Wastewater and Excreta Disposal

Module
POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN WATER SUPPLIES & SANITATION 6
WASTEWATER AND
EXCRETA DISPOSAL
SYSTEMS
Institute Of Water And Sanitation Development

Diploma in Water Supply and Sanitation Wastewater
DIPLOMA IN WATER SUPPLIES AND SANITATION
The diploma course is a post graduate course aimed at participants working in the water and sanitation sector
within the Southern African Region. The course has been designed for engineers, environmental health
professionals, and social scientists in management, planning and administration.
The basic assumption is that participants attending the diploma course are busy professionals who can not be
away from their work places for long periods of time. This therefore means that there already exists some
knowledge and experiences. Furthermore given the ever increasing costs of attending courses, long drawn out
courses are not affordable to most individuals. It is against these assumption that the diploma is designed as a
"short" intensive course aiming at both quality and quantity in short space of time.
The course is divided into a number of modules with each module having specific objectives and expected
outputs. The modules are divided as follows:
• Water supply systems

• Health and epidemiology
• Monitoring and evaluation
• Planning and management
• Waste water Excreta Disposal Systems
• Community Participation and Management
Other features include a project, which the participants will complete during the course period. A field visit to a
selected area is scheduled. The field visit is an opportunity for participants to apply all the concepts learnt as they
design an evaluation, deciding what aspects of water and sanitation they want to evaluate and have to write an
evaluation report, complete with conclusions and recommendations. There are a lot of other short field visits
designed to augment the concepts learnt under the different modules.
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development i

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1
1.1 WHY TREAT WASTEWATER?............................................................................................1

1.1.1 HUMAN HEALTH ..............................................................................................................1
1.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS ...............................................................................1
2. SANITATION SYSTEMS......................................................................................................2
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SANITATION SYSTEMS .......................................................................2

2.2 DRY ON-SITE SYSTEMS ................................................................................................3
2.2.1 TRADITIONAL PIT LATRINES..............................................................................................3
2.2.2 VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT (VIP) LATRINE ..................................................................3
2.2.3 MULTIPLE-PIT VIP LATRINE ..............................................................................................4
2.2.4 VIDP LATRINE ......................................................................................................................4
2.3 WET ON-SITE SYSTEMS .........................................................................................................4
2.3.1 POOR FLUSH TOILET .............................................................................................................4
2.3.2 AQUA PRIVY ...........................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 SEPTIC TANKS .......................................................................................................................7
2.4 WET OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................8
2.4.1 CONVENTIONAL SEWERAGE ..................................................................................................8
2.5 DRY OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS.........................................................................8
2.5.1 VAULT AND VACUUM TRUCK SYSTEM ...................................................................................8
2.5.2 BUCKET LATRINE ...................................................................................................................8
3. PLANNING SANITATION SYSTEMS.......................................................................................9
3.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................9
3.2 CHOICE OF TECHNICAL OPTION .................................................................................................9
3.3 INCREMENTAL SANITATION.......................................................................................................10
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER.............................................................................11
4.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................11
4.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE ...............................................................................12
4.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS..................................................................................................13
4.3.1 CARBON ..................................................................................................................................13
4.3.2 OXYGEN ..................................................................................................................................14
4.3.3 NITROGEN AND PHOSPHOROUS ..............................................................................................14
4.3.4 ACIDITY /ALKALINITY ............................................................................................................15
4.3.5 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (H2S)...................................................................................................15
4.3.6 CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN ANAEROBIC PROCESSES ................................................................15
4.4 BIOLOGICAL AND MICRO-BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................16
4.5 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE ..............................................................................................................16
4.6 ESSENTIAL MICROBIOLOGY .......................................................................................................17
5. WASTEWATER GENERATION AND COLLECTION.........................................................19
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development ii

5.1 WASTEWATER GENERATION .....................................................................................................19

5.2 MINISTRY OF W ATER DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES ................................................................20
5.3 DESIGN OF SEWERS....................................................................................................................20
5.3.1 PHYSICAL DESIGN ASPECTS ....................................................................................................21
5.3.2 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS ...........................................................................................21
5.4 SEWAGE COLLECTION...............................................................................................................22
5.4.1 CONTAINERS ...........................................................................................................................22
5.4.2 SEWER SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................22
6. PRINCIPLES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT............................................................................24
6.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................24

6.2 NATURAL SELF-PURIFICATION ................................................................................................24
6.3 STAGES A IN SEWAGE TREATMENT ............................................................................................25
6.4 PHYSICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES...........................................................................................27
6.5 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES.....................................................................................29
6.6 CHEMICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES ........................................................................................30
7. OUTLINE OF TREATMENT PROCCESSES........................................................................31
7.1 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT PROCESSES ...................................................................................33

7.1.1 SCREENING .............................................................................................................................33
7.1.2 GRIT REMOVAL .......................................................................................................................34
7.1.3 GREASE REMOVAL .................................................................................................................37
7.2 PRIMARY TREATMENT PROCESSES ............................................................................................38
7.2.1 SEDIMENTATION...........................................................................................................38
7.2.2 SEDIMENTATION TANK DESIGN BASICS .................................................................................40
7.2.3 SEDIMENTATION TANK TYPES ...............................................................................................41
7.3 SECONDARY (BIOLOGICAL) TREATMENT .................................................................................43
7.3.1 BIOLOGICAL (TRICKLING ) FILTERS.......................................................................................43
7.3.2 ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT ..........................................................................................47
7.3.3 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR....................................................................................53
7.4 SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION ...................................................................................................53
7.4.1 HUMUS TANKS.........................................................................................................................53
7.4.2 THE CLARIFIER ......................................................................................................................54
7.5 TERTIARY TREATMENT......................................................................................................54
7.6 EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE DISPOSAL............................................................................................57
7.6.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................................57
7.6.2 EFFLUENT STANDARDS ...........................................................................................................57
7.6.3 SLUDGE DIGESTION ................................................................................................................58
7.6.4 SLUDGE DISPOSAL ...................................................................................................................59
8. WASTE STABILISATION PONDS .........................................................................................60
8.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................60

8.2 ANAEROBIC PONDS ....................................................................................................................60
8.3 FACULTATIVE PONDS ................................................................................................................60
8.4 MATURATION PONDS.................................................................................................................63
8.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES .........................................................................................63
8.6 DESIGN OF ANAEROBIC PONDS .................................................................................................64
8.7 DESIGN OF FACULTATIVE PONDS ..............................................................................................64
8.8 MATURATION POND DESIGN .....................................................................................................66
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development ii

