cause local and progressive degradation and melting of the material which ultimately
The IES forms an upper limit against which values obtained in practice can be com- leads to breakdown.
pared. The mechanism of intrinsic breakdown of solids is an electronic phenomenon Difficulties due to voids arise mainly in solid dielectric cables which are manu-
and is completed in a very short time of the order of 10-7 s, as indicated in Figure factured by the extrusion of a polymer, e.g. polyethylene, on to the high voltage
2.17. In practice, however, processes other than purely electronic ones lead to conductor. Solid-type cables are claimed to have advantages in cost and fabrication
failure and it is these which are of the greatest interest to us. over conventional oil-filled cables. However, the failure of polymeric insulation
through discharges in voids has limited the rating of commercial solid cables to
Erosion breakdown One of the most serious causes of failure in service equipment, 138 kV, whereas oil-filled cables are available at working voltages up to 400 kV.
especially in high-voltage cables, can be an electrical discharge across an internal Considerable research has been devoted to a study of void-initiated breakdown in
gap or void in the insulating material. Voids, or cavities as they are often called, are polymers. The discharge develops from one electrode in a series of branched paths
.invariably left in insulation at the fabrication stage. The voids are generally filled until eventually a continuous channel is ,e~d to the other electrode. The pattern
(,,,,,l.
cs ,,.J ..,,..
... ·1 ~ 7: 1
~
 .L~I
68
e/~\
O~(Lt'7
<V.•'-"\..,'A
'" Y'/'oJ..,,,.,J
of the discharge resembles the natural growth of a tree and, for this reason, the
process is described as treeing (Eichhorn, 1976). In polymers electrical-, water-,
and electro-chemical trees have been identified. Treeing is now thought to be a
J.'"., .~"'-'~
major contributor to the failure of a cable in service (Williamson, 1982), and in
order to achieve a long cable life partial discharges should at least be small, if not
completely absent, at its working voltage. To provide an EHV solid cable sufficiently
free from voids manufacturers may have to adopt a policy of quality control which
is on a par with that of the modem electronics industry. Clean room environments
with meticulous attention to process control may reduce the number of voids to
tolerable levels. I
On discharge, the voltage across a void falls in about 10-7 s. Consequently, high-
frequency signals are created which can readily be detected by incorporating the
dielectric in the tuned circuit of a bandpass amplifier. The detection (and significance)
of internal discharges is such an important diagnostic tool for assessing high-voltage
equipment that we have devoted a separate Chapter (7) to the subject.
It is important to point out here that equation (2.11) is very relevant to mixed
insulation systems. For example, if a solid insulating barrier is inserted in an air
space, as shown in Figure 2.18(b), the voltage distribution is governed by the
permittivities of the two materials. The system can be treated as two capacitors
in series and it is easy to show that the voltage across the air space is
j V=V·-----
I (2.12)
a I + eads/fsda
j= where V is the total voltage, ea and ed are the relative permittivities for air and for
the solid and da and ds are the respective thicknesses. Suppose da = 4ds and fs =
I
I
i
3 fa, then evaluation of equation (2.12) indicates that the mean stress across the air
gap has been increased by 15% through insertion of the solid barrier. The increased
stress may break down the air gap causing the full voltage to appear across the solid
which is then likely to fail. Far from strengthening the insulation, the solid barrier
only makes it worse. If additional solid insulation is essential then the only safe
approach is to ensure that an air space is still capable of withstanding the full
I voltage. The situation of solid insulation interposed between the electrodes, as in
Figure 2.18(c), will be discussed under the heading of surface flashover.
I t./'Thermal breakdQv.n Since a discharge burns a path through a solid, all such break-
Clowns may be considered as thermal in character. Nevertheless, the concept of
thermal breakdown has been reserved for the type of failure that can be adequately
described in terms of the thermal properties of a solid. No solid is a perfect electrical
insulator. Hence, under an electric field, small conduction currents always flow in a
solid. This flow of current causes local areas of heating created by the collision of
electrons with the lattice, by normal 12 R losses, and, under alternating voltages,
by the energy absorbed by the solid in an alternating field. The situation can be
represented by the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.19(a) in which the insulator is
regarded as a parallel combination of resistance and pure, lossless, capacitance.
Under a constant voltage V the power W generated in the solid is = V2/R, or
..I.'?
-.
C'4
"'~
\ ';0. '" r
".,<. ...•J..
.-.>~.. PAA-'\ ~ C:.y<~t~
!:.¥05>-S,-tA-;n-.J fnllr" Ie·
0.
(>9
,,, \?l>~l....~-tt,,,,,,~ .•. ~';j- a...
(bl
u
3
>
-II>
"
•..•
u
~V~
v
IR=e"wCV
Figure 2.19 (a) Simple equivalent circuit of a dielectric in
an alternating field; (b) components of current through the
dielectric
(£2/p)/m3 where E is the stress in Vim and p is the resistivity in nm. Under an
alternating voltage Vm cos wt the current will not be exactly 90° out of phase with
the voltage. The difference between the actual phase angle and 90° is the loss angle
0, as shown in Figure 2.l9(b). The. power factor of the solid is defined as cos rf>
but, for small values of 0, cosrf> == tan 0 = e'le', where e' and en are the real and
imaginary parts, respectively, of the rela tive permittivity. It is easily shown that the
mean power dissipated is W = (w/2) CV ~ tan 0 watts, where w/2rr is the frequency
of the applied voltage. Energy losses are much greater under alternating, than under
direct, stress owing to the oscillations of molecular dipoles in the solid. This energy
loss is dissipated as heat raIses tnete~whicll ofthedlelectric. The process
may be cumulative, which will raise the temperature further and breakdown may
occur due to thermal runaway. Thermal breakdown is readily illustrated by the
thermal balance diagram of Figure 2.20. The straight line H represents the heat that
is dissipated from the surface of the solid to the ambient atmosphere. The heat
inside the solid is removed by conduction to the surface and then by convection
etc. to the surrounding medium. WI represents the heat generated in the cable for a
range of conductor temperatures. The intersection of WI with H represents a stable
operating temperature 81 in the solid because the heat generated is balanced by the
dissipation of heat. When the applied voltage is increased the heat curve rises to
Wl where the stable temperature is 8l. The system becomes unstable, leading to
breakdown, when the voltage is increased such that the curve for W3 touches the
heat dissipation line H at the critical temperature 83• Two desirable attributes for
an insulator in service emerge from Figure 2.20. Firstly, a flat power factor/tem-
perature curve is important and, secondly, a steep HIT characteristic is required,
that is, a low thermal resistance. The former has been achieved with a composite
oil-paper insulation as shown in Figure 2.21, but the latter is difficult to realize
since high electrical resistance almost automatically excludes low thermal resistance.
It is also worth noting that since the electrical conductivity of insulators usually
rises exponentially with temperature, the hottest part of the solid is relieved of
some of its electrical stress under direct voltage; in this case the field distribution
is inversely proportional to conductivity. Under alternating voltages, however, the
distribu tion is largely determined by the permittivity which is generally a slowly
varying function of temperature. Therefore, relatively high local temperatures can
 --r~~r.. i
I
[
I
70
~
this way, conducting deposits are formed which, with any dirt and moisture on the
~ •
~ '0 H surface, act as an extension of the high-voltage conductor. More sparks propagate
C- I-
from this new effective electrode. These partial discharges may be interrupted by
°•...
"" 8-
eo;;:; self-quenching since their leakage currents can produce enough heat to dry out a
ill 0
narrow band on the surface. However, the voltage across a band soon reaches a level
~ .~
at which the air over it breaks down again via a partial discharge. In this way the
i5 Figure 2.20 Thermal balance diagram illustrating the
I ...•r ,... [ -[ I -i principle of thermal breakdown in a solid corona edge forms a conducting path which gradually creeps across the surface of
the insulation, leading to complete flashover. Failure due to tracking has occurred.
The withstand voltage of a material to flashover along its surface is significantly
lower than breakdown through its bulk. Therefore, in order to provide sufficient
0·03, , [ I i
dry creepage path over insulator surfaces, design stresses are limited to about
5 kV/cm. Surface tracking is of special importance also in the failure of power
-s 0,02 cables insulated with paper tapes. The electric strength of the paper in a direction
III
o
u
.

0·01
earlY! tangential (i.e. along the layers) to the paper tapes is only about one-tenth of that
in a radial direction. Local discharges will in time form carbonized paths along the
~rn-
Figure 2.21 Power factor-temperature characteristic for paper, eventually leading to breakdown. The situation is remedied to a large extent
o - ~IA .\.. m~de~ oil-impregnated paper insulation by impregnating the paper with oil (Section 2.6).
o ,W <.U 60 80
Temperature
Some materials are more susceptible to tracking than others. The most susceptible
I·C) solids are those which are liable to carbonize since they tend to concentrate the Jo

path of the leakage current; synthetic resin-bonded papers tend to fail rapidly
be tolerated with direct stress whereas breakdown may occur under alternating whereas polyethylene and PTFE are much more resistant to tracking. Porcelain
stress. and glass insulators are designed to offer long leakage paths across their surfaces
Increasing the 'thickness of insulation will not increase indefinitely its withstand while porcelain is also glazed to increase its flashover voltage and resistance to
voltage. Instead, a limiting voltage is reached for thermal breakdown. This is because permeation by water.
thicker insulation not only decreases the electric field but, simultaneously, it reduces Clean, dry, undamaged surfaces will not track. In practice, however, an insulator
the rate at which heat can escape from the central region to the surface. For this is most likely to fail through deterioration of its surface properties, since it is not
reason thermal instability is of major importance in the design of oil-paper insulated possible to shield the surface from contamination. Dusts of coal and cement, salt
high-voltage cables. Radial heat flow from the conductor through the dielectric deposits from sea air, fly-ash from power stations all act as pollutants. Serious
wall affects not only the voltage rating of the cable but also its power handling tracking problems can arise when these pollutants are moist. Experience has shown
capacity. For other service equipment thermal breakdown is most likely in materials, that a single unit in an insulator string, supporting a transmission line, is likely to
such as polymers, operating at temperatures near their softening points, or in ;;:; flashover if the leakage current reaches about 300 mA (Weeks, 1981). When flash-
dielectrics for high-frequency applications. In fact, it is appropriate to mention over occurs, the working voltage of the line Is able to maintain a large follow-
here that the plastics industry makes extensive use of high-frequency dielectric through current along the tracking path, unless corrective action such as circuit
heating to weld sheets of thermoplastic for the fabrication of raincoats, handbags breaker tripping (Chapter 8) is taken. Motorists will know well the effect of moisture
etc. on the ignition system of a car; plugs with dirty insulator surfaces, damp H.T.leads
A full account of the theories and experimental results related to intrinsic and or a zig-zag of burned material in the distributor cap are all symptoms of tracking
thermal breakdown has been given by O'Dwyer (i 973). which combine to divert current away from the spark plugs.

Surface flashover High electrical stresses are created at the edges of conductors, J Electromechanical breakdown The similarity in the variation with temperature of
adjacent to solid insulation, by the non-uniform fields there. These stresses can both the electric strength and Young's modulus of elasticity, Y, for several polymers
promote local sparks and corona along the surface of the insulation, even when led Stark and Garton (1955) to propose an electromechanical mechanism of break-
the conductor voltage is not sufficient to cause complete flashover to any nearby down for these materials. Under a direct vol tage Van electrostatic compressive stress
earthed frame or support. The corona causes a gradual deterioration of the insulator is developed in a dielectric because of the attractive force between the electrodes.
surface by several processes such as (a) slow erosion by ionic bombardment of ions The material is in equilibrium when the electromechanical stress is balanced by the
in the sparks, (b) chemical degradation and (c) carbonization along the surface. In elastic restoring force. An electric stress of 1 MV/cm can generate a pressure of
.1"')
 I L,.:~.~
73 /
72
/"
several N/m2 which would be sufficient to compress, and reduce the thickness of, -!:.100r-
many soft polymers. Above a critical voltage this process is irreversible and the £; 80
material would continue to shrink until breakdown. ~ 60
01 Figure 2.22 Effect of moisture absorption on the electric
Reasonable agreement between theory and experiment was obtained for poly- o 40 strength of oil-impregnated paper. (From Norris, E. T.
ethylene, but a process involving only uniform, simple compression cannot account t:
(1963). Proc. lEE, 110, 428-440. Reproduced by per-
~ 20
for (a) the localized treeing which precedes the breakdown or (b) the reduction in ijj 10' I I I I
mission of the Institu tion of Electrical Engineers)
strength when an alternating voltage is applied.
o 2 4 6 .8
MOisture In paper, ·f.

,i High-voltage equipment such as bushings, cables, capacitors and transformers

2.6 LIQUID-SOLID INSULATORS
In the previous two sections we have discussed separately the insulating qualities of
liquids and solids. Therefore, we should now be able to appreciate better the
superior performance achieved by a combination of these two media as a mixed
insulation system. Liquid-solid dielectrics are widely used in high-voltage equipment.
By far the most common composition is 'paper impregnated with a liquid such as
a mineral oil. It is exclusively used in high-voltage power transformers, in cables,
and also in capacitors used for power factor correction. As stated earlier, synthetic
liquids and solids are being increasingly used for lower-voltage cables and capacitors.
The union of oil with paper is almost perfect; they are two of the cheapest
insulating materials available but their combination is one of the best yet developed
and yields a breakdown strength much higher than either separately. Typical
impulse breakdown stresses in kV/cm are about 1200,800 and 400 for capacitors,
cables and transformers, respectively. Furthermore, paper in the form of thin sheet
(10-25 pm for capacitors) or tape is easy to manipulate, easy to impregnate, and
has high mechanical strength. The oil confers excellent thermal properties on the
combination. Another advantage is that the oil will flow into any voids or gaps
which have been created by temporary overloads causing differential expansion
between a conductor and its insulation.
The weakest point in this union is that both components are easily contaminated,
especially by moisture. In normal atmospheric conditions the moisture content in
paper is about 6% to 8% by mass. After vacuum and heat treatment, the paper may
contain 0.5% to 1% of moisture, whilst the oil will have about 15 p.p.m. Thermal
decomposition of the paper would result from a further reduction of moisture
below 0.5%. However, as may be seen in Figure 2.22, this low moisture content is
not essential to the high electric strength of oil-impregnated paper, which only
falls slightly for moisture levels up to 4%. Moreover, for a transformer the moisture
content is liable to increase during its lifetime. Because it is necessary for a trans-
former to 'breathe' under cyclic loading, water from the atmosphere will gradually
be absorbed into the oil and paper. The ingress of moisture can be avoided in
capacitors by sealing them hermetically, and in cables by pressurizing the oil. It
should be noted here that oil conservators and dehydrating breathers limit the
intake of moisture in transformers; a survey of large transformers revealed that the
oil properties were unaltered after 17 years in service (Degnan and Shimanski,
1956).
is normally expected to remain serviceable for 30 to 40 years, or even longer. Con-
sequently, in the absence of large overvoltages from lightning or switching surges,
the failure of their insulation systems is one of long-term deterioration. This is
brought about by internal discharges and electrochemical degradation. We have
already discussed the processes which can initiate internal discharges in either
liquids or solids; gas bubbles can be created due to decomposition of moisture in
the paper or local breakdown of the oil, The discharges cause a gradual deterioration
of the liquid-solid composite, leading to ultimate failure.
In insulation, ionic leakage currents often produce chemical deterioration at a
rate depending on current density, and on the chemical activity of ions liberated at
the electrodes. The leakage currents and deterioration are increased by raising the
temperature and the applied stress, and also by the presence of moisture or other
contamination which chemically dissociates in the dielectric. Electrochemical
degradation is a major cause of failure in liquid-impregnated capacitors but the
addition of stabilizing agents can increase their lifetime. A good account of this
type of failure is given by Church (1968).
A thorough survey of the very wide range of dielectric and insulating materials
that are used in modern electrical technology can be found in the book by Saums
and Pendleton (1973).
REFERENCES
Abgrall, F., and Cardon, J. M. (1975). Influence of solid impurities on the electric
strength of transformer oil. In Proc. 5th International Conference on Conduction
and Breakdown in Dielectric Liquids, Delft University Press, Delft, pp. 79-83.
Abraham, M., and Becker, R. (1942). Electricity and Magnetism, Blackie, London.
Blythe, A. R. (1979). Electrical Properties of Polymers, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
British Standards Institution (BSI) (1972). Insulating oil for transformers and
switchgear. BS 148.
Charbonnier, F. M., Bennette, C. 1., and Swanson, L. W. (1967a). Electrical break-
down between metal electrodes in high vacuum: I. Theory. J. Appl. Phys., 38,
627-633.
Charbonnier, F. M., Bennette, C. 1., and Swanson, L. W. (l967h). Electrical break-
down between metal electrodes in high vacuum: II. Experimental. J. Appl.
Phys., 38, 634-640.
Church, H. F. (1968). In L. L. Alston (Ed.), High- Voltage Technology, Oxford
University Press, London, pp. 170-183.

A .-
~
C'f
 "'1~:r.:'~'
j ,~
..
~:
!

74 75

Cohen, E. H. (! 956). The electric strength of highly compressed gases. hoc. lEE,
103, Part A, 57-68.
Cooke, C. M., and Cookson, A. H. (1978). The nature and practice of gases as
electrical insulators. IEEE Trans., EI-13, 239-248.
Darveniza, M. (1969). The effect of carbon particles on the A.C. strength of
transformer oil. Elect. Eng. Trans. I. E. Aust., September, 284-289.
Davies, D. K., and Biondi, M. A. (1971). The role of macroparticles extruded from
the anode in vacuum electrical breakdown. J. Appl. Phys., 42, 3089-3095.
Davies, D. K., and .'Biondi, M. A. (1977). Dynamics and heating of anode particles
in vacuum breakdown. J. Appl. Phys., 48, 4229-4235.
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EHV Transmission Line Reference Book (I 968). Edison Electric Institute, New
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Eichhorn, R. M. (I976). Treeing in solid extruded electrical insulation. IEEE
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20-8Q .
Gallagher, T. J. (1975). Simple Dielectric Liquids, Oxford University Press, London.
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Hosticka, C. (1979). Dependence of uniform/non-uniform field transformer oil
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Latham, R. V. (! 981). High- Voltage Vacuum Insulation: The Physical Basis,
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.-
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,.

,<"'71
 I L. ..J I

77

~ L.,I
(0)
E1'jll
3
~ f111 1

,i Figure 3.2 Use of (a) hemispherical stress shields, (b)

(b) toroidal stress shields

Field plotting
current flowing through a conducting medium representing electric flux in the
3.1 INTRODUCTION dielectric, or in present practice computer programs are commonly used to predict
the field distribution. Several computation techniques are available, but all have.
Efficient design of high-voltage equipment requires the maximum electric stress their limitations ..
(E =-dVjdx) that occurs in or around the assembly under design to be minimized.
As we have seen in Chapter 2, electric stress i's a critical parameter in the breakdown
of insulating materials, so that the thickness of insulation, or the minimum distance
3.2 CURVILINEAR SQUARES: AN APPROXIMATE GRAPHICAL METHOD
required between a live conductor and ground, will depend on this maximum stress
value. An approximate field map can be drawn for two-dimensional problems by sketching
Sharp edges, points and small radii must be avoided on conducting surfaces as equipotential lines and lines of electric flux. By definition equipotentials and flux
these will produce high-stress regions. One technique that is employed in high- lines are at right angles to each other. Suppose that Figure 3.3 represents a portion
voltage design is to add stress shields when sharp edges are unavoidable. For the of a field map; then
switch contacts in an isolator which are shown in Figure 3.1, the stress can be 5V
E=--· (3.1)
reduced by adding a hemispherical or toroidal stress shield for each electrode
5x
(Figure 3.2). The above system is a symmetrical geometry because the high-voltage
and earthed electrodes are identical and such geometries are preferable because the If <l>represents the electric flux per unit depth into the paper, then
maximum field in a symmetrical geometry is lower than that in an asymmetrical 5<l>
geometry with the same distance between the electrodes. However, asymmetry is D= €o€rE = -. (3.2)
often unavoidable in practical designs. 5y
If the lines in Figure 3.3 form a curvilinear square, then 5x = 5y and 15<l>/5VI =

~~II €O€r·

t
orec of high stress
Once the curvilinear square map has been constructed the boundary conditions
of the potential difference between electrodes allow potentials to be allocated to
the equipotential lines. In practice, the equipotentiallines are normally sketched
Figure 3.1 Switch contacts
first and flux lines fitted at right angles. Equipotentials which are not at right angles

The dimensions and quantities of insulating materials used must be kept to a

minimum if a new high-voltage design is to be economically attractive. It is very
useful to have techniques for accurately predicting the electric stress in any given v .1 \ V+b V
geometrical arrangement of conductors and insulating materials. These techniques • -41+ b41
allow the highest stress area to be identified so that the design can be modified to by
reduce the stress. Real design problems are too complicated for an analytical solu-
tion, except in a very few cases. If a very approximate solution is sufficient, perhaps
at the first stage of the design process, a graphical method can be used. When a
YL x
bx
p

more accurate field distribution is required an analogue system can be built with Figure 3.3 A curvilinear square
,,-
..l:")
~
 "l!i"".
I !'
("

78 79
to flux lines are then re-drawn. Some experience of flux plotting is necessary to The field can be sketched across the boundary, remembering that equipotential
draw the initial equipotentials. The initial squares can be divided into smaller lines are bent away from the boundary in the dielectric of higher permittivity.
squares where the field varies rapidly.
Figure 3.4 shows a curvilinear square map of the field between concentric 3.3 ANALOGUE METHODS
cylinder electrodes. The inner electrode is earthed and the outer electrode is at
33.1 Conducting paper·
+ 10 V. It can be seen that the equipotentials (2 V, 4 V, 6 V and 8 V) are closer
together nearer the inJer electrode, where the maximum field occurs. An approxi- Current flow in a conductor (neglecting the magnetic field) obeys the law
mate numerical value' for the field at the inner electrode could be obtained from
I
this diagram. The value would become increasingly accurate as more intermediate E =- grad V=- (3.5)
equipotentials were included. a

where E is the electric field in the conductor and I is the current density in the
conductor whose conductivity is a. From the law of conservation of current
div J = 0, hence V2V= O. This is Laplace's equation, so any other system of field
\o'-l
and flow quantities that obeys Laplace's equation can be represented by current
flow in a conductor as an analogue. If the flow of electric flux under an electro-
static field is to be represented by the flow of current in a conductor, then poten-
Figure 3.4 Curvilinear squares between concentric cylin- tials in the electrostatic system can be represented by analogous potentials in the
ders: equipotentials at 2 V intervals current system, but with a scale factor applied so that the potentials are much
lower in the current system. Flow of electric current becomes the analogue of
electric flux.
A simple technique is to use carbon-loaded paper to construct the current flow
Er,
analogue of a two-dimensional electrostatic field. Electrodes are painted onto the
paper with silver paint to give a scale model of the geometry of the problem and
the scaled potential is applied between the electrodes. A probe, connected to a
high impedance voltmeter, is then used to find the position of the equipotentials.
Cr2
It is difficult to construct conducting paper analogues for problems with more
than one dielectric, although paper of different resistivity can be used to repre-
Curvilinear squares at the boundary
between dielectrics
sent different dielectric constants. The resistivity of the paper tends to be aniso-
tropic and this introduces errors.
If the problem contains more than one dielectric, the distances between As an example, the effect of fringing fields in a parallel-plate capacitor could
adjacent equipotentials cannot equal the distances between adjacent flux lines in be modelled by drawing a scale diagram of the capacitor plates, and the spacing
both dielectrics when the permittivities of the dielectrics differ. The meshes become between them, on carbon-loaded paper. The capacitor plates would be repre-
rectangles instead of squares in one of the dielectrics. At the boundary (Figure 3.5) sented by blocks of silver paint. Suppose the capacitor being modelled has 100 V
the equipotential and electric field lines are bent. Suppose that in dielectric I the between plates: this could be represented by earthing one silver paint area and
meshes are square (a = b). At the boundary between the dielectrics the com- applying 10 V to the-other. A scale factor of 10 has thus been introduced in the
voltage modelling. A probe could be used to map equipotentials at 0.5 V intervals
ponents of electric flux normal to the surface, and the components of electric
field parallel to the surface, are equal in the two materials. Hence, at the ,
in the bulk of the field area. Intermediate equipotentials could be added near a V
and 10V so' that accurate measurements of the electric field at the edges of the
boundary
alb
-=--=-
tan (JI Erl
(3.3)
l,..
.~
electrodes could be made. These would be made by measuring the distances
between adjacent equipotentiaIs and applying the appropriate scale factors.
C [d tan (J2 Er2 .,
~
and if a = b , t'
33.2 The electrolytic tank
Er2
c=-d. (3.4) Analogues of three-dimensional fields can be constructed by using the current flow
erl through water to represent the electric flux. In its simplest form, the Iicld in a
M
 .4 .....'

80 8\
system with electrodes and a single dielectric can be plotted by making a scale 3.4.1 Direct solution of Laplace's equation
model of the electrode geometry, placing the model in the centre of as large a tank
Laplace's equation in two dimensions and for a single dielectric becomes
as possible so that errors due to the presence of the tank boundary are minimized,
applying a known voltage between the electrodes and plotting the equipotentials av
2
av
2
(3.6)
with a probe. -+-=0.
ax2 ay2

This equation can be solved by the method known as separation of variables. We

!
H.V. earthed write Vas a product of separate parameters such that
j electrode electrode
compressed
I
electrolyte V=XY (3.7)

gas(£r'1)H.V' where

@
earthed tank
conductor

bushing platform
representlnq
compressecr
gas
.'
Hence
x =f(x)

Y=f(y).

(a) Ib) a2~; a2x

plan of problem electrolytic tank Crlalogue -·=Y- (3.8)
ax2 ax2
Figure 3.6 Using an electrolytic tank to represent two dielectrics
a2v ay
2

-=X- (3.9)
If the solution required is only in two dimensions, a shallow tank can be used ay2 ay2
and regions of different dielectric constant can be incorporated by changing the
water depth. Figure 3.6 shows a plan of a simple bushing in a compressed gas and Laplace's equation becomes
(e, = 1) tank. An insulating platform is placed in the tank to represent the gas
~
1
__
ay
2
=
I a2x =a2.
space. The thickness of this platform is such that (3.10)
!, yay2 X ax2
depth of water above platform .,.""{
--------~-- = dielectric constant of bushing. a is known as the separation constant and the solution to (3.10) is
total depth of water in tank

An alternative method for plotting fields in concentric-cylinder geometIY problems

V = (A cos ax + B sin ax)(C cosh ay + D sinhay) for a * O.
with multiple dielectrics, using a tank that has a base incorporating wedge-shaped The boundary conditions allow the constants A, B, C and D to be calculated for
portions, has been mentioned by Rogers (1968). suitable problems. These are normally problems of regular, simple geometry where
The power supply for an electrolytic tank should have a voltage of about 50 V the potential is specified on all the boundaries. Solutions in three dimensions in .
and a power output of at least lOW. If a d.c. supply is used the electrolyte will rectangular and in cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates can be found in many
ionize and the ions will collect around the electrodes, giving a polarization that will standard texts, e.g. Jeans (1925) or Schwartz (1972).
distort the electric field. An a.c. supply, preferably of at least 1.5 kHz, will avoid
3.4.2 Using a conformal transformation
these polarization problems. Electrolyte surfaces will form a rneniscus at electrodes
and at the probe, but errors can be minimized by adding a wetting agent to the Conformal transformations allow problems whose geometry prevents them from
electrolyte so that the heights of the menisci are reduced. being solved directly by analysis to be transformed to geometries which are soluble.
~~.
.~
~.
The transformation is of the form w = fez) where z = x + jy and w = u + jv .
rt Figure 3.7 shows an area ABCD in the z-plane which is bounded by two ellipses
3.4 ANALYTICAL METHODS j
I; centred on 0 and by the two/ hyperbolae. The transformation z = sin w will trans-
Analytical solutions, where they exist, are the most useful, but they normally exist ~,
form this area into the rectangular area in the w-plane shown in Figure 3. 7(b). If
only for two-dimensional fields of fairly simple geometry. Either a direct solution
f" AB and DC represent equipotentials and BC and AD flux lines in the z-plane, then
of Laplace's equation must be obtained or a conformal transformation must be .'
~ ab and dc represent equipotentials and be and ad flux lines in the w-plane , Solution
used to convert the geometry of the problem to one that is soluble. by transformation usually involves finding a suitable equation linking z and w so
i
.t")
N
!
~,

r
 ~ l', '~4.~

82 83
y

v:
c d
a b c d

b a u

u c
la) Ib l
z - plane w-plcne
la) Ib) Figure 3.8 The Schwarz-Christoffel transformation
z-plane w-plane
Figure 3.7 The z = sin w transformation
transformation equation and problems with two right angles give elementary func-
tions, usually circular or hyperbolic functions, in the transformation equation.
that a non-uniform field in the z-plane is mapped to a uniform field in the w-plane.
For example, the problem of the field in an electrode system for ion injection,
Such equations can be very complicated, involving intermediate variables and
effectively a right-angled trough witha slit at the bottom, can be transformed to
boundary shapes.
the w-plane real axis by using the equation
Examples of useful transformations are z = cos w + j sin w which maps an ellipse
in the z-plane to the u-axis in the w-plane and, for transformation between polar z = A COSh-l(W).
co-ordinates in one plane and rectangular co-ordinates in the other, z = logr + j8,
When the problem contains more than two right angles the integration required
which transforms a rectangle in the z-plane into an annulus in the r,8 plane.
to give the transformation equation is an elliptic integral and the transformation
equation becomes more complicated. A very useful account of Schwarz-Christoffel
The Schwarz-Christoffel trans/ormation techniques for solving problems with more than two right angles is given by Gibbs
(1958).
This transformation maps the interior of a polygon in the z-plane to the upper half
of the w-plane, The sides of the polygon become the real axis of the w-plane as
Example: The parallel plate capacitor
shown in Figure 3.8. The technique allows a transformation to be found between
any two areas enclosed by polygons. One transformation will transform the real The fringing field at the edges of a parallel plate capacitor (Figure 3.9 shows the
axis sides to the real axis in the w-plane and a second transformation can be used to right half) is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the capacitor, cg, and the line
transform this w-plane real axis to a new polygon in a new z' plane. The transforma- ab, so only the upper half of the figure need be considered. The distance between
tion equation is the electrodes is 2h. Figure 3.1 O(a) shows the uPI:er right quadrant of the capacitor
in the a-plane. The electrode cdef is considered to be of negligible thickness and to
dz ~-I ~-I :!_I 2.-1
-=S(w-a)" (w-bY' (w-c)" (w-d)" ... (3.11 ) be at potential + V with the lower electrode at potential - V. The polygon in the
dw z-plane consists of the upper (cf) and lower (de) surfaces of the electrode. (Assume
where S is a constant of scale rotation, a, b, c, d are co-ordinates of points on the that the electrodes are infinite in length so that c, d, a have x co-ordinates -00 and
iv-plane real axis that correspond to the vertices A, 8, C, D of the polygon in the / b is at x = + 00.) If the Schwarz-Christoffel equation is used cf will transform to -'
z-plane and a, (1, r, li are the interior angles of the polygon at A, 8, C, D. The proof . c'f", ed to e'd' and ab to a'b', c' is at u = -00 and b' at u = + 00. The interior
of this can be found in textbooks on complex variables such as Fuks and Shabat , angles of the polygon are 21f at fe and 0 at da. Equation (3.11) becomes
(1964). ~
r- dz
§ (3.12)
The use of the transformation always involves an integration which will vary in {
-= Sew-al)1(w-a2fl.
dw
complexity with the problem being solved. The transformation is usually used for ~
geometries where the angles a, (1, r, li, '" are right angles or zero angles. The com- f There are three constants to be determined: S, al and a2' However, there is only
plexity of the transformation equation increases with the number of right angles to one fixed dimension, h. Hence, a 1 and a2 may be assigned arbitrary values which
be transformed. The simplest case, as in the example below, contains no right fix the positions of f''e' and d'a' on the real axis, allowing S to be determined from
angles. Problems with one right angle give the transformation IV = Z2 as the the dimension II. Take a I = - I and a2 = O. This fixes ct/ a' at the origin instead of
fl)
 I J 'L,j 1-
,.~~. I'

84 85

:tr'tOm (3.13), in terms of w,

w + 1
(3.16)
"I S [ --dw=jh
c .L w
.' I srhe path L is a small semicircle of radius r.

-/ 2hl :1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lib
11 polar co-ordinates
w = r ei8 (3.17)

9 •• dw = jr ei8 dO (3.18)

·~3 .16) becomes

Figure 3.9 Using the Schwarz-<:hristoffel transformation to 1r (r ei8 + 1) .

find the field in a parallel-plate capacitor S
io r e/8
.
.
jr e/8 dO = jh. (3.19)

.~fe approach x =- 00, the right-hand side is not changed, but r -+ 0 and in the
c v '!id.:

i
a
d '

,.. I.
i ])21T

:>b
x
c' t'e' I do' b'
u
Sf: j dO =jh (3.20)

J .1a-.e
(a) z-plane
(b) w-plane jSrr = jh
f Figure 3.10 Transformation of the capacitor plates from. the z-plane to the
-! w-plane :41'

h
the position shown in Figure 3.10(b) and fixes f'e' at u =-l. Then (3.12) becomes S=-·
rr
dz (w+ 1)
-=S-_· ::l!iir; the point e in the z-plane has co-ordinates z = 0 + jh and corresponds to e' in
(3.13)
dw w :ltw-planewith co-ordinates w = -1 + jO. Substituting these values in (3.14) gives
Integrating (3.13),
jh = S(-1 + jrr) + k _ (3.21)
z = Sew + In IV) + k. (3.14) ',lfsubsti:tnting the value of S obtained above in this equation gives

The constants can be evaluated by considering the points a and d, which are at li
i k=-·
x = -00 in the z-plane , separated by a distance h in the y-direction. The corre-
-
~
J rr
sponding points d' and a' in the w-plane are now at the origin. If we cross from the
x-axis to the capacitor plate near x = - 00, we traverse a distance h, while in the w: :;tD:ce
plane the path traversed is a semicircle centred on the origin. The nearer we cross to h
the point x = - 00, the smaller the radius of the semicircle in the w-plane. Hence as z = - (1 + w + in w). (3.22)
x ...•.- 00, r -+ 0, where r is the radius of the w-plane semicircle, rr

:.k:the potential distribution is symmetrical about ab, the potential en the real axis

• a
I
'd
dz = ih (3.15)
:~ the z-plane is O. TIle w-plane representation of the problem is an electrode at
..':'1entiai + V extending from -00 to the origin and a zero-potential part of the u-
..(')
C'l
 -.~;"
=: ~....
'
86
axis extending from the origin to + 00. The field of this arrangement can be found
by using the transformation w' = In z' and the field, Eu in the u-axis direction and
E, in the z-axis direction, is given by
V
E'=Eu+jEv=-lnw.
tt
(3.23)
Hence, eliminating ~\/between equations (3.22) and (3.23), the equation linking a
position in the a-plane and the field at that position is
z =-h [ 1 + exp (~ E') +.....!!...
E'] (3.24)
rr ,V. V
Conjugate functions can be used for analysing many electrostatic field distributions,
e.g. the field between parallel cylindrical conductors of different diameters and
spacings, the fringing field through a slot in the surface of a plane electrode, and the
field inside rectangular boxes with various electrode arrangements along the box
sides. The solutions of these problems are given in Walker (I 933), Gibbs (I 958),
Binns and Lawrenson (1963) and Bewley (1963).
3.5 NUMERICAL METHODS
A number of different numerical methods have been used to obtain electrostatic
field distributions. The best method to use depends on the geometry of the prob-
lem, the computing power available and the accuracy of ,the solution required.
Programs used commercially are usually of the finite difference or fmite element
type and are sometimes adaptations of programs used for predicting electromagnetic
fields. The main computational techniques that have been used are described below.
3.5.1 Monte Carlo methods
Monte Carlo methods use the generation of random numbers to determine the path
of a random walk within the field region. The walk connects the point whose
potential is to be determined to a boundary where the potential is known. The
field area can be divided into a mesh (Figure 3.11). To determine the potential at
a (Vo), the walk starts at a and follows a random path along squares of the mesh
until a boundary is reached at b. Some walks will terminate on the upper boundary
where V = I and some on the lower boundary where V = O. It can be shown
(Brown, 1958) that if N random walks are made and these end on boundaries with
potentials VI, V2, V3, .•• , VN then the statistical estimate of the potential Vo at a is
1 N
Vo=- VN. L (3.25)
N n=!
For example, in the system shown in Figure 3. I I there are two boundary potentials,
o and 1. If 100 random walks started from a and 43 of these terminated on the
electrode where V = I, while 57 terminated on the electrode where V = 0, then the
.r<')
87
V;l
1\
<,
~ ..-
a
V;O Figure 3.11 A random walk in a sphere-plane system
estimate of the potential at a is -dio (43 x 1 + 57 x 0) = 0.43. The larger the number
of walks performed the greater the accuracy of the estimate, and 2000 or more
walks may be required for reasonable accuracy. However, the error is in the form of
statistical scatter, so absolute limits cannot be placed on the error in a particular
result.
The basic random walk method has not proved efficient in computational time,
compared with other methods, but Pickles (1977), has used a floating random walk
method, which does not confine the steps of the walk to a mesh, but to the surface
of the largest sphere that can be constructed centred at the start of the step and just
touching the boundary. The point on the sphere surface reached at the end of the
step is completely random. This technique reduces the average number of steps
required for a walk and reduces the computer time required. The method cannot
accommodate problems with more than one dielectric if implemented as described
above.
35_2 Integral methods
Two methods have been used that are based on the solution of Laplace's equation
in an integral form. These methods are the charge simulation method and the
method of moments and are discussed below. In both cases the solution starts from
consideration of the charge on electrode surfaces and at the boundary between
different dielectrics. It is the existence of this _surface charge that creates the
electrostatic field.
Charge simulation method
The distributee! charge on the electrode or dielectric surfaces is replaced by simu- -'
lated charges placed inside the electrode or dielectric (Akazaki, Mishijima and Sato,
1978). A set of point charges simulating the charge on the surface of an irregularly-
shaped electrode is shown in Figure 3.12. The position of the charges can be set
arbitrarily, although the accuracy of a solution will increase with the number of
charges used and will vary with the charge positioning for a given number of
charges. The magnitude of each of these point charges is obtained by considering
a number of points on the electrode surface. If the contributions of each of the
charges QI, Q2, QJ, ... , Qi to the potential at a point on the electrode surface are
added, the sum must equal the electrode potential Vo. In this way a number of
t (""".~ I
 ILJI- 89
88
field solution of the moment method is not well behaved in the immediate vicinity
electrode
of the electrodes because continuously distributed charges on the electrodes are

.•. ' • 0,
. 02 Q3 04
being represented by discrete charges. The charge simulation solution has the
advantage of being useful right up to the electrode surface because the charges are
• • ~i • • located behind the electrodes. Whilst it is theoretically possible to use a complex
simulated Figure 3.12 Point charges simulating electrode surface surface charge distribution for the moment method, and hence to produce a solu-
char9,.e charge
• tion that can be used at the electrode surface, this is very difficult to compute .

simultaneous equations ate obtained and an iterative scheme is used to solve these 3.5 3 Differential methods
for the charge magnitudes. Laplace's equation can be solved in different co-ordinate systems, e.g. in rectangular
The charges used can be point charges as in Figure 3.12, line charges, ring
co-ordinates
charges or disk charges (Singer, Steinbigler amd Weiss, 1974). The best type of
charge "to use depends on the geometry of the electrodes, e.g. a line charge is most av av
2
_+-+-=0
2
av 2
(3.26)
suitable for simulating the surface charge on a cylinder and a series of ring charges is ax2 2
ay2 az
suitable for simulating the surface charge on a sphere.
Once the magnitude of the simulated charges has been determined, the potential or in cylindrical co-ordinates
2
at any point can be calculated by adding the potentials produced at that point by 2

all the charges. The technique has no difficulty with problems where some of the
1 a r-
__ (av) I av av
+--+-=0. (3.27)
2
boundaries are at infinity, but choice of the charge. type and position requires
r ar ar r2 ae2 az
experience. Programs have been written for the solution of particular electrode The co-ordinate system used depends on the geometry of the problem. If there are
geometries, but general programs are not available. A variation of this method has free charges present the equation becomes Poisson's equation where the right-hand
been used to calculate the electric field in cable joints containing several dielectrics side is - P/€o€r instead of zero.
(Minors, 1980). It was found for this problem that increasing the number of charge
segments above 100 only made less than 1% difference to the result.
Finite element method
The field region is covered by a grid of elements and the field strength is considered
Moment method
constant within each element. The elements may have curved boundaries or straight
The moment method uses charges on the surface of electrodes and at the interfaces boundaries and be triangular, rectangular or quadrilateral for two-dimensional
between different dielectrics as the sources of the electrostatic field (Harrington problems. A typical grid of triangular elements for a problem with rectangular
et al., 1969). The charge distributions can be point charges, line charges or ring co-ordinates is shown in Figure 3.13. A three-dimensional problem can be divided
charges as in the charge simulation case, or other surface charge distributions. The into triangular prisms or other regular three-dimensional elements. The potential
number and type of charges used has to be determined by experience, with a at each of the external boundaries of the problem must be known or approximated.
greater number of charges giving a greater accuracy. The magnitude of the charges is The size of the elements can vary according to the accuracy of the solution required
determined by calculating the effects of the charges at boundaries. The boundary and the size of the matrix that the computer can accept. Elements can be much
conditions are that the potential at all points on electrode surfaces must be the smaller in areas where the field is likely to change rapidly.
electrode potentials, the normal component of electric flux must be the same in A scalar potential function is specified within each element in terms of the node
both dielectrics at a dielectric interface and the component of the electric field potentials. A matrix equation is built up from all the elements, of the form
parallel to the dielectric boundary must be the same in both dielectrics. Simulta- [5). [V) = [R) (3.28)
neous equations are set up using these conditions and an iterative process used to
calculate the charge magnitudes. If the problem being solved is rotationally sym-
... metric about an axis, the charges on the electrodes can be approximated by the
where
[5] is the geometric coefficient matrix which includes the dielectric
rotation of line charges and ring charges (Daffe and Olsen, 1979). This has been
constants of each portion of the problem
used to give an efficient computation of the electric field around an insulator.
[V] is the node potential matrix
The moment method, like the charge simulation method, can deal with a
[R) is the charge density matrix.
problem with some of the boundaries at infinity without difficulty. However, the

..l")
N
 • t.t:'
90 91
•

Y~ e~,~ctrou~ Y, , , , , ,
',(j.ll
'.
~,~nodes
(j.,)t-t-t-t-H (i-lI,j i,j (I.ll,j
~=:zZ:iZ:;~V
j~ ..
x
figure 3,P Division of a field region into finite elements, Ii-O I I I X ~ i,l j-u
J One element is shown shaded lAY 1 1 I (i-O i 1i.1I