8.9 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PONDS ..............................................................................68
9. SEPTIC TANKS .........................................................................................................................69
9.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................69

9.2 TREATMENT PRINCIPLES..........................................................................................................69
9.3 PERFORMANCE OF SEPTIC TANK .............................................................................................69
9.4 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ...................................................................................................70
9.5 TANK AND SOAKAWAY LOCATION .............................................................................................70
9.6 TANK SIZING APPROACHES ........................................................................................................70
9.7 SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION..........................................................................................................72
9.8 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ...............................................................................................72
9.9 DISPOSAL OF TANK EFFLUENT ..................................................................................................73
9.10 SLUDGE DISPOSAL ...................................................................................................................73
10. FLOW CONTROL ..................................................................................................................74
10.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................74

10.2 FLOW MEASUREMENT:............................................................................................................74
10.3 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ............................................................................................................74
11. GENERAL MAINTENANCE AND RECORDS .....................................................................77
11.1 MAINTENANCE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS AND WORKS............................................................77

11.2 RECORD KEEPING ....................................................................................................................78
12. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT...........................................................................................80
12.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................80

12.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTES .....................................................................................80
12.3 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SOLID WASTES ........................................................................81
12.4 WASTE MANAGEMENT LEGISLATION ......................................................................................81
12.5 COLLECTION AND STORAGE ....................................................................................................82
12.6 TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL .....................................................................................................82
12.7 HEALTH AND SAFETY........................................................................................................82
13. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL SAFETY................................................84
13.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................84

13.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH ........................................................................................................84
13.3 PHYSICAL SAFETY ...................................................................................................................84
GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................................................87
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................90
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development iii

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHY TREAT WASTEWATER?
Wastewater should be treated prior to its ultimate disposal in a receiving watercourse for two major
reasons:
• health considerations: to reduce the spread of communicable diseases caused by pathogens in the
sewage,
• environmental considerations: to prevent pollution of surface and ground waters
Human Health
Waste, particularly sewage, is harmful to man as it contains millions of potentially dangerous
pathogenic organisms including organic and inorganic matter. Many water-related diseases such as
typhoid, diarrhoeal disease, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, cholera and dysentery as well as parasitic
infestations are transmitted through waterborne contamination. If sewage is not adequately treated and
disinfected it becomes a source of epidemics to the community. It is important that purified effluents
be made bacteriologically safe.
Environmental Considerations
Organic pollution of water may prevent its use for drinking and other domestic, agricultural or
industrial purposes, interferes with aquatic life, and may disrupt the ecology of the surrounding area.
The effect of a large untreated sewage discharge into a river or lake can be disastrous to the natural
balance of the eco-system.
Due to its demand for oxygen the sewage can deplete the dissolved oxygen content of the river or lake
completely to a stage where it becomes too low to support aquatic life. The discharge of untreated or
insufficiently treated sewage can lead to polluted water courses and give rise to foaming, mosquito
breeding and oxygen depletion. If the oxygen demand is too high then fish and other aquatic flora and
fauna die. The river then becomes dead, unattractive and smells.
In addition to this a build up of decomposing solids may occur. These settle on the bottom, particularly
in lakes and dams and may delay natural recovery for many years, even after the sewage discharge or
source of pollution is removed.
Another effect of sewage discharge into a watercourse is eutrophication. Sewage works effluents
contain nutrients, both the common ones (nitrogen, phosphorous and potash) and also minor trace
elements - all necessary for plant growth. When effluents are discharged into a dam or a stream the water
body becomes enriched in nutrients, a process called eutrophication. Eutrophication is normally a natural
process. A stream starting to flow in a remote mountain region is usually clear and pure, with negligible
nutrients. As the water flows onwards it slowly gathers nutrients from the soil, decaying organic matter,
etc. This is welcome as it results in better biological growth, including fish in the water. However, with
man's interference through the discharge of sewage works effluent, waste waters, agricultural fertilisers in
the run-off from farmlands, and other wastes into streams, the process of eutrophication accelerates
rapidly, resulting in over-enrichment with resultant prolific plant growths in the receiving water.
The nutrients in sewage cause an unnatural stimulation in the growth of algae and certain aquatic
vegetation such as water hyacinth. This in turn affects the suitability of water for farming, recreational
or potable (drinking) use. It is therefore necessary that the discharge of untreated sewage be prevented
if rivers, lakes and dams are to be safeguarded.
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 1

2. SANITATION SYSTEMS
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SANITATION SYSTEMS
Sanitation systems can be classified as on-site or off-site, dry or wet. The four distinct groups are
v on-site wet systems
v off-site wet systems
v on-site dry systems
v off-site dry systems
The wet and dry refer to dependence or non-dependence on water, while on-site and off-site refer to the
final location of waste disposal. An on-site wastewater treatment system is a treatment system in which
the treatment occurs at or close to the point of generation of the waste. In an off-site treatment system the
wastes are conveyed away from the point of generation for treatment, usually through a system of sewers.
The diagram below summarises the various systems.
The quantity of water used varies from completely dry systems to those that require water to convey
wastes from the point of generation to the treatment plant. Dry on-site systems include pit latrines,
VIP latrines, and compost toilets among others, while wet on-site systems include pour-flush, septic
tank and soakaway and the aqua privy. Off-site systems range from the dry bucket system (night soil)

to the full water borne sewerage with associated different types of treatment systems e.g. waste
stabilisation ponds, oxidation ditches, conventional system, modified activated sludge systems.
2.2 DRY ON-SITE SYSTEMS

2.2.1 Traditional Pit Latrines
Traditional pit latrines consist of a pit (usually not lined) in the ground, some form of slab and a
superstructure. Construction materials vary but can include brick, pole and dagga, grass, bamboo, plastic
among others. The pit latrines cost little in comparison with other latrine systems. They however have
the disadvantages that:
v they smell
v they attract flies and other disease-carrying insects
v they are usually poorly built and can be dangerous to use.
2.2.2 Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine

This latrine was originally developed in Zimbabwe to take care of the problems associated with the
traditional pit latrine. It comes in various forms. Basically the VIP consists of a pit (usually lined), a slab,
a superstructure and a vent pipe with a flyscreen. Various types of materials can be used for the
construction of a VIP, including brick, timber, asbestos, iron sheets, bamboo, grass, reeds, etc. The vent
pipe can be made from PVC, bricks or metal. The VIP is much safer than its predecessor and can last for
a much longer period (at least 2 years).
Operation Principle
Wind movement across the top of the vent pipe draws odours from the pit. Air is drawn into the pit
through the squat hole. Flies attracted by the odour cannot get into the pit because of the flyscreen.
Those that manage to get into the pit through the squat hole will breed. On emergence the new adult flies
attempt to escape towards the light through the vent pipe. They fly up the pipe, are caught by the screen
and die.
In the pit the liquid portion of the excreta soaks away into the soil while the solids portion is decomposed
(broken down) into simpler compounds by biological digestion.
The VIP latrine is particularly suitable for rural areas where virtually all the material and construction
expertise is already available. There is no requirement for water except that which is needed for hand

washing and floor cleaning. The latrine can take bulky anal cleaning materials like corn cobs or leaves
which cannot be handled by most of the other sanitation systems.
Maintenance
Regularly inspect the flyscreen, clear any blockages and replace screen if it develops holes. Fill in any
erosion of foundation around the slab, otherwise structure may collapse.
2.2.3 Multiple-Pit VIP latrine

This variation of the VIP has more than one cubicle with the design being based on not more than 25 users
per cubicle. It is appropriate for rural and peri-urban schools and other communal institutions.
2.2.4 VIDP latrine

The Ventilated Improved Double Pit latrine differs from the VIP only in that it has two pits. This is
applicable where there is difficulty in constructing deep pits or in cases where there is insufficient room
for constructing another latrine after pit fill up. One pit is used until it fills up. It is sealed while using the
second pit. As the second pit approaches full state, the first pit is emptied and recommissioned. It is
theoretically possible to alternate between the two pits indefinitely.
The advantages of the VIP latrine are:

v absence of smell if properly constructed with correct positioning of squat hole relative to vent pipe
v minimal fly and mosquito nuisance
v can be built closer to the house if not as a part of the house to increase usage
v low construction and maintenance cost
v can be maintained at household level
v minimal water requirements
v can accommodate all types of anal cleaning materials
v minimal risks to health
v can be used as a bathroom
The disadvantages are:

v possible contamination of groundwater resources
v construction difficulties in shallow areas and therefore pit may be shallow
v space requirements in dense urban areas limit its use there.
2.2.5 The Overhung latrine

This is just an outhouse superstructure with a toilet seat or floor hole located above the tidal flat, river,
canal, lake or sea beach. This is appropriate for the fishing villages of Asia which are sometimes as
far as a kilometre from the nearest firm ground. Defecation occurs either directly into the water for
transport and dilution or on the mudflat or beach awaiting the tide. The method has a greater potential
for spreading disease than combating it and is therefore undesirable.
2.3 WET ON-SITE SYSTEMS

Wet systems use water to form a seal between the toilet and the collection system. This seal reduces
odour problems.
Pour Flush Toilet

The pour flush toilet consists of a water seal, comprising a U-pipe filled with water below the seat
(squatting pan). This improvement to the pit latrine completely prevents the passage of flies and odours.
The pour flush is essentially a low volume hand-flushed WC which can be upgraded to a low volume
cistern flush. Small volumes of water (1-3 litres per flush) are required to transport excreta to the
soakaway pit up to 8 m away. This type of pit is easier to empty than one directly under the seal.

The toilets are common in the Indian subcontinent and Asia where water is culturally preferred for anal
cleaning. In other regions of the world it is socially unacceptable to be seen carrying water to the toilet.
Operation
The flushing water and liquid portion of the excreta percolate into the soil while the solids are biologically
decomposed. The water seal prevents odour emission and insects from entering.
Application
The toilet can be installed inside homes and is applicable for dense urban areas also. It is particularly
suitable where water is used for anal cleaning.
Among the advantages of the latrine are

• it is inexpensive
• low water requirements (1-3 l as opposed to 10-20 l for cistern flush)
• can use sullage for flushing,
• good interceptor for small bore sewers
• upgradable for connection to sewer system
• complete odour and fly and insect breeding elimination by the shallow water seal
• low operation and maintenance costs
• can be located inside house if desired
• offers a long term and appropriate solution for excreta disposal
The major disadvantages are

§ needs separate sludge disposal system

§ requires some water for flushing

§ clogs easily where bulky anal cleaning materials are used
§ difficult construction in high groundwater areas
§ soakaway may pollute ground water
Maintenance
Only minimal maintenance is necessary. Regularly wash toilet bowl and floor. Keep the
infrastructure in good repair. To avoid flooding of pit do not dispose of any sullage in the toilet.
Aqua privy
The aqua privy is basically a septic tank located directly below a squatting plate which has a vertical drop-
pipe extending about 100 mm below the liquid level in the tank, forming a water seal. The tank should be
water tight. Maintenance of the water seal is a prerequisite in order to prevent odour, fly and mosquito
nuisance in the toilet. Addition of water during each toilet visit to replace any loses, maintains the water
seal. Sullage can also be used. When a wash sink is permanently connected to the aqua privy it is usually
referred to as a self-topping aqua privy. A self-topping aqua privy may reduce the incidence of seal
breaking.
The aqua-privy was promoted in Central, East and West Africa but fell into disrepute because of problems
of loss of water seal.
Excreta which is deposited directly into the tank, is digested anaerobically as for the septic tank. The
design flow is about 8 l per person per day, with a sludge accumulation rate of 0.03 – 0.04 m3 per person
per year. Desludging should be done every 2-3 years.

Its main advantages are:

v limited danger of clogging by bulky anal cleaning materials
v low odour or insect problems
v high potential for upgrading
v low operation and maintenance costs
v can be located inside the house
v minimal risk to health
v sullage discharge potential
Its major disadvantages are:

v requires a nearby water source
v water seal is usually broken
v requires small but significant amounts of water for maintaining seal therefore user education in
operation and maintenance is a must
v expensive water tight tank is required
v skill required for tank construction
v tank requires desludging every 2-3 years
2.3.3 Septic Tanks

Septic tanks receive both excreta and flush water from toilets, sinks and baths. Settleable solids settle to the tank
bottom, accumulate and are anaerobically digested. Scum rises to the top. The clarified liquid flows through the
outlet structure just below the floating scum layer and is usually treated through a sub-surface soil absorption
system. The tanks are suitable for a wide variety of individual household wastewater disposal requirements.
The effluent is of reasonably high quality. However, the system is costly, requires a substantially large area for
dispersion of effluent and may not be suitable in areas of high water table. A whole section is devoted to septic
tanks towards the end of the module.