~
As the elements can be of any shape, curved electrodes or dielectric interfaces do (a) (b)
not present any problem. A typical example of the use of a package developed to finite difference grid a typical node
solve electromagnetic fields for electrostatic field solution is the use of the com- Figure 3.14 Finite difference method computation grid
puter code PE2D to design a feedthrough insulator that includes field grading rings
(Biddlecome, Edwards and Shaw, 1981). Further details of finite element solution
methods can be found in books by Brebbia and Ferrante (1978) and Chari and
Silvester (1980). Suppose the grid is square: then x = y. Also, by Laplace,

a-=-_.
2v a2v
Finite difference method ax2 ay2

This method has been used widely for the solution of electrostratic fields in high- Hence, adding (3.31) and (3.32) we obtain
voltage design. As with the finite element method, a grid is overlaid onto the area
V(i,j) = !(V(i +1,;) + V(i -I./) + V(i.; -I) + Va,; +1»' (3.33)
in which the field is to be mapped, but the grid must be of a much more regular
form. Linear equations are then written relating the potentials at each node to the Slightly more complicated equations can be obtained for problems where the
potentials at the adjacent nodes. Hence a set of simultaneous ,equations is obtained horizontal and vertical dimensions of the grid are different, or different parts of
which must be solved for the node potentials. the grid contain materials of different permittivities. The potentials on boundaries
Figure 3.14(a) shows a typical finite difference grid and Figure 3.14(b) a typical must be known or estimated to obtain a solution, If the boundaries are electrodes ."
set of adjacent points on the grid. The grid is rectangular, although other grids (e.g. then the voltage applied to the electrodes fixes the boundary potential. An initial
concentric circles and radii for cylindrical geometry) are possible. potential is arbitrarily allocated to each node (perhaps the average of the electrode
Laplace's equation is replaced by a finite difference equation; and this is potentials) and iteration performed to obtain progressively more accurate values
expanded using Taylor's series: for the node potentials. Iteration can be stopped when successive iterations give
2 answers which differ by only a small value.
3
+ L\x av/ + (L\X)2
-- a-- v/ + (L\X)3
-_ __ a v/
aX 3" 1./ + ...
v. ' ,= v.. , - Further details of the use of finite difference techniques are given in a book by
(1+1,/) (1,/) ax,
1,1
2'
•
aX 2 "
1,/
3'
•
(3.29)
Binns and Lawrenson (I963). A problem with the technique is that potentials can
only be obtained for the grid nodes (this also applies to the finite element tech-
and
nique). If the potential is changing rapidly in a particular area of the problem (e.g.
av/ (L\X)2a2V/ (L\X)3 a3v/ a sharp edge) then the mesh must be very fine to obtain sufficient detail. A fine
V(i -I,j) = V(i.j) - L\x - + -- --2 - -- --3 + .... (3.30)
ax i.] 2! ax i'; 3! ax i,; mesh involves very large matrices and hence large amounts of computer memory OJ'

and long computation times,

Adding these two equations, neglecting terms of order (L\X)4 or higher, we obtain

2
V(I +1';) + V(/_I';) = 2VU,j) a vI
+ (L\X)2 a2' . (3.31 )
3.5.4 Comment on numerical methods
x t.t Many programs are available for the computation of electrostatic fields. These
Similarly, normally include plotting routines so that the output can be obtained directly as
equipotential or constant field lines. However, preparation of the problem for
2
V(i,i+l) + V(i.; -1) = 2V(i.i) + (L\y)2 a v/
~ ., (3.32)
computer solution and input of the data can be very time consuming. Programs
Y 1.1 that include pre-processing, and which enable a graphics tablet or similar technique

,M
 92

to be used to input the geometry of the problem, save much of this time and effort.
The pre-processing can also check that the input data are reasonable.
Finite element and finite difference techniques are the only ones available for
general programs for the solution of electrostatic fields. Claims are made that the
r
,
•
REFERENCES

Akazaki, M., Mishijima, K_, and Sato, S. (1978). Calculation of three-dimensional

axisymmetric fields by the charge simulation method. Electrical Engineering in
Japan, 98,1-7.
93

finite difference method is more efficient in computation time, but the finite Bewley, L. V. (1963). Two-dimensional Fields in Electrical Engineering, Dover,
-I element method represents curved boundaries with greater accuracy. Neither the
j- New York.
moment, nor the Monte Carlo, methods have been used very widely, but the charge Biddlecombe, C. S., Edwards" C. B., and Shaw, M. 1. (1981). The use of computer
simulation technique shows great promise and has been applied to some industrial code PE2D in the electrostatic modelling of an electron beam generator vacuum
problems. The advantages of the charge simulation technique are that no approxi- diode interface. Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Report, Number RL-81-094.
Binns, K. 1., and Lawrenson, P. 1. (1963). Analysis and Computation of Electrical
mations need to be made for infinite boundaries, and potentials and fields can be
and Magnetic Field Problems, Pergamon, London.
calculated at any points, not just at the nodes of a mesh. Large matrices are not Brebbia, C. A., and Ferrante, A. J. (1978). Computational Methods for the Solu-
required when the potentials at a large number of points are required (perhaps tion of Engineering Problems, Pentech, London.
points in an area where the field is varying rapidly). The difficulty to be overcome Brown, G. W. (1958). Monte Carlo Methods. In E. F. Beckenbach (Ed.), Modern
is the production of a charge simulation program that is not specific to particular Mathematics for the Engineer, First Series, McGraw Hill, New York.
Chari, M. V. K., and Silvester, P. P. (Eds) (1980). Finite Elements in Electrical and
electrode geometries. All numerical solutions involve some inaccuracies at sharp
Magnetic Field Problems, Wiley, New York.
edges and points and it is often difficult tC1estimate the maximum size of this error. Daffe, J., and Olsen, R_ O. (1979). An integral technique for solving rotationally
symmetric electrostatic problems in conducting and dielectric materials. IEEE
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, PAS-98, 1609-1616.
Fuks, B. A., and Shabat, B. V. (1964). Functions of a Complex Variable and Some
3.6 USE OF FIELD PLOTS IN HIGH-VOLTAGE DESIGN of their Applications, Vol. I, Pergamon, London.
Gibbs, W. J. (1958). Conformal Transformations in Electrical Engineering, Chapman
Field plots allow the electric field to be determined in each part of a proposed
and Hall, London.
design and hence the electric strength required for the insulation used in each part Harrington, R. F., Pontoppidan, K_, Abrahamsen, Po, and Albertsen, N. C. (1969).
, of the design is known. An initial field plot will show whether the thickness of Computation of Laplacian potentials by an equivalent-source method. Proc.
insulation is adequate, or if a reduction in thickness is possible. The plot will also f.E.E., 116, 1715-1720.
"
Jeans, J. H. (1925). The Mathematics of Electricity and Magnetism, 5th edition,
identify areas of high electric stress. Re-design of electrode shapes, addition of
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
grading (conducting surfaces placed inside the insulation - see Subsection 8.2.2) or Minors, R. H. (1980). The use of Gaussian surface charge simulation in axisymmetric
stress shields may be capable of reducing the maximum stress. Figure 3.15 shows a field problems. In fEE Colloquium on the Application of Computers in Field
field plot for a cryogenic power cable termination. The design aim is a maximum Analysis, lEE, London. "
. stress of 20 MV/m in the epoxy, 8 MV/m in the helium gas and I MV/m along the Pickles, 1. H. (1977). Monte Carlo Field Calculations. Proc. f.E.E., 124, 1271-1276 .
epoxy surface. The plot shows a surface stress greater than 1 MV/m, so the embedded Rogers, P. 1. (1968). Evaluation of electric stress by means of the electrolytic tank.
In L. L. Alston (Ed.), High-voltage Technology, Oxford University Press,
electrode shape needs modification.
London.pp.196-206.
Computer field plots are used routinely for designing all types of high-voltage Schwartz, M. (1972). Principles of Electrodynamics, McGraw Hill, New York.
equipment. Singer, H., Steinbigler, H., and Weiss, P. (1974). A charge simulation method for
the calculation of high-voltage fields. fEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, PAS-93, 1660-1668.
Walker, M. (1933). Conjugate Functions for Engineers, Oxford University Press,
London.
,. dielectric boundary
metal boundary
helium gas

epoxy
Figure 3.15 Field plot for a cable termination. The lines shown are equipotentials (Repro-
duced by permission of Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York)

..l")
C'I
 ~" ;r~~
. ro'·

9S
1,
I,
H,V.
circuit breaker
with overload "
/ trip device
I)[l door test
L_.:rl L~terlock chamber
I

J
I 4 2'OV:
50HZ:
I
i
N-~- I - -

.1 variable step-up
Generation of high voltages transformer
Figure 4.1
transformer
Basic a.c. high-voltage supply

The forms of high voltage which are normally generated can be classed as alter-
nating, constant (direct) or impulse. A~ we have seen in Chapter 1, both alternating
and constant high voltages are used to transmit electrical power and they are also
required for test purposes. High impulse-voltages are needed to investigate the
response of the insulation on a transmission system (and its associated equipment)
to transient disturbances from switching or lightning surges. The size, shape and
construction of electrical plant, such as a generator transfonner for example, can
differ greatly from those for a unit designed for test purposes only but, nevertheless,
the same principles govern the generation of high voltages irrespective of the power
ratings of the equipment. In this chapter we shall concentrate on the methods of
producing high voltages in equipment which is used primarily for test purposes.
The various techniques of testing will be dealt with in Chapter 6.
If flashover, or internal breakdown, of the test object occurs, it is obvious that
the transformer, such as in Figure 4.1, is subjected to conditions of overload and
short-circuit. Consequently, the insulation of the test transformer must be properly
designed to withstand the severe transient surges of high voltage which accompany
breakdown of the test object. The problem of adequate insulation is especially
important for transformers which are used to test transmission equipment operating
in the HV and EHV ranges, since the equipment specifications usually demand
power-frequency tests at levels significantly higher than their rated voltage. Obviously,
such tests require transformers with output voltages up to 1 MV or higher. A single
step-up transformer for this purpose would be very large and expensive and a more
compact, cheaper supply is provided by using two, or more, transformers in cascade.

I,

4.1.2 Transformers in cascade

4.1 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES
A cascade connection of transformers is usually adopted for voltages in excess of
While high alternating voltages can be generated by motor-driven synchronous several hundred kV. A typical arrangement of two 240 V/200 kV cascaded trans-
generators or battery-powered oscillators, most commercial test-sets are supplied I formers is shown in Figure 4.2_ The bottom transformer T1 has its tank and core
from the 110 V or 240 V, 50/60 Hz main. The fixed mains voltage is supplied to a earthed and is supplied at mains voltage from a variable-voltage transformer. The
variable-voltage transformer which delivers an adjustable voltage to the primary of
a single step-up transfonner.
Ii end d1 of the secondary of transformer T1 is also earthed but its output is taken
between points C1 and e1 to feed the primary a2b2 of the second transformer T 2- A
I
.. \. voltage of 240 V across the primary of T1 is stepped up to 200 kV across C1d1 but
4.1.1 Single step-up transformers the tapping point e, is located about 240 V down from the high voltage end C1' This
240 V is then fed to the primary a2b2 of T2 which also has a 200 kV secondary I,'

The basic electric circuit of a test-set to produce power-frequency alternating winding C2dl- Since the 240 V primary supply of T2 is actually 200 kV above earth
voltages up to about 200 kV follows the general pattern shown in Figure 4. L Power ;
potential, the tank and core of this transformer are at the same potential and there-
from the main supply is fed to a variable-voltage toroidal auto-transformer (variac) fore it must be mounted on stand-off insulators. T2 is identical to T1 and their c f

which supplies the primary winding of a single step-up transformer. Commercial secondary voltages combine to give an output voltage which is at 400 kV above
test-sets are rated by their output voltage and kV A, and may be divided into two earth. Higher voltages may be provided by using extra units and cascade arrange-
broad categories: (1) portable or transportable units with output voltages up to ments have been built for voltages in excess of 2 MV.
50 kV at ratings from 1 to 2 kVA, and (2) larger fixed units which can operate up The cascade connection in Figure 4.2 has the advantage that each transformer
to 200 kV and whose output is largely determined by factors such as physical size has an insulation level of only 200 kV. For ease of manufacture the units are
and· weight but which can be as high as 100 kVA. usually of the core type, with the insulation between windings consisting of bake lite
-M .:J C (; ~
N
 ~..;'
I"'-.j I

96 97

400kV HV
winding
C2 HV
';
LV

11". ,
200 kV
'", winding T2

step-up
d2 transformer
Figure 4.3 Voltage control of testing
200 kV transformer by slide resistance
Insulctor

HV
dl ~
Figure 4.2 Cascade a.c. high-voltage supply buffer
LV . \

cylinders immersed in oil. However, the size, shape arid overall design depend not
only on the required output voltage and current but also on the type of applica-
tion. The small capacitance of bushings and insulator strings, for example, only
warrant test units with low output power. However, tests on synchronous generators,
=tlj step-up

, transformers and cables require units with comparatively high power output
because of the need to supply their large quadrature currents. An alternative Figure 4.4
transformer
Voltage control
transformer
by tapped

arrangement for cable testing is to use a series resonant circuit (Subsection 4_1.4)
to generate the high voltage.
,.,
4.1.3 Voltage control of testing transformers
Most test specifications (Chapter 6) recommend a smooth and gradual rise of volt-
age from zero up to the test level; this can be accomplished in several ways. A
smooth variation of voltage is obtained by slider resistance control, as shown in
/. Figure 4.3. For small units with outputs less than 5 kVA, resistance control has the
advantage of cheapness, convenience and little distortion of the voltage waveform.
For high kVA units, however, the large size and cost of the resistance together with
its /2 R copper loss are obvious disadvantages. Consequently, the resistance may be
omitted in favour of feeding the primary directly from a separate synchronous
,.... generator. Variation of the field current of the synchronous generator yields a
smooth, simple and convenient control of the input from zero to full voltage with
little, if any, distortion of the waveform.
r}. Figure 4.4 illustrates a third method for accurate control of the high-voltage
output. The primary of the test transformer is fed from the tapped secondary of
the regulating transformer. In order to avoid surges in the high-voltage output due
to opening of the secondary circuit of the regulating transformer when the tapping
switch is moved, two contact brushes are used. The brushes connect with adjacent
ing a short-circuit in a section of the transformer winding. The method has the
I
advantage of high efficiency and small waveform distortion but the regulation is
not smooth unless a large number of tappings is used. An auto-transformer may be
used instead of the double-wound regulating transformer but because it carries the
1/
full primary current, its rating must be as high as that of the test transformer. A
large unit would be required for sets with ratings greater than 5 kVA and, for this
reason, auto-transformer regulation of large test sets is seldom used.
For heavy duty test sets, an induction regulator can be used to control the ~
input voltage to the test transformer. The regulator is similar in design to a wound-
rotor induction motor but it is essentially a transformer whose output voltage is
varied by rotating its secondary relative to the primary. The stator (primary) carries
i.:~ the current and the rotor (secondary) is connected across the mains supply, as
shown in Figure 4.5. With Vas the supply voltage, the secondary voltage can be
varied from - V to V according to the position of the rotor, which can be moved
through nearly 360°. Thus the voltage applied to the primary of the step-up trans-
former can be adjusted from zero to 2 V. Induction regulators can be arranged for
manual or automatic control but a disadvantage lies in their high cost. Moreover,
careful design of the unit is needed to avoid waveform distortion but, nevertheless,

I
studs and with a buffer resistance, or reactance coil, between them thereby prevent- such regulators find widespread use in high-voltage laboratories.
If)
N
 ~;:r~(·
98
~;
99
1- - -- - - - - - - - - - - --..,-t-----------,
". •
HV

L~

rotor
!
I
reactor' n
1LJ i
I
"
r
/.
j.
1
!...
main
_--"r----t
Jt:P~f.s?C!l'_e.!:. _ .J

step-up -.::1 I
transformer
Figure 4.5 Voltage control by induction regulator
Figure 4.6

4.1.4 Series resonant circuits ~IC,

Harmonics in the primary supply voltage and in the magnetizing current of a trans-
former may excite natural oscillations at various' frequencies which can lead to d
DC or xc
input nG1
(L . L, L2 C2 output
considerable distortion and amplification of the secondary voltage. Harmonics can ,~;,

also lead to a very considerable, and possibly dangerous, enhancement of voltage on Ir

the secondary side of a transformer by series resonance with a capacitive load.
Accidental resonance at power frequencies has produced explosions during high- Figure 4.7 Tesla coil circuit
potential testing of cables. However, the resonance effect can be deliberately used ". r:.
with advantage for the generation of high alternating test voltages which are free {
tests on plant operating at normal power frequencies, because of the complex
from unwanted resonance at other harmonics. A simplified diagram of a series
-l waveform of its output voltage and the radio interference radiated from the spark
resonant circuit is shown in Figure 4.6, where the object under 'test, such as a cable, -: "
gap. High-frequency, high-voltage tests are mainly carried out on equipment used in
is represented by a capacitance. This is in series with a moving-coil reactor whose t-
communications systems.
inductance can be altered to match the impedance of the capacitive load at the
supply frequency. The series resonant circuit thus formed will generate high ~.
"
voltages when it is excited by the regulating transformer from the main supply. j:
1 ~-
4.2 DIRECT VOLTAGES
A series resonant circuit for use with large capacitive loads has the distinct
Quite apart from their use in HYDe transmission systems, high direct voltages have
advantage that a good power factor is easily achieved. Furthermore, if a test object
pt'~ numerous other applications. In the research laboratory they are used to test equip-
fails under high voltage, resonance is quickly lost and the concurrent voltage col-
ment of high capacitance, such as cables, and also for fundamental studies of the
lapse will lead to the rapid extinction of any power arc. Resonant sets with ratings
behaviour of insulating materials. In industry, high direct voltages find widespread
of 250 kV, 20 MVA have been produced and they are also used to provide high-
application in processes such as electrostatic precipitation, paint spraying, powder
~r"
voltage supplies for X-ray work. A full account of transformers for resonant "

coating, generation of X-rays etc. (Chapter 8). There are two methods of producing
circuits has been given by Craggs and Meek (I 954) and Kuffel and Abdullah (1970).
high direct voltages: (l) rectification of high alternating voltages, and (2) electro-
Another resonant circuit method to generate high voltages is the Tesla coil, ~ static generation. The basic circuits for rectification, and. their operation, are well-
named after its inventor. The coil is an air-cored step-up transformer with both its I~
windings tuned by capacitors, as illustrated in Figure 4.7. When the spark gap G1
breaks down, at a pre-set value, it closes the primary tuned circuit consisting of
..
l .ij
known to students and will be only briefly discussed here .
'"

LJ Ch producing high-frequency damped oscillations, typically in the range 104 to ~

105 Hz. The oscillatory current in the primary circuit induces oscillations in the
secondary tuned circuit L2 C2• The process is then repeated each time the primary it- 4.2.1 Half-wave and full-wave rectification
.
To generate direct voltages up to about 30 kV, a simple half-wave rectifier circuit,
spark gap flashes over, and consequently the supply to the circuit may either be ~:
~ as shown in Figure 4.8(a), is adequate. The diode conducts on the positive half-
alternating or constant. If the primary is supplied with several thousand volts, the f
cycle of the alternating-voltage wave, charging the reservoir capacitor C ideally to
output can be as high as I MV. The Tesla coil is used infrequently for high-voltage
,
I~

{ the peak voltage V of the step-up transformer, However, whilst the maximum
..
I~
 100 101

current-iimiting
H V . 1.
resistance
HV HV
LV LV

c c
~ ~ 0,
I
step lop ! -

transformer Ib)
rai
HV

LV
°2 I
I

c, C2 I.: step-up '(.... -.. ~j ~I'

transformer
0, .' j- ".' -' I' t.
Figure 4.9 Voltage quadrupler supply
~
~-
2
circuit). On the half-cycle where terminal 1 of the transformer secondary is negative,

Figure 4.8
t ci
High-voltage direct current supplies: (a) half-wave, (b) full-wave, (c) voltage-
I ~.I.;,
current will flow through Dj to charge capacitor Cj. Owing to the low impedance
-; offered by Dj and the high impedance of D2' no current reaches the load. During
doubler
I~ ~;

t-. output voltage is theoretically equal to V, the diode has to be designed to withstand
2 V because, on the negative half-cycle, it offers an infinite impedance to conduc-
tion which thereby places 2 V across the diode. The circuit of Figure 4.8(a) is only
used when very H!!!e output power is required, since half the supply voltage is
effectively wasted. Moreover, the output contains the fundamental frequency and
its even harmonics which could introduce problems of dangerously high resonance
voltages when used to test loads of a mixed inductive and capacitive nature. If
better voltage regulation and less output ripple are required than are obtained from--
a half-wave rectifier, then a full-wave rectifier circuit can be used, as shown in
Figure 4.8(b). In this case, however, a distinct disadvantage for high-voltage testing
is that only half the voltage from the transformer is applied to the load. The
.. ,
secondary winding must be wound for twice the specified output voltage and,
moreover, the provision of a centre-tap to the transformer is essential.
4.2.2 Voltage doubler and cascade circuits
c'i
Most tests using high direct voltages need only a moderate current, which is often
less than 10 mA. Therefore, voltage doubler, tripler and even quadrupler circuits
form very convenient and practical methods of getting a high voltage with a small
step-up transformer. Figure 4.8(c) shows a voltage doubler circuit in its simplest
1" the next half-cycle diodes D, and D2 have high and low impedances, respectively.'
Consequently, the voltage already on Cj plus the secondary voltage is now applied
ii.' across C2 and the load. Thus, in the first half-cycle no voltage is applied to the load
.!
~, but, in the second half-cycle, twice the voltage is applied, utilizing the charge
i: obtained from the first half-cycle. Capacitor C2 acts as ,a reservoir to maintain the
voltage across the load during the half-cycles when C1 is being charged. The reservoir
capacitors in the circuits outlined in Figure 4.8 are generally chosen to reduce the
!~ ripple on the output voltage to less than 5% of its maximum value, but additional
: 'r' filtering may be inserted to reduce the ripple to better than 1%. Moreover, since'
ir~Z the test object is usually capacitive in nature it also contributes to the filtering. A
detailed ,treatment of smoothing and regulation of d.c. supplies has been given by
;~: Kuffel and Abdullah (l970). For voltages higher than the rating of a single diode,
;~
as many diodes as necessary may be connected in series but care is needed to ensure
;~ uniform voltage gradients along the diode stack so as to prevent breakdown within
:£~f the generator itself. The diodes are generally of selenium but where the output
current is above about 100 mA silicon rectifiers are used.
l~ Very high output voltages greater than 1 MV can be obtained by using several
',";S- stages of voltage doubler circuit in cascade (Charlton and Hubbard, 1940). Figure 4.9
t shows two doubler circuits coupled to provide a quadrupler set-up. Neglecting any
l- losses, the arrangement in Figure 4.9 would need only a small 25 kV, 1 kV A trans-
former to provide a 100 kV, 10 mA output. To deliver the same output from the
11
half-wave circuit of Figure 4.8(a) it would require a 75 kV to 100 kV heavy, oil-

I
form (in American literature this is often known as a half-wave voltage doubler

~
.C'l
 ~

102
t" 103

immersed, transformer depending on the level of ripple and regulation which was vertically at a speed of v m/s. The charging current carried by the belt to the
desired. However, for test sets requiring low output currents the size of the -high- ..•
collector is
voltage transformer may be reduced considerably by supplying it with high-frequency (4.1)
1= bva (Amps).
(10 kHz-I 00 kHz) voltages from an electronic oscillator before they are rectified
in the usual manner. Small, portable, highly-stable commercial generators using this
':~
In a time t s, therefore, a charge Q = It is deposited on the electrode whose poten- .•
technique are available, at moderate cost, for voltages up to 100 kV. tial V is Q/C, where C is the capacitance to earth of the high-voltage electrode.
An analysis of half-wave, full-wave and cascade rectifier circuits, from which Obviously, in the absence of any loss of charge, an unstable situation prevails and
their performance may/be obtained, has been given (Mitchell, 1943, 1945). the potential V would rise to infinity, In practice, a steady state is established at a
terminal voltage V where the charging current is balanced by a discharge current
which includes the load current and losses due to corona and leakage along insulat-
4.2.3 Electrostatic generators
ing surfaces. If all these paths have a combined resistance of R, then the discharge
The electrostatic generator is a machine for producing direct potential differences current is
of the order of several million volts. Its working principle was outlined by Lord
V
Kelvin in 1890 and put into practice, in essentially its modern form, by van de /' 1= - (Amps). (4.2)
Graaff in 1931. Apart from its widespread use in equipment for electrostatic " R
precipitation and paint spraying (Chapter 8) a major application is in nuclear From equations (4.1) and (4.2) the terminal voltage is
physics for accelerating particles to high energies. Electrostatic generators can pro-
t V= bvaR (Volts). (4.3)
duce 10 MeV protons at a single acceleration (Allen, 1968) ..
13
The operating principle of the generator is familiar to many students from their Reasonable practical values for the quantities in equation (4.3) are R = 10 fl,
schoolday physics. Basically, charge is sprayed from corona points onto an insu- a = 10-6 C/m2, v = 10 mls and b = 0.1 m. Therefore, using this simple treatment
lating moving belt which transports the charge to an electrode where it is removed we see from equation (43) that the theoretical potential of the high-voltage
.;
from the belt. Large quantities of charge can be collected by a large, smoothly- ;,. r
,~l~ electrode is 10 MV.
rounded, insulated metal electrode so that very high potentials can be generated. A ., Early machines operated in air but, in order to achieve a higher voltage and to
schematic diagram of a generator is illustrated in Figure 4.10. Suppose a negative '"
:~
~.r: reduce losses, modem machines are often enclosed in pressurized nitrogen or SF6•
surface charge of density a C/m2 is sprayed onto a belt, b m wide, which moves The output voltage of a belt-driven generator can exceed several MV and it is easily
"
1.:
controlled and highly stable (Kuffel and Abdullah, 1970). However, it has the
~: disadvantage that its current output is restricted to a few hundred microamperes.
1.:~
. Attempts have .been made to increase the power density by replacing the moving
conducting l

dome t:
>.
belt with a flowing dielectric liquid (Seeker and Hughes, 1969) while generators
using solid, insulating, cylindrical rotors with capacities up to 5 mA have been
..
;:"
developed (Felici, 1953).

r
" 4.3 IMPULSE VOLTAGES
moving
~, I·f
,!
belt j; In Section 1.6 we have seen that power transmission lines and associated equipment
;~ are subject to high-voltage surges impressed by lightning, or switching, transients. In
I~
!~ order to simulate these overvoltage conditions equipment is subjected to high-
voltage impulse tests in addition to the normal power-frequency overvoltage tests
Ii
I ,~
,,~.
(Chapter 6). Although the surges due to lightning have a wide variety of shapes
(Figure 1.26), in most high-voltage testing laboratories it has become the practice
to use an impulse voltage which resembles the travelling wave of Figure 1.27. The
shape and duration of the impulse can be controlled by suitably adjusting the
circuit components of an impulse, or surge generator. Comprehensive treatments
Figure 4.10 Schematic diagram of a belt- .1 of the techniques for generating high-impulse voltages have been given already by
driven electrostatic generator Craggs and Meek (1954) and by Kuffel and Abdullah (i 970). Our intention here is
,.., ~ .•....• -- .
 ,?,':
, 105
104 "
'1

twofold. Firstly, we want to explain in a simple manner the fundamental principles From a simple consideration of each circuit in Figure 4.11 it is easy to see that
,
of impulse generation and, secondly, we wish to acquaint the reader with some of
the features of modern multistage Marx generators.
:
.:.;,
the wave-shaping resistors R t and R2 dominate the front and tail times of the
impulse, respectively. Immediately after breakdown of G the voltage V is impressed
i"
r on the series combination of RI and Cl. Obviously, the smaller the time constant
.,. RI C2 the quicker will the voltage vet) on Cl approach the peak value V, resulting
4.3.1 Single-stage generator
-, ~ in a shorter wavefront. The peak value of vet), V,
cannot be greater than the voltage
Two simplified circuits of single-stage impulse generators are shown in Figure 4.1l. determined by the redistribution of the initial charge CI V onto the parallel combina-
"~
In both circuits the inductance of each circuit element is omitted as the inclusion
'.
tion of CI and Cl. Neglecting any loss of charge, therefore, we have (CI + C2) V=
of inductance would rn~e the analysis (Appendix 1) of the circuits extremely CI V. In practice the voltage efficiency, or regulation, for a generator is defined as
tedious. Furthermore, inductance may produce an overshoot on the amplitude of
V
1/=-";;;;---'
CI
the impulse, but it has little effect on its wavefront when transients, such as 1/50 jJ.S
waves, are being generated (Creed and Collins, 1971). A high-voltage d.c. source • 1. V CI + C2 1.': .
1,
(Section 4.2) is used to charge the stage capacitor CI until its voltage rises to a
value V which is sufficient to break down the spark-gap G. Thus C1 is suddenly
,
~,
In a multi-stage generator several capacitors are charged in parallel and then dis- J-
',,' we require CI ~ C2• Typically, 1/ is above 0.75 and it is recommended that CI should
discharged and an impulse is impressed upon the test object of capacitance Cl. An 5..
,,'1' be at least five times Cl. If this condition is satisfied then, clearly, the exponential r:y
analysis (Appendix 1) of the circuit in Figure 4.11(a) shows that the voltage vet)
'i
\~
l
decay of the impulse, or its tail, is determined by the time constant Ct (Rt + R0
across Cl has the form shown in Figure 4.12 and bears a marked resemblance to the t or CIR2 in circuits (a) and (b), respectively, of Figure 4.11. In practice Rl ~ R I and
-;.\
shape of the travelling wave of Figure 1.27. The temporal variation of v(t) can be circuit (b) is generally preferred to circuit (a). This is because in circuit (a) the resis-
expressed as the difference between two decaying exponentials and is given by ~
r',: tors RI and Rl form a potential divider and therefore its voltage efficiency is lower
than for circuit (b).
v(t)'= V [exp (__ t )-exp (__ t )]. (4.4) lf.. If required to produce impulses of high crest value, in the million volt range or
RlCI RIC2 higher, a single-stage generator has several disadvantages. Firstly, its peak output
g
{ voltage is limited by the maximum charging voltage from its d.c, supply. Secondly,
!
a single extra-high-voltage capacitor tends to be very large and expensive. Therefore,
G RI G RI
f':/. in order to generate impulses of high amplitude, it is necessary to cascade single-

":-T,~ ~~ :T to
stage units to form a multi-stage generator.

D~I_~--L_
. -=
D.C. "'-C1 R2 load
~.
i-
t:

4.3.2 Multi-stage Marx generator

tal
Figure 4.11 Two simplified single-stage impulse generators
tbl
,
Y."
-c
In a multistage generator several capacitors are charged in parallel and then dis-
charged in series. The discharge circuit is arranged to give an accumulative output
~.
voltage equal to the sum of all the individual capacitor voltages. E. Marx (1924) .
J'~
is credited with the ingenious idea of using spherical. spark gaps as switches to
~
VexpH/R2C,1 ~. enable several capacitors, charged in parallel, to be discharged in series. Today, the
~
V~._(__ 2
V[expH/,R C,I-expH/R,C 2" ,~
Marx circuit, with modifications, still forms the basis of almost all multi-stage
I\~
l>
01\
o
I\
\
f
l
impulse generators. A simple four-stage generator is shown in Figure 4.13. The
arrangement differs from Marx's original patent (1923) in the connection of the
charging circuits, which now are usually positioned in order to eliminate the need
~ \ t.

I
> o' for any part of the circuit to withstand more than a fraction of the total output
1\
voltage. The circuit in Figure 4.13 can be treated as two superimposed arrange-
\ Vexpl-t/R\C21
"' ,./ ! ;
ments, the charging circuit in Figure 4.14(a) and the discharge circuit in Figure
'- .... 4.14(b). A high-voltage rectifier source is used to charge the identical stage capaci-
R,C2 R2C\
~. tors CI to C4 through the charging resistors R, which, generally, range from 10 k!1
Time
to 100 k!1. The front and tail resistances are represented by RI and Rl' respectively
Figure 4.12 The temporal variation of an impulse
wave and its two components while C2 is the load capacitance of the generator.

...M
C'I
 i}
:r;.
106 ~ 107
1=<, RI

/I
/
C,'
r

7
~.
I':'

:~
:.~'
C,I ~? IIR, c,

.~
~,

,7
1;
i,

I'.,
;:
!:\
~
1

i{
+v
i!" +v ~ I I ,
--c:::::J----Y
D.C.
G, i'
charging I
voltage

Figure 4.13 Basic circuit of a four-stage impulse generator ( a) ( b)

fO ~"I R')e,
(C)

l
When the capacitors C1 to C4 are fully charged to a voltage V with polarity as
~
t nv
shown in Figure 4.l4{a) the charging current has ceased and the right-hand plates v

of each capcitor, charging resistors and spheres are all at earth potential. Similarly, f
each left-hand plate and component in Figure 4.l4{a) is at a potential above earth i
equal to the source voltage V. The discharge of the generator is initiated by the
breakdown of the first spark gap G1. Immediately the capacitors Cj to C4 are dis-
i
J.
Figure 4.14 Circuits of a four-stage generator: (a) charging, (b) discharging and (c) equivalent

charged in series by the progressive flashover of the remaining gaps, although, for
practical purposes, the flashovers are considered to be simultaneous. As illustrated
in Figure 4.l4(b) the discharge circuit is, ideally, arranged to provide a cumulative (ii) owing to the charge on Cb the potential of point C must instantly swing from
zero to -V,
output voltage to earth equal to the sum of all the individual capacitor voltages.
(iii) at this moment the potential difference across the gap Gl is 2 V and it, there-
Because of their high values the charging resistors are considered to behave as open-
circuits in Figure 4.14{b). When G1 (Figure 4.13) breaks down the sequence of fore, breaks down, causing point D and the left-hand plate of Cl to change by
events is as follows: -2V,
(iv) simultaneously point E changes from zero to - 2 V, placing a voltage of 3 V
(i) The potential of point A changes from V to zero, that is a swing of - V, across the gap G) and causing it to break down .

• f¥'J
 IL;.1t-
109
108

The sequence continues until point J is at a potential of -4 V with respect to earth.

The output pulse is opposite in polarity to the d.c. charging voltage and for n stages
its theoretical peak value is -n V. The discharge of an n-stage generator can be
reduced to a single-stage unit by drawing its equivalent circuit as shown in Figure '~,

4.14(c). ~~
....
The foregoing qualitative explanation of the discharge sequence suggests that a -s
~'

multistage generator should operate consistently irrespective of the number of

stages. However, for consistent operation in practice, it is usual to set the first gap
Gt to break down at a voltage only slightly below that for the second gap G1, or to
trigger the breakdown or G, first by an auxiliary discharge (Subsection 4.4.2). The
-.
requirement for Gt to flashover first ensures consistent breakdown of all the gaps .~

.;
since it has been shown (Edwards et al., 1951) that the stray, and gap, capacitances, i
shown dotted in Figure 4.13, can alter the voltage distribution across the spark gaps '.
,<'
so as to prevent their breakdown. Moreover, the load capacitance effectively
~amf!.!.any stray capacitance and assists the transient phenomena essential for the
breakdown of all the gaps. Furthermore, modern generators are constructed with .j,.
j
the axes of the gaps in a vertical plane so that all the gaps are in optical alignment.
As a result, the ultraviolet illumination from flashover of the bottom gap irradiates
~
~.i.

the other gaps, thereby supplying the primary electrons (Subsection 2.3.4) needed ~
~~'

to achieve regular ignition of these gaps. ~

4.4 PRACTICAL MULTISTAGE GENERATORS

A few generators have been built for outdoor use, but most of them are constructed
for indoor use. They consist of vertical columns of capacitors insulated from each
other by spacers of the same size and type as the capacitor housings. The various
resistors are usually fitted into spring-loaded sockets and, to avoid corona, all the
interconnections are made with large-diameter metal tubing. A photograph of a
Marx-type generator is shown in Figure 4.1 5. There is a great variety in the equip-
ment of different high-voltage laboratories for the generation, measurement and
control of impulse voltages. However, in the following Subsections 4.4.1 to 4.4.4,
we hope to describe the essential features of a practical impulse-testing facility by
referring occasionally to the 1 MV plant installed in the laboratory of one of the
authors at Dublin. The circuit diagram of this four-stage generator is shown in
Figure 4.16. The designation LHS and RHS in the diagram signifies that, in reality,
the front and tail resistors are physically mounted into sockets to the left and the
right of the main capacitor column. Nevertheless, they can be electrically connected
as shown.

c 4.4.1 Nominal characteristics of generators

./ (a) Nominal voltage The nominal output voltage n V of a generator is the maxi-
r
mum charging voltage V multiplied by the number of stages, n. The maximum
impulse voltage V which can be applied to a test object is lower than n V because
t Figure 4.15 A 2.4 MV, 120 kJ Marx-type generator. (Photograph courtesy of
the voltage efficiency is less than 100% due to the resistance and inductance of the Haefely Co., Basel)

..n
. ('oj
 I~'
t!.
'\.:
:.:
110 III

out any impulses which might be reflected back from the generator into the trans-
former-rectifier set-up. The output polarity of the rectifier is reversible and it is
..
varied smoothly from zero to the maximum, usually by means of a voltage regulator
in the primary circuit of the step-up transformer (Subsection 4.1.3). The charging
resistors between stages vary from 10 H2 to 100 kfl.
l.H.S.
RHS.

(f) Front and tail resistors The adjustment of the waveform to obtain the correct
~~~ ~ wave duration is accomplished by changing the front and tail resistances. The in-
pulse Cloed
ductance of these components should be as low as possible and they may be com-
Figure 4.16 Circuit diagram of a four-stage generator posed of liquids or semiconducting solids, though these materials tend to be
.:
t unstable. Therefore, wire-wound resistors are usually used, either in a type of bifilar .
1: winding to reduce .their inductance or in the form of woven asbestos tape. These are
generator and test circuits. The maximum charging voltages are normally between
~ suitable as front resistors provided their L/R ratio is less than 0.1 J.l.s.'A common
150 kV and 400 kV while generators have been built for impulse voltages up to
6.5 MV. •~
~,
,~.
arrangement for the front and tail resistors is to distribute them within the genera-
tor (see Figure 4.16). Some 30 front resistors are available for the circuit of Figure
<
v (b) Nominal capacitance The nominal generator' capacitance C/n is the capaci-
l' 4.16, ranging in value from 60 fl to 520 n and thereby permitting a choice of Rf
tance per stage C divided by the number of stages. A nominal capacitance of at
f.,,~
suitable for a wide variation in wavefront. Twenty-four tail resistors are also avail-
able, varying from 1180 fl to 1810 n. Simple expressions to predict the circuit
least five times the capacitance of the test object is generally required as, otherwise, f
the voltage efficiency is too low. Insulator strings, bushings, potential and current parameters of an impulse generator have been developed by Creed and Collins
, (1971) and by Karman and Rao (1973). In practice, a record of the impulse from a
transformers have relatively small capacitances, but power transformers
cables may present problems of poor efficiency because of their low impedance.
The capacitance per stage is usually in the range of 60 nF to 100 nF (see Figure
and
t~
~
i
preliminary arrangement of the test circuit can provide a good guide to the values
required for Rf and Rt.
-
(
4.16). ~
,
s
.; (c) Nominal energy The nominal energy of a generator is denoted by its maxi- t
.r,
(g) Sphere gaps Spherical electrodes are employed for the spark gaps as they
provide a field distribution which is approximately uniform. The sphere size is
mum stored energy and is given by !nCV2• It is generally between 10 kJ and
I"
200 kJ. ----- i normally chosen so that the spacing to withstand the maximum charging voltage
»>:
J does not exceed its diameter. The spheres are mounted horizontally with one side
v of their supports rigidly fixed and the gaps are adjusted by manual or motor-driven
(d) Number of stages The choice of the number of stages is influenced by several
factors. For good waveshapes without oscillations and for very steep wave fronts it movement of the opposite spheres through a system of gears. This system allows a
is desirable to limit the number of stages and to have a high charging voltage. In considerable range of linear gap settings which are checked by inserting precision
slip gauges between the spheres.
this way the inherent inductance of the generator is reduced because the length of
connections throughout the generator and the number of front and tail resistors is
kept to a minimum, thereby reducing the inherent inductance, which has a limiting
effect on the steepness of the wavefront (Thomason, 1934). A large number of
(h) Earthing Impulse generators should be connected to low-resistance earth rods
driven into the ground close up to the generator. A wire mesh should be laid into
..
stages increases the height of a generator and both the height and cost of its sur-
the floor and, possibly, into the walls and roof and joined to the earth rods. All
rounding laboratory. Modern units therefore are usually constructed with a small
other earth connections, such as cable sheaths, oscilloscope cages etc., should be
number of stages, though generators have been operated successfully with up to
made to this system. The low-voltage mains supply to the charging circuit and the
50 stages.
-c oscilloscope should be made by separate isolating transformers capable of with-
starvting impulses of at least 20 kV. Moreover, as a safety precaution, it is impera-,
\I (e) Charging circuits Generators are usually charged via step-up transformers tive (0 earth the capacitors of a generator when it is not in operation. This is
supplying a voltage doubler circuit as in Figure 4.16. It is necessary to insert the achieved either by solenoid-operated or mechanical earthing arms which are auto-
water-damping resistors W in both leads from the rectifier to the generator to matically applied to the charging points of a generator when the door to the genera-
prevent heavy oscillations appearing on the front of the impulse and to damp tor enclosure is opened.
_1~71
1':0)
 ~~
';;;.

113.
112 i
.c.
4.4.2 Tripping of generator 120
~'
Tripping, triggering or firing are the terms used to describe the initiation of break-
down in the first spark gap, leading to the operation of the complete generator. A -';100
:~. 01
breakdown occurring rust in any gap higher up the generator would produce severe 2
irregularities in the impulse. The simplest way to rue a generator is the self-tripping
~,

!i '"
:> 80
~ ><:
method whereby the lowest (first) gap is set to break down at a pre-determined ;~
w
voltage. As soon as the charging voltage is high enough to break down this gap the o 60
generator as a whole operates and an impulse is produced. If the generator is ~
charged at the same rate at all times, and if the gaps are irradiated by ultraviolet ;: ~ 40
light, then the output voltage is reproduced with high accuracy. Alternatively, the j! U
" a
gaps in a self-tripping generator may be opened beyond their sparkover voltage,
~ 20
thus "allowing the capacitors time to charge fully, before closing the gaps slowly "

until the generator is self-triggered. This method is tedious and the impulse wave-
shape may vary due to vibrations from the mechanical movement of the gaps. Self-
I o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
~
:$' PLANT GAP Imm)
tripping is an uncontrolled method of triggering a generator since it depends on the
reliability of breakdown of the rust gap and the operator cannot accurately predict ..~ Figure 4.18 Part of the operating voltage band of the
the instant of breakdown.
1," trigatron spark gap when the generator in Figure 4.16 is
opera ted as a single-stage unit
1
Controlled tripping is now the established technique of firing a generator. It is
achieved by making the bottom gap break down under an external trigger pulse 1 pneumatically
which is applied by the operator. Different practical arrangements of tripping
f operated

nfSO
circuits and a variety of trigger gaps, as the bottom gaps are called, have been switch
described by Kuffel and Abdullah (1970). Trigger gaps are generally based on the
\v If
§J
i •• tnp
trigatron spark gap, a form of which is shown in Figure 4.17. The spheres are the okV toC~O
I
I'
two electrodes of the rust gap of the generator. The earthed sphere is provided with
a small hole through which an insulated metal rod is mounted with an annular ~ DC L
~ C,
clearance of about 1 mm. When a trigger pulse, of the order of 10 kV, is applied to
the rod it causes a discharge between it and the earthed sphere which creates a C2 G
R
copious charge at the surface of the sphere. Furthermore, the electric field in the
to
main gap is enhanced by the trigger pulse because its polarity is opposite to that of trigger
the charging voltage across the sphere gap. This combination of space charge and rod
enhanced field secures a controllable, consistent, breakdown of the main gap at a Figure 4.19 Simple pulse circuit to trip main generator using a trigatron
voltage much lower than that required without the trigger pulse.
The results in Figure 4.18 show the operating voltage band of the trigatron spark
gap in the first stage of the generator in Figure 4.16. The bottom curve A is
obtained because, when the gap is too large, the combination of the pulse and
charging voltages cannot cause it to break down. Curve C reflects the uncontrolled,
self-tripping regime of the gap and the curve B is the recommended operating line
~
! for the trigatron. The influence, and control, of the trigger pulse on the breakdown
voltage is obvious from Figure 4.18. For example, at a setting of30 mm the gap is
self-triggered at 80 kV whereas the trigger pulse can consistently give breakdown
" at 60kV.
A simple pulse circuit such as shown in Figure 4.19 is used to trip the generator
via the trigatron. A half-wave rectifier is used to charge C1 through a SOMn resist-
ance. When the gap S is shorted the capacitor C1 is charged through the air-cored
coil L. The sphere gap G is adjusted to flash over after the voltage across C1 has
Figure 4.17

-l')
N
 '''-.-;.'

!
114
reached a pre-determined value. Thus the potential of point P is raised sharply to
this value, a pulse is applied to the trigger electrode and C1is discharged through R.
The tripping circuit is normally located adjacent to the main generator and for
safety reasons it is essential that the closure of the gap S is remotely controlled.
This is achieved in a novel manner as outlined in Figure 4.19. Compression of a
plastic bottle by the operator's hand is sufficient to elongate an anemometer
bellows which drives }shorting bar across the spheres of S.
4.4.3 Recording of impulse
The full impulse voltage is reduced by a potential divider (see Figure 5.7) before it
is recorded on an oscilloscope (CRO). In order to see the start of the impulse it is
necessary that the beam sweep of the CRO should have commenced before the
impulse is applied to its Y-plates. The sweep circuit may be tripped by the pulse
from an antenna which picks up the radiation of the trigger gap when it breaks
down. The main impulse travels through the generator and measuring circuit in
about 0.1 us to 0.2 us so that it is normal to insert.a coaxial delay cable in the
measuring circuit. Up to 30 m of polyethylene-insulated cable can be used without
introducing any appreciable error into the circuit. Alternatively, as shown in Figure
4.19, a pulse is sent to the CRO simultaneously with the closure of gap S. Tripping
of the generator is then delayed by the time needed to charge C1 through the
inductance. With a modern CRO designed for high-voltage work, and a camera, the
wave to be recorded can be Viewed and photographed simultaneously. The photo is
a permanent record of the wave but, apart from the trace! the oscillogram also
includes a zero line, a timing oscillation, a graticule image and a number to identify
the photo. Amplitude and timing measurements can be taken from enlarged prints
of the oscillogram but a simpler method is to use a fllm enlarger and measure
directly from the enlarged image of the trace with the aid of a transparent graduated
plate. Alternatively, a quick estimate of the timing can be obtained by using a
digital storage oscilloscope to store the wave on the screen (Subsection 5.5.4). A
double-beam oscilloscope is especially useful in a high-voltage laboratory since it
permits the simultaneous recording of voltage and current waves. Such oscillograms
are shown in Figure 6.9 in Chapter 6.
115
4.5 IMPUlSE CURRENTS
High-current impulses are needed for tests on equipment such as lightning arresters,
circuit breakers, fuses etc. and they are also used for research studies in thermo-
nuclear reactions. Moreover, low resistance faults or short-circuits on apparatus,
such as a cable for example; may frequently be located by the noise or flash that is
made when a heavy surge of current bums through the fault. Since the resistance of
a fault can range from only a few ohms to a few thousand ohms a high-voltage
high-current supply is required. High-current impulse generators make use of the
energy-storage capability of large capacitors. Other storage systems which can be
used include air-cored coils to store inductive energy and the rotor of an alternator
to store mechanical energy. All the techniques have been discussed fully by Craggs.
and Meek (1954), Knoepfel (1970) and Kind (1978) but we shall briefly consider
the capacitor-discharge method because of its resemblance to the technique for
generating high-voltage impulses.
A typical circuit for a high-current impulse generator is shown in Figure 4.20. A
high-voltage low-current d.c. source is used to charge the capacitor C to a voltage
which is usually between 10 kV and 50 kV. The unavoidable inductance Land
resistance R are effectively distributed throughout the circuit in the capacitor,
connecting leads and test object. When the switch (a spark gap) is closed the
capacitor is discharged rapidly, sending a heavy-current impulse through the load.
!
The total amount of energy available is CV2 and because of the high currents
involved the capacitor must be specifically designed for this type of application.
The high-voltage supply is effectively isolated from the load because the current-
limiting resistor is several megohms. Impulse currents can have very different
shapes. For the simulation of currents produced by lightning strokes a 4/10 ps wave
is often used. Rectangular-shaped impulse currents occur during the discharge of
long transmission lines while short-circuit faults on high alternating-voltage systems
can generate sinusoidal impulse currents.
The impulse current obtained with the circuit of Figure 4.20 is markedly influ-·
enced by the resistance of the test object since this usually determines the final
resistance of the discharge path. In a situation where R
< 2.jLjC the current con-
sists of weakly-damped oscillations and is given by

4.4.4 Polarity of impulse V

1= - e-at sinwt (4.5)
wL
As we have seen in Chapter 2, tests on insulating materials under high-voltage surges
have revealed differences in the effects of positive and negative impulses. It is
important, therefore, that the polarity of the output from a generator can be ;,;

L R tit'h
!i
reversed. There are two ways to achieve a reversal of polarity. One method is to
"

t
change the polarity of the d.c. source and the other way is to alter some of the ",
~ ,
e
connections of the generator. Because it is so convenient, the polarity of the ,: I test
impulse is invariably changed by reversing the d.c. source. It must be remembered l
objed
that the trigatron (Subsection 4.4.2) is sensitive to the polarity of the charging
voltage so that the trigger pulse polarity should be changed when the impulse -=
polarity is to be reversed. r Figure 4.20 Basic circuit for a high-current
impulse generator
-M
""
~ I f"7 I
 fL.}I-

116
where

w= j I R"
LC - 4L2 and Q=-.
R
2L
When R = 0, which is the case for zero damping, the current reaches its highest
peak value and is given by j = V..!CjL. For the case of critical damping, where
R = 2"; LIC, the current is given by 5
,;. V
I=-te-at
L
(4.6) ,.
' .;,
~.
which has a peak value of
t
i High-voltage measurement
. V
1=- v'cfl.
e 5.1 INTRODUCTION
f
Therefore j in the absence of resistance is e times the maximum current when There are obvious difficulties in measuring voltages and currents in high-voltage
critical damping is present. The measurement of high transient voltages and currents 'circuits due to the voltage isolation required between the voltage to be measured
is described in Chapter 5. !' and conventional measuring instruments. Voltages can only be measured directly
'~

by an absolute electrostatic voltmeter. All other methods, using transformers or

REFERENCES
Alien, W. D. (1968). In L. L. Alston (Ed.), High-voltage Technology, Oxford Uni-
versity Press, London. pp. 382-402.
Charlton, E. E., and Hubbard, H. S. (I940). 1.4 MV constant-potential X-ray equip-
ment. G. E. Rev. (USA), 43, 272-279.
Craggs, J. D., and Meek, J. M. (I 954). High-voltage Laboratory Technique, Butter-
worth, London.
Creed, F. C., and Collins, M. M. C. (I 971). Shaping circuits for high-voltage impulses.
IEEE Trans., PAS-90, 2239-2246.
Edwards, F. S., Husbands, A. S., and Perry, F. R. (1951). The development and
design of high-voltage impulse generators. Proc. lEE, Pt. 1,98, 155-181.
Felici, N. J. (1953). Developments in regard to electrostatic generators-for direct
current. Direct Curr., 1, 122-130.
Karman, S. R., and Rao, Y. N. (1973). Prediction of the parameters of an impulse
generator for transformer testing. Proc. lEE, 120, 1001-1005.
Kind, D. (I 978). An Introduction to High-voltage Experimental Technique, Vieweg,
Braunsch weig.
Knoepfel, H. (I 970). Pulsed High Magnetic Fields, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Kuffel, E., and Abdullah, M. (1970). High-voltage Engineering, Pergamon, London.
Marx, E. (I 923). Deutsches Reichspatent, No. 455933.
Marx, E. (I 924). Investigations in the testing of insulators with impact voltage.
Elektrotech. Zeits., 45, 652-654.
Mitchell, R. G. (I 943). Vacuum rectifiers working with condenser input. Wireless
Engr., 20,414-425.
Mitchell, R. G. (I 945). Cascade h.t. generator. Wireless Engr., 22, 474-483.
Seeker, P. E., and Hughes, J. F. (1969). liqUid-filled e.h.d. high-voltage generator.
Pro c. lEE, 116, 1785-1788.
Thomason, J. L. (1934). Impulse generator circuit formulae. Elect. Engineering,
53, 169-176.
van de Graaff, R. J. (1931). A 1500000 volt electrostatic generator. Phys. Rev.,
38,1919-1920.
.t?
.('4
potential dividers and low-voltage meters, require some calibration from a standard.
Numerous workers have confirmed the reliability of the flashover voltage in air
between spheres and this is often used as the working standard for calibration. The
ripple of a d.c. supply or the waveshape of an impulse supply is often important. It
will be shown in Section 5.5 that, because the magnitude of a breakdown or flash-
~~
over voltage will vary with the waveshape of the applied voltage, an oscilloscope or
transient recorder and potential divider combination can be used for this type of
measurement. Again, calibration is important because a divider may introduce
distortion of the waveshape.
If part of the circuit is earthed, currents can be measured by a current shunt and
a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across the shunt due to the current
flow (Subsection 5.9.2). If the current-carrying circuit is at high voltage some
means of isolating the measuring instrument from the high voltage must be used,
such as a current transformer or a current shunt with an optical fibre isolating link .:
Measurement of voltages and currents in high-voltage circuits is required routinely,
both in power transmission systems and in high-voltage testing laboratories. Routine
tests of high-voltage equipment are normally fairly simple (see Chapter 6) so that
the measuring equipment required is not very complex. However, the equipment
required in a research laboratory is often much more complex because the accuracy
and bandwidth required are much greater. This may require more sophisticated
electronic measuring instruments or a more detailed consideration of stray
capacitances or stray inductances associated with passive components.
5.2 ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETERS
Two distinct varieties of electrostatic voltmeter exist: the absolute voltmeter and
the commercial electrostatic voltmeter. The absolute voltmeter uses a simple
 '.,
:.<"

118
electrode geometry which allows a theoretical calculation to be made of the force
produced between two plates for a given applied voltage. All of the high voltage is
applied between the plates and the forces are measured by a beam balance, a spring
balance, a strain gauge or some similar technique. The commercial meter uses the
force produced between two plates to move one of the plates against a spring. The
movement of the plate is measured, often using a light beam to magnify the move-
ment, and the meter is calibrated against some standard voltmeter.
Electrostatic voltmeters have very high internal resistance and low capacitance.
They measure direct voltages or the r.m.s. value of alternating voltages (for sinusoidal
as well as nonsinusoidal waveforms) and will give accurate measurements up to MHz
frequencies. The commercial electrostatic meter has become much less popular
since digital voltmeters with very high input impedances became available.
The principle of the absolute voltmeter is shown in Figure 5.1 for an attracted
disc instrument. The attracted disc must be small compared with the high-voltage
electrode to avoid field distortions at the electrode edges. The force on the disc is
v2ac
F=- -
2 as
Newton,
I 1<'
lit:
119
in many laboratories in many countries and the results have been found to be
reproducible to within ± 3% provided certain correction factors are introduced for
temperature and pressure. IEC publications 52-1960 or BS 358: 1960 give the
necessary conditions for clearances between the sphere and surrounding objects for
the measurements to be reliable. These standards also tabulate the flashover volt-
ages for various spacings between the spheres and for sphere diameters from 20 nun
to 2 m. It has been found that the flashover voltage is only reliable for spacings
I between the spheres that do not exceed half the sphere diameter.
The usual arrangement is for the spheres to be mounted vertically as shown in
Figure 5.2. A rough rule for the diameter of sphere needed to measure a given
voltage is that the diameter of the sphere in mm must be at least as great as the
voltage to be measured in kV. For measurements of direct or alternating voltages a
resistor should be connected in series with the power supply to limit the current
~
1 to 1 A. This is to reduce the damage done to the sphere surface by the flashover.
'1
Normally the voltage is raised slowly until there is a flashover and the process
,,·t.
repeated until the results do not differ by more than 3% for three successive
.i'
~.:
readings. The mean of these three readings is taken as the measurement.

where V is the r.m.s. voltage applied to the high-voltage electrode, C the capacitance .~
(:
between the disc and upper electrode and s the spacing between the electrodes. The
maximum peak electric stress that can be applied between the electrodes if air at
atmospheric pressure is used as the insulation is 1.4 MV/m, which gives an attrac- '"'
2
tive force of 10 N/m for direct voltage and half this value for sinusoidal voltages.
The force on the disc is therefore small. Compressed gas insulation can be used to
increase the electric stress that can be applied. Accuracies of a few parts in 104 can
be achieved. The construction of a 1 MV instrument with SF6 insulation at 5 atmo-
spheres pressure and designed to have an accuracy of 0.1 % of the maximum reading ').,,i·
is described by House, Waterton and Chew (1979). , :,
•~
i
Figure 5.2 Spheres for high-voltage measurement

H. V. ELECTRODE
The tabulated flashover values in IEC 52-1960 and BS 358: 1960 are for a
temperature of 20 C and 1013 mbar (101 kPa) pressure. For any other tempera-
ture and pressure a correction must be made for air density. For a temperature of
t C and a pressure of p mbar the table voltage must be multiplied by d, where
p 273 + 20
Figure 5.1 The absolute electrostatic voltmeter d=----
1013 273 +t
The tables do not include a humidity correction factor, but humidity can change
53 FLASHOVER BETWEEN SPHERES the flashover voltage by 3% or 4% (Kuffel, 1961) and suggestions have been made
to incorporate a humidity correction factor. (Also see Subsection 6.3.1.)
The normal working standard for high-voltage measurement is the flashover voltage When spheres are used for measuring impulse voltages, there is a random prob-
in air' between two spheres. Measurements of this flashover voltage have been made ability of the necessary ionizing event occurring in the gap during the application
oM
_1(""71
 .,'
,
121
120
resistor to avoid corona or surface leakage currents, either of which could produce
of the voltage (see Section 2.2). The breakdown must therefore be treated as a
a current flow of similar magnitude to the current being measured. The resistance
statistical phenomenon and the voltage given in the tables is the voltage at which
should not vary appreciably with temperature. A common construction is for the
there is a 50% probability of breakdown. The polarity of the impulse has an effect
resistor to be made of a large number of low-voltage resistors connected in series as
on the flashover voltage and there are separate tables for positive and negative
.:' shown in Figure 5.4. For higher voltages the system is either filled with oil or
impulses. In general the flashover voltages are higher for positive impulses. The
potted in epoxy resin. The maximum allowable stress along the resistor chain is
reliability of sphere gap measurements, particularly when tile gaps between the
500 kV/m if the resistors are air insulated or 1.5 MV/m if the chain is immersed
spheres are small and impulse voltages are being measured, is increased by irradiating
the gap with either UV light or "t radiation. The irradiation supplies the necessary in oil.
ionization to initiate the6reakdown process.
I

5.5 LOW·VOLTAGE INSTRUMENTS WITH POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

5.4 VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT USING AN AMMETER AND
SERIES RESISTOR
A high voltage may be measured by measuring the current flowing through a high
resistance, as shown in Figure 5.3. P is an overvoltage protection device, such as a
spark gap or a gas discharge tube, to protect the meter. The method can be used
for measuring alternating or direct voltages according to the type of ammeter used.
For measurement of direct voltage the resistor must be of a large enough value to
The low-voltage arm of a potential divider will have a potential difference across it
that is a function of the voltage across the whole divider. In the ideal divider there
is a direct proportionality between the two voltages. A low-voltage instrument, such
as a low-voltage voltmeter or an oscilloscope, can be connected across the low-
'::.
§. voltage arm of the divider. The general arrangement is shown in Figure 5.5. The
'<"
elements in the divider can be resistors, capacitors, or mixtures of resistors and
h..
~'r capacitors, according to the type of voltage being measured. For the divider ratio to
~,

limit the current to about 1 mA to avoid loading the. supply unduly and to avoid :'\' remain constant either the impedance values of the divider arms must remain
significant temperature rises in the resistor. There must be very careful design of the f constant or they must both change by the same percentage, In practice, it is very
.1,
difficult to arrange that the two impedances change by the same percentage, so
, components are used for the divider whose values change very little with voltage,
;
V temperature or time.
I"
t
•

'
:~

l
I,
'?
;
$.
~
low measuring
impedance instrument
Figure 5.3 The measurement of voltage using an ammeter
and series resistor

Figure 5.5 A potential-divider meas-

uring system

5.5.1 Resistor dividers

~
\.
Resistor dividers can be used to measure direct, alternating or impulse voltages.
However, it is much easier to construct a resistor divider for accurate measurement
of direct voltages than for accurate measurement of alternating or impulse voltages.
For-direct measurement, the high impedance must have a very high value (e.g.
109 n) to avoid loading the supply, and construction similar to that used for the
resistor in the resistor/ammeter method of voltage measurement can be used. The
Figure 5.4 The construction of a high-value resistor
individual resistor units are normally 1 Mn or 10 Mn thin-film or I Mn wjre-wound
.-
...t")
~
 r 123
122
components. A large-diameter toroidal electrode is used at the top of the stack to connected to an oscilloscope via a co-axial cable and used to measure an impulse
avoid corona and to improve the uniformity of the voltage distribution along the voltage is shown in Figure 5.6. The cable is terminated with its characteristic imped-
stack when there is a sudden change in voltage due to a breakdown. ance. There will be a capacitance between RI and earth, shown as C in the simple
When resistor dividers are used for measuring alternating voltages, the stray equivalent circuit of Figure 5.7. The performance of measurement circuits for
capacitances associated with the measurement system must be considered, but the impulse voltages is measured in terms of the time-constant of the response to a
resistance values need not be as high because there is not such a severe limitation step input. For the circuit shown the time-constant T "" RC/4 where R = RI + R2
in the power available from the supply. The stray capacitance will be distributed and R I ~ R2. Now C represents a distributed capacitance along the length of RI and
I it can be shown that C = ~CI where CI is the total capacitance to earth. Therefore
throughout the length /of the resistor stack, so the current flowing through the
resistor will vary with'the distance down the stack. There will also be a variation RCI
in the phase angle between voltage and current along the length of the stack. It is T""--'
6
shown in Appendix 2 that placing a shield around each resistor element and fixing
the potential of the shield at the mid-point potential of the resistor gives the same Practical dividers, consisting of cylindrical arrangements of resistors positioned
current and the same phase angle at the top and the bottom of the stack. It is vertically, have values of capacitance to ground (CI) of 15 to 20 pF 1m height. A'
difficult to ensure that the screen is at exactly the mid-point potential. It has been 1 MV divider 3 m high and of 20 kU resistance has a response time of - 200 ns,
shown (Bowdler, 1933) that an error in the phase angle of up to 0.05 radians only which is only barely adequate for accurate reproduction of the front of a 1.2/50 J.Ls
results in a voltage error of 0.1%, or a phase-angle error of 0.14 radians in a voltage impulse, so response time considerations limit the maximum resistance of impulse
error of 1%, for the measurement of the magnitude of sinusoidal voltages. The bulk dividers.
and expense of screened resistors generally limits their use to voltages below 50 kV.
When resistor dividers are used to measure impulse voltages and the wave-shapes
of impulse voltages, it becomes very important to consider the effects of the stray
capacitance and inductance of the divider. The divider ratio must be constant over a Rt
2'
wide range of frequencies if there is to be no distortion of the shape of the impulse.
During the impulse the rate of energy transfer to the resistors of the divider is high
and the thermal mass of thin-film resistors may not be sufficient to dissipate this vt! I II~
energy, so wire-wound resistors are generally used. These are wound non-inductively,
often from a tape with the resistance wire woven into a glass-fibre fabric. Careful
construction can give low values for the self-inductance and self-capacitance of the
divider, but the capacitance between the high-voltage arm (which is long because
it has a high voltage across it) and earth must be considered. A resistor divider
:1

J.
C I n R2Z
Req·R +Z
2 1v2

Figure 5.7 An approximate equiva-

lent circuit of Figure 5.6

Ideally the cable connecting the impulse divider to the oscilloscope should be
R, terminated by its characteristic impedance at both ends. The circuit shown in
co-axial Figure 5.8 permits this and allows the divider ratio to be changed by changing the
coble tapping on Z to which RI is connected. The relationship between the voltage
impedanceZ
rr;------ ..
VI applied to the divider and the voltage appearing across the oscilloscope is then
'..• _----
somewhat more complex. Consider the situation when the tapping point divides Z
into a resistance R3 between the tapping point A and the cable. and a resistance R2
~
III
.Q from A to the ground. The bottom arm of the potential divider now consists of R2
R2
'u in parallel with (R3 + Z). If we call the equivalent resistance of this combination
III
o R4• then
R2(RJ + Z)
Figure 5.6 A resistor divider for impulse voltage R4
R2 +RJ +Z

-
measurement

-1~71
-M
 124 125

~
8
g'"
'o
~gR'
.9
a.
trigatron
oil spark gap
17j}j/i

O/P

R4
'"
o :)

,i Figure 5.9 The Asner circuit for the production of high-voltage

Figure 5.8 The connection of a resistor divider to steps
an oscilloscope by a correctly matched cable
(characteristic impedance = Z n)
5.5.2 Capacitor dividers
For power-frequency work, resistor dividers are limited to voltages up to about
But Rl + R3 = Z, so that
100 kV because of the heating due to the resistive losses in the divider and because
R2(2Z -:R2) of the ratio errors introduced by the capacitances to earth. Capacitor dividers are
R4= .
2Z used for higher voltages and the maximum voltage for these is only limited by stray
inductance and the dielectric loss of the capacitor. A typical circuit is shown in
If the voltage applied to the divider is VI, then the voltage across R2 is .1 Figure 5.10. The measuring instrument will have a high resistance, which will
R4
I introduce a slight ratio error, but which will also provide a leakage path for charge
=--- VI from corona or other sources which might otherwise accumulate on C2• Ignoring
RI +R4
this resistance, we obtain
and the voltage at the input to the cable is CI
V2= VI---'
R4 Z R4 Z Rl CI +C2
-- --- vI= vI= VI'
RI +R4 Z+R3 RI +R4 (2Z-R1) 2(RI +R4) The low-voltage capacitor can be any high-stability, low-voltage unit. The high-
The voltage delivered by the cable at the oscilloscope will equal this value, as the voltage unit may be just an unscreened stack of similar units in series, or series-
matching at the oscilloscope end is also considered to be correct (=Z). Therefore parallel, enclosed in an insulating tube and fitted with a large toroid at the top to
the voltage to the oscilloscope is prevent corona. Although the proximity of earthed objects can affect the capaci-
Rl tance, if the capacitance is placed well away from earthed objects, the capacitance
VI will be near to the nominal value.
2(RI + R4)
and the effective divider ratio is

voltage to oscilloscope Rl
cl I

--------=--
input voltage 2(R + R I 4)
VI measurIng
The response time of a complete impulse-voltage measuring circuit should be deter-
mined by applying a step voltage at the input terminals and observing the waveshape
at the output terminals with an oscilloscope capable of measuring pulses with fast
"I c,
Instrument

rise times. A special circuit must be used to generate a high-voltage step with a very
fast risetime. One circuit that has been used (Asner, 1960) is shown in Figure 5.9. Figure 5.10 A capacitor divider
This circuit gave a 5 ns rise time.
Another possible arrangement is to have a low-pressure gas spark gap in place of
the oil spark gap. 100 kV peak steps with 0.1 ns risetime have been produced by For higher voltages and greater accuracy screened capacitors, consisting of con-
this technique. centric cylinder electrodes enclosed in a pressure vessel, are used. The pressure
".-
..t?
N
 r
126
I
127
vessel is filled with compressed gas, either nitrogen at about 14 bar (1.4 MPa)
Capacitor dividers are commonly used to measure the voltage at various points in
pressure, or SF6 at about 3 bar (300 kPa) pressure. The low-voltage electrode is
power systems, often as part of a protection scheme. These dividers are constructed
normally the inner electrode in these power·frequency capacitors.
by tapping one of the inner foils in capacitor bushings (see Chapter 8) so that the
The design is not so successful when the capacitor is used for the measurement
potential divider forms a part of the bushing.
of impulse voltages because of the inductance of the lead connecting the low-
voltage electrode to the socket at the base of the pressure vessel, where the low-
voltage capacitor is located.
,. However, an adaptation of the design, with the 5.s.3 Mixed dividers
low-voltage electrode a's the outer electrode and a short connection to the low-voltage
Mixed dividers commonly consist of a parallel combination of resistance and
arm, is satisfactory. 'Impulse voltage dividers are most commonly of the same
capacitance in both the high-voltage and low-voltage arms. This arrangement
unscreened construction as unscreened power-frequency voltage dividers, however.
operates as a resistor divider for slow transients and as a capacitor divider for fast
The stray capacitance to earth produces a non-uniform distribution of the total
transients, so that different divider ratios can be used for the two types of transient.
capacitance down the stack, but the effect is less than 1% if the stack capacitance
Another type of mixed divider, which consists of a series combination of resistors
is less than 330 pF /m. For stacks higher than 2 m (~1 MV) the value of stack
and capacitors, is used for examining surges when these are superimposed on power-
capacitance required to achieve this accuracy is unreasonably high so that the true
frequency voltages. As the impedance of the capacitors is much higher than that of
value, including the earth capacitance effects, must be measured. The measurement
the resistors for high frequencies, the divider behaves as a pureiYfeSistive divider
of the true capacitance should be performed with the stack in the position in which
for fast transients, so that, again, a different divider ratio can be chosen for the
it is going to be used, because there is also a capacitance between the stack and the
impulse generator. surges from that which applies for the power-frequency voltages. Dividers consisting
of resistance and capacitance in series can also be used to measure the ripple on a
The circuit shown in Figure 5.1 I can be used to match the divider to the co-
direct voltage waveform by placing the resistor in the low-voltage arm. As the
axial connecting cable. If the cable is terminated with its characteristic impedance
high-voltage arm consists of a capacitor, the divider ratio will be zero for direct
(- 75 to 100 0) at the oscilloscope end, the delay time constant for C2 is too short
voltages. However, if the high-voltage arm has capacitance C and the low-voltage
for the proper measurement of impulses. With the arrangement shown, only half
arm has·resistance R, then the divider ratio for an alternating voltage is
the voltage across C2 enters the cable, but this voltage is doubled by reflection at
voltage across low-voltage arm wCR
~
------------------------
voltage across high-voltage arm
=-----
1 + wCR

ell Hence, if wCR ~ 1, the divider has a ratio of unity for the ripple, but a ratio of zero
for the direct voltage.

C2 5.s.4 Low-voltage measuring instruments

Meters The low-voltage instruments used with !l divider must have an input
impedance that does not affect the divider ratio. This means that the instruments
used must have a high input impedance and this applies in particular when the
Figure 5.11 Matching a capacitor divider to a instrument is used with dividers for measuring direct voltages, because resistor
cable of impedance Z n
dividers for direct voltage measurements have higher impedances than those used
for measuring alternating or impulse voltages. Electrostatic meters of the com-
mercial type, or alternatively high-quality digital voltmeters or electrometers, can
the open far end and absorbed on return to the terminated end, so that the voltage
be used.
at the oscilloscope is the same as that across C2• The divider ratio is Cd(CI + C )
2
for very high frequencies, but for lower frequencies the capacitance of the measur-
Conventional oscilloscopes Special fast-writing oscilloscopes for high-voltage
ing cable (Cc) must also be included. giving a ratio Cd( C1 + C2 + Cc). Cc is normally
signals are normally used for measuring impulse voltages. The low-voltage arm is
negligible compared with C2 so there is very little distortion of the impulse. Capaci-
connected directly to the plates of the osciIIoscope applying up to 3 kV to the
tor dividers may cause ringing on the front of steep-fronted waves because of the
oscilloscope plates for full-scale deflection, instead of going through an amplifier
stray inductance associated with them. The oscillations can be removed by adding
as in the normal type of oscilloscope. The triggering of the oscilloscope so that the
a damping resistor in the high-voltage line (see Subsection 6.4.2).
start of the impulse can be observed requires a trigger signal to be sent to the
fl')
 1.£...,)1 . \
129
128

oscilloscope slightly before the beginning of the impulse. Either the impulse must tive coupling between the high-voltage circuit and the measurement cable cores;
be sent through a sufficient length of co-axial cable so that the delay of the impulse care should be taken to ensure that the same earth is used for the whole measure-
in the cable allows the start of the sweep before the impulse arrives, or the trigger ment system. Protective spark gaps or surge diverters should also be used, but these
system for the impulse generator must send a tripping pulse to the oscilloscope may not be fast enough to protect all electronics.
shortly before it sends a tripping pulse to the impulse generator. A bandwidth of Ringing that appears on the wavefront of impulse voltages may be a product of
at least 10 MHz is required to record -a 1 us rise time pulse, and a wider bandwidth electromagnetic interference in the measuring system. The best way of checking
is desira bIe. whether such interference is the source of the ringing is to disconnect the inner
conductor of the co-axial cable at the divider end and then trigger the impulse
f generator. If there is no interference, no signal will appear. Next the inner of the
Digital storage oscilloscope/transient recorder These instruments store the incom-
co-axial cable should be connected to earth and the impulse generator triggered
ing waveform in a rolling memory, which continually stores the new information
once more. Again there should be no signal. Further information about how to
that arrives in the memory and discards the information that has been in the
avoid interference from high-voltage circuits is given in Schwab (1972).
memory -for the longest time, so that perhaps the last 4000 samples received are
stored in the memory at any instant. When a trigger signal is received, perhaps the
1000 samples received before the trigger signal and the 3000 samples received after 5.6 MEASUREMENT OF PEAK VOLTAGES
the trigger signal are stored until the operator wishes to discard them. The whole
of the impulse, including the pre-trigger information, can be displayed on an It is often the peak value of the voltage applied to the test object that is of interest
oscilloscope screen or output to an X-Y plotter. This system is ideal for impulse in high-voltage measurement. Several circuits exist for measuring the peak values of"
work, provided the sampling speed is adequate. A sampling rate of 108 samples per alternating voltages. One that is widely used is the circuit suggested by Chubb and·
second is required to reconstruct the front of a 0.5 psimpulse. An 8-bit system Fortescue in 1913 (Figure 5.12). P is an overvoltage protection device, such as a
gives an inherent error of 0.4%, which is sufficiently accurate for most work. gas-discharge tube, which protects the diodes and meter from accidental over-
voltages. Dl acts as a half-wave rectifier, providing current in one direction only to
the milliammeter A. Dl acts as a by-pass during the reverse current flow. If the
Electronic equipment in a high-voltage environment Unexpected failures of elec-
voltage being measured has a positive peak value + Vrn and a negative peak value
tronic equipment often occur in a high-voltage environment, particularly failures of
- Vrn and the impedances of the diodes and ammeter are neglected, then the
equipment containing CMOS circuits. These failures are due to electromagnetic
instantaneous current ie is given by
interference from the high-voltage circuit. The major sources of electromagnetic
interference that are produced in electronic measuring equipment by an impulse dv
. -C-,
generator in a high-voltage laboratory have been investigated (Malewski and Dech- Ie - dt
lamplain, 1981). They concluded that there were three sources:
where v is the voltage of the high-voltage line relative to earth.
(a) Transient magnetic fields. Fields as high as 500 pT were measured in thb 0.2 to
0.5 MHz frequency range.
(b) Capacitance coupling between the high-voltage circuit and the electronic
H.V, line
measurement equipment. Electric field values up to 40 kV/m were measured
at 20 m from a 4 MV impulse generator with a rate-of-rise up to 10 MV/ps.
The capacitance was found to be 0.1 pF/m2 between the floor and the genera-
lc
tor electrode with a current of 10 A/m2 and a 50 ns to 300 ns width of current
pulse for the current flow between the generator electrode and the floor.
(c) Transient currents in the casing of the electronics and in earth circuits. p 02
The electronic circuitry of the measuring equipment should be placed in a
screened enclosure with the power supplied through an isolating transformer and
r.f. filters to avoid these Sources of interference. For the screened enclosure to be
effective, it must have extremely low resistivity, goed joints and no openings.
Figure 5.12 The Chubb and
54 dB of magnetic field attenuation at 250 kHz can be obtained fairly easily by fortescue circuit for measuring
enclosing the equipment in a steel box and attenuation of the electric field is much the peak value of alternating
voltages
higher. Connections to dividers should be via double-shielded cables to avoid capaci-
J'?
C'4
 0'0""",,'

130 131
DJ will conduct during the half cycle that v varies from - Vm to + Vm. Therefore But 1= 2fCVm, therefore Il a: Vm and the counter (3) can be scaled to read voltage
the arithmetic mean current through A over one cycle is given by directly.

l=-
J
1 T/2
icdt=-
1 fT/2 dv
C-dt
An alternative circuit for peak voltage measurement is the diode peak voltmeter,
shown in its simplest form in Figure 5.14. This circuit can be used for measuring
ToT 0 dt alternating or impulse voltages, but the values of the capacitor and resistor must be
where T is the time for one complete cycle of the voltage waveform and the half- different for the two applications.
cycle for which D', conducts is the time period from a to T /2. This gives
I

- 1
1= -
mJ+v
Cdv
o
T -vm
C 1 input from
= -2 V, or in terms of the frequency, f=-, potential output
T m T divider
R voltage

r; 2fCVm.
As it is only the peak values of the waveform that determine the current, the Figure 5.14 A diode peak voltmeter
measurement of the peak values of nonsinusoidal voltages can be made provided
that there is only one peak per half-cycle and the positive and negative peaks are of
equal height, but the measurement requires an accurate knowledge of the supply Assume that the diode can be represented by a parallel combination of resistance
frequency.
Ro and capacitance Co for forward conduction, and by an infinite resistance for
The current lis only due to the alternating component of the applied voltage, so reverse conduction. Errors in the measurement of the peak voltage will be produced
that the method can be used to. measure the ripple in a direct-voltage waveform. by the fall in voltage across C in each cycle due to charge leakage through R. Rand
A digital measurement method that is based on the Chubb and Fortescue 'prin- Ro, and C and Co, act as potential dividers. If C is large, the errors due to charge
ciple (Boeck, 1963) but which has the advantage that the reading produced is inde- leakage and to the capacitor divider are small, but the output voltage will be slow to
pendent of frequency, is shown in Figure 5.13. Current I flows through diode DJ fall when there is a fall in the input voltage. The error due to the diode forward
and is measured in terms of the voltage across R. (1) is a voltage to frequency resistance depends on the ratio of R to Ro: for an error of 1%, R/Ro must be
converter, with output frequency f m exI. This frequency appears at one input of > 3300, while for an error of 0.01 % R/Ro must be > 105 000. In practice, it is
the gate (2), which also has an input from the supply to the high-vqltage trans- possible to make peak alternating voltage measurements with an accuracy of better
former. The gate opens for a time t::..t, where t::..t ex l/f,fbeing the supply frequency. than 1%.
The number of pulses fed to the counter When this type of circuit is used to measure the peak value of impulse voltages,
the resistance R must be as high as possible and C must be small enough for the
n = Jm
I' fm
At ex-a:- R/
U time-constant (C(Ro + Rs) where Rs is the-series resistance of the voltage source)
f f'
to be at least an order of magnitude less than the rise time of the impulse. The
charging current must also be sufficiently small that it does not affect the voltage
H.V. being measured. A value of 200 pF to 500 pF for C, giving a charging time-constant
transformer of 10 ns to 25 ns, has been found satisfactory (Bowdler, 1973). The diode must
r. -----,

have a very small recovery time (i.e, it must achieve a very high resistance rapidly
at the end of the conduction period). The voltage measuring instrument must have
CD CD CD a very high input impedance (at least 1012 11). Commonly the instrument is only
connected to C after the impulse has fully charged C. A reed relay can be used for
this purpose. Whilst the principles of the measurement of peak voltages have been
described here, commercial instruments make use of the ready availability of opera-
tional amplifiers and integrated circuits to overcome many of the problems of the
Figure 5.13 A digital development of the Chubb and Fortescue simple circuit. Detailed description of such circuitry is outside the scope of this
method book.
01"'1
 132
133
5.7 THE FIELD-MILL (GENERATING) VOLTMETER accurately is not available, the instrument can be calibrated from a known voltage.
The field-mill or generating voltmeter can be used for measuring either electric field The instrument can also be used to measure electric field. Figure 5.16 shows an
strength or potential difference and is widely used for investigating electrostatic electric field impinging on the surface of the rotating disc. If the electric field at the
phenomena. The device (Figure 5.15) consists of vanes, rotated by a motor at surface of the disc is E and the disc has an area A exposed to the field, then the
constant speed, below an earthed plate. The edges of the holes in the earthed plate total charge q on the disc is given by
and the edges of the rotating disc must be rounded to avoid corona. As the disc q = foAE.

i
This charge will vary between zero, when the disc is completely covered by the
I
section of rotating plate earthed electrode, and qm when the maximum area of the disc is exposed to the
exposed to field electric field (Figure 5.l6b). If the area of the holes in the earthed plate isAm and
H.V. electrode at the instant
I Shown the period for half a revolution of the plate is T, then the arithmetic mean current
. ezzzzzzzzzza during one half-cycle (I) is given by

I= ~J1r/2 dq dt = 2qm = 2foAmE

To dt T T

If a rectifying meter is used to measure the current, the arithmetic mean of the
current will be constant over the whole cycle and the current will be directly
Figure 5.15 The field-mill voltmeter proportional to the field at the plate. Further details of the use of this type of volt-
meter are given by Schwab (1972).

rotates, the capacitance between the high-voltage electrode and the disc will vary
between zero, when the disc is completely covered by the earthed electrode, and 5.8 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Cm when the disc lines up with the holes in the earthed electrode. The current i Voltage transformers are used routinely to provide voltage measurement for meter-
measured between the rotating electrode and earth for voltage V on the high- ing and protection in power systems. They can be extremely accurate for measuring
voltage electrode is given by
power-frequency voltages, but they are rarely used in their simple form for voltages
. dq d dC above 100 kV because the product of the magnetic flux in the core and the number
1=- =- (CV) = V- = VfCm of turns in the high-voltage winding must be large by the electromagnetic principles
dt dt dt
of transformer design and this inevitably produces a design which is expensive to
where f is the frequency of variation of the capacitance (twice the speed of rotation construct. The construction is a simple two-winding transformer on a silicon steel
of the disc). The voltage is measured by measuring the current i. The value of C is core with a flux density in the core of about 0.8 T and a secondary voltage of 110 V
low, around 1 pF and, if the apparatus to measure such a low value of capacitance in UK practice. Typical ratings are from 10 to 200 V A, with an error at the trans-
former terminals as low as 0.25%, although extra errors will be introduced if long
secondary leads are used to connect between the transformer and the meter.
q The output voltage of alternating voltage high-voltage test sets can be measured
by connecting the voltmeter across the primary of the high-voltage supply trans-
former. The same transformer is being used as a measurement transformer and the
I 'r I 't' I ""V >t supply transformer. This is a simple technique, but the ratio of the input to output
voltage for the transformer depends on the magnitude and power-factor of the
A
current that the transformer is supplying, so corrections must be made to the meter
I I I I I I > t
reading if significant load current is being taken.
Another method for measuring the output voltage of alternating voltage high-
(a) (b) voltage test sets is to use a tertiary winding on the supply transformer. This method
field at rotating charge and current permits the voltmeter to have a lower voltage ratin~ than the supply voltage to the
plate waveforms
test set. There will still be an error in the voltmeter reading that changes with the
Figure 5.16 TIIC field-mill principle current supplied by the test set, but the error is less than when the voltmeter is
.1")
C'4
 TI
134 135
connected across the transformer primary. When voltages above 100 kV are measured earthed flange
in power systems a capacitor voltage transformer as shown in Figure 5.17 is often
used. CI and C2 form a capacitor divider with an output of about 10 kV. A trans-
@~
former steps this voltage down to 110 V to supply a conventional voltmeter. The
value of L must be sufficient to compensate for the reduction in voltage across C1 I
due to current passing through the high-voltage winding of T. L partly consists of
the leakage inductance 9f T. The overall ratio error when this type of transformer is
!
~ I "'-bushing
used will be < 0.5% a,nd the phase error < 20' for a good design. An alternative
technique for measuring voltages above 100 kV is to use two or three voltage
I
I
winding of
/-U
c.r.
transformers connected in cascade. Further information about the use of voltage
transformers is available in books by Bowdler (1973) and National Physical Labora-
tory (1956).
Ii Figure 5.18 The principle of the current trans-
former used in a power system

I
r
H.V. line
I give accurate results for steady-state alternating currents but they cannot be relied
I
upon to reproduce correctly the waveshapes of fast transients. If a CT is to have a
cl
, L
high accuracy the magnetizing current and the core losses must be kept small, so
r that a high permeability low-loss magnetic material such as low-loss silicon steel or

IU
mumetal is used for the core. Commercially available current transformers can have
ratio errors as low as ± 0.1 % and phase errors as low as ± 5', but CTs can be con-
c2 structed with one-tenth of these errors (Bowdler, 1973). The secondary of a CT
must never be open-circuited when the primary is carrying current because then
no secondary ampere-turns are produced to balance the primary ampere-turns.
These primary ampere-turns produce flux saturation of the core and hence. very
Figure 5.17 A capacitor voltage transformer. high secondary e.m.f.s which may cause injury to personnel and damage to the
insulation of the transformer. The core may even become permanently magnetized
and this would produce both ratio and phase errors.
5.9 CURRENT MEASUREMENTS

The measurement of currents in the lines of high-voltage transmission systems is 5.9.2 Current shunts
necessary for system management and for the operation of protection systems.
Current transformers are normally used for these measurements. Often these A current shunt is a resistor in the current line. The current flowing in the line can
current transformers are manufactured as an integral part of the construction of a be measured in terms of the voltage drop across this resistor. A simple circuit for
bushing. displaying a transient current on an oscilloscope is shown in Figure 5.19. If R ~Z,
Tests programmes often require large-amplitude current pulses to be applied to Z will not affect the current being measured. However, two effects can produce
equipment so that the effects of lightning or short-circuit currents can be simulated.
Current shunts, Rogowski coils or Hall effect probes are usually used to measure
these current pulses.
co-axial coble

i
trnpedcnce t
5.9.1 Current transformers

The current transformers (CTs) used in power systems normally consist of turns of R I I I IZ ~( \
wire wound around the main current-carrying conductor. The turns of wire are
placed near the earthed flange of a bushing (see Figure 5.\8). The CT secondary
current is 12 = II (NdN2)' where II is the current being measured and NI and Nl are
the number of turns on the primary and the secondary. In the usual situation Figure 5.19 Use ofa shunt for measuring transient
NI = '\ and Nl is chosen to give a rated secondary current of either 1 A or 5 A. CTs currents

..I"')
 136 I'.'t
.;~ 137

errors: the self inductance of the shunt (L) will give a time-constant = L/R which r~l 5.9.3 The Rogowski coil
will distort fast pulses, and stray magnetic fields linking the shunt circuit and the If a coil is placed so that it surrounds the current path, then a voltage will be
measuring circuit will induce voltages in the measuring circuit which will be super- induced in the coil that is proportional to the rate-of-change of the current (see
imposed on the voltage (iR) produced by current flow through the shunt. Careful Figure 5.21). The output of the coil is connected to an integrator to reconstruct the
design of the shunt will reduce its stray inductance to a low value and shielding will original current waveform. The Rogowski coil is especially designed to respond only
reduce magnetic fields. The shunt is constructed as a folded strip or co-axial tube to the current passing through a probe containing the coil and not to stray magnetic
for measuring high currents. The resistance value of such shunts is low (mn or less)
fields.
so that a four-terminal design is used. This has two voltage measurement terminals
connected a short way along the resistor from the current terminals, so that the
contact resistance at the current terminals does not affect the resistance value. A
four-terminal design of shunt means that the oscilloscope used must have a differen- (.u~';~o(
(.0 c,u(.
tial input amplifier, even when the shunt is in an earth return line and not in a high- (.0<'
voltage line. It is easier to record the waveforms by using a digital storage
oscilloscope or a transient recorder instead of a conventional storage oscilloscope, c:;::::- "-
provided the instrument used has a high enough sampling speed for the transient
~ ~ Rogowski
being measured. ,'. coil
~{,
Extra difficulties are introduced when a shunt is used to measure the current in Figure 5.21 The Rogowski coil
a high-voltage line. It is possible to place the recording instrument (and the operator,
if necessary) in a cage which is insulated from earth and raise the potential of the ~
whole cage to line potential, but this is an expensive solution and the power Use of Rogowski coils requires care with the shielding of cables, but has the
supplies to the instruments must be fed through isolating transformers insulated to
,
I
, considerable advantage of not requiring any insertion into the circuit carrying the
line potential. i current to be measured, nor any electrical connections to the current-carrying
The availability of opto-electronic devices (such as light-emitting diodes, low-loss circuit. It is possible to achieve nanosecond risetimes with this technique (see
-. optical fibres and photodiodes) and low power consumption digital integrated Schwab, 1972; Kind, 1978).
circuits has made measurements at line potential much easier. Figure 5.20 shows
t~·
the essential elements in such a system. All the elements at line potential can be c
battery-powered. The losses in optical fibres are so low that the recording apparatus J, 5.9.4 Hall-effect probes
~~
can be placed 'at any convenient point, so it can be shielded from stray magnetic ,1;_
If a current-carrying conductor is surrounded by an iron core with an air gap, a
~
,.
fields due to the current being measured without difficulty. The limitation on the magnetic field will be produced in the air gap that is proportional to the current. If
bandwidth of the system is the speed of the analogue-to-digital (A/D) and digital- a semiconductor with a large Hall coefficient (the transverse electric field divided
to-analogue (D/ A) converters (or possibly the maximum bit-rate of the optical by the product of the current and the magnetic field producing this transverse
fibre). The whole system can be purchased commercially, or built up from readily- electric field - see, for example, Bar-Lev, 1979) is placed in the air gap, and il
available integrated circuits. constant current passed through the semiconductor; then a voltage is produced
perpendicular to the current. This voltage is proportional to the magnetic field, and
hence to the current. Probes can be produced using this principle that have a band-
width from zero to many MHz. The probe does not require any electrical connec-
tions to be made between the probe and the circuit in which the current to be
>1 ~
. c
:x: .= measured flows.
L optical
fibre 5.9.5 Faraday-effect current transformers
The Faraday effect is the rotation of the plane of polarization of a linearly polarized
light beam by a magnetic field. As a current-carrying conductor will produce a
bcttery powered magnetic field that is proportional to the current that it is carrying, a rotation of

. -
..t!)
.('4
Figure 5.20 Measurement of current at line potential using fibre-optic isolation the plane of polarization of a light beam can be created by current flow. The use
 ._.,::: ...

\
(!.
138 r 139 \ \,
:t;

;~
of a light beam in the measurement system will permit electrical isolation between
the current being measured and the final recording device. Current measurement >i',
,
using the Faraday effect in a flint glass sensor and with a polarized light beam trans-
mitted to and from the sensor through air is possible (Bowdler, 1973). :1·c Ix
An improved scheme of measurement has been devised (Papp and Harms, 1980).
In this scheme, the polarized light is produced by a He-Ne laser and transmitted ',.
"
through a monomode optical fibre. The optical fibre is also used as the sensor
element and 20 turns of/the fibre are wound around the current-carrying conductor. Iw
v
The light travels through a further length of the fibre to a detection system at earth Figure 5.23 The loss angle 0
potential. The detection system splits the light beam into two component beams
polarized normally to each other and the intensities of the two components are
measured with photodetectors. Some computational electronics is used to convert Figure 5.23). Iw is the in-phase (loss) component of the current and lx is the
these two intensities to a signal proportional to the current in the conductor. A quadrature component of the current: .
100 kV, 1000 AliA CT constructed on these principles has an accuracy of better Iw Iw
than 0.24% over the primary current range 50-1200 A. tan S =- and cos¢ =-.
¥, Ix I
t
For small values of B, I ~ Ix and tan /'i "'" cos ¢.
5.10 MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC LOSS
fi For the series equivalent circuit

tan/'i = wCsRs
The dielectric loss of high-voltage insulation is an important measure of the quality I
of insulation. The variation of this loss with the applied voltage provides useful and for the parallel equivalent circuit
~
information about the source of any imperfections in the insulation. A high dielec-
tric loss will result in the thermal breakdown of the material at a relatively low
voltage. If the dielectric loss starts to increase at a certain applied voltage, the
t tan S = wCpRp
1

inception of partial discharges at this voltage is indicated (see Chapter 7).

r
An insulating material with dielectric losses can be represented by either a series
or a parallel combination of resistance and capacitance provided the voltage applied ~.
I,)
~
5.10.1 The Schering bridge

to the material is sinusoidal. The resistance simulates the loss in the material and The loss angle is often measured by a bridge circuit known as the Schering bridge,
the capacitance simulates the ideal dielectric. These equivalent circuits are inac- % consisting. of capacitors and resistors. The circuit is shown in Figure 5:24. The
~
~;
curate because they assume a linear behaviour for the material and real materials t~,
behave in a nonlinear way. The two equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 5.22.
('
The loss in the material is normally measured in terms of the loss angle 0 (see
"

,[ J" v Rp
:t..

I I IRs

Figure 5.22 Series and parallel equivalent circuits

of a dielectric with loss Figure 5.24 The Schering bridge
.-,..,
 ,/
~. 4...Jo I

140 i.' '

"

"j~
141
dielectric is represented by its series equivalent circuit, Cx and Rx' Cl is a high-
1 Hence,

!
voltage capacitor of negligible dielectric loss. A gas-filled unit is usually used. The il
~ tan S = wCxRx
high voltage appears across the test object and Cl so that the remainder of the
:~
circuit can consist of low-voltage components and be outside the high-voltage test (. = wC4R4•
area. The components marked OP are overvoltage protection devices, such as neon I R4 isfixed at a convenient value, depending on the supply frequency, e.g. 103/7T for
tubes, to protect the low-voltage arms of the bridge in case of breakdown or flash-
~(

50 Hz. For this value of R4

over of the test object. D is the null detector, which should consist of a narrow-band
amplifier tuned to the fundamental frequency of the supply and a meter to display ~, tan S = lOsC4
the out-of-balance signal': If the supply has a significant third harmonic content, the f'-1
and C4 can be calibrated directly in terms of tan 8. The magnitude of tan 8 for a
addition of a third harmonic filter before the tuned amplifier will aid sensitivity. d.
good synthetic resin-bonded paper bushing is about 0.005.
The harmonic content of the supply is likely to prevent a zero detector reading t When high-accuracy measurements are being made, a compensation must be
being obtained, even at balance. The low-voltage components and detector should .¥
il- made for the error due to the capacitance of the screened leads. These capacitances
be enclosed in an earthed screened box and screened leads should be used for the i~ appear in parallel with either Zbe or Zed, so that if the bridge is balanced for a
connections to Cl and the test object. R3 is a decade resistor and C4 is a decade i~·
capacitor. The values of these two components are adjusted alternately until a 'f~
'(.,
number' of values of R4 and the results extrapolated to zero R4' then the effects of
the lead capacitances can be eliminated.
balance is obtained. An analysis of the balance condition gives "~~

li;

z.,
-=-
Zbe
Zad
Zde
t
i~
IT;
5.10.2 Bridges for measuring low losses

~,
The losses of high-quality polymers and of highly-purified liquids are too low to be
Therefore, • measured on a normal Schering bridge because the reference standard capacitors
l usually have loss tangents of 10-5, whereas the loss tangents of polyethylene,

eo
(:¥J (R4-~) Rx--
C w
j

X
K
i:~
!"
i'>
polypropylene and PTFE at power frequencies and low temperatures are less than
10-5 (Phillips, 1970; Carson, 1973). The early measurements Qf dielectric losses in
low-loss materials were made by calorimetric techniques (Vincett, 1969), but it is
-jR4 R3 possible to use bridge techniques. A Schering bridge can be used to achieve an
wC4 f~
accuracy of ± 2.5 X 10-6 for the measurement of loss tangent, if a very low loss
reference capacitor such as one with liquid helium as the dielectric and a Wagner
,~
Equating real parts: ~ earth auxiliary bridge are used (Nelson, 1974).
~
::~
However, it is generally more convenient to measure low values of loss tangent
R3 R4 "~"
by using a transformer-ratio arm bridge (also known as a current comparator bridge).
W2C4Cl = W2C4Cx Such a bridge has a variable-ratio current transformer as two of the arms and the
detector is connected to a third winding on the core, with zero net flux in the core
or
as the balance condition (Baker, 1965). A bridge based on these principles has been
R4 used to measure a loss tangent of 10-5 and to measure the variation of this loss
C =Cl-· ~:~ tangent with the applied voltage for a polyethylene-insulated cable at cryogenic
x R3
temperatures (Meats, 1977).
Equating imaginary parts:

I R3R4 RxR4 REFERENCES

wCl wCl Asner, A. (1960). Neue Erkentrisse iiber die Messungsehr hoher rasch verander-
licher stosspannungen mittels spannungsteiler. Diss. Technical University, Zurich,
or
•. No. 2975 .
Baker, W. P. (1965). Electrical Insulation Measurements, Newnes, London:
C4R3•
s, = c;- Bar-Lev, A. (1979). Semiconductor
pp.41-44.
and Electronic Devices, Prentice-Hall, London.

"-
-M
C'I
 142
-,
I{
Boeck, W. (1963). Eine Scheitelspannungsmesseirnrichtung erhoter Genauigkeit mit I~

digitaler Anzeige. ETZ A, 84, 883-885. ~g~

I~{
Bowdler, G. W. (1933). A resistor for high-voltage measurements. J./.E.E., 73,
65-68.
Bowdler, G. W. (1973). Measurements in High-voltage Test Circuits, Pergamon,
'f..
, '

Oxford. :~
...
Carson, R. A. J. (1973). Low-temperature dielectric relaxation in polyethylene.
Proc. R. Soc. A, 332, 1155-266. T
:i 6
House, H., Waterton, FJW., and Chew, 1. (1979) 1000 kV Standard Voltmeter. 3rd ,,-"
Int. Symposium on High-Voltage Engineering, Milan, 28-31 August
Paper 43.05, Associazione Electrotechnica ed EIletronica Italiana, Milan.
1979,

Kind, D. (I 978). An Introduction to High-voltage Experimental Technique, Viewieg,

Braunschweig.
Kuffel, E. (1961). Influence of humidity on the breakdown of sphere-gaps and
uniform-field gaps. Proc. lEE, I08A, 295-301.
.~r
~
,:~:
I;
:£'
11'
High-voltage testing
14
Malewski, R., and Dechlamplain, A. (1981). Digital impulse recorder for high- 6. I INTRODUCTION
voltage laboratories. IEEE Power Engineering Review, 1, 15-23.
Meats, R. J: (1977). Dielectric losses in a polyethylene insulated superconducting
i
~~ The reliability and safe operation of all electrical equipment depend on the integrity
cable between 4 and 22 K. Cryogenics, 17, 229-232. ~
!Ii of its insulation. A high-potential test is used to examine this integrity and to
National Physical Laboratory (1956). Notes on Applied Science number 17, High (:~ determine the ability of the insulation to meet its design specification. Basically a
Voltage Impulse Testing, HMSO. It
;~, high-voltage test (often called withstand voltage test, flashover test, breakdown test
Nelson, R. J. (J 974). Bridge measurements of very low. dielectric loss at low
or dielectric strength test) is the deliberate application to equipment of a voltage
temperatures. Proc. lEE, 121,764-770.
Papp, A., and Harms, H. (J 980). Magnetooptical current transformer. Applied f
~' higher than its normal working voltage, for a specific period of time, to discover if
Optics, 19,3729-3745.
Phillips, W. A. (J 970). Low temperature dielectric relaxation in polyethylene and
rt. the insulation withstands or breaks down under that voltage. By deflnition, a
breakdown test is a destructive technique to measure the dielectric strength of o·
related hydrocarbon polymers. Proc. R. Soc. A, 319, 565-581.
1: insulation and it is usually made on a sample piece of the material. However,
Schwab, A. J. (1972). High-voltage Measurement Techniques, The M.I.T. Press, 7
Cambridge, Mass., USA. because of their cost, the testing of components or complete equipment is usually
Vincett, P. S. (1969). Calorimetric measurements of very low dielectric loss at low ~ by a nondestructive technique designed to ensure that the level of insulation is
v
temperatures. J. Phys.: D, 2, 699-7 I O. ~.
adequate for service conditions. Unless breakdown is intended, the test voltage is
~ not raised high enough to cause failure in good equipment. However, if the test
~ object is faulty the test voltage will promote excessive leakage current and may
'it
'""'i induce flashover or puncture of the insulating material. The purpose of high-voltage
'{ tests from the customer's viewpoint is to demonstrate that the apparatus has met
]
~
:1
i
the guaranteed specifications of dielectric strength. From the manufacturer's stand-
'1 point, the tests provide a check on the design, a determination of the strength of his
~
materials and a guide to the development of better equipment.
¥
.1
j
Or.'
<.
6.2 TYPES OF TEST
I" .
F High-voltage tests may be classified in several ways. They may be grouped accord-
"
~ ing to the type of plant which is used to supply the voltage and they are then
1\
u known as alternating, direct or impulse tests. They may be classified by the type of
~ measurement such as a flashover/time characteristic or by the method of test which
"
f, would include the standard routine, and special type tests. Routine testing such as ..
a power-frequency overvoltage test is performed on every unit at the manufacturer's
factory and possibly after receipt of the unit by the purchaser. Type testing, such
as an impulse voltage test, is done to prove the specifications of a new design and
is probably restricted to one or two units of each design.
",..,
 IL~I i!!
:~
144 ,)i~ 145
It
The range of high-voltage tests depends on the nature of the equipment being {
tested, but generally they might involve the following:
(1) One-minute dry withstand/flashover test.
~;' 240

f 200 '-. /- -1100

/ r~
(2) One-minute wet withstand/flashover test.
I'"
rr~
"
(3) Separate-source-voltage and induced overvoltage withstand test.
';;1160
(4) Impulse-voltage full wave withstand test. lr E....: ~ ~
(5) Impulse-voltage chopped wave withstand test. H .

i'
(6) Impulse under oil ~uncture/withstand test.
F ; 120 < I 60~
(7) Switching surge test. t .>£
<l>

(8) Power factor measurement. /

F
(9) Internal discharge measurement.
,I·1
(10) "High-current short-circuit test for circuit breakers.
The first three have been traditional standard routine tests and the others are type
4 ::r , ! ! !

tests. The techniques for tests (8) and (9) are described in Chapters 5 and 7, respec-
tively. For a detailed specification of each test the various national standards should
be consulted; here, we shall describe only the essential features of the various tests.
ll Figure
0

6.1
1 2
numberof
3
insulators
Variation of the 50 Hz dry flashover
4

voltage and

ti••tl efficiency with number of insulators

6.3 POWER-FREQUENCY TESTS ~

6.3.1 Dry withstand test
This is the oldest and most common routine test for all types of electrical equip-
., ment but is especially applicable to items such as insulators, small bushings, rod
gaps etc. since if these objects fail it is relatively inexpensive to replace them for a
repeat test. A specified power-frequency voltage of between two to three times the
normal working voltage is applied for 1 minute with the component and any other
external fittings in their operating positions. If there is no flashover the component
is deemed to have passed the test. If a dry flashover value is required then the voltage
is raised until a disruptive discharge occurs on the test object. This procedure is
repeated several times (usually flve) and the mean of the measured values is taken as
the flashover voltage. The mean value is often referred to as the power-frequency
critical flashover voltage. When an object is subjected to a power-frequency flash-
over it is advisable to protect the step-up transformer (Subsection 4.1.1) by insert-
ing a current-limiting water resistance between its output and the test specimen.
A suitable value for the resistance is in the range of 10 M.\1.
Whilst this chapter is devoted to the general theme of high-voltage testing
methods, occasionally we shall illustrate important features of the results of some
of these tests. One such feature, of special relevance to the design of transmission
lines, involves the voltage distribution along an insulator string (Subsection 8.6.2).
Figure 6.1 shows results for the 50 Hz dry flashover voltage of a series of suspen-
sion insulators (see Figure 1.19). The results are also plotted as a graph of flashover
efficiency against number of units, where the efficiency is defined as EnlnEb En
\} string. This is because the voltage across each unit in a string is not uniformly
~
:l-
distributed due to the effects of the different capacitance between each insulator
f in a string and ground (Weeks, 1981). In fact, for clean, dry units the maximum
i voltagegradient occurs at the pin of the line-end insulator unit. It should also be
remembered that the flashover voltage refers to a discharge along the surface of a
J
ff.
test specimen and not to its internal breakdown, or puncture. In practice, for insu-
lators, when the voltage is near flashover, treeing (Subsection 2.5.2) or carbonizing
occurs in the cement of the unit, eventually leading to its breakdown.
~ The flashover of insulation, especially under conditions of outdoor service,
t
:f
depends on the prevailing atmospheric conditions. It is referred to a standard
reference atmosphere of temperature 293 K (20 C), pressure 101.3 kPa (1013 mbar
I or 760 mm Hg) and absolute humidity of 11 g/m3• The flashover voltage increases
with air density (Subsection 2.3.4) and humidity. If necessary, it is corrected to
~
that at standard atmosphere by dividing by a factor k~ Ik~ (lEC 42). These para-
i meters kd and kh and their exponents involve numerous experimental variables such
~
g as barometric pressure, vapour pressure, temperature, type and polarity of applied
I voltage, length and uniformity of gap between flashover points. Numerical values
'~ and rules for using the correction factors are given in the IEC document 42 (1972).
j Any test report should state the actual atmospheric conditions during the test and
whether corrections have been applied to the results.
1;
<
~(
~l
~> 6.3.2 Wet withstand test
"

being the flashover voltage of n insulators and E1 the flashover voltage of the first
insulator. Students should note that the efficiency is dependent on n and the
flashover voltage does not increase linearly with the number of insulators in a
J.'?
N
The wet test method is intended to simulate the effect of natural rain on external
,
11 insulation. It is recommended for tests with all types of test-voltages on compon-
ents such as bushings and insulators which are designed for, outdoor use. The test

146
object is mounted as in service and is sprayed with artificial rain whose intensity
and water resistivity is laid down by national standards. Typical values are 1.5 mm/
min for the precipitation rate and 100 nm for the resistivity. For power-frequency
tests a specified voltage is applied for 30 s or I minute, as the case may be, and if no
flashover occurs the test object is considered to have passed the test.
Rain will considerably reduce the flashover voltage of insulation for power-
frequency and swjtching impulses but has little effect when very fast transients are
applied. For example, a clean insulator, such as in Figure 6.1, will flashover at about
80 kV r.m.s. when dry and 60 kV r.rn.s. when wet, and the present authors have
observed a two-fold reduction during wet tests on some stay insulators for use in
_ distribution networks. Severe contamination of cap and pin insulators from salt
spray, coal and cement dust, heavy fog etc. may drastically reduce their wet flash-
over level from about 60 kV r.m.s, per unit to as little as 6 to 10 kV r.m.s, per unit.
For further details of test results the reader is referred to the extensive literature on
the subject (Ely and Roberts, 1968; Lambeth, 1971; Takasu et al., 1981).
6.3.3 Separate-source-voltage withstand test
This test is somewhat similar to the dry withstand test but is used specifically for
transformers. Its purpose is to check the major insulation between windings and
tank. As shown in Figure 6.2 for the three-phase delta/star unit the terminals of the
winding under test are connected together whilst the terminals on the other wind-
ing are shorted to the tank which is then earthed. In this mode the transformer is
essentially a capacitive load and for small units up to about 1 MV A a meter may be
connected as shown to register the quadrature leakage current through the insula-
tion between the windings. The power-frequency test voltage is approximately
twice the highest system voltage (see Table 1.9). It is given in r.m.s. values on the
assumption that the waveform is sinusoidal, thus producing peak yoltages v'2 times
the r.m.s, value. When carrying out these tests it is advisable to measure the peak
voltage by means of sphere gaps or other peak-measuring device (Subsection 5.6)
o-~II
s~~
H v test /
trnns former
ground
Figure 6.2 Connection diagram for separ-
ate-source-voltage withstand lest
-M
),..
-'"
147
and to check for possible waveform distortion by sampling the high voltage with a
potential transformer whose low voltage output is compared with a 50 or 60 Hz
sine wave on a CRO.
In order to avoid damage due to transients, the test is commenced at a voltage
not greater than one-third of the required value. The voltage is then raised as
smoothly as possible to the test value and is applied for I minute after which it is
reduced to less than one-third of this value before being switched off. If the current
is monitored as in Figure 6.2 it should remain steady during the I minute period,
and any violent fluctuations in the current are a sign of incipient faults in the
insulation. The inter-turn and line-end insulation of the windings in Figure 6.2 are
examined by an induced overvoltage test. Here, a higher voltage than normal is
induced in the windings by supplying each low-voltage winding from a single-phase
supply and, in order to avoid saturation of the iron core at the high test voltage, it
is necessary to use a supply of a higher frequency than normal, for example 100 to
250 Hz. It has been suggested that routine power-frequency tests may do more
harm than good in as much as they introduce unreal safety factors into the design
of equipment which, in practice, is never stressed by alternating voltages at a level
of two to three times their working voltage. In their defence, it is claimed that they
I, are easy to perform, and plant which is made to withstand them has given satis-
factory service. For EHV and UHV systems, however, unnecessary safety margins
are too costly and cannot be tolerated and the IEC have recommended that the
I power-frequency test be replaced by a switching surge test. It is likely that ulti-
mately a power-frequency test at about 1.5 times working voltage will be used'.
I.
6.4 IMPULSE WITHSTAND TEST
I'I As we have seen in Chapter I, equipment in service is subjected to surge overvoltages
caused by a lightning stroke or a switching operation. Impulse withstand tests are
designed to establish that the insulation of equipment is capable of withstanding
these overvoltages. Three types of impulse test may be performed depending on the
test object and it is necessary to describe the test waves for each case: full wave,
chopped wave and switching wave.
I
I
I; Full wave For this test a 1.2/50 JiS wave as shown in Figure 6.3(a) is recom-
! mended. A great variety of waveshapes will meet the requirements of a 1.2 JiS front,
Ii
'1
and for standardization purposes a '30 and 90% rule' has been established. The
virtual time zero 01 in Figure 6.3(a) is determined by locating points on the front
of the wave at which the voltage is 30 and 90%, respectively, of the actual peak
value and then drawing a straight line through these points. The intersection of this
line with the time axis is the start of the wave. The front time is tl = 1.67 x t = 1.2 us,
and t2 = 50 Jis is the time to half-value. The difficulties in testing equipment of
different kV A ratings, especially transformers, necessitate variations from the
standard wave in the interests of a practical testing technique. A tolerance of
± 30% is allowed for t\ and ± 20% for t i-
 I L.j 1-

148 149

,.0r·---
O·g _
6.4.1 Impulse voltage distribution in transformers

.,
01 II
The load which a transformer presents to an impulse generator consists of capaci-
tance and inductance in parallel, as the resistance of the winding under test is
01
B 0·5--
B usually very small. The transformer capacitance is especially important to the
a
> 0·3>- g behaviour of the windings during surge conditions. Each turn of a winding is
covered by dielectric material and can be considered as a plate of a multiple-plate
01'/1." Time 1I capacitor. Also, each turn can be regarded as one plate and the core and tank,
a, k . '1 ~ Time
which support the coils, as another plate of a capacitor. When these static capacitors
are connected as in Figure 6.4(a) they will simulate the high-frequency circuit
Ibl
behaviour of a transformer. Cs represents the series capacitance between turns and
Cg is the shunt capacitance of the turns to the core and tank which are always
~:~L:~.-.---_·_~~~---·~ earthed. When the inductance of the windings is added we obtain the circuit shown
.,
01
in Figure 6.4(b), where all the elements are assumed to be uniformly distributed .
leI 20'5
g
•..__ ..
-. - - -- -- -. --.- --- ----.---.--.-.-----~

or. Tq I
T
Time I I U";-1~trTT~
cQ
Figure 6.3 The waveshapes for impulse tests: (a) full wave, (b) chopped wave and (c) switching
wave ~~
rai
Otopped wave When flashover occurs at an insulator or bushing, the full-wave
impulse voltage is suddenly reduced to zero producing a so-called chopped wave as
in Figure 63(b). This type of waveshape commonly occurs in practice. The chop
itself may occur on either the front or tail of the wave but for test purposes it is
generally arranged to occur on the tail between 2 and 6 JiS from the nominal start
of the wave. A chopped wave is obtained by adjusting the setting of a rod gap or
by using a controlled chopping gap such as a trigatron (Subsection 4.4p.
(bl -=
Switching wave The standard switching impulse, as shown in Figure 6.3(c), is a Figure 6.4 (a) Equivalent circuit f~r the capaci-
wave having a time to crest Tcr of 250 JiS and a time to half value Th of 2500 JiS. tance of transformer windings under impulse
An alternative definiticn involves the time Td during which the instantaneous value testing. Insulation thicknesses affect circuit charac-
teristics. (b) Complete equivalent circuit of a
of the voltage lies above 90% of its peak value. In this case the wave is specified transformer for use in calculating voltage distribu-
by the product Tc:;rTd rather than by the ratio Tc:;r/Th. tion throughout the winding under impulse test

Impulse tests are done on a variety of equipment such as insulators, bushings,

arresters, cables and transformers etc. Because transformers are such vital and
valuable items in a transmission network, much time and effort have been devoted
to the study of their behaviour under impulse voltages. In fact the ability to with-
stand high-voltage surges is recognized as one of the most important qualities of a
transformer. Consequently, it is our intention here to deal in some detail with the
impulse testing of transformers. Similar tests on other apparatus follow much the
same lines but are, generally, easier to carry out. Surge phenomena in a wide range
of electrical equipment are discussed in detail by Heller and Veverka tl968).
..l')
('l
The circuit of Figure 6.4(b) is equivalent to that for a transmission line. Conse-
quently, the voltage distribution throughout a winding can be found mathemati-
cally by applying a unit step-function of voltage to the circuit and determining its
voltage response (BEARA Report, 1941). A brief qualitative analysis is sufficient
here but the classic paper by Allibone et al. (1937) should be consulted. For an
average impulse the voltage rises to its peak in less than 2 JiS and, therefore, there
are frequencies present in excess of 500 kHz. At this frequency the impedance of
the inductive part of the circuit in Figure 6.4(b) is so high that it can be neglected.
'I

150
Therefore, only the capacitive elements react to the front: of an impulse to establish
an initial distribution of voltage throughout the winding. The voltage to ground of
each turn can be calculated using the circuit of Figure 6.4(a) and a curve is obtained
as shown in Figure 6.5. This graph indicates that a large proportion of the voltage
is concentrated across the early part of the winding in such a way that the interturn
t.
151
main supply frequency and whose output is applied to the model test winding. The
output from the various tapping points is fed into the instrument's oscillograph so
that a standing image of the impulse at each point is seen on the fluorescent screen.
In recent years, storage oscilloscopes and transient recorders have been used to
obtain information on the impulse stresses in transformers.

j.
!
6.4.2 Testing a transformer
'"
C1I
surge
Impulse tests are generally carried out at room temperature with the transformer
~ lOOK'
"0
~ 80
a.
,
"
, Line
not energized, although a new procedure has been described for testing distribution
g- 60 -, end transformers under load (Kaufmann, 1977). The equivalent circuit for a complete
-
~c 40
,
" ,
impulse test arrangement on a transformer is shown in Figure 6.6 which can be
translated into the practical set-up of Figure 6.7 (see Figure 4.19). The resistance
'"
u 20 ,
Rs in Figure 6.7 is inserted in the circuit to damp out unwanted oscillations on the
~ 01 I " I-==>=,) front of the wave. In preliminary tests the front and tail resistors of the generator
o 20 40 60 80 100
are adjusted to give a wave as near to the standard 1.2/50 J.1.S as the load will permit.
per cent of winding
from Line end These tests are done at a voltage between 50 and 75% of the full test value, after
Figure 6.5 Voltage distribution on a which no change is made in the circuit parameters. Changes in the test voltage are
transformer winding during the rising
made by varying the charging voltage applied to the generator. Having obtained a
part of an impulse (solid line). Deviation
from a uniform distribu tion (dashed suitable waveshape in the preliminary tests, the system is calibrated. This is achieved
line) is due to the capacirances of the by setting a standard sphere gap to a spacing which will flashover at approximately
winding
75% of the test voltage and by determining, at that level, the 50% impulse flashover
voltage of this spacing (the calibration procedure is outlined on page 156). The
generator charging voltage corresponding to this impulse voltage is recorded- and a
stress is highest near the line-end of the winding. During the tail of the wave the linear extrapolation is used to calculate the charging voltage which will produce the
final distribution of voltage is established by the resistive elements (omitted in
Figure 6.4(b» and is usually uniform. Between the initial and final distributions the
transitional behaviour takes the form of a damped oscillatory transference of
IMPULSE WAVE-SHAPING TEST RECORDING AND
energy between the capacitive and inductive elements. During this period all parts
GENERATOR CIRCUITS OBJECT MEASURING DEVICES
of the winding under test may be stressed severely at different times. Voltage r -- ----- ----- --Ir - - ----1 r ---- - --- - -- ----- --1
concentrations may appear at the neutral end of the winding, while voltages to
r-----'
I I I ,I I I I
I , , I
ground considerably in excess of the applied impulse may be developed in the i
LI R II '.1
: I I

, 11'
interior of the winding. Various methods have been adopted to improve the initial I II
'I , I I
voltage distribution (Hickling, 1968), such as: 4
I ' 'I' I
'I I C I
(1) co-ordinated insulation on the windings where the insulation is proportioned to : I I 11'1 I
, , 'I I I I
control and to withstand the surges which appear across it,
(2) increasing Cs by interleaving winding conductors or adding capacitors in parallel
with the winding,
J :
I
I
I
:'

I
I,
I
I
R2
C2 ;1 (3
II
'I
11'1
: I
I I
II I
SG
I
1

1
(3) neutralizing Cg by electrostatic shields, I I I 'I II I
I 'I I I I
(4) connecting nonlinear resistors in parallel with the winding. I I, ,I: I
I I, II I
,I I I I I
The behaviour of experimental model windings is often investigated by having
tapping points at several places in the winding and recording directly on a CRO the
L J L . H J L. ..J ~

potentials occurring at these points. The recurrent-surge oscillograph is a convenient figure 6.6 Equivalent circuit for a complete test arrangement on a transformer. SG= standard
sphere gap for calibration of the impulse voltage, C, and C, = capacitance potentia! divider,
piece of apparatus for this purpose (White and Nethercot, 1949). This instrument R] and R, = resistance potential divider. The other circuit elements have been explained in
incorporates a low-voltage impulse generator which is triggered at a multiple of the the text

.,...,
 1",,-...,)1

152 153
•
(I) a change in the waveshape of the voltage and current oscillograms both before
transformer
and after the chopped waves have been applied,
RS u (2) acoustic noise within the transformer,
(3) visual signs of flashover under oil such as the presence of carbon, bubbles and
v
fibre bridges in the oil.
n The proper interpretation of oscillograms is a matter of practical analysis balanced
with experience and only a few brief comments are included here. The general
-=, Volt Chop Current
,i divider gap shunt opinion is that records of the current waves provide better evidence than the
Figure 6.11 Practical arrangement for an impulse test on a three- voltage waves for the detection of failure in transformers. The inductance of a
phase transformer. Impulse derived from generator in Figure winding is reduced when a part of it is short-circuited due to a breakdown of
4.18 and applied to terminal U
insulation between turns or coils. As shown in Figure 6.8 a fault in the winding will
cause a considerable change in the inductive component of the current that is
passed when a surge is imposed on the winding. Consequently, in a sequence of
full impulse test voltage at the transformer, Corrections must be made to the impulse tests, if the current wave at each voltage level is not identical before and
measured voltage for departure of the atmospheric pressure, temperature and after the chopped waves, this is an indication that an insulation failure has occurred.
humidity from standard conditions (Hawley, 1959). It requires an experienced observer to interpret voltage oscillograms correctly as
The peak voltage applied for the full-wave tests depends on the system highest they are relatively insensitive to inter-turn breakdown. A major disturbance such as
voltage and on the BIL for the transformer, Values specified by the IEC have been a collapse of the voltage is obvious and may often indicate a flashover to the tank.
given already in Table 1.9. To ensure that any winding not under test is not damaged However, minor perturbations on a voltage wave are difficult to detect, but by
by a transferred surge, its terminals are either earthed directly or through resistors using a film enlarger the corresponding traces before and after the chopped waves
of such a value that the transferred voltage is limited to less than 75% of its test may be drawn, and then compared, on a graduated page. To facilitate comparison
value. A sequence of impulses is applied to each line terminal in turn and to the of the voltage traces the amplitude sensitivity of the CRO is adjusted to give about
neutral of a three-phase transformer if the neutral connection is brought out to a the same physical amplitude of deflection on the oscillograms. A failure occurring
"
bushing. Impulses of negative polarity are recommended for oil-immersed equip- during the chopped-wave tests is very difficult to detect from the oscillograms. This
ment and are applied in the following order: difficulty should be apparent from the recordings shown in Figure 6.9 on page 156.
Further information on the detection of breakdown is given in the articles by
(1) one reduced full wave,
Allibone et al. (1937), Neuve-Eglise (1955) and Hickling (1968).
(2) one full wave,
(3) two chopped waves,
(4) one full wave,
(5) one reduced full wave. lal

During these tests each impulse voltage is recorded on an oscillogram (see Figure ~
6.9 on page 154). Simultaneously, the current waves are recorded as voltages by
inserting a current shunt between the neutral point and earth for a star-connected I b~ f.J\/'w- Figure 6.8 Change in the inductive component of current
unit, and between the other two terminals joined together and earth for a delta ~V-~ - --- passed through a transformer winding after an impulse:
(a) no fault, (b) with fault
connection. Neutral current recording, as this technique is called, is widely used to
indicate insulation failure of a winding under the impulse voltage, but several
alternative positions can be adopted for the current shunt (Rippon and Hickling,
1949). For the two chopped-wave tests the impulse generator is set to deliver a Failure location Whilst it is relatively easy to detect failure, the possibility of
voltage 15% in excess of the specified full-wave test voltage. The rapid fall to zero locating a point of failure from either a voltage or current oscillogram is rather
of the voltage in the chopped wave imposes severe stresses on the line-end insula- limited. The surge behaviour of a transformer is similar to that of a transmission
tion of the winding under test. line (Subsection 6.4.1) and the propagation velocity for an impulse wave through
oil-immersed windings is about 130 m of conductor length per J1S (Hickling, 1968).
Failure detection Insulation failure in a transformer arising from an impulse test A voltage oscillogram may provide some clue to the position of a breakdown as the
may be detected by any, or all, of the following methods: disturbance on the trace must occur at twice the wave travel time from the line

.«')
C"I
 j

154 155

~ ..<:: terminal to the point of failure (Subsection 7.4.1). The principle of the current
u
~ method for detecting failure is such that it is not possible to locate the point of

~I~
""C

8"2 =
OJ 0 breakdown from the current picture. In the event of a fault, probably the best
::s '"'
"" ::s '-'
::s '"
o
c::~ -e = way of locating its position in the absence of any evidence from the voltage record
.!oC ""C
:oJ :::l
~ • c=:: 0:: -c is to use a recurrent-surge oscillograph, storage oscilloscope or transient recorder
E 'Ed~~~~d ..<::
~ 0 > > ~ ~ > > '" with artificial faults in various positions on the transformer, until a record is
~ ~ ~~~~~~ '"
~~~o.o.~~ -e '"
~ obtained that is similar to that taken during the actual high-voltage test. The
;;33.,g.2:;~ ..<::
~"",,,",uu"'.t: E-< position of the artificial fault would then be a guide to the location of the actual
I
oJ
> breakdown.
'"~
>--'" ..'; .~ f;~t::-'; _
•.'::}o'~'-~~-~;,,"(~~;-
::'.t'~ C
~
-- ~
•...
::s _'"
•...
Recording of test data During impulse tests it is imperative that detailed records
are kept of the test circuit, voltage calibration, oscillograms etc. The manner in
U
>
~
-;;
~ ~
c
~-
u ~
"
~
..<::
..... " which this is done varies with the personnel of each laboratory but, as an example,
-'!'-~""k"~}',- ~~- __
~ I."'.' .~ ::l we have included sample record sheets on pages 154 and 156 which we have found
-~
Vl
=
\~7~~~ ,~~~~~,:~
~ ~.§ to be helpful, Also included in Figure 6.9 is a typical sequence of oscillograms
Ell"
0"<:: where the bottom trace of each picture is the current wave. The sheets refer to
...., ::3;
~ ~~ impulse tests using a test circuit such as that shown earlier in Figure 6.7.
o ~
~ "<::0. '"
:~ 0000000
0000 V') V) V') V") 00
u eo
:1 .5
':';; =-c I 6.4.3 Transmission-line insulators
= o .5
Vl" '" ~
~I ~~
- E
A string of suspension insulators only imposes a load of low capacitance on an
.
UI ...., impulse generator so that it is relatively easy to obtain the desired standard test -