2.4 WET OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

2.4.1 Conventional water closets (flushing toilets)
Waterborne sewerage is normally preferred due to its high convenience. It is suitable in high density
areas particularly where there are full house water connections and wastewater discharge is high. Its
requirement for an extensive sewer network and large treatment plants makes it expensive.
2.5 DRY OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

2.5.1 Vault and Vacuum truck System
This is a modern and hygienic method of nightsoil collection which is popular in Japan and other
Asian countries. The toilet is basically a pour flush toilet utilising a water tight vault located either
offset from or beneath a water seal device for storage of the excreta for 2-4 weeks. Vacuum tanks then
collect the wastewater.
The system is suitable in densely populated urban areas where

v onsite sanitation systems cannot be used
v there is institutional ability to organise and maintain a collection system
v water borne sewerage is too difficult and expensive to install.
Collected nightsoil can be treated in sewage or nightsoil treatment works, or in waste stabilisation
ponds and then reused as a soil conditioner after treatment.
Advantages are
v vault can be located inside house
v nightsoil can be used in agriculture (after treatment)
v low initial costs compared to other tank systems (smaller tank)
v low water requirements
v high flexibility in planning
v animal drawn carts with small tanks can be used for collection.
Disadvantages are
v needs good (institutional) organization and maintenance system as any breakdown in the
collection timetable is risky to public health.
v high operating costs
v vaults are not designed to handle sullage. There is therefore need for a separate provision.
v health risks to workers if mechanical collection equipment is not used.
v requires access to individual houses with no street congestion.
2.5.2 Bucket latrine

This is one of the oldest and generally least hygienic systems. It comprises a squatting slab or seat
placed immediately above a bucket. The bucket fills up with the excreta from an average family
within a few days. It is placed adjacent to an outside wall so that it is accessible from the street or
lane. The bucket is emptied once or twice a week, but preferably daily. Some spillage, and therefore
contamination is inevitable during emptying and also at the depot during transfer into trucks or
treatment, compost agricultural fields. A more hygienic system requires that the bucket be sealed with
a lid and a new disinfected bucket substituted.
For the system to function properly it is essential to have tight institutional control with carefully
supervised operations. The system is best used as a temporary measure e.g. for camps, for use while
more permanent solutions are being installed.

3. PLANNING SANITATION SYSTEMS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Sanitation system planning for the improvement of excreta disposal facilities in developing countries
can be classified into three broad categories:
Site and services schemes for new housing schemes where service infrastructure is installed prior to
the construction of housing units. This is advantageous because excreta disposal facilities are
constructed directly by an institutional authority e.g. municipality, and follows a planned layout.
Services costs can be recovered easily from homeowners through site purchase or rental. There are
minimum administrative problems.
Squatter /shanty town upgrading schemes where there are various different excreta disposal
facilities depending on availability, affordability, appropriateness and user preferences. An
improvement programme will require a financing scheme with some way of cost recovery. Local
organization is stronger and can facilitate some form of community participation. However,
upgrading schemes normally follow the layout of the existing housing configuration. This makes
infrastructure provision /installation more difficult and expensive. A typical Zimbabwean example is
the Epworth case.
Rural sanitation programmes are to a large extent dependent on individual householders for the
construction of latrines since these are on a self-build basis. Assistance may be rendered in the form
of construction inputs e.g. cement. A multi-disciplinary approach would be best to address issues like
health education, extension work, technical assistance and interdisciplinary linkages like water, health
and sanitation.
3.2 CHOICE OF TECHNICAL OPTION

The selection of one sanitation option over another is largely dependent on a composite of technical,
social and economic factors. Some of the technical alternatives can readily be excluded on the basis of
technical or social reasons. This consideration can be followed by cost estimates and finally by
preferences of the intended beneficiaries.
Factors influencing the technical options include the following:

• Water supply level: Three water supply levels can be defined. A low level comprising a
community well, borehole, standpipe or surface source. Water is carried a significant distance in
this case. An intermediate level consisting of a household well, borehole or yard tap. Water is
only carried a short distance. The high level of water supply comprises multiple tap inhouse
connections and water need not be carried at all.
There are two separate categories of sanitation technology, based on water supply level. Dry
sanitation technologies are less dependent on water supply levels. Wet sanitation technologies
cater for sullage and require a reasonable amount of water for flushing and transport of
excreta.
• Soil conditions: The soil type controls the effectiveness of soakaways, for example a permeable
soil keeps the soakaway down to a practical and economic size. The soil type also influences
construction costs and affects the relative location of pit latrines /soakaways and wells /boreholes.
Some options might not be appropriate particularly in areas of high population density.
• Socio-cultural considerations: These are many and varied and should be investigated at the
planning stage. These include attitudes to excreta sight and handling; attitudes towards excreta
reuse as fertiliser; attitudes to communal or shared facilities; religious /cultural practices like the
need to separate sexes; the type of anal-cleansing material preferred /affordable (pour-flush toilets
might be unsuitable for people who use large objects for anal cleansing.); level of general and
health education in a community; and the possibility of self-help schemes. A new sanitation
technology can be introduced and readily accepted or rejected on social grounds. Therefore it

should be a prerequisite that a study of existing excreta disposal facilities is undertaken to appraise
the various social factors.
• Organisation /Institutional framework: This is important where toilets are to be used communally.
Problems will arise where facilities are shared between households unless someone is made
responsible for the upkeep of the facilities and is adequately rewarded. Hence the presence of an
entity (municipal, rural, district, ward, village council or committee) is important for
implementation and operation and maintenance of sanitation systems if offsite systems are
proposed. It is essential to consider the division of responsibilities between users and the sanitation
agency with respect to maintenance e.g. emptying of the DPVIP latrines.
• Housing density: On-site excreta disposal is not possible with small plots as these have
insufficient space for replacement latrine pits or soakaways. Off-site disposal is expensive for
very large plots because of the excessive sewer lengths or the long trips for night-soil collection.
• Costs: A sanitation programme should be affordable. Sanitation in developing countries accounts
for 25 – 33% of the infrastructure expenses (World Bank estimates). In Zimbabwe on site
sewerage costs have been estimated to be approximately 40% of the infrastructure costs. The
mean economic costs of the various sanitation technologies relative to conventional sewerage have
been found to be as follows:
Option relative cost
VIP latrine 10
Pour-flush latrine 10
Sewered pour-flush 40
Vault toilets 50
Conventional septic tank 90
conventional sewerage 100
3.3 INCREMENTAL SANITATION

The initial provision of VIP latrines and stand pipes, for example, can greatly impact on a
community’s health. The community’s water supply and sanitation facilities can then be upgraded
with time as its economic status improves, e.g. from a yard tap and pour-flush toilets initially, and then
a multiple-tap in-house water supply and a sewered pour-flush toilet system later. More people can
therefore be provided with satisfactory excreta disposal facilities for the same amount of money. This
is cost effective, as these facilities can be upgraded as more money becomes available in the future.