-
N
:I:
-'"
2
-
0E ••.•
~
- '"
= waveform. The insulators should be clean and dry and set up in the laboratory with

--
OOOC""'lf""iOO .D;:
o '"
ci- OOO('f")~OO
q_ .......
("1'1("1") __ ~ any ancillary fittings mounted as in service. The relevant national specifications
....•

U
"
<!:
-;;
L'
'-- . .·
I
,-
'" '"
~~
ui u;
1;l-'"
-;E
indicate how the insulators are suspended and connections are made to them etc.,
but the aim of the tests is to determine their 50% flashover voltage for each impulse

-
0.= polarity and, if needed, their time-to-flashover characteristic.
:::1 f!Pl!!IlJIILauu _ _~.5 The 50% impulse flashover voltage, also known as the critical flashover (CFO)
o.§ voltage, is the peak voltage at which approximately half of the impulses applied
"-a
~
'~""
'"
- .~stW:.•':-. -
.. ,
4.ot.~,.r .... ~
- ... " .•::::,
~, ~. / :-~!.~:..' .. ..1
· ",-
.~~
,,-
'" "
cause flashover of the insulators. It is desirable to apply at least 20 impulses of each
polarity and the peak voltage is measured by a sphere gap (Section 5.3) or with the
•...
s ~
~
c
..<:: -....
·-t ..
. ,
, ,.,;•..
,
- .-, " .. -~-'
•.•.. - ",T"'" .•.•... -- ·
..•.
"'-
'-0'-
u
'" c:
'"
-0
aid of a potential divider and calibrated CRO~ Correction factors due to environ-
<>
..
, E'-
'" .. mental conditions must be applied to the measured voltage. In general, for insulators

-_.
:::
~ ...., thg the CFO voltage is slightly higher with positive than with negative impulses.
CI O./:l
>- ~
~
::3
~
For purposes of insulation co-ordination (Section 1.7) it is often necessary to
~ 0 know the relationship between the flashover voltage and the time-to-flashover. A
"Oil -e )
= CRO is essential for this test but otherwise the technique is straightforward. The
Vi" ••
peak voltage and time-lag to breakdown (Subsection 2.3.3) for an impulse which
"
fii'"
'E
is just sufficient to cause flashover of the insulators are recorded osciJIographically,
as illustrated in Figure 6.10. TIns procedure is repeated for increasing values of volt-
-.•. -~ .,
0
o
age until breakdown occurs at or just ahead of the peak of the applied wave. As

~I""'N~~~~~~'" -~ ' ...

~~,,~:,:~:i~;~~ ,..,,:::::::
, •••• •••3' •• ' •.'
..•.... ~
-"'!-o
the voltage is increased, so the time-to-flashover is reduced (see Figure 1.31). In
practice, because of the statistical nature of impulse breakdown, slightly differen t
~
::s time-lags may be obtained from impulses with the same peak value. Consequently,
.~
:..:.. some scatter in the readings is inevitable but it is found that the curve plotted from

flJ .1 -I ~ 7.1
 1.£..,,)1-

156 157

VOLTAGE CALIBRATION AND TIMING OF PLANT WIlli

_ kV/ _ V _ kVA TRANSFORMER, SERIAL NO.
MAKER. Volt-Time
Date: curve
OJ
Negative/positive impulse applied to _V winding, phase _. 01

Connection
Desk voltmeter

Calibration
diagram p. _
connected

sphere gaps:
dated
for F.S.D. 100 kV/200
/
diameter cm.
refers to this calibration.
kV.
B
>
o
/
distance from plant gaps cm.
additional irradiation
gap setting cm
inch
Time
Extract from IEC 52 for cm spheres Figure 6.10 Method of determining the
impulse flashover (voltage-time) characteristic
of insulation
gap setting cm
SO/50 breakdown kV

A trnospheric pressure mmHg I

I
Ambient temperature C 50 /
293
Relative air density d=-x----
760 (273 + ;; 40!
.>t.
v»
.,
I
I
,. .. •

'0 I
I

~30 I
I
SO/50 breakdown voltage (CFO) kV E I
I

g 20
I
I
I

Plant charging voltage, kV/stage (as read): I

101-/
Result (Breakdown or Withstand): , I

(Plant gap: mm) o 2 3 4

Time (,us)
figure 6.11 Voltage-time results on a lightning arrester for a
distribution network. The dashed line represents a wave with a
virtual steepness of front of 100 kV//los, The- arrester meets its
specification which requires it to sparkover at less than 50 kV
for a rate of rise of 100 kV//los

several records will give an acceptable result for most practical purposes. Figure 6.11
Summary of last ten impulses: breakdowns at kV
shows results obtained by the present authors on a lightning arrester for a distribution
withstands at kV
network.
stage charging voltage peak impulse voltage
as read actual gives on test object 6.4.4 Cables
kV kV kV
In view of the increasing use of very high voltages for underground power trans-
Timing: The wave front and Tail times, measured according to lEC 60 mission, it is important to determine the reliability of the insulation of cables to
were _ /loSand _ /loS, respectively. transient overvoltages. Cables are subjected to switching surges and, despite being
.t")
N
 q:.-:-

158 159
test
underground, they are also exposed to lightning transients arising on lines connected boys

------li-b:
to them. Even though their surge impedance is much lower than that of transmission step-up ,- - ---
lines, successive reflections of a wave can cause cables to be subjected to transient transformer I
voltages of twice the amplitude of the incoming wave. Therefore, before approval
of a new design, power cables need to undergo an impulse-voltage type test. The links _v_
impulse withstand levels for cable testing are related to the system working voltage
in a manner which giv¥s values very similar to the BILs for transformers in Table
1.9. It has been found that in cables impregnated with a viscous compound an reactor I ALT

/ fF
increase in temperature from ambient temperature to the maximum permissible ~ea~ a 0 V
I
operating temperature (65 C in solid-type cables, 85 C in gas-pressure cables) results
in a.considerable reduction in impulse strength, whereas in oil-filled cables there is ''":,,'
practically no decrease in impulse strength. It has, therefore, become the practice to
make switch - -
perform impulse tests on heated cables. The insulation is heated by passing current LV
through the conductor or by applying heat to the sheath.
The capacitance of a high-voltage cabledepends
dielectric thickness but it is approximately
on the conductor size and the
200 pF per metre. Hence, even a short
step-down L
transformer - - - - -
length of cable complete with joints and terminations may have a capacitance as Figure 6.12 Simplified diagram of a short-circuit plant with several test-bays
high as 5 nF (Salvage, 1955). To maintain an acceptable voltage efficiency the dis-
charge capacitance of the generator must be much higher than the capacitance of
the test object (Subsection 4.4.1). Consequently, for cable testing 51 high-capacitance
impulse generator is essential. Many of the problems encountered in testing cables, the breaker under test. The master breaker has a capacity greater than the short-
such as the behaviour of the voltage divider, recording the impulse and calibrating circuit rating of the generator and is set to open at a certain time after the short- -'
the generator, are common to all forms of impulse testing and we have described circuit is applied. The values of the resistance and reactance are determined.by the
them elsewhere. The significance of most of the important testing variables on the specified current and power-factor for the test. Standard test specifications usually
impulse strength of high-voltage cables has now been established (Barnes, 1966). demand tests at 10, 30, 60 and 100% of the symmetrical breaking capacity and
100% of the asymmetrical breaking capacity.The 'make' switch in Figure 6.12 can

6.4.5 Circuit breakers I be closed at any point on the waveform of the supply voltage and it is also capable
of closing repeatedly on fault currents of high peak magnitude without arcing as
the contacts are about to close. It is preferable to test complete units of switchgear
Circuit breakers must be subjected to the usual high-voltage tests in the same way
containing busbars, connectors, isolating switches and current transformers etc., but
as other equipment but an additional requirement is that they be tested under
specified high-current short-circuit conditions. Special short-circuit laboratories this is not always possible at the higher MVA ratings.
Multi-channel ultraviolet, or similar, recorders are used to obtain traces of the
have been built to test circuit breakers of very high MVA rating, one of the largest
being the De Zoeten laboratory at Arnhem in Holland. This plant has a single-phase many test variables such as:
test capability of 4800 MV A up to 220 kV or a three-phase capability of 8400 MVA
(1) the short-circuit current in each phase of a breaker,
up to 125 kV at 50 or 60 Hz. (2) the voltage across each pole of a breaker before, during and after short-circuit,
A simplified diagram of a short-circuit plant with several test-bays is shown in (3) the operating pressure of the arc-quenching medium,
Figure 6.12. The windings of the genera tor are specially braced and supported to
(4) the travel of the moving contacts,
withstand repeated short-circuits whilst its stator has extremely low reactance to
enable it to deliver maximum current during short-circuit. Several voltage levels are " (5)
(6)
the current in the closing and/or trip coil circuits,
the synchronous generator voltage,
provided at the test-bays by using different stator connections and step-up and
(7) a timing mark.
step-down transformers. The generator is driven by a motor which is powered from
the main low-voltage supply and, just before the test, the supply is disconnected to Careful scrutiny of the records allows an accurate calculation of parameters such as:
protect it from the transient produced by the short-circuit. The mechanical energy
stored in the rotor of the synchronous generator is used to generate a high-current (1) the opening time of the breaker,
impulse (Section 4.5) and a master circuit breaker is used in the event of failure of (2) the arcing time,
,,......,..,
-M
 160 l(~1
(3) the total break time, Takasu, K., Arai, N., Imano, Y., Shindo, T., and Seta, T. (1981). AC flashover
(4) the arc length. characteristics of long air gaps and insulator strings under fog conditions. IEEE
Trans., PAS-lOO, 639-645.
Transient voltages, such as the recovery voltage, are too fast for an ultraviolet Weeks, W. L. (1981). Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy, Harper
recorder and are obtained on an oscilloscope or transient recorder. and Row, New York. pp. 183-188.
White, E. L., and Nethercot, W. (1949). The recurrent-surge oscillograph and its
The foregoing test is termed a direct test since it requires a synchronous generator
application to the study of surge phenomena in transformers. Proc. lEE, 96,
with an output equal to the rating of the complete three-phase circuit breaker. It is Part II, 269-275.
impractical to have large synchronous generators for tests at very high fault levels
but a solution is to test eaph phase separately as this requires a test plant of much
lower rating. However, ty$o further problems arise in single-phase testing. Firstly,
the operation of a single switch-pole may be affected by being coupled to a common
drive mechanism with the other poles and, secondly, the electromagnetic conditions
may be_altered by the presence of the other two poles. Large-rating circuit breakers,
consisting of a number of identical interrupter heads (Chapter 8) in series for each
pole, need only have one interrupter tested at full current and at the proportion of
the total voltage each 'head will have across it. Alternatively, synthetic testing,
which requires two power sources, may be used; however, a discussion of this tech-
nique is beyond the scope of this book (see Flurscheim, 1975).

REFERENCES

Allibone, T. E., McKenzie, D. B., and Perry, F. R. (1937). The effects of impulse
voltages on transformer windings. J. lEE, 80, 117-147.
Barnes, C. C. (I966). Power Cables; Their Design and Installation, Chapman and
Hall, London.
BEARA Report (1941). Surge Phenomena, The British Electrical and Allied Indus-
tries Research Association, London. -
Ely, C. H. A., and Roberts, W. 1. (1968). Switching-impulse flashover of air gaps
and insulators in an artificially polluted atmosphere. Proc. lEE, 115, 1667-1671.
Flurscheim, C. H. (I975). Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design, Peter Pere-
I
grinus (lEE monograph series), Stevenage, UK.
Hawley, W. G. (1959). Impulse-voltage Testing, Chapman and Hall. London, pp.
99-108.
Heller, B., and Veverka, A. (I968). Surge Phenomena in Electrical Machines, Iliffe
Books, London.
Hickling, G. H. (I968). In L. L. Alston (Ed.), High-voltage Technology, Oxford
University Press, London. pp. 254-302.
IEC (1962). High-voltage Test Techniques, Publication 60.
IEC (1972). Technical Committee 42, Document 42 (Central Office). p. 19.
Kaufmann, G. H. (1977). Impulse testing of distribution transformers- under load.
IEEE Trans., PAS-96, 1583-1595.
Lambeth, P. J. (l nl). Effect of pollution on high-voltage outdoor insulators.
Pro c. lEE, 118,1107-1130.
Neuve-Eglise, J. (1955). In Frecision Electrical Measurements, Her Majesty's Sta-
tionery Office, London. Paper No. 24.
Rippon, E. c., and Hickling, G. H. (1949). The detection by oscillographic methods
of winding failures during impulse tests on transformers. Pro c. lEE, 96, Part II,
769-788.
Salvage, B. (I 955). In Precision Electrical Measurements, Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, London. Paper No. 26.

fl)
N
 "-r
I
7 in Subsection 2.5.2. In practice, solid insulating materials are likely to contain a
'.
Partial discharges
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The term partial discharge refers to a discharge that does not completely bridge the
space between the electrodes (see Section 2.5). The discharge may be in a gas-filled
void inside a solid insulating material, from an electrode to the surface of a solid
insulating material, or around an electrode in a gas. The partial discharge around an
electrode in a gas is usually known as corona. Partial discharges can also occur in
liquid-impregnated systems, where a discharge will produce a gas bubble in the
liquid and further discharges will occur in the gas. This chapter will mainly be
concerned with partial discharges in solid insulation systems or in liquid-impregnated
insulation.
It has not yet been possible to prove the relationship between partial discharges
ij
and the long-term failure of electrical insulation. However, partial discharges are
considered to be the major reason for the aging and eventual failure of electrical
insulation, so measurements of partial discharge activity are an item in the test
programme for most types of high-voltage equipment. There is also interest in the
continual monitoring of partial discharge activity (Jackson, Wilson ahd Giesner,
1980) to warn of incipient failure of high-voltage equipment.
Test specifications set a maximum permissible level for partial discharges,
depending on the type of equipment being tested and the insulating material used
in the construction of the equipment. The principle behind such a specification is
that discharges below a certain size do not damage the insulation, but this principle
has not been proved. Partial discharge test specifications require much lower levels
of discharge for the new plastic insulation materials because these are less resistant
to damage by discharges. New mechanisms of deterioration have been discovered
for extruded polymer cables, such as treeing and water treeing (see Subsection
2.5.2) bu t partial discharge testing does not detect these processes of deterioration.
The measurement of partial discharges generally relies on the detection of elec-
t
trical pulses in a high-voltage circuit. The sensitivity of measurement is limited by
the background noise and it is the presence of such electrical noise that causes most
of the problems with partial discharge measurements. Developments in partial dis-
charge test techniques are mainly designed either to enable measurements to be
made using less experienced personnel, or to enable measurements to be made
under conditions of fairly high electrical (or possibly acoustic) noise.
163
7.2 THE DISCHARGE PROCESS
7 .2.1 The process in voids
The erosion breakdown process due to discharges in voids has already been discussed
number of cavities and discharge testing is aimed at identifying components where
these cavities are too large. It was shown in Subsection 2.5.2 that the field in an air-
filled cavity inside a solid insulating material is considerably higher than the field in
the bulk of the material because of the difference in dielectric constant between the
solid and the air. The exact extent of this stress concentration depends on the shape
of the cavity, and, in a real dielectric, the cavities are unlikely to be of regular shape ..
For solid insulation such as cast resin or extruded polyethylene any cavities left
in the insulating material (Figure 7.1) during manufacture are likely to contain air
and small traces of hydrocarbon gases. The electric field in the cavity, which may be
distorted by the presence of charge, or semiconducting deposits, on the cavity
surface, or by metallic contaminants embedded in the solid near the cavity, must be
sufficient to cause a breakdown in the gas. In most equipment, the gas in the cavity
is likely to be near atmospheric pressure and the non-uniformity in the electric field
would suggest that a streamer-type breakdown mechanism is probable. Air at
atmospheric pressure has a much lower breakdown strength than solid insulating
materials, so a breakdown in the cavity can occur at normal operating voltages. A
breakdown in the cavity will transfer charge from one surface of the cavity to.the
opposite one. However, because the surface resistivity of the cavity is high, not all
of the charge on a cavity surface will be discharged by the breakdown. The charge
left on the surface will change the field in the cavity and force the next discharge
to occur at a different place on the surface, so that several discharge sites per
cavity are possible. If alternating voltage is applied across the insulation, discharges
of opposite polarity are alternately produced which build up charge clusters of
opposite polarity at points on the dielectric surface, leading eventually to discharges
along the cavity surface.
,-~,
CDI/lty ~}Iectrodes
Figure 7.1 An air-filled cavity in solid insulation
Repeated discharges in the cavity will change the cavity surface, by forming
deposits on the surface. Conducting channels that bridge the cavity can also be
formed by the discharge products and this will result in there being insufficient
voltage across the cavity for breakdown of the gas and the discharges will be
extinguished.
If the cavity is small « 0.15 mm) and contains air at atmospheric pressure
(Bart nikas, 1971) a pseudoglow discharge can occur in the cavity. The significance
.1 f' 7' 1
 j4Ja·
164
of a change to this type of breakdown mechanism is that the discharge would not
be detected by the types of pulse discharge detector at present in use. However, it
appears that a mixture of breakdown processes usually occurs in voids and, in any
case, a void of such small dimensions would probably not be dangerous to the life
of the insulation.
Once a discharge has been established, it can be maintained with a voltage lower
than the minimum voltage required to produce a discharge initially (25% lower in
some cases). This is because of the surface charge left from the previous discharge.
The minimum voltage t6 establish a discharge initially is known as the discharge
inception voltage and the minimum voltage to maintain a discharge once it has been
established is known as the discharge extinction voltage.
In liquid/solid insulation systems, such as oil-impregnated paper, the difference
in dielectric constant between the two materials is much less, and the dielectric
strength of oil is much higher than that of air (30 times as high), so that under
normal conditions discharges will not occur in oil-filled spaces in the solid. Such
oil-filled spaces (Figure 7.2) occur in transformers and cable insulation. A severe
field non-uniformity, or the presence of a gas-bubble in the oil, can be the cause of
discharges, however. Once a discharge is produced gas will be created by breaking
the molecular bonds in the oil. This gas may be absorbed by the oil, but otherwise
it will provide a bubble that will cause further discharges, creating more gas and an
inherently unstable situation.
•....
~'=
Figure 7.2 Oil-filled spaces in oil-impregnated paper
oil-filled space insulation (width of spaces between tapes exaggerated)
7.2.2 The process at electrodes
Three possible discharge processes exist at electrodes (see Figure 7.3).
Figure 7.3 Possible discharge sites at electrodes
(I) is a discharge in a cavity in the insulation next to the electrode surface. The
process here is very similar to that for a discharge in a cavity within the dielectric,
except that one of the electrodes involved in the discharge is metal, so that all the
charge present on this electrode will be transferred across the cavity when the air
breaks down. This is likely to result in a larger charge transfer in one half-cycle than
in the other when an alternating voltage is applied.
"-
~
N
165
(2) is a discharge along the surface of the dielectric due to the component of stress
parallel to the surface. Once a discharge has been produced, the electric field is
changed and the discharge is likely to extend beyond the regions where there was
originally sufficient electric stress to produce a discharge.
Surface discharges are a very common problem in high-voltage equipment (see
Subsection 2.5.2). Again the discharge is effectively between a metal electrode and
a dielectric one, so an alternating applied voltage should produce unequal sizes of
discharge for the two half-cycles. Commonly, there are many small discharges when
the metal electrode is negative, and a few large discharges when the metal electrode
is positive. This is thought to be due to different mobilities of positive and negative
surface charges.
(3) is a discharge at the sharp edge of an electrode. This is the type of discharge
that is normally called corona (see Subsection 2.3.1) and if the alternating voltage
is raised from zero a discharge will initially occur only in the negative half-cycle.
Corona is normally avoided wherever this is possible.
7.2.3 Discharge patterns in cavities
An equivalent circuit can be used to represent a cavity in a dielectric (Figure 7.4)_
J Cc is the capacitance of the cavity itself, Cb the capacitance of the dielectric in
I series with the cavity and Ca the capacitance of the rest of the dielectric. The spark
I-
I gap in parallel with Cc becomes conducting when there is a discharge across the
!:
cavity. Suppose the voltage required to break down the gas in the cavity is ±u
!~
i H_Y. ••
l
i',--
I
i
Co
Figure 7.4 The equivalent circuit of a cavity in a
dielectric
(Figure 7_5). When a discharge takes place, the charge transfer across the cavity
reduces the voltage Vc to ± V (about 100 V) and the discharge finishes. If the
alternating voltage is still increasing, the voltage across the cavity will increase again
\/ by superposition of the main electric field on the field produced across the cavity
I' by the charge transfer in the discharge and, if Vc reaches u again, a new discharge
will occur.
It has been shown (Kreuger, 1964) that the discharges should remain stationary
if displayed on a time-base of the same frequency as the supply provided A v.. and
 ~:;.

166 167

v ,'-
--eYewi thout
',dlsehorges
Vewi th charge (t..vc, see Figure 7.5) appears across Ce in parallel with the series combina-
tion of Ca and Cb, a total capacitance of
~' ~g.,
-~\, r: 'K ~ rJ~t
CaCb
Ce+---·
Ca + Cb
-ul " '>I ~ " , 'j(

... ---,'
If the cavity is small compared with the sample Ca}> Cb and
i
I
4..1... tr"'"l7"'"17"'"1; AJ.. ~t q "" (Cc + Cb) to Ve'
However, this charge transfer cannot be measured directly. The quantity that can
Figure 7.5 The discharge pattern for a void in a be measured is the apparent charge transfer qa which is the charge displacement in
dielectric the external connections to the sample.
AVe across Cc produces AVa across Ca' Cb and Ca act as a potential divider for
to ~ in Figure 7.5 are equal. If the peak of the applied voltage is the discharge toVc, so
inception voltage and we ignore the residual voltage left across the cavity after the
Cb
discharge, we have four discharges per cycle. Figure 7.6 shows that there should toV =toV .--
theoretically be four discharges per cycle at inception, and that the current pulses a e Ca + Cb
should occur at the peaks and the zeros of the voltage waveform. In practice, there and qa is the product of to Va and the total capacitance between the high-voltage
are only ever two discharges per cycle at inception and these occur at a point in the
terminal and earth, thus
cycle shortly after the voltage zeros. This can be explained by the presence of
residual voltage across the cavity after the discharge is extinguished. . CbCc )
a, = to Va ( c, + C + C
b c
--
"" toVaCa·
I
1 Therefore,

I i I. l !. but Cb <{ Ce, so

CbCc AVc
qa"" C + C
b c

qa"" Cb to Ve'
Figure 7.6 The theoretical discharge
pattern at inception From Figure 7.5
toVe=U-V
As the voltage is increased the number of discharges per cycle will also increase. and the energy in a discharge (w) is the difference in the energy stored in the
The effect of the charge left on the cavity surface and the development of several capacitance of the cavity before and after the discharge, that is
discharge sites on the same cavity means that in practice the discharge pattern is
much less regular than the above would suggest. There may be different positive w = !Cc(u 2
- v2)
and negative half-cycle patterns and the magnitude may be different for successive ;.i
«, = !CcCu-v)(u + v)
discharges. The discharge sequence when direct voltage is applied will be considered
in Subsection 7.6.1. i· butu -v = toVc, so
I.:"
t".
r w = 4CcAVc(u + v).
7.2.4 The energy in a discharge
If the residual voltage V across the cavity is neglected
If the equivalent circuit of Figure 7.4 is used, then a charge q will be transferred
across the cavity created by the discharge. The voltage change created by the dis- w = ~CcAVcu.
,-
.r? I f'""' ?' I
 t.£...,)1

168
169
\
For a discharge inception at a peak voltage Vi there has been no previous discharge in cavities filled with SF6 gas, but discharges in SF6, especially if any water vapour
and no charges exist on the void surface, so is present, can produce very corrosive products, so discharges could be very damag-
ing to insulation in SF6-filled systems.
Cb
u When discharges occur in liquid-impregnated systems, the chemical bonds in the
C
b
+ Cc Vi peak.
liquid are broken and a gas bubble is produced. This means that if a short over-
Hence voltage, perhaps due to a switching surge, produces a discharge, it is likely that the
discharge will continue until the gas bubble is absorbed by the oil. Another special
C problem in liquid-impregnated systems is that any particles present can move
I
! W
1
= i:CcAyc
TT
--c-
b IT
Yipeak'
around and they are likely to be moved to high-field regions by dielectrophoretic
Cb + c
forces. A system that is initially discharge-free may start to discharge later because
But Cb <{ Cc so
of the movement of such particles (see Subsection 2.4.3).
W "" !AVcCb Vi peak
"" !qa Vi peak 7.3 THE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGES

or in terms of the r.m.s. value of Vi 7.3.1 The observable effects of discharges

w::><0.7qaVi· Discharges must be detected and located by one of their observable effects. These
are:
Hence the energy in a discharge is given by the apparent discharge magnitude qa
and the discharge inception voltage Vi. It is this energy in the discharge which will (a) Pulses in the electric circuit providing the voltage.
cause deterioration of the dielectric. Suppose, for example, Vi = 10 kV and (b) Power loss in the dielectric.
= =
qa 10 pC, then w 7 X 10-8 J, a small value, but this energy is released in < 10-8 s, (c) Electromagnetic radiation, in the UV and visible bands.
so the heating effect can be large. (d) Sound radiation.
(e) Changes in gas pressure.
(f) Chemical changes in the material subjected to the discharges.
7.2.5 Damage to the dielectric
The usefulness of these different effects in discharge detection depends on the type
A discharge in a cavity will produce electron bombardment of one surface of the of equipment being investigated. Some of the effects are useful in locating discharges,
cavity and ion bombardment of the other. If an alternating voltage is applied, the but not in determining the magnitude of the discharge. These effects will be dis-
cavity surface will receive electron and ion bombardment alternately. Experiments I cussed further in Section 7.4. Techniques for detecting discharges vary in their
; ~.
(Mayoux and Bui Ai, 1973) in which polyethylene was deliberately exposed to UV sensitivity, i.e. the smallest charge transfer in the dielectric that can be detected.
radiation, electron bombardment, corona bombardment and ion bombardment
showed that ions cause much more damage than UV radiation or electrons, but not
7.3.2 Power loss in the dielectric
as much damage as corona. Discharges in cavities in polyethylene subjected to an
alternating voltage have been found to produce deposits on the cavity surface The operation of the Schering bridge was discussed in Subsection 5.10.1. The
(Hiley, 1974). These deposits were initially l urn in diameter but increased in size .I
: technique measures the losses in a dielectric in terms of the loss angle 8. It was
with the length of time that discharges persisted in the cavity and they were followed j{ shown in Subsection 7.2.4 that energy is dissipated in a discharge so that the loss
by localized erosion of the surface. It is assumed that the deposits produced local 'r increases at voltages above the discharge inception voltage and a measurement of
distortion of the electric field across the cavity. Similar experiments with cavities :~
the variation of tan 8 with voltage (see Figure 7.7) can be used to detect discharge
!
in epoxy resins found large crystal growths, probably oxalic acid, on the surfaces inception. There are several problems with the technique. The sensitivity is usually
of some formulations of epoxy, but not in other formulations (Hiley and EI Gendy, ~ low, e.g. the minimum detectable discharge would be 50 pC for a 1000 pF sample
1979). The formulations that produced large crystal growth also had much shorter ~ with a 10 kV inception voltage, if a very good Schering bridge was used with a
lifetimes, for samples containing artificial cavities, than the other samples.
The experiments that have been conducted seem to suggest that the bombard-
ment of air-filled cavity surfaces by ions is the main erosion mechanism, but that
i
f.
sensitivity of 10-6 for changes in tan 0_
There is often a gradual increase in tan 8 with voltage, so the discharge inception
•F· voltage is difficult to determine and there are other processes in the dielectric apart
deposits are also produced on the surfaces of cavities in some materials and that ,
l' from internal discharges that may give an increase in dielectric loss. Another prob-
these deposits intensify surface erosion. There is not yet much evidence on effects lem is that there is no way of distinguishing between a few large discharges (likely
..J¥)
~
 "
,.. -:
170
"
f,.
171
tanh
~

o
I I
discharge
> applied
voltage
inception
J voltage
. Figure 7.7 The variation of loss angle
with applied voltage
to be harmful) and many small discharges (possibly harmless, depending on the
dielectric). However, an advantage is that the technique does not rely on electrical
impulses, so it is as valid for pseudoglow discharges as for streamer discharges in the
cavity.
A similar bridge technique, but producing more information, is the loop trace or
parallelogram method (Figure 7.8). The display is a CRT screen and C; and Rx are
adjusted to obtain a straight horizontal line on the display with a low voltage
applied to the sample. The balance without discharges in the sample is like a
Schering bridge balance, so the values of Cx and Rx will give the loss angle tan S.
When the voltage is increased above the discharge inception voltage the loss will
increase and there will be an out-of-balance signal which will be applied to the
vertical plates of the display. Effectively Cx integrates the charge transfers that
occur and the voltage across Cx produces a vertical deflection, If discharges are
present, the trace on the oscilloscope screen resembles a parallelogram (Figure 7.9).
The horizontal distance b is proportional to the total voltage applied to the
sample, and the distance a is proportional to the discharge inception voltage. If the
applied voltage is measured independently a can be used to measure the inception
voltage. The vertical distance c is proportional to the total charge tra1sfer per half-
cycle. The vertical deflection can be calibrated by injecting a known charge, as
explained in Subsection 7.3.5. The area enclosed by the trace is proportional to the
figure 7.9 The
~Ob'fP'
idealized parallelogram
charges present
display with dis-
In practice, an adjustment of the bridge balance may be required to make the
trace horizontal and the comers of the parallelogram tend to be rounded. Like the
Schering bridge, the technique does not distinguish between one large, and many
small, discharges but will detect pseudoglow as well as streamer discharges. Again
the sensitivity to discharges is low, so the technique is most useful for samples
where considerable discharge activity is common, and excessive discharges must be
detected. The checking of stator bar insulation in electrical machines is a common
application. The whole bridge is available as a commercial unit from several
manufacturers.
7.3.3 Straight current-pulse and voltage-pulse techniques
The two basic circuits are shown in Figure 7.10. In (a) the detection impedance Z m
is in series with a coupling capacitor. A voltage pulse across the sample under test
(Cs) also appears across the series combination of Ck and Zm, so a portion of this
pulse is applied to the amplifier A. A discharge in Cs is detected by the voltage
pulse ~Vacross the sample. ~V=qaCs (see Subsection 7.2.4), so a discharge can
be measured either in terms of the whole voltage pulse produced across the sample
or the apparent charge transfer across the sample.
H.V.

I
total energy loss per cycle due to discharges. supply

H.V.
line
I a) voltage pulse detection [b) current pulse detection

r
Figure 7.10 Straight detection circuits

to x-plotes In (b) the detection impedance is in series with the sample, so a discharge in
potential I of display
divider the sample produces a current pulse through Zm and a voltage input to the ampli-
fier. The discharge in a cavity in Cs is being detected in terms of the apparent
bridge
balance charge transfer at the terminals of the sample.
The filter is needed to ensure that pulses at the amplifier input arc due to dis-
charges in the sample and not to discharges in the supply. It is also necessary to
Figure 7.8 The loop trace dielectric loss analyser
.~
M i shield the whole circuit from external electromagnetic interference by placing it in
 tL..,)'

172
an earthed mesh enclosure if high sensitivity is to be obtained. A further practical
problem can arise due to pulses caused by bad contacts between conductors in the
system. The capacitor Ck must be discharge-free up to the maximum test voltage
being used, or it will not be possible to distinguish between discharges in this
capacitor and in the sample. . therefore give no output from the differential amplifier. The only output from the
The detection impedance Zm is usually a parallel combination of resistance,
capacitance and inductance (RCL). The RCL system is matched to the capacitance
of the sample to achieve a particular resonant frequency. The frequency varies with
the manufacturer of thi detector, but is typically in the range 30 kHz to 100 kHz.
173
with the test object and the other in series with a discharge-free capacitor (Figure
7.11). An isolating transformer can be used in place of the differential amplifier.
The advantage of this method is that discharges from the supply or external inter-
ference should produce identical signals in the two detection impedances and
amplifier should be due to discharges in the test object. Ideally the discharge-free
capacitor would be of identical capacitance to the test object, but this is too diffi-
cult to arrange in practice.

+
This gives a comparatively high input voltage to the amplifier for discharge pulses,
but a very low amplifier input for power frequency voltages. The pulses from the H.V. I. 2.
detection impedance are fed to an amplifier that has a fairly wide bandwidth, typi- discharge-freel test
cally 10 kHz to 250 kHz and a gain that is variable up to about 5 x 105• The output capacitor T to object
from the amplifier is usually displayed on a CRT screen (e.g. ERA detector, Mole Clifferential
amplifier
and Robinson, 1963), although alternative displays are possible. The amplifier out-
Zml Zm2
put can be integrated over a cycle or half-cycle and a meter used to display the
result. This gives a display that can be interpreted without ambiguity, but which
fails to distinguish between many small discharges and a few large discharges. A Figure 7.11 The balanced method of discharge
meter that reads the peak discharge magnitude is more useful and this can be used detection
for long-term monitoring of discharge activity (Jackson, Wilson and Giesner, 1980).
Sometimes a peak-reading meter is combined with a CRT display. Another possible
technique is to connect the amplifier output to a pulse height analyser. This will However, if the two detection impedances are variable, they can be adjusted to
count the number of pulses in different height ranges by allocating them different give no output from the differential amplifier for no discharges in the test object.
An imbalance in the dielectric losses between the test object and the discharge-free

I
channels in a memory. The resulting distribution of heights can be displayed on a
CRT as a histogram. capacitor would produce an output to the amplifier without any discharges in the
The RCL circuit and amplifier broaden the discharge pulse. If the discharges test object. This means that the capacitor should have the same dielectric as the test
~
occur too close together this will prevent the individual pulses from being dis- ij object, e.g. for discharge detection in a cable the discharge-free capacitor could be
tinguished. It is generally considered that pulses 5 J1.S or 6 J.1S apart should be another section of the cable that is under test. Therefore two samples must be
1
capable of distinction for a good detection system. A pulse height analyser provides j available for testing and it is the difference between the two samples that will
an additional resolution problem because the A to D converter in the analyser can- ! be measured. For three-phase power system components, the two samples can
not accept another pulse during its conversion time, so that the converter must be be different phases of the component.
fast for an accurate discharge detection system. If In practice, perfect balance between the two arms cannot be obtained, so there
The sensitivity of discharge detection systems depends on the capacitance of the a
'K
will be some signal to the amplifier even when there are no discharges. An alter-
sample under test, with smaller capacitance samples giving a higher sensitivity. The I~ native to the use of a differential amplifier (Black, 1973) is to take an output
background noise limits sensitivity and this noise is more likely to be due to 1
1
external pick-up than to thermal noise in the amplifier and detection impedance. In
~ H.V.
a screened laboratory sensitivites of better than 0.1 pC can be obtained for samples
~
of the 100 pF order fairly easily. However, in an industrial test on a cable it may be
very difficult to obtain a sensitivity of 5 pC. The calibration of the system will be I!
discussed in Subsection 7.3.5.

7.3.4 Balanced methods

In the balanced system of discharge detection, the difference in the voltage across
two detection impedances is the signal that is observed. One impedance is in series
I
i
i~~~t
1

Figure 7.12
=
A ga led detection system

- .f"";
C'! Ii
-'

174
from each of the input units and produce a TTL pulse from each, if that unit has
detected a pulse. The two pulses are combined in an AND gate (Figure 7.12), which
will only produce an output if both pulses are present (i.e. the discharge is not from
the test sample). This output can be used to control the input to the amplifier so
that a signal is only allowed through to the amplifier from unit 2 when there is no
output from the AND gate. However, unless the operation of this system is very
rapid, discharge information may be lost.
,i
7.3.5 Discharge measuremen t in power-system apparatus
Capacitors or bushings can be tested by the techniques detailed in Subsections 7.3.2
and 7.3.3, but power cables present particular problems for partial discharge
measurement. The capacitance of a complete drum of cable is large, so it is very
difficult to obtain high levels of detection sensitivity. Another problem is that the
cable acts as a transmission line and a discharge pulse will travel in both directions
down the cable from the discharge site. When the pulse reaches the open-ended
terminal it will be reflected. There will be severe distortion of the magnitude and
the shape of the discharge pulse, and pulses from different sites may arrive at the
measurement end of the cable superimposed. The amplifier response is very impor-
tant for correct reproduction of the pulse. Each pulse arriving at the detection
impedance will produce more than one peak on the display, but if the amplifier
response always makes the first peak the largest, then superposition of pulses will
either increase the observed magnitude of the pulse or leave it unaltered. If a detec-
tor with a different amplifier response was used, the observed magnitude could be
reduced or eliminated. Figure 7.13 shows the typical observed response for a
corona pulse with a damped response system of the correct type.
1.01 Is
1
Figure 7.13 The observed response
to a discharge pulse
Whilst the errors introduced by rel1ections from the cable ends can be consider-
able, they will increase the apparent discharge magnitude, so they can be accepted
for routine quality testing. However, if accurate results are required for research or
development work, the cable must be terminated at the open end by a high-voltage
:~t~
f_
I
175
characteristic impedance. In all cases, the cable terminations must be corona-free.
For low-voltage cable the outer metal and semiconducting screen can be stripped
back for about 250 mm and the bare insulation covered with a semiconducting
paint. Alternatively the stripped cable end can be placed in insulating oil to prevent
discharges across the insulation. Commercial terminations are available for higher
voltages, using de-ionized water to grade the stress at the termination. The sensitivity
required for partial discharge testing of cables is 5 pC.
Rotating machines for high voltages and medium voltages are usually insulated
with resin-bonded mica. This type of insulation is fairly resistant to discharges, so
some discharges are tolerated. The usual practice is only to test larger machines for
partial discharges. The test is a loss-tangent measurement over a range of voltages
on individual coils and the discharge inception is determined by the voltage at
which the loss tangent starts to increase. The total cavity volume can be estimated
from the change in capacitance with voltage (Dakin and Malinaric, 1~60), but the
system is not very sensitive (see Subsection 7.3.2). An alternative method of dis-
charge measurement for machines is to use an inductively coupled detector probe
across the stator slots. The probe is a coil wound on a soft iron core and this is
connected to an amplifier and peak-reading meter. Calibration in pice-Coulomb can
be similar to the usual calibration techniques (see Subsection 7.3.6) with a 10 pF
capacitor and step-voltage generator feeding a pulse to a small loop of wire positioned
near the probe.
Discharge detection and measurement in power transformers may use instruments
of the type outlined in Subsection 7.3.3, but often Radio Influence Voltage (RIV)
detectors are used. These are designed for measuring radio interference and have a
narrow-band amplifier set at about 1 MHz with about 9 kHz 6 dB bandwidth. ...
i Whichever type of detector is used, it can be connected to the transformer either
i through a coupling capacitor, via a high-frequency current transformer or via a
i potential tapping in a transformer bushing. The potential tappings are connections
i to a grading foil, embedded in the bushing insulation, which can be used for voltage
measurement. The most realistic way of applying voltage to a transformer for a
1 partial discharge test is to energize the low-voltage winding at the correct voltage
I
t
~
to give the required test voltage on the high-volta~e winding.
One way in which the rating of high-voltage supplies for partial discharge testing
of power equipment can be reduced is to conduct the tests at a low frequency,
~
t· usually 0.1 Hz. It has been shown (Miller and Black, 1977) that discharge magni-
j tude is independent of frequency. As the impedance of a capacitor is inversely
~ proportional to frequency, the kilovolt-ampere capacity required at 0.1 Hz is only
1/500 of that for a 50 Hz test, or 1/600 of that for a 60 Hz test. This is particularly
valuable for portable equipment for field testing.
The maximum acceptable discharge magnitude for a particular piece of equip-
ment depends on the dielectric used in the construction. For one bushing specifica-
tion, with discharge magnitudes measured at 0.67 times rated three-phase voltage
immediately following the power-frequency test, the maximum acceptable levels
are: oil-impregnated paper 10 pC, synthetic resin-bonded paper 100 pC, synthetic
resin-impregnated paper 20 pC, cast resin 2-0 pC.
_. r- 7'
 f'::"~'
176 177

7 .3.6 Calibration methods permanent connection of the calibrator without the expense of a discharge-free
high-voltage capacitor.
The sensitivity of the discharge system can be determined by injecting a pulse of
For this connection the calibration pulse magnitude must be multiplied by
charge of known magnitude into the detection system to simulate a discharge. A
(Cs + Ck)/Cs (see Figure 7.1O(b». An error is also introduced by stray capacitance
square-wave generator and capacitor are usually used to inject a calibration pulse of
in the system. Either of these calibration connections can be used for the detection
magnitude qc = Vc Cc where Vc is the height of the square wave and Cc the value of
circuit of Figure 7.1O(a).
the capacitor. The rise-time of the square wave should be about 0.1 jJ.S for most
Calibration of other discharge detection circuits is also normally done with a
detection systems, although the rise-time of a calibration pulse injected at the far
square-wave generator and capacitor charge injector connected to a convenient
end of a cable will be slowed as it travels down the cable, so a faster rise-time may
point in the circuit. However, a secondary standard is sometimes used, consisting
be required for the Initial square wave in this application.
of a point-hemisphere or point-plane electrode system which generates discharges
The pulse can be injected into the high-voltage part of the system (Figure 7.14),
in air (Figure 7.16). It is not possible to make a reliable theoretical prediction of
either while the high-voltage is applied if the capacitor Cc will withstand the voltage,
the magnitude of the discharge for a particular applied voltage, so this must be
or without the system energized if Cc is a low-voltage capacitor. In the low-voltage
measured with a detector calibrated by the step-wave and capacitor technique.
capacitor case the calibration system must be disconnected before the system is
However, this secondary standard is very reproducible if it is enclosed in a sealed
energized. The injected charge will have the same effect on the detection system
box and it does allow the sensitivity of other methods to be compared with that of
as an apparent charge in the sample qa (see Subsection 7.2.4). Another calibration
technique has been developed (Parker, De Long and Zelik, 1980) that injects a simu- electrical pulse detection systems.
lated discharge pulse into the high-voltage part of the circuit directly without Ce.
This method avoids inductance errors associated with the conventional technique
and is accurate for a wider range of sample capacitance. The alternative calibration
connection is to inject the calibration pulse into the low-voltage part of the circuit
(Figure 7.15). This connection is used in most detection systems because it allows

Figure 7.16 A point-hemisphere discharge standard

7.4 THE LOCATION OF DISCHARGES

to
detector
7.4.1 Electrical methods

The observation of the discharge pulses displayed by a direct or a balanced detec-

,
\ tion system may give some information about the location of the discharge (Figure
- 7.17):
Figure 7.14 High-voltage calibration
system
of a detection
Ii (a) shows irregular bands of pulses near the current zero due to contact noise.
(b) shows corona at a sharp point. Corona can occur either due to a point on a
~
1 high-voltage electrode or on an earthed electrode for an alternating applied
voltage. If the regularly spaced pulses are at the negative peak, the corona

lest
II point is in the high-voltage circuit, and if the pulses are at the positive peak, the
corona point is in the low-voltage part of the circuit.
object
(c) shows discharges adjacent to a conductor. The larger pulses should be in the
to
detector positive half-cycle if the conductor is at earth potential and in the negative
detection half-cycle if the conductor is at high voltage.
impedance
I (d) is the common case of discharges in a cavity in the bulk of the insulation.
I I T l'
Figure 7.15 Low-voltage calibration of a detection A method of providing more exact location of discharges in a sample is to stress the
system sample to a voltage slightly below the inception voltage and then to scan a narrow

- ·f'i
C'.
 ."

178 179
Iocotion of cavity

b la) contact noise IA

~ x ---l
~
l
B
g
I
•. 'cable
~

b I b) corooc at a sharp point

Figure 7.19 The location of discharges by the
delay of a reflected pulse

b
is connected to end B of a cable (as shown in Figure 7.19), and the discharge occurs
at distance x m from A in a cable of length I m, then the direct pulse must travel
(c) discharge adjacent 10 a conductor
(l- x) m and the reflected pulse (l + x) m, so if the velocity of pulse propagation
in the cable is v mls the time interval between the arrival of the pulses is

b
Figure 7.17
(d) discharge in a cavHy

The location of discharges

position of pulses
by the
Xray beam across the sample. When the Xrays are directed at the cavity they
should initiate discharges in the cavity. Scanning the beam in several planes should
allow accurate location of the cavity. Another method (Bartnikas and McMahon,
1979), used for the location of discharges in an extruded polymer cable during
,
manufacture, is to pass the unscreened core of the cable through a tubular high-
voltage electrode connected to a detection impedance (Figure 7.18). The conductor
in the centre of the cable is earthed and the high-voltage electrode must be immersed
in an insulating liquid to prevent discharges from this electrode. If discharges are
detected, then they must originate from the section of the core that is passing
through the high-voltage electrode at that moment. The location of a discharge in a
complete cable can be found by the delay time between the direct arrival of a pulse
and the arrival of its reflection from the far end of the cable. Suppose the detector
l +x
t=-----
v
I-x
v
=-.
2x
v
The location can be found provided v is known. v can be measured by measuring
the time for a calibration pulse to be reflected from the far end of the cable. It can
often be difficult to distinguish the reflected pulse from other pulses, so it is best
to repeat the measurement with the detector connected to end A.
Discharges in machines can be located by moving the inductively coupled detec-
tor probe (Subsection 7.3.5) around until the maximum signal is obtained. This will
give some indication of the location of the discharge.
The pulse reflection technique can sometimes be used to locate discharges in a
transformer, but the pulses, are often impossible to distinguish. An alternative
method is to measure the discharge with the detector connected to the two ends of
a winding in turn and to determine the location by the relative magnitudes
measured. Yet another method is to energize and ground different windings in the
transformer in turn so that high electric fields are applied to different parts of the
transformer. If discharges are only detected when a particular part of the trans-
former has the high electric stress applied, then the site of the discharges must be in
this region. All these techniques require care in their application.