4.CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Waste from residential areas (domestic) comprises either sewage (faeces, urine and sullage) or
nightsoil (faeces only and urine) plus any small quantities of water if this is used for anal cleansing
and pour-flushing. In a waterborne sewerage system sewers convey the sewage to the treatment
works.
The biochemical oxygen demand, BOD, gives an expression of the strength of the sewage and the
following are the categories normally used:
Strength BOD (mg/l)

weak <200
medium 350
strong 500
very strong >750
For cities and towns in developing countries BODs of 400-800 mg/l are common. This arises from
about 40g of BOD /person /day.
Example:
What is the sewage BOD of a community which uses 100 l /person /day of water? Assume a
per capita BOD contribution of 40 g /day.
Solution:
BOD = (40 x 103) /100 = 400 mg /l of BOD.
Settled sewage (sewage that has passed through a septic tank or aqua-privy) losses about half its BOD.
Sullage is not added to nightsoil: there is therefore no dilution so that a lower volume will have a
higher strength as illustrated in the example below.
Example:
Per capita contribution is 1 l of BOD /day. What is the nithgsoil BOD assuming a per capita
BOD contribution of 30 g /day.
Solution:
BOD =(30 x103 ) /1 = 30 000 mg /l.
Sewage can be referred to as the waterborne wastes of a community. It is essentially the waste of
community living, which has been collected in the homes, industries and factories where it arises and
is conveyed by means of water from the point of origin to a collection point (the sewage works or the
sea) where it is to be disposed of or purified. The components of domestic sewage should be body
wastes (faeces and urine), bath water, such kitchen wastes as can be passed through the sink and gully,
and laundry wastes; but such is human nature that it succeeds in getting into the sewage flow every
unwanted thing – from broken bicycles to discarded clothing.
Industrial sewage or effluent consists of the liquid waste products of the processes employed at a
particular factory.
Sewage is a very dilute suspension in water of human habitation wastes. The polluting material is
mainly of an organic nature, and some of this organic matter is soluble in water. The relatively small
amounts of mineral matter present are derived mainly from abrasion (wear) of all the surfaces with

which the sewage comes into contact and from illicit admission of storm water (1 g total solids per
litre (= 1kg/m3) of sewage, or about 0.1%.
Sewage can be classified on the basis of its physical, chemical and bacteriological characteristics.
4.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE

Physical characteristics include solids content (total solids, suspended solids, total dissolved solids,
settleable solids), colour, odour, turbidity and temperature.
Solids content is important in that physical treatment processes are basically concerned with solid-liquid
separation.
v Total solids: mass per unit volume of sample of all solids after evaporation of the water at 103-
1050C.
v Suspended solids: mass per unit volume of sample of the solids retained on a 1 micron filter.
v Total dissolved solids: mass per unit volume of sample of the solids (colloidal and dissolved) passing
a 1 micron filter.
Further categorisation sub-divides each class into volatile and non-volatile (ash) fractions.
Settleable solids: an approximate measure of sludge which will settle out during plain sedimentation
(without chemical coagulation).
Temperature is an important parameter which influences

• solubility of oxygen
• oxygen transfer
• capacity of aeration
• rate of biological activity
• efficiency of sedimentation
• sludge digestion.
• rate of chemical activity
Turbidity is due to suspended and colloidal solids. It indicates sewage strength: strong sewage is more
turbid.
Colour and odour indicate the condition of sewage as fresh (grey and cloudy), stale /septic (dark in
colour and gives a foul smell). The presence of industrial wastes intensifies the colour and odour of
sewage.
Raw wastewater consists with 99,9% of water. Fresh domestic raw wastewater has a slightly soapy or
oily odour, is cloudy and contains recognisable solids. The colour is greyish. Stale raw wastewater has a
pronounced odour of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), is dark grey, contains smaller but occasionally
recognisable suspended solids. At 200C wastewater changes from fresh to stale in 2 - 6 hours, which
depends on the concentration of organic matter. Organic matter concentration varies with per capita
water consumption, infiltration and quantity of industrial waste.
Sewage contains larger (screenable), settleable and colloidal solid matter. Screenable material
consists of paper, rags, plastics and miscellaneous large objects. Rapidly settleable inorganic matter
such as grit or sand is present, usually in small quantities. Settleable organic matter which has a much
slower sedimentation or settling rate than inorganic usually constitutes about 40% of the organic
sewage strength or load. A large proportion of the remaining solids exists in the colloidal state. The
colloidal solids are predominantly organic and consist of particles in a very finely divided state, which
are too small to settle out on standing.