7.4.2 Acoustical methods

~::["',o,
__ -.,. , coupling
A traditional partial discharge test was the 'hissing test', i.e. if a hissing sound could
be heard from inside the equipment when it had a high voltage applied to it, then
r the equipment insulation was not acceptable. The best sensitivity that the human
unscreened impedance
cable core ear can achieve in a quiet e,nvironment is the detection of a discharge of about
!~
40 pC. The sensitivity is much lower in a noisy environment. A stethoscope or a
*
I~ similar device can be used to help locate the discharge and the detection of a 10 pC
i discharge is possible under favourable conditions.
{!
! Most of the acoustic energy from small sparks is radiated in the ultrasonic
~Y~c~~~de frequency range, so ultrasonic techniques are more useful than audio frequencies
Discharge scanning of a for discharge location. Commonly a 40 kHz microphone and narrow-band amplifier
cable core is used, with a meter to display the level of the ultrasound detected. Sensitivities of
-f'? ,("0..,..,
N

180
5 pC can be obtained and the addition of a parabolic reflector to the microphone
gives a very directional detector so that the discharge can be located accurately.
Alternatively a liquid-filled tube or similar acoustic waveguide can be used to
couple the microphone selectively to different areas. The sensitivity of the tech-
nique depends on the propagation of ultrasound in the equipment. The attenuation
of ultrasound in electrical machines is fairly high, but motor stator end windings are
routinely scanned for discharge activities (Wilson, 1975) and a sensitivity of 50 pC
is claimed for this application. There is very little attenuation of ultrasound in a
liquid, so the technique ~ very useful for oil-filled transformers. The technique is
not widely used in cables, but is very useful for detecting and locating particle
movement in compressed-gas insulated equipment.
The magnitude of a discharge is difficult to obtain from an ultrasonic measure-
ment because of the variable attenuation. If the frequency spectrum of the received
sound is measured, this can yield information about the size of cavities in solids
because the cavity will act as a resonant cavity. The spacing between the peaks in
the frequency spectra has been found (Harold, 1975) to give the length ofa spark
in a cavity with reasonable accuracy.
7.43 Other methods
The light emission from a discharge site can be used for location of surface dis-
charges or for cavity location in translucent dielectrics. As the intensity of light
emission is low, photomultipliers are usually used, although the location of fairly
large surface discharges can be seen directly in a darkened room. Light emission
has been used for scanning unscreened polyethylene cable cores, but it is less sensi-
tive than electrical scanning (see Kreuger, 1964).
Local heating due to discharges can be used for their location. Putting thermo-
couples at intervals along a cable sheath will show the hot spots in the insulation,
but the method is insensitive and not of much practical use.
The chemical changes produced by discharges can be used as a detection method.
181
charges is not very important. However, in organic materials discharges normally
produce either a carbonization of the surface or surface erosion. It was shown in
Subsection 2.5.2 (tracking) that moisture and pollution can produce tracking across
the surfaces of insulators.
A particular problem for polyethylene cable insulation is electromechanical
stress cracking. Cable insulation is subjected to considerable mechanical stresses in
bending and it has been found that mechanical stress considerably increases the rate
of deterioration due to surface discharges. Tests on the resistance of polymers to
surface discharges therefore include a test with simultaneous mechanical stress and
surface discharges. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE or 'Teflon') has been found to
have a considerably shortened life when surface discharges are present, but mechani-
cal stress does not have a significant effect.
Several surface discharge arrangements have been developed to test the relative
resistance to discharges of different insulating materials. The most common arrange-
ment (Figure 7.20) is a rod-plane electrode system. The rods are 12.5 mm diameter
with 1.5mm radii edges. A number of these electrodes, connected to a common
high-voltage supply, apply voltages to different areas of the same sheet of insulation.
An electrode is automatically disconnected from the supply immediately there is a
failure of the insulation at a point adjacent to it. As described here, the test is a
time-to-breakdown test, but alternatively the loss of weight of different insulation
materials under this type of electrode system can be used to assess resistance to
! surface discharges.
!,
;
,
\
~
i
i
I
~
,.~
.,
tv

I
A measurement of the ozone level will detect discharges in air and dissolved-gas -=-
analysis will detect discharges in oil-insulated equipment. However, neither tech- Figure 7.20 Rod-plane electrodes for
surface-discharge resistance testing
nique provides any location information. Chemical analysis of the interior of a
sample can accurately locate discharges by chemical changes. Infra-red analysis can {
be used to detect changes in polymers and staining will reveal the presence of wax
due to discharge activity in oil-impregnated paper insulation, while X-ray micro-
probe techniques can also be used to detect chemical changes. However, as these
techniques all require the sample to be dissected, they are of no value for routine
I~
Surface discharges in equipment can be detected by light emission, either directly
or by a time-exposure photograph in a well blacked-out test area. They can also be
detected by the normal electrical pulse techniques, in which case they give an asym-
metric pulse sequence (Figure 7.21) with the pulse height increasing with applied
testing.
voltage.

7.5 SURFACE DISCHARGES

Surface discharges may be the result of inadequate stress equalization or they may
be produced by leakage current flowing through a conducting film (typically
moisture) on the surface of electrical insulation. Some materials, particularly
inorganic materials, are very resistant to surface discharges, so the presence of dis-
Q Figure 7.21 The display of surface discharge pulses on an
elliptical time base

- .r<j
e:
 ' ..
~
~
"
182

7.6 DISCHARGES IN DIRECT-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

i
;
183

V:~>t
7.6.1 The discharge process V
V<~ - - -

The development of components for high-voltage d.c. power systems has aroused
interest in discharge processes when direct voltages are applied to electrical insula-
Figure 7.23 The variation of the
tion. In general the repetition rate of direct voltage discharges is several orders of
voltage across a cavity
magnitude less than that .for alternating voltages, so the damage produced in insula-
tion by discharges is alsp much less. However, the process must be understood to
avoid premature failure 'of components for d.c. transmission systems. The discharge repetition rate predicted is only a few discharges per hour, even
,,'
As the applied voltage is raised, the voltage across a cavity in insulation subjected for fairly high applied stresses. The average current flowing through the sample will
to direct-voltage stress (Figure 7.22) will initially be determined by the capacitance be the current flowing through Ra and Rb + Rc plus the average charge transfer
in the system. Eventually the voltage will be determined by the resistances. Ca, across the cavity. However, as the discharge repetition rate is so low, the contri-
Cb and Cc have the same significance as in Figure 7.4; Rc is the surface resistance bution of discharges to the current will be very small.
of the cavity, Rb the resistance of the dielectric in series with the cavity and Ra the The resistances Ra, Rb and Rc do not remain constant with time when direct
resistance of the remainder of the dielectric. , voltage is applied. The bulk conductivity of a dielectric can fall by three orders of
For an applied voltage Va, the initial voltage across the cavity is ,
r
magnitude with time, the initial high conductivity being due to various charge
l absorption processes in the solid. The result is that discharges across a cavity are
Cb ~
v = V; --=-- 1 much more frequent during increases in the voltage applied to the dielectric. The
c a C +C \
b c t value of Rc will decrease with time because discharges produce a change in the
~
Eventually the voltage across the cavity will become )
~ surface conductivity, probably due to deposits formed on the walls of the cavity.
S.
The discharge repetition rate is therefore likely to decrease with time.
Rc t D.c. transmission systems usually have a significant alternating voltage ripple
-V; - f
Vc - aRb +Rc superimposed on the direct voltage, but providing the alternating voltage is not
~ high enough to produce alternating-voltage discharges, the addition of a ripple
~ voltage will have only a slight effect on the discharge repetition rate.
(
H,V. 1

l,;, 7.6.2 Discharge detection

t,
I. The detection circuit can be a straight detection system as Figure 7.10 or a balanced
Ra system as Figure 7.I 1, and calibration methods are basically the same as for the a.c.
~ systems. However, because the repetition rate is so much lower, and, in practice,
~i
i, irregular, some recording technique is normally used, The recorder is often a pulse-

i
l height analyser. This instrument counts the number of pulses in different height
Figure 7.22 The equivalent circuit for a cavity in a direct-voltage f..: ranges, e.g. it may have 100 channels with channel one counting the number of
system
1t: discharges between I pC and 10 pf', channel two between 10 pC and 20 pC etc. If
,I' the discharge repetition rate is fairly low, an inexpensive Ato-D converter and a
I micro-computer can achieve the same results. An error is always introduced by the
The time-constant of this change in voltage is (Cb + Cc)Rt where R; is the ~,

dead time of the recording system when it is unable to deal with any new pulse that
parallel combination of Rb and Rc' However, if the voltage across the cavity L
r
loll_
arrives because it is still processing the previous pulse.
exceeds the breakdown voltage of the gas in the cavity (Vi) during this voltage
change, then there will be a charge transfer across the cavity in a spark and Vc will
fall to a low value Ve' The voltage across the cavity will rise again towards Vc with 7.6.3 Conclusions
the same time constant as before. Thereafter Vc will follow the pattern shown in
A number of research workers have investigated discharges under direct-voltage
Figure 7.23.
~ conditions and the discharge repetition rate has always been 'low at the electrical
In practice, the cavity depth will be small compared with the insulation thickness, I;' stresses used in practical designs (Densley, ) 979). It is difficult to define a discharge
so C.;p Cb· Initially, at least, Rc;P Rb so the time-constant of changes in vc~ RbCc' f
inception voltage for direct-voltage systems. One definition is that discharge incep-
 . ..:-....."
184
tion occurs when there is more than one discharge per minute exceeding a given
magnitude.
The discharge repetition rate increases with temperature, presumably because of
a decrease of the volume resistivity of the dielectric. At very high stresses and
temperatures the repetition rate can approach alternating-voltage rates. Temperature
changes arising from the dissipation of heat in equipment such as bushings and
cables can produce changes in discharge repetition rates. At low stresses the dis-
8
charge repetition rate decreases with time. The general conclusion of the work to
date is that there is no~; likely to be much deterioration of insulation by partial
discharges under direct-voltage conditions at the electric stress levels that are used
at present in the design of power equipment.
High-voltage design and applications
REFERENCES 8.1 INTRODUCTION

Bartnikas, R. (1971). Some observations on the character of corona discharges in
short gap spaces. IEEE Trans. on Electrical Insulation, EI·6, 63-75.
Bartnikas, R., and McMahon, E. J. (Eds) (1979). Engineering Dielectrics, Volume 1,
Corona Measurement and Interpretation, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., USA.
Black, I. A. (1973). A pulse discrimination system for discharge detection measure-
ments on equipment operating in a power system. lEE Diagnostic Testing Con-
ference.
Dakin, T. W., and Malinaric, P. (1960). A capacitance bridge method for measuring
integrated corona-charge transfer and power loss per cycle. AlEE Trans., Part III,
Power Apparatus and Systems, 79, 648-653.
Densley, R. 1. (1979). Partial discharges under direct-voltage conditions. In R.
Bartnikas and E. J. McMahon (Eds), Engineering Dielectrics, Volume 1, Corona
Measurement and Interpretation, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, Pa., USA. pp. 409-467.
Hiley, J. (1974). A study of the effects of internal discharges on polyethylene using
a scanning electron microscope. Ph.D. thesis, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.
Hiley, 1., and El Gendy, O. A. (1979). A comparison of the discharge resistance of
epoxy resins. 3rd Int. Symposium on High-voltage Engineering, Milan. Paper
22.03.
Harold, R. T. (1975). Ultrasonic corona spectrum signatures of under-oil corona
sources. IEEE Trans. on Electrical Insulation, EI·I0, 109-112.
Jackson, R. J., Wilson, A., and Giesner, D. B. (1980). Partial discharges in power-
cable joints: their propagation along a cross bonded circuit and methods for their
detection. lEE Proc., 127C, 420-429.
Kreuger, F. H. (1964). Discharge Detection in High-voltage Equipment, Heywood,
London.
Mayoux, c., and Bui Ai (1973). Scanning electron microscope observations of the
effects of discharges in polyethylene. J. Appl. Phys., 44,3243-4.
Miller, R., and Black, I. A. (1977). Partial discharge measurements over the fre-
quency range 0.1 Hz to 50Hz. IEEE Trans. on Electrical Insulation, EI-12,
224-233.
Mole, G .. and Robinson, F. C. (1963). A versatile discharge detector. Co-operative
Elect .•ical Research, Number 21.
Parker, R. D., Delong, R. V., and Zelik, J. A. (1980). Accurate corona detector
calibrator. IEEE Trans. on Electrical Insulation, EI-IS, 451-454.
Wilson, A. (1976). Site discharge testing aids plant maintenance. Electr. Times,
Number 4366, 13-14.
The electrical engineer needs to be able to apply his knowledge of insulating
materials and electric fields to the design of power equipment and to the.harnessing
of electrostatic forces for industrial processes. The design process is a mixture of
theoretical analysis, economics and practical experience. It is impossible to deal in
depth with the design of all power equipment in one chapter, so this chapter will
look at the m:jor features of the high-voltage design of electric power transmission
and distribution equipment.
Electrostatics was an important study area in early 19th century physics, but it
has never been widely commercially exploited. Electrostatic forces are important
for accelerating and separating beams of charged particles in high-energy physics
and they have also been commercially applied to removing particles from gases,
depositing paints and powders on surfaces, propelling space vehicles and separating
ores. These applications will be discussed briefly in this chapter, together with some
of the unwanted effects of electrostatics and techniques for reducing these effects.
8.2 HIGH-VOLTAGE BUSHINGS
8.2.1 The simple bushing
A bushing is an insulator for taking a high-voltage conductor through an earthed
barrier such as an oil tank, a wall or a floor. The material used for the construction
of a bushing must have sufficient mechanical strength to support both the con-
ductor and anything attached to the conductor, in addition to having a high electric
strength. The mechanical forces on the conductor under fault conditions must be
considered when calculating the mechanical strength required. Typically, bushings
are constructed from oil-impregnated paper (o.i.p.) or synthetic resin-bonded paper
(s.r.b.p.) although synthetic resin-impregnated paper and cast resin are also used.
Porcelain enclosures are added to protect s.r.b.p. or o.i.p. bushings when they are
used outdoors.
The simplest bushing consists of a cylinder of insulation around the conductor'
(Figure 8.1a) but the voltage' distribution (Figure 8.1b) is very non-uniform, both
radially and axially. In the radial direction, most of the voltage appears across the

- .L"}
('4
 'l!
i
186
l 187
j
earthed barrier

End view
1
I
i
!

@
, conductor
i

J
( a) Metal foils in bushing
( a) The bushing insulation

v .•__ , -e i v
,, !
,, I
,, f
,
,,

( i ) Radial
,
r
. (ii) Axial
I
r.
;
I
(b) Valtage distribution t
~( (b) Voltage distribution
Figure 8.1 A simple bushing ~
;; along bushing
.;

,t. Figure 8.2 A condenser bushing

insulation near the conductor and, along the outside surface, most of the voltage ~.

appears near the earthed barrier. This means that the bushing must have a sufficient
1. Condenser bushings are usually made from paper insulation, although cast
length for the electric stress next to the barrier to be less than the surface flashover
~
•, epoxy is sometimes used. Sheets of paper are wound around the conductor, followed
voltage for the bushing insulation, and a diameter such that the stress next to the
~ by a layer of metal foil or metal-coated paper, followed by more paper and another
conductor is less than the breakdown stress through the material. The insulating ~
material is used very inefficiently and the bushing is much larger than for a design foil layer until the whole bushing and grading foil structure is assembled. If the
with the voltage uniformly distributed. bushing is of oil-impregnated paper construction, the paper is then vacuum dried
~
~!
.1
and soaked in a tank of highly purified impregnating oil. For a long o.i.p, bushing

8.2.2 Grading of bushing insulation

The technique that is normally used to equalize the potential distribution in bush-
ings, and in other high-voltage equipment, is to add concentric metallic cylinders
inside the insulation. The capacitance between these cylinders and the electrodes
fixes the cylinder potentials. The technique is known as insulation grading and a
bushing constructed in this way is often called a condenser bushing.
Figure 8.2,(a) shows a cross-section through a capacitance graded bushing and
Figure 8.2(b) shows the voltage distribution produced. The outer foil is connected
to the earthed barrier and the dimensions of the metal cylinders are usually chosen
to give equal capacitance between each adjacent pair of foils. This gives an equal
voltage difference between each pair of cylinders. The difference in axial length
between each cylinder and the next is normally also made equal, which gives a
uniform voltage distribution along the bushing surface. There is some change in
electric stress across the radius of the bushing, but this is much less than in the
simple bushing.
i, the paper can be wound as a spiral tape in a similar way to cable construction (see
~ Section 8.3). For synthetic resin-bonded paper construction the paper has a resin
coating which bonds the layers together when subjected to heat and pressure in the
manufacturing process. Sr.b.p, bushings are limited in length by paper-coating
machine capability and in radial thickness by thermal instability as the dielectric
losses are higher than for o.i.p. Epoxy resin paper bushings are wound from crepe
paper and then impregnated with epoxy resin under vacuum. This construction
produces a gas-tight bushing that is suitable for pressurized equipment, such as SF6
1- circuit-breakers.
:~
.~. Choosing the number and position of grading foils for a bushing can be very
J
<. difficult. If relatively few foils are used, high electric stress can be produced at the
ends of a foil (about three times the radial stress). It is desirable to compute this
~
,.
1(,'
stress because discharges at the end of a foil can cause bushing failure. A typical
arrangement for an s.r.b.p. bushing would have 1 mm spacing between foils and
eight foils for an II kV bushing and 16 foils for a 33 kV one. A bushing designed
for 400 kV operation might have 150 foils, so computer-aided design for foil

·M I,......,..·
""
 IL.)'-
188
arcing horns
tonk lid
Figure 8.3 A bushing for taking a conductor
through the lid of an oil-filled tank
positioning becomes very desirable. Epoxy resin paper bushings and cast epoxy
bushings with condenser foils cast in place have greater distances between foils
(2 mm or more) and are often designed with equal spacings between foils. The
lengths are adjusted to give uniform axial voltage distribution, but the capacitances
between adjacent foils are not all equal.
8_23 Other design considerations
The design depends on the material surrounding each end of the bushing. This
could be air (either exposed to the elements or inside a building), compressed gas,
vacuum or an insulating liquid. In some applications there may also be a consider-
able temperature transition along the bushing (in an extreme case, a bushing for a
superconducting device may have a temperature of 310 K at one end, and 10 K at
the other). - .,t..
Figure 8.3 shows a schematic diagram of a bushing for an oil-filled transformer
that is sited outdoors. The upper part of the bushing is in air and will be exposed to
rain and atmospheric pollution, The lower part will be immersed in oil or be
surrounded by the air in the tank above the oil.
Some of the dimensions may be fixed in practice by the mechanical stresses, but
some of the electrical design criteria are:
(a) The porcelain around the air end is exposed to the weather, so that the upper
surfaces will become coated with rain and pollution. TIle porcelain is therefore
formed into sheds to provide a' part of the surface that is protected from the
rain. The dry surface length between high voltage and earth (on the underside
of the sheds) is called the dry creepage distance, This distance must be about
30 mm/kV r.rn.s. system voltage for polluted conditions, or 16 mm/kV for use
in a clean area.
f"')
C'!
I
189
(b) The total length of the bushing between high voltage and earth at the air end
must be sufficient to prevent flashover during a power-frequency test or an
impulse test (see Sections 63 and 6A} Typical design figures are OA kV (r.m.s.j/
f mm at 50 Hz withstand and 0_5 kV (peak)/mm for lightning impulse tests. The
i~ air-end length required to give sufficient creepage path may be longer than the
l length that is required to prevent flashover, however. Arcing horns or protec-
tive rod gaps are usually added at the air end so that any power arc produced
by an overvoltage will be diverted from the porcelain surface and damage to
.
I
, the porcelain will be minimized.
(c) The oil-end length must be sufficient to prevent flashover in the oil. Flashover
J will occur at an electric stress somewhat lower than the bulk breakdown
I
t
strength of the oil. About 1.0 kV (r.m.s.)/mm for 50 Hz axial surface stress and
2.0_kV (peak)/mm for impulse tests are reasonable design figures.
t (d) The radial stress must be limited to a value which will avoid serious partial
~
r discharges. In practice, for o.i.p. bushings, this limits the design radial stress
to 3.5 kV (r.m.s.j'mm for the maximum working voltage. If this power fre-
I quency value is adopted, there will be no difficulty with the radial stress in
I impulse tests.
(e) The diameter of the conductor must be sufficient to limit the radial stress at
~
! the conductor surface to the value given in (d). However, a larger diameter is
normally required because of the current that the conductor is required to
~ carry.
~
i 8.3 POWER CABLES
j 8.3.1 Historical problems and solutions
¥ There are many aspects to the design of-power cables, some of which were men-
f
{
tioned in Subsection 1.5.7, but we shall concentrate in this section on the electric
I field problems encountered in cable design. An early design of oil-impregnated
paper-insulated three-phase cable was the belted construction shown in Figure 8.4.
The core insulation around each conductor consisted of helically-wound paper
,
'. tapes impregnated with oil and was thick enough to withstand half the voltage
between lines. Additional belt insulation was put around all three cores to insulate
~
,
for the line-to-earth voltage.
i However, electric strength along a surface is low (Subsection 2.5.2) and, since
f the voltage between x and y in Figure 8.4 is one-half the line voltage, there is a large
surface electric stress on the core insulation, which may be sufficient to produce
flashover. Surface flashover was found to occur when the belted construction was
t used for cables above 22 kV.
1~ The problem of surface flashover was overcome by using the screened Hoch-
l stadter or 'H'-type construction shown in Figure 8.5. Each conductor is insulated
for the full line-to-earth voltage and the insulation is enclosed by a conducting layer
~
i; at earth potential (screen) so that the electric stress is normal to the paper tapes.
i These screen tapes consist of metal foil glued to one side of a paper tape. This
(
construction is quite satisfactory for operation at 33 kV or less.
 190
Ii
191
I
j
i ~~< sheath (metal)
t~
. ); insulation
conductor I~
~ conductor
i 011duct
i
(II packing ,N-I-- jacket

-~/ care insulation

--"L,.L-- belt insulation
Figure 8.6 Self-contained oil-filled cable
~ sheath
Figure 8.4 Belted construction
large number of tapes of thickness between about 50 IJIrI and 250 1JIrI. When a cable
I
~ is coiled for transport and bent during installation, the tapes on the inner radius of
the bend will move closer together. A sufficient gap must be left between adjacent
1 tapes to prevent the tapes overlapping the butt gap. This gap (Figure 8.7) is usually
.conductor f, about 1 mm wide and, as it represents a weak point in the insulation, the gaps are
~ staggered.
insulation
}
metallized. paper screen s1.~

/,'
packing

sheath
,~

~
y

~
~
~
t
•
1
t
I
.~
..,.
Figure 8.7 Lapping of tapes (65/35 registration
of butt-gap width)
and exaggeration

Figure 8.5 Sheathed 'H'-type construction

When cables of this design were used at 66 kV, their life was found to be short.
It was discovered that failure was due to different parts of the construction expand-
ing and contracting to different extents as variation in load currents heated and
cooled the cable. The differential expansion and contraction left voids within which
partial discharges occurred, leading to eventual cable failure. This problem was
overcome by having oil ducts, running through the cable, which are connected to
oil reservoirs. The oil can expand and flow into the reservoirs when the cable gets
hot. When the cable cools again the oil can flow back from the reservoirs into the
cable and fill any cavities that would otherwise form. This is the principle of the
self-contained oil-filled cable, which is the most widely used high-voltage power
cable in Europe.
8.3.2 Self-contained oil-filled designs
The basic elements in the design of a self-contained oil-filled cable are shown in
Figure 8.6. The insulation is oil-impregnated paper, with the paper in the form of a
..J¥)
~
fr As the conductor-sheath geometry is a concentric cylinder arrangement, the
electric stress will be a maximum at the inner conductor (= V/(r In (R/r)) where
V= voltage, R = outer conductor radius and r = inner conductor radius). The
electric strength of oil/paper insulation increases by up to 50% as its thickness
decreases, so the most economical insulation design has thinner tapes nearer the
conductor. However, thin tapes have less rigidity and the need to bend the cable
i without the tapes buckling places a minimum limit on tape thickness. The strand-
t ing of the conductor would further increase the stress at the conductor surface, but
~ carbon-loaded paper screen tapes are used next to the conductors to equalize this
~ stress. A sandwich of carbon paper and metallized paper is often used here.
~ The impulse voltage specification usually fixes the thickness of insulation
~ required. A minimum oil pressure of about 20 kPa is used and the impulse electric
~;
·t strength of oil-impregnated paper is about 140 kV/mm at this pressure. However,
the design impulse stress for a 400 kV cable would typically be 92.5 kV!mm at the
conductor, to allow an adequate safety factor. It is important to use electric strength
results that apply to large samples, as small samples often produce much higher
results .
 '.(.J'-
192
Moisture must be excluded from the insulation because the water will form gas
, one time and the length of the cable between joints can be longer. The pipe also
193

by electrolysis. Some gas can be absorbed by the cable oil, but this absorption is
limited. The paper is vacuum dried before impregnation and a corrugated aluminium
sheath is used to prevent moisture penetration in service. This sheath is covered
with PYC to prevent corrosion.
As the operating voltage of the cable is increased, the dielectric loss of the insu-
lation becomes more important since the loss is proportional to the square of the
voltage. At 400 kY, the dielectric loss is about half the loss due to the conductor
resistance. The loss tan&ent of paper varies with the manufacturing process and
paper for power cable insulation is washed with de-ionized water to reduce tan 0,
but the best paper still has a loss tangent of about 1 X 10-3• The dielectric constant
of oil-impregnated paper is also relatively high at about 3.5, due to ionic dipoles. It
is undesirable to have a high permittivity because this increases the cable capacitance
and hence either increases the cable charging current or decreases the distance
between compensation reactors.
I
provides good protection against mechanical damage to the cores. However, the
concentration of the three cores in a single pipe makes the dissipation of heat from
the cable more difficult and the large quantity of oil used to fill the pipe is expensive.
The higher oil pressure suppresses gas bubble formation and gives the oil/paper
I insulation a higher electric strength (> 1SOkV/mm for impulse). The design a.c.
r
I stress at the conductor is 16 kY/mm for present 550 kY designs and 19 kV/mm for
proposed 750 k Y designs. The elimination of moisture is just as important for high-
1
~ strength insulation as in self-contained cables and this requires considerable care in
i the period between manufacture and final installation. The core is oil-impregnated
!
during manufacture and wrapped in metal or metal foil; the cable drums are sealed
{
i and filled with dry gas. The pipes are dried with dry gas after installation and a
! moisture measurement is made before the cable is pulled into the pipe.
I
f
83.4 Solid dielectric cables

The construction of solid dielectric cables (Figure 8.9) is simple. A semiconducting

!
8.3.3 High-pressure oil-filled cables
screen (carbon-loaded plastic) is extruded onto the conductor. The solid dielectric
High-pressure oil-filled cable designs have three separate single-phase cores (Figure is extruded onto this screen and another semiconducting layer extruded around the
8.8) enclosed in one oil-filled steel pipe. The oil is at
a pressure of about 1.5 MPa
~
dielectric. An outer metal layer (usually helical-wound copper wire) and a sheath
and this is constant throughout the length of the cable. The basic construction of •
~
complete the construction. The dielectric can be crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE),
each cable core is similar to that used for the self-contained oil-filled cable, but
;.
~
there are skid-wires to protect the cable when pulled into the pipe, instead of a metal i
,
~
!
't
~:----< sheath

~ corrosion protection ll ~ outer metal layer

. , steel pipe . , screen
~
\ \\ oil
}
~ ttt==
"'§ u= ! screen
[ conductor
insulation i
F; I dielectric
e31 conductor

A!bc I II skid wire

r
~ Figure 8.9 Extruded polymer cable

,(

t standard high molecular weight polyethylene (PE) or ethylene-propylene rubber

Figure 8.8 High-pressure oil-filled cable
sheath, and there is no oil duct in the centre of the conductor. The absence of an
oil duct gives a smaller outside diameter to the conductor, and hence the conductor
electric stress is higher for the same voltage.
The design is often called a pipe-type cable and is very popular in the USA. It
has advantages in ease of installation because less trench has to be kept open at
!
(
(EPR). EPR has a loss tangent of 4 x 10-3, an order of magnitude higher than poly-
ethylene, and a higher thermal resistance, so it cannot compete with a successful
i polyethylene design. French designs have successfully used standard polyethylene
.~.
.. up to 225 kV and Swedish and USA designs have used XLPE for similar voltages.
I XLPE has a softening temperature of 135 C against 90 C for PE, so XLPE appears
;:
to be the best dielectric because of the higher conductor operating temperature
? that it permits.

- .,.,
C':
 t
194 i:
As polyethylene is easily eroded by discharges, it is important to ensure that
there are no cavities in the insulation. The semiconducting screens must adhere very
, 195
considerable height differences along the cable route so that the hydrostatic pressure
of oil in the cable is limited. The principles of a straight joint are shown in Figure
well to the dielectric so that there are no cavities at the interface. Gas decomposi- f
I 8.10. The insulation on the end of the cable is tapered down to the conductor and
tion products are formed during the crosslinking of XLPE, so a high steam or gas the conductors joined in a ferrule. A cast epoxy sleeve containing a stress-shaping
pressure must be used to prevent these products forming voids in the dielectric. It is electrode, electrically connected to the conductor, is placed around this connector.
also important that the polyethylene is free of contaminants. The production TIle length and position of the field-shaping electrode is usually determined with
process involves the simultaneous extrusion of the dielectric and the two semi- the aid of a computer field plot. The transition between the cable insulation and
conducting screens. This/must be done under conditions that completely exclude the sleeve is made with hand-applied tape, giving a gradually increasing insulation
moisture. PE and XLPE have a dielectric constant of 2.3 and a loss tangent of I
thickness known as a stress-relief cone. There is an outer enclosure and the whole
3 x 10-4• joint is filled with oil.
Failures have occurred in service due to treeing through polyethylene, the tree
- appare-ntly being initiated by an incomplete semiconducting screen, a projection
connector
from the conductor or outer metal layer or a conducting inclusion in the poly-
ethylene. Considerable care is required in manufacture to prevent any of these
~; ; ; ; ; ; 5 ; ; ; .; ~ enclosure
S
1
imperfections. When the cables have been operated under wet conditions, water has
1
penetrated into the polyethylene to produce water trees, which have also led to I ~;ij;666tl7!t5:F;g~~~~t~~ath
failure. A PVC sheath is usually used on the cable but this is not a complete protec- J hand - applied
tion against water penetration. The French design uses a lead sheath which appears
to be a more successful water barrier.
lI stress
insulation
cast
control epoxy sleeve
The electrical failure difficulties that have been experienced with extruded
.::
J electrode
dielectrics have resulted in very high safety factors being adopted when design .~ Figure 8.10 A straight joint
stresses are fixed. An electric strength of 790 kV/mm has been measured in care-
~I

fully processed polyethylene;' but design stresses are not allowed to exceed -~
The principle of the stop joint is similar, but provision must be made for an oil
10 kV jmm for XLPE. This makes the insulation thickness considerably greater
than for oil/paper cable insulation. channel through the sleeve to the oil duct in the centre of the conductor. The oil
channel is connected to a pressurized oil reservoir. Some reliability problems have
Considerable development work. is taking place to increase the useable electric
stress for XLPE. Improvements in manufacturing technique, in the quality of the been experienced with 400 kV and 275 kV stop joints. These appear to be due to
initial polyethylene and in additives to prevent treeing and water treeing are being gas evolution from discharges at local concentrations of contaminants, probably
investigated. There are hopes that considerable improvements in extruded tech- metal particles.
nology will soon be achieved. High-pressure oil-filled cables have straight joints which are very similar to the
self-contained oil-filled ones. They do not need stop joints, but pressure barriers are
8.3.5 Accessories often included to reduce the possible loss of oil in the event of a pipe fracture.
There are two approaches to joints for extruded dielectric cables: on-site mould-
All cables must have joints between sections and terminations at the ends. These are ing of joint insulation or pre-moulded slip-on insulation. In both designs air pockets
collectively known as cable accessories. When two conductors are joined, the must be avoided and a shielding electrode must be placed around the joint to
joining piece has a much larger diameter than the conductors, producing a field
~ reduce the field distortion. French extruded cables use on-site moulding with the
non-uniformity. Cables must be connected to overhead lines, transformers or cable insulation tapered to the conductor and covered with a semiconducting layer.
circuit-breakers at their ends and this involves a surface field non-uniformity, liquid polyethylene is then injected under pressure into a mould around the joint
similar to that found in the simple bushing (Figure 8.1 b). Accessories must be j
;t and kept hot for several hours, with the pressure maintained, to ensure that there
designed to overcome these problems. The trend is to make as much of the accessory
as possible in the factory so that the time spent on site working on jointing and
~.
.~

terminating is kept to a minimum. One reason for this is that site conditions make
it very difficult to maintain a high degree of cleanliness during jointing operations,
so there is a risk of introducing contamination into the cable.
The self-contained oil-filled cable has two types of joint, straight joints and stop
joints. Stop joints act as oil-pressure barriers and are necessary where there are
.~
,...
fl
f,
are no cavities and that the bonding is good. After the mould has been removed, a
semiconductor is added to the outside of the polyethylene and the whole enclosed
t: in a metal sheath. When pre-moulded insulation is used, this is made from an elasto-
meric material so that it can be stretched over the conductor joint and Can grip the
cable insulation tightly, with virtually no air gaps.
The design of terminations (often called potheads or sealing ends) depends
partly on the equipment to which the cable is to be connected. If the termination
,("..,..,
 /L;jt-
196 197
is used outside, a porcelain housing usually forms the jacket of the termination.
For oil-filled cables, the termination must separate the oil and paper insulation
from air, which means that it must constitute a pressure barrier for the oil.
The problem of the uneven stress distribution along the surface of a cable at
the cable end can be overcome, for oil-impregnated paper cables, by wrapping
a pre-impregnated roll of paper insulation around the cable insulation, with the
sheath stripped back to the beginning of this extra insulation (Figure 8.11). The I
profile of the -paper tape is based on a theoretical analysis of the best shape for d
longitudinal stress equalization which keeps the longitudinal stress below 2.5 kV/mm. II conductor spacer
r
The end of the metal screen that covers the increase in insulation thickness repre- Ii Figure 8.12 Compressed-gas insulated cable
sents a stress concentration and a rounded end of the screen may be used to reduce
this. Alternatively, the stress cone can be a factory-manufactured cast-resin unit i
i
.~ The compressed-gas insulated cable has the advantages of a very low loss tangent
which may include grading foils in a similar design to a condenser bushing (Sub-
} and a relative permittivity of approximately unity, in addition to high current
section 8.2.2). A third technique is to use disc capacitors connected along the
length of a stress cone to ensure uniform longitudinal stress.
, ratings. High-voltage problems arise in the design of the spacers and in the removal.
of free conducting particles (Subsection 2.3.4). Spacer flashover is the most likely
breakdown mechanism in a compressed-gas insulated system as any contamination
J of the spacer surface will produce flashover at a voltage below the gas breakdown
i
strength. Spacers are of disc, post or cone shape and have cross-sections designed
cable insulation
»>
t
l to make the surface stress more uniform; computer field plotting is used to arrive
conductor t at optimum shapes. A particular problem arises at the gas/electrode interface, as the

~
i stress in any gas layer between the electrode and insulator will be €r times the stress
that would otherwise occur at the electrode, where €r is the relative permittivity of
the spacer material. This highly-stressed area could produce Townsend discharges
stress cone 1:
~ which would lead to surface flashover across the spacer. In order to prevent flash-

Figure 8.11 Stress relief by stress cone

t over, metal inserts can be cast into the spacer where it contacts the pipe and the
l conductor.
i! It is almost inevitable that some conducting particles will be present in the cable
In extruded dielectric cables the usual technique is to have a pre-fabricated stress 1
.e after assembly. Under alternating voltages these will stand up, giving field emission
cone that grips the cable tightly, and to have this surrounded by oil in a porcelain f sites which reduce the gas breakdown voltage and they will then lift off into the
housing. The seals have to be very good to prevent oil leaking from the termination. gas. They could move between conductor and pipe, but are more likely to bounce
Slight leakage does not matter in oil/paper cables because the oil will be replenished down the pipe. Low-field regions or particle traps are provided at the outer rim of
from the oil reservoir. the spacers. Once a particle arrives at a trap it will not move again. If the voltage is
gradually raised at commissioning, most of the free particles will be moved into one
of these traps. .
8.3.6 Compressed gas-insulated designs .~

~
Transmission lines consisting of conductors insulated with compressed SF6 gas can
be built to match the voltage and current rating of the highest-rated overhead lines. I~'-
'~
8.3.7 D.C. transmission cables

Most installations at present in use are short (a few hundred metres) and could be Almost all the d.c. transmission cables in use are of a self-contained oil-filled con-
t
thought of as extended bus bars with the phases in separate pipes. TIle conductor ~ struction. Some have an oil duct in the centre of the conductor, but some are filled
I'
is rigid and is held at the centre of the pipe containing the gas by spacers of epoxy ~
'. with a highly viscous impregnant. The dielectric losses are low because they are
or some plastic material of high electric and mechanical strength (Figure 8.12). The i only due to the resistivity of the dielectric and not to the loss tangent. Partial dis-
SF6 is at 3 bar (350 kPa) pressure and the cable is produced in lengths of up to 13 m ~
.. charge activity is much less than for a.c. cables, so higher stresses can be used in
which must be joined on site. Flexible designs which could be transported in longer ;
the dielectric.
lengths (100-200 m) on a drum, and three-phase rigid conductor designs, are under The stress distribution is much more difficult to calculate for a d.c. cable than
development. for an a.c. one because it is determined by the dielectric resistivity and not its
.,.., ~
<'I
i
 'T
'11
,~
i}
!.j -199
198
"I!
capacitance. The resistivity of oil/paper systems is a function of both electric stress :i The polymer tapes must have a very low dielectric loss, because of the expense of
1
and temperature. As the temperature range of cable operation is limited, the con- removing heat at cryogenic temperatures, and either polyethylene or polypropylene
".\
ductivity of oil/paper insulation approximately obeys the relationship could be used. The discharge inception stress is fairly low, because of the compara-
'I tively low electric strength of the supercritical gas in the butt gaps, and the maxi-
a = ao exp(0:8 + bE) i mum electric stress that can be used is therefore limited to 10 kV/mm.
where a is the conductivity at temperature 8 (C), ao is the conductivity at 0 C and
i,;
zero applied stress, E is the electric stress applied and 0: and b are constants. When
" 8.4 TRANSFORMERS
this relationship is used t6 analyse the stress distribution of an unloaded cable (no
temperature difference across the dielectric) the stress is found to be more uniform A general description of power transformers has been given in Subsection 1.5.2.
\<

across the radius than in an a.c. cable (typically the stress at the conductor is 1.6
times the stress at the sheath for direct voltage, compared with 2.2 times as high 8.4.1 Transformer insulating materials
under alternating voltage for the same cable). However, when the cable is on load
the temperature effect on conductivity completely changes the stress distribution.
"
--,J The electrical insulation used in transformers must have sufficient mechanical
j strength to withstand the forces set-up by fault currents and it must also have high
The temperature of the dielectric is higher nearer the conductor and this produces
a stress which is lower at the conductor than at the sheath (typically the stress at .
~
I~

I
\
electric strength. The majority of power transformers have rectangular- conductors
covered by paper tape with boards of paper-type material (pressboard) acting as
the sheath is 1.7 times the stress at the conductor). spacers to produce ducts that allow cooling; pressboard or phenolic resin-bonded
Ii
A further difficulty is introduced by time-dependent stress changes. When a i paper cylinders provide the insulation between windings. Pressboard and phenolic
cable is rust energized there is a surge of charging current that takes perhaps 24 1
j ~ resin-bonded paper can only be used at temperatures up to 60 C. The whole is
hours to fall to a very low leakage current. This is due to charges gradually being .j
,
! immersed in an oil tank, so oil-impregnated paper is the dominant insulating
distributed to different positions in the dielectric. The stress distribution will there- ! material. The oil is used for cooling the transformer as well as for electrical insulation.
fore also vary with time until the steady-state distribution is reached. If the cable is ~

.~
.~ Arrangements are made to allow the oil to expand and contract during load
subjected to a sudden reversal of polarity these trapped charges may result in initial .I
cycles, while protecting it from moisture contamination from the air. Periodic
stresses up to twice the normal maximum stress. The direct-voltage stress that can
~, checks of the oil quality are made by measuring its breakdown strength and mois-
be used in cable designs is much higher than for a.c. cables and stresses as high as
40 kV /mm are permissible for oil-filled cables. t. ture content. If these parameters are outside certain limits, the oil must be passed
through an ion-exchange column and/or degassed. Some power utilities also analyse
The increased complexity of field calculation for d.c. applications makes the ! the oil for dissolved gas content, since any partial discharges in the insulation would
design of d.c. cable accessories difficult. In practice, a.c. designs are used as these l
~.
produce hydrogen and other gases which would go into solution in the oil. Signi-
have been found to operate successfully in d.c. applications.
'f
,11
ficant quantities of dissolved hydrogen therefore indicate an insulation fault within
the transformer.
8.3.8 Other cable designs !~
Transformer oil is flammable, so alternative liquids must be used if a liquid-
~
A number of other a.c. cable designs have been proposed, although none is in signi- insulated transformer is required where a flammable material would not be accept-
{ able. The askarels (polychlorinated bi-phenyls) were -used in the past, but these
ficant commercial use. Amongst designs still under development are designs similar ~~
to self-contained oil-filled cables, but with synthetic polymer tapes and oil, instead have since been found to be health hazards, so silicone oils are now used and some
of paper tapes and oil. Such a cable would have a much lower dielectric loss because
.~ other insulating liquids have been suggested (see Subsection 2.4.4). An alternative
of the much lower loss tangents of the proposed polymers. The problem that it is to use dry-type transformers where the flammability of ordinary transformer oil
development work is trying to overcome is one of compatibility between materials, is a disadvantage. These transformers use synthetic insulation such as nylon paper,
as the polymers which are of a reasonable price either swell in. oil or dissolve in it. silicone-impregnated glass cloth or extruded silicone resin rods. These materials can
However, attempts are being made to develop modified polymers and some com-
,~
operate at temperatures up to 150 C and the transformer can be air insulated.
$ The mismatch in relative permittivity between the various insulating materials
panies have developed paper/polymer laminates that have much lower dielectric it
losses than paper, and which swell much less than polymers alone. used in transformer construction will lead to stress concentrations in the materials
S
A second area of cable research and development is cryogenic cables (Subsection t of low relative permittivity (see Subsection 2.5.2). Phenolic resin-bonded paper has
~/-

e, = 5.0, compared with €r"" 3 for pressboard, while extruded silicone resin has
1.5.7). Although other cryogenic systems have been proposed, present work is ,
concentrated on superconducting cables with supercritical helium gas as the coolant. ,-, €r = 7.5, compared with €f =3.5 for nylon paper. These are all very different from
Vacuum could be used as the dielectric, but a structure similar to oil/paper cables is
preferred, but with polymer tapes and He gas at about 8 K and several bars pressure.
i' the unity relative permittivity of air. SF6 has recently been used for transformer
insulation and in some experimental designs the SF6 is used in both liquid and

:.,
C"! ~J c zI
 p 201
200
vapour phases in different parts of the transformer. This provides a highly efficient
lf line
cooling system and both the liquid and the vapour have a high electric strength. f,
j
l. V. winding inter- winding insulation
.j
Ii
8.4.2 Winding design

...
High-voltage power transformer windings are either of the multi-layer or the disc
type. The multi-layer construction is usually restricted to low current ratings and is
It!
H
.,
discs forming
shown in Figure 8.13. There are a number of turns per layer, with paper insulation
between each turn and insulating spacers between the layers. Several extra thicknesses
Ii H.V. winding

of paper are often adde'd between the layers, and the ends of the layers are staggered I~
to give an increased clearance between the outer (high-voltage) layer and earth.
,.;!
di!
l. V. winding
~
a
ii
tlfj Figure 8.14 Disc-type HV winding

winding loyer ~
:!.~ factors are incorporated in these insulation design rules because of the lack of exact
knowledge about the stresses at different points .

i
:l
8.4.3 The surge voltage problem

The equivalent circuit of a transformer contains distributed capacitance, resistance

cooling duct
J
'j
and inductance as shown in Subsection 6.4.1. It was shown that the stress distri-
bution across the winding is non-uniform when a surge arrives at the transformer
1
~ terminals, either due to an impulse test, to lightning or to a switching operation. A

Figure 8.13 A multi-layer winding I

1t
simple equivalent circuit of a disc winding is shown in Figure 6.4. The equivalent
circuit is very similar to that of the suspension insulator string (Subsection 8.6.2).
,.
"·r The stress on the insulation at the line end of the winding is very high and the volt-

The disc winding construction is shown in principle in Figure 8.14; Figure 8.15
shows a dry-type disc-wound transformer. Each disc is a number of turns of the
high-voltage winding and is separated from the next disc by spacers. Both types of
winding are designed to give efficient cooling of the winding. Electrostatic screens
are added over the windings, as will be explained in Subsection 8.4.3.
The calculation of the electric stress produced at different points in a trans-
former winding is a very complex problem because the potential distribution is
usually three-dimensional, without an axis of symmetry. Three-dimensional compu-
tation of a stress distribution is possible, but difficult and expensive, so that most
manufacturers rely on a 'design book' of accumulated experience. In practice, the
stresses are reduced as much as possible by avoiding sharp edges and corners in the
insulation and adding stress shields where points and edges are unavoidable. A set of
charts is then used, based on analysis and experience, to determine the correct
thickness of insulation around each conductor and between windings. Large safety
....
..t')
t'4
"~ age between the first few pairs of coils can be as much as 200 times the peak 50 Hz
1f working value. The distribution of voltage will vary with the steepness of the
impulse front and with the time after the arrival of jhe impulse.
~ This stress distribution is clearly unacceptable, so electrostatic screens are added
1
~ to reduce the capacitance to earth. A metal screen, insulated from both the high-
~ voltage terminal and ground, can be connected across the whole of the winding.
~
! Instead of a capacitance between each turn and earth, there is now a capacitance
between the screen and earth. If the positioning of the screen is ideal it will adopt
the midpoint potential of the winding. This allows approximately equal currents to
flow to the screen from parts of the winding that are at the high-voltage end and
"iom the screen 'to the parts of the screen that are at the low-voltage end. The
current through the turn-to-turn capacitance is therefore not increased by the sum
J of the currents flowing through the turn-to-earth capacitances, as in the unshielded
n' transformer, and the voltage distribution is much more uniform, with a 20 to 1
t
reduction of the electric stress at the line end in some cases.
~
I
202 ~ 203
When there is a fault in a power system, the circuit is almost completely induc-
11 tive, so the voltage is a maximum at current zero. Standard texts on power systems

Ii
It
(e.g. Guile and Paterson, 1977) show that when the current is extinguished there is
a voltage transient of the form illustrated in Figure 8.16.
i;
1
~ Voltage
between recovery voltage
breaker
contacts

i~ ~ system voltage
I•.