The remaining solids after physical treatment are in solution or dissolved solids. A portion of these is
organic and removal is effected by downstream treatment processes. The remainder are organic
compounds and salts, which, apart from ammonia, generally pass through a sewage treatment works
unchanged. From a physical point of view the treatment process can be considered to be a means of
removing all the solids from the sewage apart from the dissolved inorganic matter, which is inert and
does not constitute a pollution load.
Solids can be suspended or in solution. Total solids include both suspended solids and those in solution
determined by evaporating a known volume or weight of sample and weighing the residue.
4.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Chemical analysis provides the chemical nature of sewage and the characteristics include:
1. Organic content (compounds of carbon with H, O and often with N, P, K) e.g. proteins,
carbohydrates and fats; measurement is by the following tests:- ThOD, COD, OA, PV, BOD,
Nitrogen (organic and inorganic).
2. Inorganic content (pH, alkalinity, chlorides, nitrogen and its compounds, phosphorus, sulphides,
toxic compounds and heavy metals, gas content). The importance of pH arises from the fact that
biological treatment processes occur around pH 7.
Wastewater contains both organic and inorganic chemicals. Organic constituents are fats, proteins,
carbohydrates, acids, etc.
The table presented below is given as a rough guide to the characteristics of sewage commonly
encountered.
sewage
Parameter
Weak Average Strong
OA (mg/l) 40 60 80
BOD (mg/l) 250 350 450
COD (mg/l) 400 600 800
Ammonia Nitrogen (mg/l) 30 40 50
Organic Kjeldahl Nitrogen (mg/l) 50 65 80
Inorganic Phosphate (mg/l) 8 10 12
Total Phosphorus (mg/l) 10 13 16
Suspended Solids (mg/l) 250 350 450
Settleable Solids (ml/l) 6 10 14
The suspended solids represent settleable and colloidal (non-settleable) matter. Usually 60 – 80% of
the suspended solids are settleable. The relationship between the different parameters varies from
sewage to sewage but for a particular sewage they will tend to increase or decrease in proportion.
4.3.1 Carbon
Organic compounds have complex carbon based molecules where the structure as well as the basic
formula is important. Apart from carbon, organic molecules contain hydrogen and sometimes oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, and /or phosphorous. It is not possible to analyse for all possible compounds and
combinations so we use various standard tests to assess the strength and characteristics of the sewage.
It is possible to reduce all the complex oxidation breakdown reactions in sewage treatment to a few
simple overall reactions.
CA HB OC ND PE SF
Where A, B, C, D, E, and F represent the number of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous
and sulphur atoms respectively.
The carbon compounds in untreated sewage react with oxygen to form mainly carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H2O).
C (compounds) + O2 + bacteria  CO2 + H2O + new bacteria
4.3.2 Oxygen
C, H and N will be oxidised under aerobic conditions. All three reactions require specific amounts of
oxygen. The overall amount of oxygen required in oxidising the carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in the
sewage is thus a measure of its strength. Various tests have therefore been developed which measure
this oxygen demand. Amongst these are the following:
• Oxygen absorbed from potassium permanganate (OA)

• Permanganate Value, PV, (similar to OA)
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Sewage therefore has a strength, which is measured by its demand for oxygen for completion of the
purification /oxidation reactions. The strength as measured by the OA, BOD or COD does not measure
nitrogen oxidation requirements and is usually referred to as the carbonaceous strength.
4.3.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorous

Nitrogen and phosphorous may be present as a part of the organic fraction or as inorganic chemicals.
Their concentration is important in the following respects
• result in possible water pollution
• necessary in moderate concentration in biological systems. Alkalinity of wastewater is important
since it provides a buffer against acids produced by bacteria in the anaerobic and/or nitrifying
systems. As wastewater ages its pH tends to drop due to production of acids but rises upon
treatment.
The nitrogen content of sewage is measured as ammonia (inorganic nitrogen) and total organic
(Kjeldahl) nitrogen, i.e. the sum of both ammonia and organic nitrogen determinations. The oxygen
demand or strength in this regard is then calculated from chemical considerations.
The most common nitrogen compound in untreated sewage is ammonia as NH4+. Ammonia will react
with oxygen to form firstly nitrites.
NH4+ + O2 + bacteria  NO2- + new bacteria

Ammonia ion nitrite ion
The nitrites will further react with oxygen to form nitrates (NO3-)
NO2- + O2 + bacteria  NO3- + new bacteria

Nitrite ion nitrate ion
The bacteria responsible for the two reactions are nitrosomonas (to nitrite) and nitrobacter (to nitrate).
The process of conversion of ammonia to nitrate is known as nitrification.

A denitrification reaction is possible in the absence of free oxygen.
NO3 - + bacteria  N2
Nitrate ion nitrogen gas
The nitrogen gas is given off and is lost from the system. The reaction is caused by a group of bacteria
called denitrifiers, which operate, in anoxic conditions where no free oxygen is present. They utilise
the oxygen in the nitrate.
Many recently designed plants incorporate anoxic chambers to promote denitrification as this is a
convenient method of removing nitrogen. Nitrogen in the form of nitrates is undesirable in sewage
effluents which enter dams as it is one of the nutrients causing eutrophication.
Phosphorous is present in small quantities. It is not oxidised in the purification process but is
converted to the inorganic form. It and the small quantities of sulphur that may be present are
disregarded from a strength or load point of view. Phosphorous, as an essential nutrient for growth of
algae, is a cause of eutrophication in dams, however, and many new plants now have a purpose
designed phosphorous removal process included in the treatment system. The sulphur content of
sewage is sometimes measured but knowledge of the total and inorganic phosphorous content is
important and specific tests to measure these are used. A significant proportion of the phosphorous in
sewage results from the use of phosphate-containing detergents.
4.3.4 Acidity /Alkalinity

Straight domestic sewage is generally of a very similar acid/alkaline (pH) state to that of the water which
is used for carrying it through the sewers. However, the mixed sewage of a modern town is seldom
straight domestic sewage. Effluent from numerous industries will have a predominant effect on the
acidity or alkalinity (pH).
4.3.5 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

The major portion of the sulphide content in wastewater is produced in the conversion of sulphate
(SO4) to sulphide (S) by bacteria found in the wastewater. Oxygen-reducing bacteria will use any
available sulphur-containing compound as food. This process can produce odorous reduced-sulphur
compounds, including hydrogen sulphide (H2 S). H2S production in wastewater can be controlled by
sewer maintenance, which reduces H2 S formation, and, in some cases, by the application of chemicals
such as chlorine, oxygen or hydrogen peroxide.
The rate of corrosion in the sewer collection system and treatment plant is often directly related to the
rate of H2S production or the amount of H2S in the atmosphere. In addition, hydrogen sulphide gas is
toxic to the human respiratory system and is both flammable and explosive under certain conditions.
The explosive limits of hydrogen sulphide range from 4.3% to 46%. The parts per million
concentration of H2S in the sewer atmosphere is quite different from that in the wastewater. A
concentration of 1 mg/l (ppm) in turbulent wastewater can quickly produce a concentration of 300
ppm in an unventilated enclosed atmospheric space. The minimum concentration of H2S in the
atmosphere known to cause death is 300 ppm.
4.3.6 Chemical reactions in anaerobic processes

These reactions include those taking place in a digester where the carbon compounds are converted to
methane and carbon dioxide in the absence of air or oxygen. There are two steps in the formation of
methane gas:
Production of Volatile Acids

An example of a volatile acid is acetic acid CH3COOH. The carbon compounds in untreated sewage
or raw sludge would react as follows:
C compounds + bacteria  CH3COOH (volatile acids)