11!I

~.

r~ o 1- -\ ! •.
II
n
Time

I
tJ
arc voltage

i
Figure 8.16 Voltage transient on interruption of a fault current

If the arc is not re-ignited, the rate of recovery of electric strength for the insula-
~
tion between the breaker contacts is greater than the rate-of-rise of the recovery
~ voltage (RRRV). Obviously interrupting a circuit where the RRRV is high is more
difficult than interrupting a circuit where it is low. It is important that the inter-
ruption of the current should be as rapid as possible so that the system stability is
~
~ maintained and the damage done to equipment in the system is minimized. Circuit-
.~ breaker design is very different depending on the insulation between the contacts.
1 Oil, air, SF6 and vacuum are all used, but the present trend is to use SF6 for volt-
t
Figure 8.15 11 kVj433 V dry-type 1 MVA transformer (Reproduced by per- .~
ages above 22 kV and vacuum for lower voltages, although oil or air can still be a
mission of Bonar Brentford Electric LId) i more economic choice in some situations. SF6 recovers its electric strength very

8.5.1 Insulation in switchgear

8.5 SWITCHGEAR

The insulating materials used in switchgear are required to withstand high voltages
just as in any high-voltage equipment. However, the special problem in switchgear
is the interruption of currents, and the most difficult currents to interrupt are fault
currents. Immediately the contacts of a circuit breaker are opened the current will
continue to flow in an arc. Providing the circuit is an a.c. one, the current will fall
to zero twice every cycle and it is the function of the insulation used in the circuit
breaker to recover its electric strength sufficiently rapidly to prevent the arc being
restruck after one of these current zeros.
I
:t
~_I
rapidly because of its electronegative properties and vacuum also has a high rate-of-
rise of electric strength, but special techniques have to be used in oil and air-
insulated equipment. In air, oil or SF6 switchgear, the arc is a very hot column of
ionized gas (- 5 x 104 K in the centre). For an oil-insulated breaker, the gas is
mainly hydrogen due to decomposition of the oil. The vacuum arc (see Subsection
2.3.5) consists of a number of parallel arcs which move around the cathode surface.
The temperature of the arc is sufficiently high to produce some vaporization of the
electrode materials, so ions of the electrode material and electrons form the arc
column. In a circuit breaker, the arc is extinguished by increasing the arc to a length
where the voltage needed to maintain the arc is greater than the voltage available, or
~ by replacing the hot, ionized gas between the contacts by a cool, non-ionized
('"
medium, or a combination of the two techniques.
'£

I _.
f' 71
 1_"""
205
204
'l
8.5.2 Oil circuit breakers i When the oil is broken down, particles of carbon as well as gases are produced,

i
The particles lower the electric strength of the oil, so that the oil must periodically
Oil circuit breakers (OCBs) were the dominant type for high-voltage work for many be drained from the breaker, filtered and returned. This must be done much more
years and they are still being installed in some systems, particularly for voltages up frequently for small oil volume breakers and the moisture content of the oil must
to about 66 kV. Most OCBs use the oil as the arc interrupting medium and to insu- I
also be checked regularly.
late the contacts from an earthed oil tank (dead-tank designs), but some higher-
!
l
.' voltage designs have a small oil tank surrounding the contacts with the tank insu-
lated from earth by a stand-off insulator (live-tank or small oil-volume designs), ·1
i 8.5.3 Air-blast circuit breakers
Decomposition of the loil by the arc produces mixtures of gases which are 70% i Low-voltage circuit breakers use air at atmospheric pressure as the arc interrupting
hydrogen. Hydrogen recovers its electric strength rapidly at a current zero, so this
helps arc extinction. Heat transfer from the arc to the oil, and turbulence in the oil I and insulating medium. For high voltages, however, compressed air has been used
in circuit breakers since the late 1930s. Air-blast designs have been very widely used
near the arc, also help arc extinction. for 120 kV systems and above. The principle of operation of an air-blast interrupter
The contacts are enclosed by an arc control device, one type of which is shown
in Figure 8.17. The arc is drawn in front of a series of vents as the contacts separate.
1
;)
is shown in Figure 8.18. The air in the reservoir and the interrupter is at a pressure
of about 14 bars (1.44 MPa) and the exhaust valves are opened when the breaker
The oil is broken down by the arc and the arc burns in the gas produced. The gas ,~ contacts start to open. The difference in air pressure between the reservoir and
production increases the pressure inside the interrupter and forces the arc into the atmosphere produces a very high-velocity jet of air along the arc which removes
vents, thereby increasing the arc length and the voltage required to maintain the
arc. Some of the ionized gas is removed by being forced out through the interrupter
vents and the design must prevent the development of any breakdown path outside
iifl the hot, ionized gas and replaces it with cold, non-ionized gas. Often the contacts
open a certain distance for arc interruption and then open further for complete
isolation.
the interrupter. At a current zero, when the arc is extinguished, cold oil is sucked t!
back into the interrupter. Eventually the arc is sufficiently lengthened to be
permanently extinguished. The number of vents in the interrupter is increased with
the voltage rating of the device.
~
~
i:i ~;;;~;J
z z;;£C= ZZZl
Z LZ Z
f;"d
~ contact

i exhaust ~
valve <f'
n
~
iJ~
C
~
«- exhaust
I valve

/.1... rA -

J-.....-orc
fixed contact

I
~
:~
I

%
.,
'i) t
.1
IT- f-rom air
reservoir
i
;} Figure 8.18 Air-blast interrupter

I rJ moving contact
i The operating times are fast and consistent with arcing times of only ~ to 1 cycle
throughout the current range. These breakers can withstand frequent switching
because the insulating material is constantly replaced and there is little maintenance
required on the breaker. However, the air for the device must be clean and dry if
Figure 8.17 Crossblast interrupter. (From it is to have a high electric strength, so that it is necessary to filter the air and
Flurschelrn, C. H. (Ed.) (1975). Power Circuit remove the moisture from it after compression. Another disadvantage of the air-
Breaker Theory and Design, Peter Peregrinus,
Stevenage, Herts. Reproduced by permission of f
Ir
blast breaker is that the interrupting capacity is independent of the current being
broken, which can often produce current interruption before the zero and conse-
Peter Peregrinus Ltd)

.,r'J
('~
i
i
:

I

206
quent voltage spikes when breaking small currents. The build-up of insulation
strength is not sufficiently rapid to cope with circuits with a very high RRRV and
resistance may have to be connected across the breaker contacts to reduce the
RRRV.
,I 207 .,
11
u The nozzle is made from PTFE because this will resist the arc and arc pro-
f ducts but it is important to prevent the SF6 gas from containing moisture because
moisture can make the arc products very corrosive. The major advantage of SF6
1 circuit breakers is their lack of maintenance and this means that the contacts must
be made to withstand a large number of switching operations without significant

8.5.4 Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers

The high electric strength Of SF6 means that metal-enclosed SF6·filled switchgear
need occupy only about 1,2% of the volume of alternative designs. It was initially
i
\I
wear. Ten years operation between contact inspection or replacement is claimed.
SF6-insulated circuit breakers for lower voltages are based on a different prin-
ciple in that the arc moves within the gas enclosure. This is achieved by a coil that
produces a magnetic field that forces the arc to rotate. The circuit breaker can be
only economic to use SF6·insulated switchgear for voltages above 220 kV, but i simpler and cheaper when this system of arc extinction is used, and the gas enclosure
developments in interrupter design have enabled economic designs to be produced can be sealed for the life of the equipment. However, the design is only suitable for
down to 12 kV. As SF6 is expensive the gas is not allowed to escape to the atrno- lower voltages.
sphere. Early designs were similar in form to air-blast breakers, except that the gas J
that was blown across the arc was re-compressed and returned to a high-pressure '}
storage vessel as part of a closed system. I 8.55 Vacuum circuit breakers
The gas-handling equipment made such two-pressure designs expensive and they
have been replaced by systems with a single sealed tank containing the contacts and I The use of vacuum switchgear has increased considerably in recent years, especially
insulated with SF6 at about 5 bars (514 kPa) pressure. A piston inside the chamber I, for voltages up to 12 kV, and at the time of writing accounts for about one-third of
produces a jet of gas across the arc. The principle of this type of design is shown in the UK market. The problems that had to be overcome in the development of these
Figure 8.19. The moving contacts and the cylinder move together, while the piston circuit breakers were:
remains fixed. A jet of gas is therefore ejected along the arc as the contacts open.
If the current being interrupted is low the arc will probably cease at the first zero the contacts may melt severely and can weld when making or carrying high
with a relatively low gas velocity. However, when the current to be interrupted is
high, the arc will probably 'block' the nozzle, i.e. prevent gas from leaving. As the
cylinder moves relative to the piston the pressure will build up inside the cylinder
'.
~
,~
r~
currents,
the vacuum may become contaminated
which have a high gas constant,
due to the arc acting on metal contacts
•
until it is sufficient to force the gas out and interrupt the arc. The arc interrupting metal vapour from the arc will condense on insulating surfaces within the breaker
force can thus vary with the current being interrupted and this type of design is and could produce a conducting path between contacts,
called a 'puffer' or impulse interrupter. current chopping, due to the arc being interrupted before current zero, is difficult
~ to avoid.
~
~~
'j Present designs overcome these problems and the principle is shown in Figure 8.20.

f ixed arcing contact ~i Vacuum-tight bellows are used to seal the vacuum enclosure to the stem of the
moving contact. The whole enclosure is evacuated to ,abol}t 10-5 torr, which must be
fixed current-carrying
contact ! maintained, without pumping, for the life of the unit. The metal vapour from the

I
arc condenses on the shields, leaving sufficient length of insulation free from metal
I rc deposit. Careful processing of the materials used ensures that they do not contain
zzte significant trapped gas .and that the contacts do not weld and are resistant to arc
oving arcing contact
damage. The contacts themselves have slots cut in them in special designs that
create magnetic fields that move the arc around, preventing gross melting of the
fi, ed piston
contact surfaces. Careful design of the contacts can also prevent current chopping
me vinq cylinder in most applications.
Vacuum interrupters designed on these principles have a long life with virtually
zero maintenance, a maximum arc duration of only 1 or 1.5 cycles at aI/levels of
"
current, (to fire risk and no noise or emission of gas when operated. The construe,
:l tion is completely sealed, gives very consistent arcing times and total break times
figure 8.19 Puffer-type SF, interrupter
Ir•• and is suitable for very fast automatic rcclosure.

_r;
C'! i -,r 7.,
 6"",....,6
209
208

vacuum envelope

•.. vacuum bellows

1--rI , ~ I I 7-, IV I
bellows shield
moving contact

~ VI I I IA
main sputter shield

fixed contact
I

Figure 8.20 Vacuum interrupter

( 0) (b)

8.6 OVERHEAD LINES Figure 8.21 Transmission tower arrangements

8.6.1 Conductor arrangements

When decisions are made about the geometrical arrangements of the conductors
for overhead lines (see Chapter 1), several factors have to be taken into considera-
tion. The system must be strong enough mechanically to withstand any likely ice
and wind loading and the spacing between conductors should be sufficient that
there will not be a flashover between them, even when they" swing due to wind
effects. The insulators supporting the conductors must be long enough to prevent
flashover to the support tower under expected rain and pollution conditions, even
when lightning or switching produce transient overvoltages. The height of conduc-
tors above the ground must be sufficient that the electric field experienced by
people, vehicles, agricultural equipment, animals etc. under the line is not dangerous.
Lastly, the field at the conductor should be low enough that the effects of corona
are acceptable. All this should be achieved within as small a total support tower
8.6.2 Insulators
Insulators must be used to attach overhead line conductors to transmission towers.
For lines up to 33 kV these are generally of the pin type shown in Figure 1.18.
These consist of porcelain supported on a steel pin w.ith sheds of a shape that
follow the equipotentials of the voltage between the conductor and the earthed
tower cross-arm. For higher voltages a string of suspension insulators (as shown in
Figure 1.19) is used. The number of insulator units used depends on the voltages
of the line; 19 units are used for a 400 kV line (total length 3.8 m). The conductor
is suspended from the bottom unit.
The voltage is not equally shared between the units in a suspension insulator
string (see Subsection 6.3.1). The capacitances between each cap/pin junction arid
the tower, and between the cap and pin of each unit, determine the voltage distri-

I
height as possible so that the visual impact of the line is kept to a minimum.
bution, giving an equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 822(a). Calculation of the
British practice has been to arrange the three phases vertically in double-circuit
voltage distribution can be made by considering a general unit in the string as in
systems, with a single earth wire at the top of the tower for lightning protection for
Figure 8.22(b). The string has N elements and
important lines, as shown in Figure 8.21(a) and Figure 1.16. However, some coun-
tries have adopted a horizontal arrangement of a single circuit line for the highest 1
voltages (Figure 8.21b), with two earth wires for lightning protection. In present --= Xc, the reactance per element dn.
jwC
practice a British 400 kV tower (vertical arrangement of phases) has a height of
47.5 m whereas a US design for a horizontal arrangement of conductors and jwCe = Ye, the admittance per element dn.
approximately the same voltage has a height of 24.6 m. The field at ground level is
about 10 kV/m in present practice, but it has been suggested that this could be The voltage across the element is
raised to about 18 kV/m in future ultra-high-voltage systems. The arrangement of
conductors to minimize corona has been outlined in Subsection 2.3.1. dVx = l"Xcdn.
\..:,

-'"N
 210 211
cross-arm The relationship predicted by this equation for the voltage distribution along the
n=O
c V;
l string is shown in Figure 8.23 and is the same as the transformer voltage distribu- .J

I II-{ tion for impulse voltages shown in Figure 6.5. Some experimental results for this
voltage distribution were shown in Figure 6.1.
I
I I
11
I
~ I

ljl
I
v.

\..
Q)
~
V; c.
V;
.
ir, }n I
t
~
1.0 ~ ---------------------

e ~~+d~
2 I
V+dV;
x I
I
I

~ I
I

0.8
I--
I

c V;
~I i
I
I
conductor
T I
I
I
Tn=N 06
I

rl ~
0.4
(a) (b)
Figure 8.22 Calculation of voltage distribution for insulator strings

0.2
The current through the cap/pin to tower capacitance is

a; = (Vx + d Vx) Ye dn ~ Vx Ye dn

d2Vx dlx o 2 4 6 8 10 n
-=X-· Calculated voltage distribution along an insulator
dn
2 c dn Figure 8.23
string. 1'1 = 0.1 and 10 units in the string
Therefore

d__2 v:x _ 2 A guard ring is often placed around the conductor-end unit as shown in Figure
dn2 - "/ Vx
8.24. This guard ring increases the capacitance of the conductor-end unit, and, to
some extent, the other nearby units. This helps to equalize the voltage distribution.
where
Figure 8.24 also shows an arcing horn at the top of the insulator. If the insulator
Ce flashes over due to a surge, the air around the insulator will be ionized. This could
,,/2 = YeXc = C'
lead to a power arc across the surface of the insulator which would destroy the
insulator. The arcing horn ensures that the power arc will take the shorter route
The end conditions are Vx = Vc (the conductor voltage) at n = Nand Vx =0 at from arcing horn to guard ring (or between upper and lower arcing horns), thus
n = O. The solution of the equation with these end conditions is protecting the insulator.
sinh rn The above analysis of the voltage distribution across a string is often incorrect
v: = V; --. ryecause of the effects of the surface resistivity of the insulators. This is particularly
x c sinh rN
. rue with pollution effects which can also cause flashover. Dry dirt is deposited on
Applying this to a 5-element string with typical values of C = 30 pF and Ce = 3 pF the insulator surface and this dirt becomes conducting when wet. A leakage current
gives the voltage across the conductor-end element as 0.3 Vc. compared with 0.2 Vc flows through the layer and dries some areas preferentially. producing dry insulat-
if the. voltage was uniformly distributed . ing bands. Small local flashovers occur across dry band sections where moisture

•f¥')
_1("'7'
('.
 123F 213
212
lions such as removing ash from the flue gas of coal-fired power stations and the
precipitation of dust from the kilns used in cement manufacture. Units can be very
large and a single unit can remove 200 tonne of ash per day.
Qrc-1q horn Figure 8.25 shows a single-stage plate-type precipitator. About 50 kV is applied
between the corona-producing electrodes and the metal plate walls of the gas duct.
The corona electrodes can be small-diameter wires, collections of spikes or complex
., multi-point geometries designed to give the maximum corona current for a parti-
cular voltage. The corona produces a concentration of ions near the corona wires.
The dust particles become charged by encountering these ions as the particles travel
through the corona region. In some systems the charged particles are then collected
in a second section, but in this single-stage precipitator the charged particles are
attracted by electrostatic forces to the earthed walls and adhere to these walls.
~ .......--- ---=::::.." ngUard rmq
i ; TIle probability of a particle being charged depends on the time the particle is
II
present in the ionizing region and on the ion density in this region. The time that
figure 8.24 Insulator guard ring and arcing horn the particle spends in the ionizing region is a function of the gas velocity. The ion
density is a maximum for maximum electric field, but flashover must be avoided.
As the type and density of particles is continually changing, the maximum voltage
drops fall and this eventually leads to complete flashover. The problem can be over- that can be applied without flashover also changes and a feedback system is used to
come by washing the insulators regularly. This can be done while the line is live. vary the applied voltage so that optimum corona current is maintained. The d.c.
The insulators can also be designed to obtain maximum rain washing or they can be high-voltage power supply to the corona wires may need a rating of 100 kW or more.
coated with a water-repelling jelly which is replaced every couple of years. Other The particles rapidly lose their charge when they come into contact with the
solutions that have been used are: a PTFE or silicone rubber coating to reduce earthed metal surface and they may skip along the duct wall or go back into the gas
wetting of the surface, a semiconducting glaze to give sufficient leakage current to stream. The accumulated particles must be periodically removed by rapping the
keep the surface dry, or insulating tower cross-arms to reduce the electric stress on earthed plates so that the particles fall into a hopper below, or some similar process.
the insulator string.

8.7.2 Paint spraying and powder coating

8.7 APPLICATIONS Electrostatic paint spraying produces considerable savings in skilled manpower,
8.7.1 Electrostatic precipitators paint and time when compared with conventional spray painting. The paint is
atomized into - 6 J..Im diameter droplets by forcing it under pressure through a
Electrostatic forces are commonly used in precipitators to remove solid particles or nozzle. The paint droplets then pass (Figure 8.26) through a corona region and the
liquid droplets from streams of gas. In the first part of the process the particles or charged droplets are attracted by the electrostatic field to the earthed object being.
droplets are charged and in the second part the charged particles or droplets migrate painted. The paint adheres evenly because once an area becomes charged, further
under electrostatic forces to earthed electrodes. The system is highly efficient (99% charged droplets are not attracted to that area. In many" applications both the back
to 99.99% of particles removed depending on the design) and is used for applica- and front of the object are painted by spraying from a single direction and almost

uncharged
particles

gas
flow-
'0
o
o
I
<,
,

'" ~0
,'11"
iii; t

,?
, 'J
T

0
~- -
. -
0)..------,
:J'
particles attracted
/ to earthed walls
and adhere

@- paint
spray

nozzl
ion
corono charge d

""'_=_=~:"-'" -=';:~""-~=_~
-=::c::-_
e
_

'lbiect
<' ,,~,,', HV
I I supply
I ~ .

Figure 8.25 Single-stage, plate-type precipitator Figure 8.26 Electrostatic paint spraying

~)
C"!

I

214
all the paint arrives on the surface being painted instead of much of the paint being
wasted because it misses the target. The corona charging voltage used is 90 kV to
150 kV and hence the operator of the equipment must be protected from those
dangerous voltages. This is done by limiting the current capability of the d.c.
supply; electrostatic generators are very useful for this application. The earliest use
of electrostatic paint spraying was in spraying ink onto paper for a chart recorder
and this was patented by Lord Kelvin in 1867. Present applications include painting
sheet steel such as cad bodies, painting tubular steel furniture and varnishing
wooden chairs.
Insulating powder can be deposited onto surfaces by a process very similar to
electrostatic paint spraying. The powder is ejected under compressed air and
charged. Plastics coating is done in this way with the earthed object heated to just
above the plastics melting point so that the powder melts into a continuous layer
when it is deposited. Another process is dry painting. Solvents are only added to
ordinary paints to ease application of the pigments. Paint powders of 50 Jim to
150 Jim diameter can be deposited electrostatically without pre-heating of the
surface being coated; this avoids the cost of the solvents and the time and fumes
involved in evaporating the solvents.
It is also possible to deposit conducting powders such as vitreous enamel electro-
statically. In this case the charge leaks away rapidly when the powder reaches the
earthed surface, but if the powder diameter is small (a few micron) Van der Waals
molecular forces will produce sufficient adhesion for the powder to be baked to
form an enamel coating. Long fibres can also be deposited onto glued surfaces
electrostatically. The fibres stand upright due to the electrostatic forces; this
process is known as flocking. Another powder deposition application is crop spray-
ing. If the crop spraying powder is electrostatically charged before it leaves the
aircraft, it coats both the upper and the lower surfaces of the leaf. Even after rain,
the average retention on the leaf is 51 % on the upper leaf surface and 73% on the
lower surface.
Electrostatic powder deposition is also used in the Xerographic printing process.
Here it is arranged that the paper becomes charged only where ink powder is to be
deposited. The powder only sticks to the charged areas and is then fixed in position
by heat.
8.7.3 Ore separation
Ore is charged by corona and then passed over a roller. The electrostatic field at the
roller produces different trajectories for different constituents in the ore, based on
the resistivity and permittivity of the particles. In this way, wanted materials can be
separated from unwanted materials. The process is used for the separation of silicon
carbide from its ore and also for re-claiming cryolite from the scum on the furnace
surface in aluminium manufacture.
8.7.4 Propulsion of space vehicles
Electrostatic forces can be used to eject ions or colloids from satellites to produce
.l')
,...,
thrust. This is an economic technique for producing low thrusts for long periods for
'I
.,
215
position control or minor manoeuvring. The efficiency of the process increases with
the charge-to-mass ratio of the material ejected, so mercury or caesium ions or col-
of
loids are used. The high-voltage power supply for accelerating the ejected ions must
be very light, but the excellent voltage insulating properties of outer-space vacuum
are a considerable help in designing the supply.
8.7.5 High-energy physics
Much inventive high-voltage design is applied to producing electrostatic forces on
ions so that they can be separated, positioned and accelerated in high-energy
physics experiments. A combination of electrostatic and magnetic forces is often
used to focus ion beams, and electrostatic forces are used to accelerate them to
extremely high energies.
8.8 ELECTROSTATIC HAZARDS
8.8.1 Sources of unwanted charge
Whenever two different materials are in contact there is likely to be charge transfer
from one to the other. This is true if the materials are both solids, one is a solid and
one a liquid, the two are immiscible, one a solid and one a gas or vapour, or one a
liquid and the other a gas or vapour. The charge that is transferred often leaks away
to earth very rapidly unless the one material has a very high resistivity, or is in an
insulating environment. The charge transfer only normally becomes a problem
when one material moves relative to the other.
8.8.2 Problem situations
The potential produced by simple activities can be high. A man wearing rubber
shoes walking across a nylon carpet can charge to 6.5 kV. A man pulling off a nylon
shirt can charge the shirt to 60 kV. Discharging normally happens when an earthed
object, such as a radiator, is touched or contact is made with a large metal object at
some other potential (e.g. a car). Whilst this may be unpleasant, it does not normally
produce any real danger. However, in a few situations the voltage people acquire
through charging can be a serious problem. One situation is the assembly of CMOS
electronic components as these can easily be destroyed by charge transfer. Another
is in the presence of explosive atmospheres.
Plastic films attain high charge densities in manufacturing or processing plants
when they travel around metal rollers. The electrostatic forces produced between
the film in different parts of a machine can prevent the proper progress of the
material. Another problem is in the processing of photographic film. A discharge
here will destroy the image on the emulsion.
Aircraft become electrically charged in flight, particularly through frictional
charging due to the impact of rain or wet snow. A potential of 250 kV can be
produced on an aircraft with a stored energy of 4 to 7 J. Random radio interference
can result and considerable problems can be produced when helicopters attempt to
pick up people on the ground, or an aircraft attempts refuelling. Spacecraft also
 • .L ~ I
216
collect charge and this can occasionally destroy electronic equipment and is likely
to interfere periodically with communications.
The handling of hydrocarbon liquids is one of the biggest electrostatic hazards.
'" Hydrocarbon liquids naturally have a high resistivity and will charge when flowing
through metal pipes. If a discharge to an earthed surface then occurs when a
vapour/air mixture is present, an explosion may result. One situation which caused
the loss of several lives and several oil tankers was the cleaning of the inside of oil
tanks. High-pressure hoses were used for the cleaning and the water droplets were
charged, producing charged clouds of spray. A discharge from this spray cloud
caused an explosion in th~ air/hydrocarbon vapour mixture in the tank.
Another area in which electrostatic charging has caused explosions is in the
pneumatic transport of powders. The powder charges on contact with the metal
surfaces that it is travelling along. Subsequent discharges from the charged powder
can cause explosions. It is thought that some unexplained explosions in grain silos
may have been due to electrostatic charging.
217
Feinberg, R. (Ed.) (1979). Modern Power Transformer Practice, Macmillan, London:
Flurscheirn, C. H. (Ed.) (1975). Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design, Peter
Peregrinus, Stevenage, England.
Graneau, P. (1979). Underground Power Transmission, Wiley, New York.
Guile, H. E., and Paterson, W. (1977). Electrical Power Systems, Volume 2,
Pergamon, Oxford.
Heller, B., and Veverka, A. (1968). Surge Phenomena in Electrical Machines, lliffe,
London.
Rose, H. E., and Wood, A. J. (1966). An Introduction to Electrostatic Precipitation
in Theory and Practice, Constable, London.
Weedy, B. M. (1972). Electric Power Systems, Wiley. London.
Weedy, B. M. (1980). Underground Transmission of Electric Power, Wiley, London.

8.8.3 Prevention of hazards

Charging due to the rubbing of synthetic fabrics or fibres can be prevented by
adding conducting finishes, or incorporating conducting filaments during the manu-
facturing process. When all charge must be eliminated during electronic assembly,
the assembly operator stands on an earthed mat and wears earthed wrist bands.
When charging of sheets of plastics film in manufacturing processes is a problem,
corona point dischargers can be positioned near to metal rollers or a radioactive
source such as a polonium a-emitter can be used to ionize the air around the film
and allow the charge to leak away. The radioactive source solution can be used for
photographic processing equipment.
The charging of aircraft can be limited by active or passive dischargers. Passive
dischargers are corona points at suitable places on the rear edges of the wings.
Active dischargers are corona points linked to an electrostatic generator. The volt-
age on the point is controlled to keep the rate of discharge equal to the rate of
charging of the aircraft.
Two precautions are taken to prevent explosions due to the charging of hydro-
carbon liquids. Conducting additives are added to the liquids and the spaces above
liquids in tanks are always filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen, or the space
above the liquid is evacuated. Charging of powders can be neutralized by sensing
the charge on the powder and applying the appropriate voltage to corona-point
charge neutralizers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
As chapter 8 is so wide-ranging, a Bibliography is provided instead of References.
Alston, L. L. (Ed.) (1968). High-voltage Technology, Oxford University Press,
London.
Butterworth, S. (1954). Electrical Characteristics of Overhead Lines, The Electrical
Research Association, Leatherhead, England .
..t:")
N
 219

and
R, C1 + R1C1 + R1C1 .,•
Sl + (a + ~) S + a~ == Sl + s + ----
R1R2C1 C1 RtR1C1 C"2

Appendix 1 For the output voltage to be positive, ~ > a so the two roots are
a=~[RtCI+R1C2+R1CI_
2 RtR1C1C1
(RICI+R1C1+R1CI)
RtR1C1C1
_ 4
R1R1C1C1
1
;.

An <,Ilalysisof the single-stage impulse

generator
and

~=-2
-
1 [RICI+R2C1+R1Ct
+
(RICI+R1C1+R1CI)2 _4 ].
R1R1C1 C1 R1R1C1 C"2
Transforming back to the time domain
V (Al.! )
v{t) = [exp (-at) - exp( -~t)l
The Lap"t;!transform of the single-stage impulse generator circuit of Figure 4.ll(b) RI C1(~- a)
is showmigure Al.l. Hence, the Laplace transform of the output voltage is
or
V R1 vet) = VA[exp(-at)-exp(-~t)l (AU)
-.--
S 1 +R2C1S
v(S) where
R1 1
R~+-+---- X=--
CIS l+R1C1S RIC1(~-a)
The impulse wave is the difference of two exponentials as shown in Figure 4.12.

1
Time to the peak of the impulse
If the peak of the impulse is reached at tl s after the start of the impulse, then

*1~"" -dv
dt
I r= r,
= 0 = XV [-a exp(-atl) + ~ exp(-~tl)]'

Therefore
a exp(-atl) = i3exp(-{3tl)' (Al.3)
Figure Al.l The Laplace transform of the single-stage
impulse generator circuit of Figure 4.11 (b)
Therefore
Ina -In ~ = tl (a -~)
and
Therefore
1 a (Al.4)
VR1C1 tl=--ln-·
17(S)= ------------- a-{3 ~
RICIs(1 +R1C1S)+ 1 +R2C1S +R1C1s

Generator efficiency
= R~C1("2 R1C, +R2C1+;lCI l)
S +-- S+---- The efficiency of the generator is defined as
i~IR2CI C2 R1R1C1 C2
V(tl)
11=-V

= R~C2C~JL ~~ - S ~~]

.:-) ,("'7'
N
 221

II
,,,,,-,,J.

220
Thus the value of the resistor Rl effectively controls the impulse front-time.
Substituting for tl in equation (AI.!)
It can also be shown that -----
1 .. -.-----------_ il
71 = ---- [exp(-o:t1) exp(-i3t1»). -.
i
-
'" R, Cl(i3 - 0:)

,.,
But, from equation (AI.3) this becomes

71 = I
R1;Cl(i3 - 0:)
rexp(-o:tl)
l
-~
i3
exp(-o:tl)]
)
iI-
i
1\
e value of the resistor Rl·

i ~
,I
~
= -'-- exp(-o:tl).
s,
Cli3 I \
Substituting from equation (AI.4) for tl
~
J \

\
'I
=--1 (Q
exp ---In-. Q) I
RIC2 Q-i3 13 ~
Therefore t~ \\ 'C.. ,

lnne ln -- ( I)
RI C2i3
---In-
Q - 13 13

(Q)Q~J3]
0: Q
i

f W \

ln n=s ln [--
s, C2i3
I
-
13
I
l;
~
¥.
4 ;,{
• or
1 (Q)Q~J3 i!t
,}
= Rl C2i3 ~ •
.~- \.
Z
Approximate solutions ~ \ \
\
\
~ i
In practice R2 ~ R, and Cl ~ C2.This simplifies the expression for the front time- ~1 \
constant 13 ~
~
\
1 [RICI +R2Cl+RlCl
13=-
2 RIR2CICl
+ (
RICI +R2C2+R2Cl)1
RIRlCICl RIRlCICl
4 ]
,;
~.
~,

t<Iy!
\i
I [1
=2: RlCl
I
+ RICI + RICl +
I J( RlCl
I
+ RICI + RICl
I 1)2
- R.R,C.C,
4 n] }\
e i\
\

- ~ HRIICl J
+ (RIICJ - RIR:CI cJ /
//

!J //
..
,..-,..•.
"y
~---.

I
RICl
.L")
C'!
 ~

1
.1
Therefore,
d2v di
dx2 =R dx =jwCR(v-P).
223

The solution of this equation is

J
Appendix 2 J .v=Ae=+Be-=+P (A2.2)

,f· It~
:
where A and B are constants
Now V = °
and a = ,./jwCR.
when x = 0, therefore
Screening of resistors t B=-(A +P). (A2.3)

ii V = VI when x = h, where h is the total length of Rt· Therefore,

VI =AeM + Be-cd! + P. (A2A) .

Figure A2.l shows a resistor Rt enclosed by a screen at potential P. X is a point at

distance x from the earthed end and a uniformly-distributed capacitance of total
i Substituting (A2.3) in (A2.4)

value Ct is present between the screen and the resistor.

VI = Aecd! - Ae-cd! + P - P e-ah
or
v, - pel - e-cd!)
V1 A = I -
eM - e-cd!

uniformly
distributed I Let ah = a = .,jiw(hC)(hR). As R is the resistance per unit length of the resistor,
hR is the total resistance Rt, and as C is the capacitance per unit length between
the resistor and screen, hC is the total capacitance Ct between the resistor and the
••
x
f\ capacitance ~
i screen and •

screen at
potential P
:1 a =v'iwCtRt.
Equation (A2.2) becomes
,.'
.~ eax/h [VI - P{l - e-a)] - e-ax/h [VI - P{l - ea)] +P
~ v=
Figure A2.1 A screened resistor
'.
i; ea-e-a
~
t-
Let the resistance of R, be R per unit length and the capacitance between R,
~.
~
From equation (A2.1), the current i at any point is given by

1 dv
and the screen be C per unit length. . "~
i=---
" Rdx

i
Consider a small element of resistance dR, of length dx, at X, then

dR =Rdx. Therefore,

The capacitance between dR and the screen is Cdx.

Let the voltage at X be v, and the current entering dR be i. A current di flows
,~
:I..; =: I
a
a
e -e
_a{eax/h[VI-P(l-e-a)]+e-ax/h[VI-P(l-e-am.
;..
between dR and the screen, such that At the earthed end of the resistor x = 0 and i = io- Therefore,
di = jwCdx(v- P). a
io= . [VI -P{l-e-a) + VI-P(l -ea)]
di is the difference between the currents entering and leaving dR. The potential 2R sinh a
difference across dR is dv, and a
= --- (VI -P+Pcosha).
dv = iR dx. (A2.l ) R sinha

J')
t·,! -I f' '7 I
 t",,-.,jt

224
.. At the end of the resistor where v = VI' X = hand i = il. Therefore,
a
il = 2R sinha {ea[VI-P(1-e-a)] + e-a [VI-P(1 -eam
'I
'"
a I
*'
= R sinha [(VI - P) cosha

Resistor unshielded
+ P].
I
Capacitance to earth uniformly distributed and P = 0:

io = a VI "" VI( 1 _ a )
2
II Problems

I
I

Rsinha R 6
CHAPTER 1
"" ~I ( 1 _ iW~R ) .
1. For the transmission of a constant amount of power with a given power loss over
a fixed distance; in general, the amount of copper conductor required Is inversely

I
Hence the phase-angle at the earthed end is -:-wCR/6.
proportional to the square of the voltage employed.
2
aVI cosh a VI(1 + a2/2) VI ( a) If E is the voltage to neutral of a transmission system, I the current per phase
ti= "" ""'- 1 +- and cos e its power factor, show that the volume of copper, lA, in each line is
R sinha R (1 + a2/6) R 3
proportional to
l-
=~(l+iW~R).
'I E2 cos? II>
Hence the phase-angle at the high-voltage end is wCR/3.
I where I is the line length and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductors.
Screen at mid-point potential of resistor, P = !VI l
t« = a [VI
- (1 + cosh a) ]
2
VI(l + a /4)
"'" --'...:._---'-
N 2. The Ferranti effect arises from the capacitance and inductance of a long trans-
mission line which is on open-circuit or very lightly loaded. Assuming all the line
Rsinha 2 R(1+a2/6) J~~ capacitance is concentrated at the receiving end of the line show, by a simple
~.
phasor diagram, the increase in the receiving-end, over the sending-end, voltage.
"'" VI
R
(1 + a12 2
) iil A 400 km three-phase SO Hz system on open-circuit has a phase capacitance of
'I 10nF per km and a phase inductance of 1.5 mH per km. Determine the receiving-
VI (1 +iWCR)
~ end phase voltage for a constant 345 kV line voltage at the sending end. Neglect,
=
~ the resistance of the conductors and concentrate the line capacitance at the
R 12 r
receiving end of the line.
and

il = R _a_
sinha
[VI
2 (1 + cosh a)]
j~
f'
3. A single-core cable has a copper core of 100 sq. mm (14 mm diameter), a sheath
inner radius of 20 mm and insulation with a thermal resistivity of 500 thermal-
-:
ohm centimetres (ern? K/cm W). It is buried 0.7 m deep in soil with a thermal
+a
~,
2/4)
V, (1 V,
"" I = .-!. (1 + a2/l2) " resistivity of 200 thermal-ohm centimetres. Estimate the voltage and current
": rating of the cable if the temperature of the core is not to exceed 40 C above
R(1 +a2/6) R
the ambient temperature of 10 C, and the maximum electrical stress is limited
= VI
R
(1 + iWCR
12
). to 80 kV/cm. The conductor resistance per ern at SO C is 2 X 10-6 ohm.

Hence the currents are the same at the top and bottom of the resistor and there is ;. [Hint: Thermal resistance of insulation per ern = !... In ~
no phase-shift across the resistor. ~r 21T r

.r-)
C'I
 ~

226 r 227

Thed.resistance of soil per em = -In

2rr
g 2L
-
, I: 3. In a gas space between two parallel, plane electrodes at a distance d apart, show
that for each electron leaving the cathode the number of electrons and negative
ions reaching the anode are, respectively,
where g = theuJi resistivity, , and R are conductor and sheath radii, and L is
the depth oftkl3ble axis below the ground surface.]