Acetic acid
Production of Methane
The next step is to convert the volatile acids to methane.
CH3COOH + bacteria = CH4 + CO2

Acetic acid methane carbon dioxide
If a digester is not working correctly the production of methane will decrease with the result that the
concentration of volatile acids will increase. This will cause the pH of the digester’s contents to
become acidic i.e. the pH will drop below 7.
If the digestion process is working well a large proportion of the organic matter is converted to
methane and carbon dioxide gasses, which are given off. The inorganic (mineral, non-volatile) matter
is unchanged. The result is that the organic content or volatile content of the sludge is reduced. Good
digestion can remove about 50% of the volatile (organic) matter originally present.
4.4 BIOLOGICAL AND MICRO-BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The major micro-organisms in sewage treatment are protists (particularly bacteria, algae and
protozoa). These, including viruses, should be inactivated before disposal of effluent or sludge to the
environment. The degradation of waste matter by micro-organisms occurs in the presence of optimal
conditions. The presence of pathogenic micro-organisms is detected using indicator organisms.
Aerobic treatment of wastewater mainly utilises bacilli bacteria which is facultative and mesophylic.
Sewage as it arrives at the purification works contains a very complex biological flora. It contains
enormous quantities micro-organisms, up 5 x 106 /ml of bacterial counts. There are many millions of
harmless micro-organisms, many of which aid in the subsequent purification; but, considering that
sewage also includes man’s excreta, often together with hospital wastes, abattoir wastes, and many
others, it is not surprising that there are also millions of potentially dangerous pathogenic organisms.
Besides pathogens like those causing gastric fever, dysentery, typhoid fever and tuberculosis, there are
also viruses, among others those of poliomyelitis, together with eggs of certain intestinal worms such
as round worms, hookworms and tapeworms. Many of these pathogens do not survive for long in
sewage, but others, like the eggs mentioned, can remain viable for periods of weeks or months.
Sewage is therefore capable of transmitting disease, and untreated sewage must obviously at all time
be regarded as potentially dangerous.
4.5 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE

The proper operation of a treatment plant depends on good analytical results which, in turn, rely on good
sampling techniques.
For the BOD test samples must be taken as is, without any preservative being added. For other samples
it is best to add a preservative, e.g. an unpreserved effluent sample may show 0,5 mg /l nitrate nitrogen
while a grab sample taken and tested immediately may show 10 mg /l. This is because the unpreserved
sample may have denitrified during standing. Therefore minimise the physical, chemical and biological
changes of sewage samples through preserving the samples by adding chloroform, sulphuric acid or
formaldehyde, if the the samples are tested after 12 hours of collection.
Where samples are taken from the aeration basin to obtain a profile through the plant these must be
filtered immediately to prevent excessive phosphate release or denitrification.

However, samples for the COD test may be acidified immediately since sulphuric acid is added to the
test anyway.
After collection wrap paper around bottle and stopper. Label on the paper particulars like source of
sewage, time and date of collection, collecting personnel and preservative added.
The collected sample should be representative of its original nature at the time of collection. Some
constituents of sewage must be tested immediately. Floating solids will be on the surface while the
heavier solids will be at the bottom of sewers. Therefore collect a grab sample at mid-depth of the
source.
Collect samples at frequent intervals since the concentration and condition (fresh or stale) of sewage vary
with time. For the design, operation of treatment plant and water pollution control management it is the
average character of sewage that is required rather than the instantaneous quality of sewage. It is
therefore essential to collect composite samples (grab samples collected hourly over 24 hours and mixed
vigorously). For a true representative composite sample, each grab sample should be collected in
proportion to the flow of sewage at that time. This is so because both the magnitude of flow and strength
of sewage vary throughout the day and the mean daily characteristics of a sewage cannot therefore be
obtained from a single ‘grab’ sample. The following table gives a typical flow-weighted composite
sample which was obtained by taking samples every 2 hours and mixing together in proportion to the
flow at the time of their collection.
Time Flow Volume of sample added to

(m3 /day) composite (ml)
0600 1150 115
0800 1420 140
1000 1760 175
1200 1380 140
1400 990 100
etc.
4.6 ESSENTIAL MICROBIOLOGY

Biological waste treatment processes depend on bacteria, algae and protozoa (microscopical
organisms belonging to the class of organisms known as protists.)
• Some bacteria and few protozoa are human pathogens (so are also many viruses). Sewage
treatment seeks to control their occurrence in the environment. Sewage treatment is also effective
in reducing the incidence of diseases due to worms and other intestinal parasites.
Bacteria: these are single-celled plants which metabolise soluble food particles and reproduce by
binary fission. Bacteria are the primary degraders of organic wastes. Therefore design biological
waste treatment plants to enable bacteria to grow – at maximum rate. The growth of bacteria is
affected by
• organic (and inorganic) compounds.
• air (oxygen) at least 1-2 mg/l (zero for anaerobes)
• temperature
• pH. (a neutral pH approximately 6,5 - 8,5)
Disease causing bacteria commonly found in sewage are those that cause intestinal diseases e.g.
cholera, dysentery, typhoid and paratyphoid fever and diarrhoea. Poor sanitation conditions and
general lack of hygiene encourage their spread. Not all sewage pathogens are bacteria.

Since it is difficult and time consuming to look for pathogenic organisms in a water or sewage sample,
sanitary engineers look for a group of non-pathogenic bacteria which are easier to detect and which are
always present in water which has been polluted by sewage or faeces. This group is called the
coliform group of bacteria. Approximately 2 x 109 coliforms are excreted daily by an average adult.
The number of faecal coliforms in a sewage effluent is a reliable measure of its general bacteriological
quality. Standards in some countries have been set for the maximum permissible number of faecal
coliforms in sewage effluent.
Bacteria grow by sub–dividing into two daughter cells – logarithmic growth.