4. A voltage sur~ travels along an overhead line to a junction with another

Ii
It
exp(O:-1])d and
1]
--(exp(O:-1])d-l].
0:-1]

In a Townsend discharge the primary cathode current density is 2 X 10-10 A/m2,

overhead line;·~e surge/impedances are Z I and Z2' respectively. The reflected \1j1 0: has a value of 80/m and 1] is 10/m. If the 1'·process is negligible estimate the
voltage wave arssjunctioh is current density at the anode when the electrodes are 0.04 m apart.

Z2 -ZI)
VR= ( ---
Z2+Z1
VI,
II 4. If attachment is occurring in a gas show that

and the transmid. voltage wave at the junction is Ii l' [_0:_]

0:-1]
[expfo -1])d -1] = 1

VT= VI + VR = ( --,-
Z2+Z1
2Z2 )
VI' !!
is the criterion for breakdown.

i CHAPTER 3
for VI = 100 kV, ZI = 500 = 300
Calculate VTa~ ohms and Zl

5. A 1000 kV vo~':surge travels along an overhead line whosesurge impedance

ohms.
i
~
1. A concentric conductor system consists of a metal rod of diameter 20 mm, a
layer of solid dielectric of relative permittivity 4.5, a layer of oil of relative
is 600 ohms t()~nction with two other long transmission lines whose surge
impedances are~j) ohms and 200 ohms. Estimate the voltage at the junction 'i permittivity 2.5 and an outer metal cylinder of internal diameter 60 mm. The
design chosen produces an electric field at the rod surface 1.25 times the field in
and the surge.cants in the lines. J the oil at the solid/oil interface. If the maximum design field is 8.0 kV/mm in

6. A flat-topped ~e surge of 1000 kV and 45 J.lS duration travels along an over-

1 the solid dielectric and 6.4 kV [ttun in the oil, find the maximum voltage that can

head line toa pion with a cable of length 1500 m. The remote end of the i1 be applied between the conductors.
cable is open-ceaed and the surge impedances of the overhead line and the ~ 2. Find the limiting radius of curvature for the rounding of the corners of a con-
t
cable are 400 ohland 80 ohms, respectively. Calculate the maximum voltage at
the junction ofiil:.overhead line and cable assuming the relative permittivity of i.~
:r
ductor if the conductor is to be at 400 kV and the electric strength of air is
3 MV/m. Assume that the field near the curved edges can be approximated to
the cable insulaseis 4.
the field near a sphere.
~
~
Iff
CHAPTER 2 3. Show that when an alternating voltage V is applied across a mixed insulation
1. A test cell coma two electrodes spaced 1 cm apart, and is filled with hydrogen system, consisting of a solid insulant in series with a certain thickness of air
to a pressure (if.:r2torr. What is the collision cross-section for (a) an electron space, the voltage distribution is given by -'
passing betweesa electrodes, and (b) a positive hydrogen ion crossing the gap? ,~

Va
Assume that elm:lns have infinitely small diameter, and that collisions may be -=-----
;
.,~

represented s~t#.:as interactions between hard spheres. What percentage of the

g, V 1 + Erats/Erst a
~.~
electrons crossjegap without having a collision? The diameter of a hydrogen t; where Va is the air-gap voltage, Era and Ers are the permittivities and ta and ts are
,>
molecule is 2.S1'tad the number density of hydrogen at NTP is 2.65 X 1025/m3• the respective thicknesses of air and solid. An air gap of 25 mm is to withstand
50 kV but the stress of 2 kV/mm is considered too high for air. It is proposed to
2. The following eent measurements were obtained from a Townsend discharge
strengthen the insulation by inserting a 5 mm thick solid barrier, of permittivity
with constanteerie field:
2.5, in the air space. Estimate the stress in the solid and in the air gap. What is
Gap spacing,d~) 2 3 4 6 8 10 ;2 the best design approach in this situation?

Current (A x It') 1.4 1.8 2.45 3.1 5.2 8.6 20 50. 4. A thin Lshaped electrode at zero potential is situated in an x-y plane, extend-
Determine theees of the first and second Townsend coefficients. a
ing from x = to x = + 00 along the x-axis and from y = 0 to y = + 00 along the
,
,"
,(')
~ ~J t. z
 123 F
228
y-axis. Another thin Lshaped electrode is at a potential of + 10 V and this
I
~
229
0.05 Jl.F capacitors and a transformer with 100 kV r.rn.s., 50 Hz output. The out-
put voltage is measured by an ammeter in series with a 100 Mil resistor, con-
electrode extends from x = 5,y = 4 to x = 5,y = + 00 and from x = 5,y = 4 to
nected permanently across the output terminals. Find the output terminal
('
x = + 00, y = 4. The initial estimate of the potentials in the region bounded by
voltage and the peak-to-peak ripple for the following external load conditions:
the x andy axes and the lines x = 10 and y = 10 is given in the following table.
(a) no connected load, (b) 30 Mil load, (c) 3 Mil load.

S 0
0

0
1

0
2

0
3

0
4

0
5

0
6

0
7

0
8

0
9

0
10

0
, 5. The stress distributor on top of a van de Graaff generator is charged at the rate
of I microcoulomb per minute. The distributor, which weighs 10 kg, stands
directly under an earthed metal plate and distant 4 metres from it. Assuming
1 0 2 2.5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 0 2 4 ' 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 that an equal charge, but of opposite sign, is induced on the metal plate by the
3 0 2 5' 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 charge on the stress distributor, use Coulomb's law of attraction to estimate
4 0 2 4 6 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 (a) the time required to charge the generator to a point where the stress distri-
5 0 2 4 6 8 10
6 0 2 4 6 8 10 butor is lifted by electrostatic forces from the rest of the equipment and (b) the
7 0 2 4 6 8 10 field at the plate.
8 0 2 4 6 8 10

10
9 0
0
2
2
4
4
6
6
8
8
10
10 I
i CHAPTERS
Use the finite difference method and a calculator (preferably
one) to find more accurate values for these potentials.
a programmable
I 1. A resistor divider is used to measure the output voltage of an impulse generator.
The divider has a high-voltage arm of resistance 1 Mil and a low-voltage arm of
t resistance 50 il. The divider is connected to an oscilloscope by a cable of 75 il

I
impedance and resistors are added so that the cable is correctly terminated at
CHAPTER 4
both ends. Find the divider ratio from the high-voltage impulse to the oscilloscope
1. An accelerated aging test is to be made on a bushing of capacitance 2000 pF by input.
applying a voltage of 15 kV at a frequency of 5 kHz. A simple series resonance
power supply is to be used for the test and an inductor can be wound with a 2. A mixed divider consists of resistance and capacitance in parallel in the high-
Q-factor of 14 for use in the power supply. Calculate the output voltage and voltage and the low-voltage arms. The high-voltage arm consists of a 1 Mil
power necessary for the 5 kHz supply, the magnitude of the inductance required, resistor in parallel with a 300 pF capacitor, Find suitable values for the com-
and the current from the supply if the bushing breaks down. ponents of the low-voltage arm so that a small lightning-type impulse can be
~
2. A single-stage impulse generator is designed to produce aI/50 Jl.S waveshape
when testing an object of capacitance 100 pF. The charging capacitance of the
;il
observed when superiinposed on a 50 Hz voltage.

3. Calculate the phase shift produced across an unscreened resistor potential divider
~.
generator is 1 Jl.F. Find suitable values for the resistors in the circuit. !:. consisting of ten 10 Mil resistors in series. The divider is used to measure a 50 Hz
t~ alternating voltage and the self capacitance of each resistor is 10 pF, assumed
3. A single-stage impulse generator has its component values adjusted to produce a
1/50Jl.S impulse wave when testing an object of capacitance 10nF. A 1/50Jl.s
wave has a: = 1.42 x 104s-1 and ~ = 6.08 X 106 S-I. The front resistor used to
i
~
uniformly distributed.

4_ A capacitor voltage transformer has a high-voltage capacitor arm of capacitance

produce this waveshape has a value of 200 ohm and the charging direct voltage
r C1 and a low-voltage capacitor arm of capacitance Cl· It is required that the
~
..
for the generator has a maximum value of 100 kV. Neglecting stray capacitance, divider ratio should be constant whatever the burden on the transformer con-
what is the largest peak value of impulse voltage that can be applied to the 10 nF
It nected in parallel with Cl. Show that the total of the leakage inductance of the
test object? What effect would the inclusion of stray capacitance have on this i{ transformer winding and any added series inductance (together equal to L) must
value? be given by
1
4. The ripple in the output of a two-stage Cockroft-Walton voltage doubler circuit L= ,
is equal to 3I/fC, where f is the frequency of the a.c. input, I the current de- w\C1 + C1)
livered and C the value of each capacitor in the circuit. The regulation of such a
'!., where w is the angular frequency of the voltage being measured.
generator is equal to 7I/fC. A two-stage voltage doubler is constructed from
1\
-
.' .M
C"!
 ~

230 231
Voltage (kV) 40 45 50
5. Derive the balance conditions for a high-voltage Schering bridge and show how it
can be used to measure the loss-angle of a dielectric. Explain the significance of tan S 0.Q15 0.017 0.019 .,".
the loss-angle and its relationship to partial discharges within the material. What conclusions would you draw about the discharge inception voltage and the
The known components of a Schering bridge are as follows: quality of the bushing from these results?
C4 is variable between 10-9 and 10-6 farads
R4 is variable between
100
°
and 5000 ohms CHAPTER 8
C1 has a value of picofarads '
R3 has a value o(IOOOohms \! 1. A single-core cable has a radial insulation thickness R (sheath inner radius) and
a conductor radius r. Show that when Rjr = e, the maximum stress in the
The supply frequency is 50 Hz.

(a) Calculate the maximum value of Cx which may be measured. (b) If on

bala-nce Cx = 190 pF and C4 = 9 nF calculate the loss-angle of the dielectric.
II dielectric for a given voltage V is a minimum.

2. A single-core cable of inner conductor radius 1 cm and sheath radius of 2.5 cm

(c) If a voltage of 2 kV (r.m.s.) is applied to Cx what is the power loss in Cx? has two dielectric layers. The relative permittivity of the dielectric adjacent to-
~ the conductor is 5 and that of the outer dielectric is 2.5. If the peak electric

CHAPTER 6
i~ stress permitted in each layer is 80 kV/cm estimate the r.m.s. working voltage ,.
of the cable.
1. The flashover voltage of seven insulators, each with a ratio of capacitance to
earth to pin-to-cap capacitance of 0.1, is to be measured in a test area where the
ambient temperature is 12 C and the atmospheric pressure is 1023 millibar. A
single unit has previously been tested and found to have a flashover voltage of
17.6 kV. The laboratory temperature and pressure were 20 C and 984 millibar
i
{
3. A single-core cable has three concentric layers of insulation with relative permit-
tivities from the conductor outwards of 5, 4 and 3. If the same stress of 100 kV/
ern is allowed at the conductor and at the screens between the layers, calculate
the radial thicknesses of each layer. The conductor and outer screen radii are
when this measurement was made. What result would you expect to obtain for 5 mm and 15 mm.
the flashover voltage of the string? (See Subsection 8.6.2 for the string insulator
formula.) t
~
4. A lightning strike occurs at the high-voltage winding of a two-winding trans-
former with the neutral point earthed. The high-voltage winding consists of disc

CHAPTER 7 il coils connected in series. Show that the distribution of voltage along the winding
is given by
1. A cylindrical cavity at the centre of a solid dielectric specimen is represented by
a capacitance Cc' and the capacitance of the solid dielectric in series'with it by
II
~
V= V. sinh (axj/)
m where
rc;
a = ,.;c:
i.~
sinh e
Cb• The total capacitance of the specimen is Ca' Show, for a charge transfer Qc
across the cavity resulting from an internal discharge, that the apparent discharge Cg is the capacitance of the winding measured end-to-end,
magnitude measured by a test circuit is Cs is the capacitance of the whole winding to earth,

c.t«; + Cb)· I!--

I' x is the distance along the winding from the earthed end,
Qa = Qc'
i' / is the total length of the winding.
Such a cavity, 5 mm diameter and 1 mm deep, is located at the centre of a In such a transformer Cg = 200 pF and Cs = 10 pF. The length of the winding is
f!
cylindrical dielectric slab of diameter 50 mm, thickness 10 mm and relative
permittivity 2.5. A discharge in the cavity is measured as 200 mV on a detector
of sensitivity 1pC/V. What charge has been transferred across the cavity?
t 2 m. If the voltage at the high-voltage
is 100 kV, calculate the initial voltage
terminal produced by a lightning strike
gradient at the high-voltage end of the
winding, half-way along the winding and at the earthed end.
(eo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.) ~
5. Tabulate the voltage distribution along a 10-unit string of suspension insulators
2. A test on a 33 kV bushing gave the following results for the loss angle at different i
for a value of 'Y = and Vc = 100 (see Subsection 8.6.2).
applied voltages:
6. Tabulate the voltage across each line element of a 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 element
20 35-.
Voltage (kV)
tans
10
0.008
15
0.008 0.008
25
0.009
30
0.011 0.013
insulator string for a value of 'Y = !and Vc = 100. •.
.t'")
('. ,r'7'
 1",-~6

232
4
The voltage rating of a string may be defined as V = (va/v;) Vc' where V1 is the
voltage taken by the line element when a voltage v.: is applied to the string and
•••
;r Vs is the safe operating voltage for a single element. Use the results of your table
..
to compare the voltage ratings for strings of 5 and 10 units if the safe operating
voltage for a single unit is 40 kV r.m.s. Suggest methods to improve the voltage
I
., distribution on an insulator string.
i
7. A four-unit insulator string has Ce = 3 pF and C = 30 pF, where Ce is the capaci- 1,'!!
tance between a unit and earth and C is the unit cap-to-pin capacitance. The
flashover voltage for th~ string is 60 kV. Calculate the new flashover voltage if
a guard ring is fitted to the line end such that the effective value of C is increased
I Answers to Problems
to 36 pF for the line-end unit but the other capacitances remain unchanged. J CHAPTER 1
i
t 1. The solution shows the great saving that can be achieved in the cost of conduc-
tor material by using a high transmission voltage. The solution also indicates the

I
it*
importance of working as near unity power factor as possible.

2. 247.3 kV, an increase of 21.5% on the sending-end voltage.

3. 58.8 kV, 302 A.

•
t
''I
3. VT=75kV,

5. Vi = 200 kV,
VR=-25kV.

= 3 kA, /200= 1kA, /IOG = 2 kA.

i~ /600

ij
it 6. Maximum voltage at the junction is 1259 kV.
1ftI~
",'
\
ifI CHAPTER 2

:f
i 1. 6.l5 X

collision.
10-20m2, 24.6 x 10-20 m2, 80.7% of electrons cross the gap without a

f.
t,
,~ 2. 2.6/cm, 0.02.
.~
:~ 3. 3.76 A/m2.
~:
~:
if
"~
.~. CHAPTER 3
1. 106kV.

2. :33 mm.

3. E3 = 2.27kV/mm, an increase of 13.5%.

Es = 0.91 kVjmm.

.t")
('0:

i"
 ~
~i
235
234
;tl
I' CHAPTERS
4. The first improvement on the values is: r )

x
H~ 1. 5.0 x 10- 5•
1

o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2. A range of answers is possible, One solution is 300 pF in parallel with 10 n,

000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ill~"
I"
I',
giving 0.5 divider ratio for a lightning impulse and 1.02 x 10-6 divider ratio for
-..
1 0 1.125 2.25 2.625 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 3 I: 50 Hz.
2 0 2.0 3.6+5 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5 i.
3 0 2.25 4.01 5.75 6.5 7.25 7.25 7.25 7.25 7.25 7 ;

4 0 2.0 4.J5 6.0 7.75 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 3. 0.157 radians.

y
I 5 0
6 0
2.0
2.0
4.0
4.0
6.0
6.0
8.0
8.0
10.0
10.0
{I
Iii 5. 2500pF, 1O-3,0.24mW.
7 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

I
8 0
9 0
10 0
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
10.0
10.0
10.0 II CHAPTER 6
1. 67.4kV.
After ten iterations the values become:' ,I \0

(.-' .
",
CHAPTER 7
x
, "
1.0.92 pC.
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I.,'

000
1 0 0.537
0
1.060
0
LS05
0
1.914
0 0 0 0 0 0
2.203 2.384 2.464 2.524 2.630 3.0
i~
;~ 2. The discharge inception voltage is 20 kV. The insulation is of poor quality as the
2 0
3 0
1.037
1.417
2.004 2.947 3.749 4.449 4.776 4.928 4.976 4.995 5.0
6.840 7.285 7.420 7.445 7.361 7.0
I! inception voltage is below the working voltage.

I
2.834 4.162 5.550
4 0 1.717 3.393 5.164 7.123 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Y I 5 0 1.866 3.757 5.642 7.703 10.0
6 0 1.959 3.900 5.884 7.894 10.0 CHAPTER 8
7 0
8 0
9 0
10 0
1.984
1.998
1.999
2.0
3.976
3.992
3.999
4.0
5.958
5.992
5.998
6.0
7.972
7.991
7.998
8.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0 I~
~
2.64.5 kV.

3. 1.3 mrn, 2.1 mrn, 6.7 mm.

& 4, 224kV/m, 24.2kVjm, 5.1 kV/m.

~

1. 1.07 kV, 1.00 kW, 507 mH, 67 rnA.

CHAPTER 4
,I
'ff
5. No. of unit

1
Voltage at line end of unit

100
Voltage across unit

22.5
~ 2 77.5 17.6
2. Front resistance = 1644.7 Q, tail resistance = 70.42 n. ~.
3 59.9 13.8
4 46.1 10.9
5 35.2 8.7
3. 81.4 kV, the efficiency of the generator is reduced. 6
7
26.5
19.4
7.1
5.8 ., T'

8 13.6 5.0
4. (a) 564 kV, 659 V; 9 8.6 4.4
(b) 559kV, 2.61 kV; 10 4.2 4.2 ~
(c) 516kV, 1l.8kV.
Note the uneven voltage distribution along the insulator string when the line unit
5. ~18 minutes, 235kV/m.
has 22.5% of the applied voltage across it. ,..
.l')
N :ft."1
 236
~
6. t •. Amount of applied voltage
~ Length of string across line elernen t
'"
~ 22.6%
5-element
6-element 24.8%
23.7%
7-element
8-element 23.1% Subject Index
.•
'
9-element
10-element
22.7%
22.5%

The rating for a 5-elemhnt string is 150.4 kY. The rating for a lO-element string
is 177.8 kY. An increase of 100% in the number of elements raises the voltage
rating by 18.2%.

acid number, 60 streamer mechanism of, 53,54

7.68.6kY. active discharger, 216 time lag, 17,54, 155
Townsend mechanism of, 45,
additives, 61, 216
aging, 29, 59, 60, 162,228 47-49
air, 11, 12, 17, 19,31,44,47,50,51, in liquids, 44, 61-65
.( 54,55,57,58,68, 103, effect of bubbles, 64
116,163,188,189,199 effect of particles, 63, 64, 169,
air-blast breaker, 12,203,205-207 205
air gap, 17,38-40 effect of water, 63, 64
alternating voltage tests, 144-147 intrinsic, 61
amber, 44, 65 in solids, 44, 66-72
arc, 12, 15, 17, 189,202-207,211 electrochemical,73
arc control device, 204 electromechanical, 71, 72
arcing, faults, 14 erosion, 66-68
~ horn, 189, 211 intrinsic, 66
time, 24,159,205,207 surface, 68, 70,71,186,189
Arcton 12,12,47 thermal,68-70
argon, 46 in vacuo, 56-58
• arrester (ligh tning), 15-1 7, 35, 36, test, 64, 143
115,148,157 voltage correction factors for, 119,
clip-off voltage, 35, 36 145,152
rating, 15, 17 breather, dehydrating, 72
asbestos, 65, III bridge measurements of dielectric
Askarels, 58, 59,199 properties, 138-141, 169-
auto-transformer, 11, 94, 97 171,230
BS 148-1962, 60
backflash, 35 BS 358:1960, 119
bakelite, 44, 65, 95 bushings, 39,51,54,65,66,73,80,
barium titanate, 44 96, 110, 134, 144, 145,
basic impulse level (BIL), 39, 40, 152, 148,174,185-189,228,
. 158 230
breakdown (electric strength), 43,44, butt gap, 191, 199
189,199
air gap, 17,38-40,52-55 cable(s), 5, 21-30, 72, 73,110,148,
in gases, 44-56 157,158,174,178,189-
effect of particles, 50, 56, 197 199,231
effect of pressure, 55, 56, 80, accessories, 92, 158, 194-196

. belted construction, 189

,
118,188
non-uniform field, 52-54 capacitance effects, 25-27,158,

_. practical factors affecting, 49-58 192

-J")
C~
~
 238 11 , 239
critical length, 26
cryogenic, 28, 92,141,198
CMOS circuits, failure of, 128,215
collision ionization, see ionization
design stress, along creepage pa ths,
188
earth (ground) wire, 18, 19,208
earthing of impulse generators, III ,•
d.c., 27, 28,197,198 compensation, 27, 192 for bushings, 189 electric shock, 7 }

discharge in, see partial discharge compressed gas, 55, 56, 80, 118, 188 for cables, 191,193,194,198 electric strength, see breakdown
\
electrical stress, radial distribu tion contamination in, 56 for capacitors, 63 electric stress control, 76, 77
of, 189, 198 insulated systems, 24, 26, 180, 196, for transformers, 63, 201 electric stress evaluation, see field
failure,24,66-68, 190, 194 197 dielectric breakdown, see breakdown plotting
H-type, 189 mixtures, 55, 56 dielectric constant, 55, 79, 163, 164, electricity supply network, 4-6, 38
high pressure oil-filled,'25, 26, 192, strength of, 55, 56 192,194 electrochemical deterioration, 73
193, 195 J computer-aided design, 187, 195 dielectric loss, 25,28,55,61,125, electrode conditioning,S 5, 57
materials, 24 conducton, 19, 22,26,43,208 169,173,187,192,197- electromagnetic interference, 128,
oils, 59, 192 a.a.a.c., 19 199 129,171
oil-filled, 24, 196, 198 a.c.s.r., 19 measurement of, 138-141, 169, electromechanical stress cracking, 71,
rating, 24, 29,196,197,225 aluminium, 24, 29 170 181
self-contained, 190-192, 194, 195, bundled, 19,22 direct current transmission, 4-6, 99, electrolysis,S, 192
197 copper, 3, 24 197 electrolytic tank, 79, 80
semi-conducting, screens for, 193, niobium, 29 discharge detectionand location, 68, electron, attachment, 46, 48.55,227
194 quad, 19 162,163,169-184 avalanche, 45, 47,53,55
solid, 24, 67,158,193,194 size, 24 acoustical methods of, 179, 180 capture, 46 ••
submarine,S, 28 twin, 19 electrical methods of, 171-174, emission, 44, 48, 57, 64
superconducting, 29, 198 conductivity, resistivity (electrical), 177-179 multiplication, 44, 54
types, 24, 25,184-194 69,183,198 hissing test, 179 primary, 47, 48,108
caesium, 215 conservator, 72 infra-red methods of, 180 secondary, 47, 48
capacitor(s), 72, 73, 79, 83, 174 coolants, 8, 43, 200 light emission methods of, 180, electronegative gases, 46, 47, 55,203
bushings, 127, 186, 196 corona, 31, 50-52, 70, 71,108,121, 181 electrostatic, generators, 99, 102,103,
dividers, 123, 125-127, 131, 134 122,125,132,162,165, pulse height analysis methods of, 214
oils, 59 168,174,175,177,208 172,183 hazards, 215, 216 4
voltage transformers, 134, 229 applications for, 52, 212-216 discharge detectors, calibration of, paint spraying, 99,102,213,214
working stress in, 63 critical field for, 50 powder coating, 99, 213, 214
carbon dioxide, 49
carbon-loaded paper tapes, 191
decomposition by, 52
discharges, 52, 67
175-177
discharge (partial), 50,67,68,71,
138, 162-184, 199, 230
precipitators,
213
1,52,99,102,212, .,
cascade transformers, 95, 96, 134 loss, 19,36,51,103 damage due to, 163, 168 screens, 150,200,201
cavities, 24, 49, 66, 67, 162 points, 102,213,216 energy of, 166-168 voltmeter, 117, 118, 127
see also discharge cotton, 65 equivalent circuit, 68,165,166 energy storage capacitors, 115
.cellulose, 44, 63 critical flashover voltage (CFO), 144, extinction of, 164 epoxy resins, 65,92, 121,168,187,
ceramics, 43, 65 151 in cavities (voids), 24,49,66,67, 188
chlorinated biphenyls, 59, 119 crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE), 24, 162-169, 190, 19~230 equipment failure, 128
chopped wave, 147,148,152,153 193,194 inception voltage, 67, 164, 166, erosion breakdown, 66-68
Chubb and Fortescue method, 129, current, chopping, 37,207 168-170,175,177,183, ethylene-propylene rubber, 193
130 meaurernents, 114, 134-138 199,231,235 excitation, 45, 48
circuit breakers, 11-15,35,36,39,56, oscillograms, 114, 152, 153 in power-system apparatus, 174, expulsion tube, 17
115,158,160,194,202- shunts, 117, 135, 136, 152 175 extra-high voltage (EHV), 2, 7, 15, 18,
208 transformers, 7,11,117,134,135 magnitude, 175 21,27,30,37,39,68,95,
air-blast, 12, 203, 205-207 141,159 measurement, 162, 174, 175 147 r
closing of, 39 Faraday-effect, 137, 138 patterns, 165, 166 extruded, polymer, 24, 162, 178
dead-tank, 204 processes, 163-166, 182, 183 silicone resin, 199
live-tank, 204 repetition rate, 182-184
oil, 12, 203-205 failure detection in transformers, 152
.•.}.
surface, 165
opening time, 159 damping resistor, 116, 126 visible, 61 failure location in transformers, 153-
puffer, 12, 14, 206 dart leader, 31 distilled water, 60 155
sulphur hexafluoride, 12, 14, 203, dead-tank circuit breaker, 204 distribution network, 6, 7,146,157 Faraday effect, 137, 138
206, 207 degassed oil, 199 dividers, see potential dividers fault currents, 12, 159, 199,202
tripping of, 71 deionized water, 175, 192 dry band, 71, 211 faults, types of, 14

I
vacuum, 12,57,58,203,207,208 delay cable, 114, 126, 128 dry creepage path, 71, 188 Ferranti effect, 27, 225

-
..t'?
(\I I('? ,
 , 240
•~ f~bre-op:nc isolatjon, 136, 138
field emission 54 57 197
:t field mill volt:net;r 1'32 133
field plotting, 76-93 ' high-current testing, liS, 116, 144,
by computer, 77, 88, 90-92, 195,
197
by conducting paper, 79
• by conformal mapping, 81-86
by curvilinear squares, 77-79
by electrolytic tank; 79, 80
by finite differenc~ 90-92, 228
by finite element/89, 90,92
by integral, 87
by Monte Carlo, 86,87,92
filamentary discharge, 52
flashover, 28, 51-53, 57, 58, 60, 70,
143,189,211-213
between spheres, 106, 117-120
critical voltage, 144, 151, IS 5
,{
correction factors for, 119, 145,
152
efficiency, 144, 145, 158
test, 143-147
time characteristic, 143, 155, 157
flocking, 214
fluorocarbons, 64
follow-through current, IS, 36, 71
- formative time lag, 54
• Freon, 47
front of wave, 36,104, lOS, 110, III,
.. 126,129,147
front resistance, lOS, 108, 110, Ill,
228,234
fuse, 11,57, liS
gamma (r) radiation, 120
gas, bubble, 64, 73,164,169, 193
insulated line, 24, 196, 197
mixtures, 55
pressure, 50, 54
gassing of oils, 164
generation of, alternating voltage, 94-
99
direct voltage, 99-103
1 impulse voltage, 103-109
glass, 43, 44, 65
glass insulators, 19, 71
glaze, 71, 212
~<, grading foil, 187, 196
guard ring, 211,~3 2
Hall-effect probe, 134
halogen gas, 46
- halogenated hydrocarbons, 58
.~
,N
harmonics, 98, 100, 140
helium, gas, 92
liquid, 29, 141
158
high-energy physics, 185,215
high-frequency testing, 55, 98, 99, 147
high-voltage, historical development
of,4
measurements, 117-141
system, components of, 6-29
testing 95,117,143-161
hot spot, 44
H-type cable, 189
humidity, effect on breakdown, 54,
119
effect on radio interference, 51
hydroelectric schemes, 4
hydrogen, cooling, 8
dissolved, 199
hydrocarbon, gases, 163
liquids, 60,216
IEC specifications, 2, 39, 60, 61, 119,
147,152
impulse, breakdown stress, 62, 64, 72
characteristic of a device, 40
chopped wave, 147, 148, 152, 153
front, 36,104,105,110,147,150
full wave, 39,147,148,152
generator, 10.3-114, 126, 128,129,
149,152
high-current, n s, 116, 158
high-voltage, 103-108
lightning, 189,229,235
measurement, 108,119, 121-123,
126,131 < ion implantation, 1
polarity, 17, 108, 114,120
propagation velocity, 36, 153
ratio, 54
recording, 114
strength, 158, 191, 193
switching wave, 147,148
tail, 36,105,147
tests, 36,103,143,152,153,158,
189,201
wave, 36, 153
withstand, 17,147,158
impurities in liquids, 61
induction regulator, 97
inductors (reactors), 7, 27, 98, 192
inorganic materials, 52,65, 180
insulator, cap and pin, 19,73,146,
209
t contamination, 146 voltage rating, IS, 17
241
I
1
flashover, 35, 36, 38,144-146,
211,230
zinc oxide, IS
lightning, characteristics, 32-35
glass, 19 currents, 34, 134
I
maintenance, 212 direct stroke, IS, 18, 35
discharge, 30-32, 36
pin-type, 19,23
,
I pollution, 20, 30, 71, 181, 208, flash counter, 34
frequency, 18,31
!
;
:
211
porcelain, 19,44,66,71,185,188, impulse, 189,229,235
189,196,209 ' interruptions, 18, 30, 36
string, 20, 36, 38, 43, 71, 96, 110, overvoltage, 7, 30, 35, 37, 103
209,211,212,231,232, protection, 19,31,34,208
235 lines, see overhead lines
equivalent circuit of, 209, 211 line trap, 8
voltage distribution of, 209-211, liquids, breakdown of, 61-64
231,232,235 electrical requirements of, 60-63
suspension, 19,23,144,155,201, relative cost of, 58
209,231,232,235 testing of, 64
insulation, behaviour of gases, 44-56 usage of, 58
!, co-ordination, 36, 39-41,54,150, live-tank circuit breaker, 204
I 155 load rejection, 37
i
'level of equipment, 30, 36 loss angle, 139, 141, 169, 170
line, 35 loss tangent, 60,141,175,192-194,
liquid cryogen, 29 197,198
liquid-solid, 72, 73
paper, 59,65, 72, 200 Marx generators, 104, 105-118
resistance, 66 calibration of, 151, 156, 158
switchgear, 202, 203 characteristics of, 108-111
tape, 29 multi-stage, 104, 105-111
transformer, 9, IS, 36, 95, 135, single stage, 104, 105,218-221,
150,152,199 228
}1
interrupter head, 160,204-207 tripping of, 112-114
intrinsic strength, of liquids, 61 mean free path, 45,56
of solids, 66 measurement of high voltage, 117-141
inverter station, 29 measuring instruments, 127-129
ion-exchange column, 199 mercury, 49,215,230
mercury-arc rectifiers, 4
ionization coefficient, 47, 226 metastable states, 48
ionization processes, 44, 45 mica, 43, 44, 65, 175
irradiation, 54 Midel,59
isolating switch, 8, 159 min-eral oils, see oil, also transformer
isokeraunic, level, 34 oil
lines, 31 mixed divider, 123, 127, 229
moisture, 63, 71,72,180,181,192-
Laplace equation, 79-81, 87, 89, 90 194,205,206,211
lapping of tapes, 191 contamination of oil, 63, 72, 199
leader stroke, 31, 34 mumetal,135
leakage current, 28,71,73, 121, 143,
146,180,211,212 naphthenic content of oil, 59
lightning arrester, 15-17, 35, 36, us, negative ions, 44, 46-48, 227
148,157 neon,46,140
clip-off voltage, 35, 36 n-hexane, 63
current rating, 15 neutral current recording, 152
silicon carbide, 15 neutralization number of an oil, 59,60
i
 242 ( \- 243
nitrogen, gas, 24, 48, 49,55,103,126,

liquid,29
216
paper-polymer laminates, 198
particlefs), in gases, 50, 56, 197
in liquids, 63, 64,169,205
\: powder coating, I, 99, 213, 214
power factor, 60, 61,66, 69, 70, 72,
98,133,144,159,225,
sealing end, 195
semiconducting screen, 193, 194
selenium diodes, 101
non-uniform field, 31,46,50,52-54,
70,163,164,194
traps, 197
partial discharge, see discharge
i! power-frequency
233
tests, 144-147, 189
series resonant circuit, 96, 98, 99, 228
sheath, corrugated aluminium, 192
nuclear power plants, 7, 8, 12 Paschen curve, 49, 55, 58 power loss, 27, 61, 225 shielding, angle, 18
nylon paper, 199
I: of lines, 17-19
passive discharger, 216 precipitators, 1, 52,99,102,212,213
!
peak voltage, measurement of, 129- Iti pressboard, 65, 199 short-circuit tests, 144, 158, 159
oil, breather, 72 t 133,146,175 ,. shunt reactor, see inductors
s
I
capacitor, 59 permittivity, of gases, 25, 197 i silicon, carbide, 15, 214
/
) radioactive source, 216
circuit breaker, 204, 205 of liquids, 59, 60 r rectifiers, 4, 101
I radio influence detector (RIV), 175
conservators, 72 of solids, 66, 68,69, 78, 227 I steel, 11, 133, 135
i radio interference, 19,51,99,172' silicones, 58, 64, 199
decomposition of, 60, 73, 203, 204 relative, 26,44,60,68,69, 199,
- degassed, 199 226,227,231
~ 215 skid wires, 26, 192
! recording of test data, 114, 155, 158
mineral, 44, 58, 59, 64, 121 perspex, 44, 65 i sludge, 59, 60
t
recovery voltage, rate of rise (RRRV), solid, cables, 24,67,158,193,194
specifications, 60, 64 petroleum oils, 58-60 i 160,203,206 insulants, 65-72
testing, 60 phenolic paper, 199 .~
rectifier circuits, half-wave, 99-102, spacers, 19, 108, 196-199,200
transformer, 59-63 photoelectric emission, 48
oil-filled cable, 24, 67,158,164,190, photoionization, 44-46, 53 !
~
105,113,129
full-wave, 99-102
space vehicle propulsion, 185,214
spark breakdown, 44, 53
198 point plane gap, 50, 52, 53, 177
recurrent surge oscillograph, 150, 155
oil-impregnated paper, 27, 71, 72,
164,175,180,185,187,
plexiglass, 44
Poisson's equation, 89 I reflection coefficient, 226
reflected pulse, 178, 179
sparking voltage, 48
sphere gaps, 106, 111-113, 151, 155
189-192,196,199 polarity effect of breakdown, 53 spray painting, 1,99, 102,213,214
oil-paper insulation; 69, 70,191,193, polonium a-emitter, 216 ~ refractive index of an oil, 59 statistical time lag, 54
; regulation, 101, 102,105,228
194,198 polybutene, 63, 64 stator bar insulation, 171
relative air density, 50
organic materials, 44, 52, 65, 181 polychlorinated diphenyl, 59, 199 i streamers, 31, 53, 54,163,170,171
.
oscillogram, 114, 152, 153
oscilloscope, high-voltage, 114, 117,
polyethylene, 65, 67, 71, 72,114,
141,163,168,180,181, !
rela tive permittivity, see permittivity
reliability of equipment, I, 143
strength, electric, see breakdown
stress relief cone, 195 "
\
123,124,127 reservoir capacitor, 99-101 stress shields, 76, 77, 200
193-195,199 ~ resin, cast, 163, 175, 185, 189, 196
storage, 114, 128, 136, 151, 155 polypropylene, 65,141,199 j substation equipment, 12
overhead ground wire, 18, 19,35,208
overhead lines, 7,14,15,19-21,149,
polystyrene, 43, 44, 65 t i
epoxy, 25,65,92,121,168,187,
188
sulphur hexafluoride, circuit breakers,
12, 14, 187,203,20~207
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 71, ~ phenolic, 199
194,196,208-212,225, 141,181,207,211 -s , gas, 24,47,55,56, 103, 118, 126,
resistive dividers, 121-124,229
226 polyvinylchloride, 65, 192, 194 169,196,199,203,206,
conductors for, 19-22, 208 response time, 123, 124 207
polyrnerfs), electrical properties of,
insulators for, 19,23,155,208, resistivity, 43, 44, 60, 69, 79, 128,
24,65,66 superconducting, cable, 29, 198
209-212 163,197,214,215
synthetic, 65, 198 device, 188
ringing on wave, 126, 129
shielding for, 17-19,208 tapes, 24, 198, 199 surface, discharges, 165, 180, 181
ripple voltage, 100-102, 117, 127,
towers for, 5,19,38,208,209 thermoplastic, 65, 66, 70 - flashover, 68,70, 71, 186, 189
130,228
overloadre~y, 11, 12, 14 thermosetting, 65, 66 resistivity, 163, 211
i rod gap, 17,38,40,41,54,144, 148,
overcurrent protection, II porcelain insulators, 19, 44, 66, 71, surge, diverter, 15, 17, 39, 40, 129
overvoItage, amount of, 18,30-39,
54
185, 188, 189, 196, 209
potential distribution, along a bushing,
t 189
Rogowski coil, 134
generator, 103
impedance of a cable, 158, 226
rotating machines, 175, 179, 180 impedance of a line, 35, 226
lightning, 7, 30, 35, 37, 103 185,187
rubber, 65 overvoltage, 15, 30
protection device, 120, 129, 140 on an insulator string, 144, 209-
ethylene-propylene, 193 suspension insulator, 19, 23, 144,155,
switching, 37-39,208 211,235
silicone, 21 2
oxalic acid, 168 in a transformer winding, 149-151, 201,209,231,232,235
\
r
oxygen, 46 200,201,231 switchgear, 5, 7, 12, 158,202-208
ozone, 1,50,180 potential dividers, 114,117, 121-129, safety, 111,114 insulation, 202, 203
155 . chering bridge, 139, 141, 169-171, switching, impulse; 38, 146, 148
paper insulation, 59, 65, 72, 200 capacitive, 125-127, 131, 134, ISI J 230 operations, 14, IS, 37,147,201
paper tapes, 24, 71,187,189,191, mixed, 127,229 Schwarz-Christoffel transformation, overvoltages, 30, 37-39,208
196, 198, 199 resistive, I 21-124, IS 2, 229 82-86 surges, 7, 37-39, 40,54, 73, 94,
carbon-loaded, 191 pothead, 195 ~ screening of resistors, 122,222-224 103,147,157,169
.•..
,
.t:,'
.' .
~---•.. -~ .r..
I
 245
244
voltage - continued standard, 36, 147
~ synchronofs generator, I, 7, 8, 10, 14, oil, 55,59-63,188 tail, 36,105, Ill, 147, 150
quadrupler, 100, 101
37,51,94,96,158-160 potential, 110, 133, 134, 147 surge, 14,226 travelling, 35-37, 103

•• synthetic, hydrocarbons, 58, 63

liquids, 64, 72
polYmers, 65, 198
power, 7, 9,11,110,199
ratio-arm bridge, 141
regulating, 96, 97
stress distribution in a, 149-151,
time characteristic, 40, 41, 143,
155,157
transformers, 133, 134
wax, 65
withstand, level, 17,40, 146, 147
voltage, 40, 143

•••.. resin-bonded paper, 66, 71,175,

185,187
testing, 160
200,291
substations, 7, 9
transient, 116, 203 wood,65

water, effect on breakdown, 63, 64,71

XLPE, 24, 193, 194
tail resistance, 105, 108, 110, III
test, 94, 133
transmission, 1 I !
1
trees, 194
wave, front, 36,104, IDS, 110, Ill,
X-ray, generation, I, 98, 99
tan 0, see loss angle f transportation of, 9 i scanning, 178
126, 129, 147
tapes, paper, 24, 71,181,189,191,
196,198,199
voltage control of, 96, 97
winding design of, 9,133,200,201 I full, 147, 148,152
shape, 36, 103, 110, Ill, 117, 122,
xerography, I, 214

transmission, coefficient, 226 ~

?
synthetic polymer, 24, 198, 199
teledeltos paper, see field plotting
Tesla "coil, 98, 99
test specifications, 37,143,144,159,
economic, 3, 5
high-voltage, 2-7
of power, 2
..
i 135,14'8 zinc oxide, 15

162
tests (high-voltage), 100, 143-161
dry withstand, 144
impulse, 36, 103, 143, 152, 153,
158, 189, 201
induced overvoltage, 147
on cables, 96,98,99,155,172
on circuit breakers, 158-160
on insulators, IS 5
on oil, 60
on transformers, 96, 148-155
~ separate-source-voltage, 146
wet withstand, 145, 146
thermal, breakdown, 68-70
system, 2, 117, 134, 183, 225
transmission lines, see overhead lines
.transient recorder, 117, 128, 136, 151,
(
160
trapped charges, 37-39
I
~ t
travelling waves, 35-37, 103
treeing, 68, 72,145,162, i94
Trichel pulses, 50
trigatron, 112, 114, 148
trigger electrode, 112, 114
tripping of generator, 112-114, 128
tuned circuit, 98, 99
ultra-high voltage (UHV), 2, 4, 23, 30, ,I
c

• resistance, 193,225,226
thunderdays, 31
thunderstorm, 30, 31, 33, 34
thyristors,S
time lags, 54, 155
Townsend, a-process, 47,226
breakdown, 45,47-49,54,197,
226
'Y-process, 47,48,227
tracking, 71
transforrner(s), 1,8-11,72,73,148,
194
auto, 11, 94, 97
cooling, 11, 199,200
current, 7,11,110,117,134,135,
141,200
dry-type, 199: 200, 202
fault location in, 152-155
generator, 7,9,11,13,58,94
impulse equivalent circuit, 149,201
in cascade, 95, 96, 134
insulation, 9,15,36,95,135,150,
199
37,38; 147,208
ultraviolet, illumination, 54, 108, 112,
120,168
recorders, 159, 160
vacuum, arcs, 203
breakdown, 57
circuit breakers, 12,57,58,203,
207,208
insulation, 48,56-58,215
Van de Graaff generators, 101-103, .,
229
Van der Waals forces, 214
voids, see discharge
voltage, calibration, 118, 133, 151,
152,155,156
control of transformers, 96, 97
distribution, 6, 7,144,149,185,
187,201,209-211,227
doubler, 100, 101, no, 228
efficiency, 105, 108
levels, 2, 6
measurement, 117-141