Nt = Noeµt
where µ = growth rate, t = time and Nt and No are cell numbers at the relevant times.
Viruses
• do not directly use organic or inorganic compounds during growth.
• reproduce by invading a host cell
• cause poliomyelitis, diarrhoea and hepatitis (as waterborne diseases)
Algae
• mostly multicellular photosynthetic organisms.
• use carbon dioxide as source of carbon for synthesis of new cells evolving oxygen from water.
• during darkness algae need oxygen for respiration and organic compounds for growth.
• growth is stimulated by phosphates and nitrates (P and N). Phosphates and nitrate salts cause
nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) of a water body and extensive algal growth – algae bloom –
which is essential in operation of waste stabilisation ponds. Algae are not significant in most waste
treatment processes but play a role in facultative /maturation pond systems where a symbiotic
relationship exists between them and the saprophytic bacteria, which oxidise the organic matter in
the wastes.
Protozoa
• single celled animals.
• some groups cause amoebic dysentery
• some consume bacteria.
• responsible for a significant proportion of the purification of sewage.
There are many species with different shapes and sizes. Protozoa may be anaerobic, aerobic, or
facultative. They can utilise soluble organic food but the concentration must be far higher than in
ordinary sewage – hence a major source of food is the bacteria. Protozoa alter the food /mass ratio thus
stimulating further bacterial growth.
Intestinal parasites
• invade human intestine and cause diseases of varying severity.
• there are three main groups of parasitic worms
1. roundworms
2. tapeworms
3. flukes
• spread of these worms occurs mainly due to improper or uncontrolled disposal of faeces
(becoming more numerous with increasing lack of sanitation and personal hygiene.)
Fungi: these are multicellular non-photosynthetic plants which are generally aerobic. They tend to
predominate over bacteria in wastes which are deficient in nitrogen or low pH. Fungi settle poorly and
are thus difficult to remove by sedimentation.

Rotifers: these are the simplest multi-cellular animals. They feed on bacteria and protozoa and require
high dissolved oxygen levels.
5. WASTEWATER GENERATION AND COLLECTION

5.1 WASTEWATER GENERATION
Full sewerage is the only recommended solution for high and medium density urban residential
developments in Zimbabwe. This requires full water reticulation systems with house connections
resulting in high volumes of sullage water to be disposed of compared to other sanitation options.
The processes in wastewater management can be classified into three main aspects - collection,
treatment and disposal. The most convenient collection method, which is full sewerage, is
unfortunately, the most expensive. Treatment is essential to ensure the destruction of pathogens in the
sewage, so that it can be disposed of safely.
Sewage Flows
The strength and flow of sewage from a community varies throughout the day and the peak flow
entering the treatment works is several times the mean flow. Therefore the hydraulic capacity of the
works must be designed to handle peak flows. Peak factor is the ratio of the peak flow to the mean
flow and it depends on the contributing population: the larger the population the lower the peak factor.
This is because peak flows are smoothed out as the sewage travels in the sewer.
The peak factor, m is given by
m = 5/ (p1/6 )
where p = contributing population in thousands.
The peak factor can also be selected depending on the sewer diameter:
diameter (mm) m
<300 2.5
300 600 2.0
>600 1.5
Where the peak is very high, as in combined sewer systems, full treatment is only given to 3 times the
mean flow in dry weather (true sewage flow which is called dry weather flow, DWF). The DWF is the
flow down the sewer in the driest 3 months of any year.
The average dry weather flow (ADWF) of sewage from a high density development is normally
determined by using a factor representing percentage return of sewage to the Annual Average Daily
Demand [AADD] of water supplied. In Zimbabwe this is about 85% for high density dwellings. This
figure reduces for the low density areas. AADD figures can range from 500 l /stand /day to 1 500 l
/stand /day. A common figure of AADD is 850 l /stand /day.
Hence, percentage return as sewage = 85% of 850
ADWF of sewage =722,5 l /stand /day
Allow also for contributions from industrial stands.
Also make provision for
• future increase in population
• estimated ultimate extent of proposed development in the area.

5.2 MINISTRY OF WATER DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

The MEWRD issued ”Guidelines for the disposal of sewage effluent during wet weather” in 1978.
These set out acceptable standards for the design of sewerage reticulation and trunk sewers to cater for
peak wet weather flow conditions. The following peak factors relate Peak Wet Weather Flow
[PWWF] to ADWF. The guidelines state that if these factors are complied with, then the Local
Authority owning any sewer will not be prosecuted for contravening the Effluent Discharge
Regulations should the sewer overflow during wet weather.
ADWF Required Peak

Ml /day l /s Factor
0 2 0 23 5.25
2 6 23 69 4.50
6 20 69 231 3.75
20 200 231 2315 3.00
>200 >2315 2.70
These MEWRD peak factors should be used in designing sewage reticulation, collector sewers and
trunk sewers. They decrease with increasing sewage flows because of attenuation within a large area
of reticulation.
5.3 DESIGN OF SEWERS

Calculation of velocity and discharge in sewers should be undertaken using the Colebrook-White
formula:
v = -2(2gDS)0.5 log{k/3.7D + 2.5ν/[D(2gDS)0.5 ]}
where v = velocity of flow in m/s

g = gravitational acceleration in m/m/s
S = hydraulic gradient; invert and water surface slope in uniform flow.
D = pipe diameter, m
k = linear measure of effective roughness, m
ν = kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s
This complex formula for the design of pipes and channels was simplified by charts derived by
Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford. Further simplification of the design process is in the form
of tables of discharges and velocities over a range of diameters, hydraulic gradients and roughnesses.
Sewers do not normally flow under pressure therefore leakage in or infiltration is possible. Sewers are
designed for two conditions:
1. worst case condition for peak flows. (peak flow = average DWF x peak factor).
2. to achieve minimum self-cleansing velocities (the minimum velocity required to keep solids in
suspension).
The pipe size and gradient should allow a sewer to flow close to fullbore at ultimate flow while also
achieving self cleansing velocities at least at peak daily flow. Minimum self cleansing velocities for
use in design are:
reticulation and collector sewers: 0,75 ms-1

trunk and outfall sewers: 0,60 ms-1
A maximum velocity of 3,66 m/s should not be exceeded in order to prevent scour. The minimum size
of public sewer (collector) should be 150 mm to avoid blockages (100 mm for connecting 4 – 6
properties).
Gravity sewerage is to be preferred, otherwise sewage pumping is the only remaining option. Raw
sewage pumping has a high initial cost for the pumpstation, pumps and pumping main, and high O&M
costs. This should therefore be avoided.
Pumping main minimum diameter should be 100 mm with minimum and maximum flow velocities of
0,75 and 2,5 ms-1.
5.3.1 Physical design aspects

• locate sewers (between stands for high and middle density); in servitudes. Most sewers are laid
under roads or the roadside to avoid interference with private property when connections and
repairs have to be made.
• sewer sections are commonly laid in straight lines as these are easier to locate and can minimize
blockages.
• manholes are provided at changes of direction, slope and diameter.
• manholes are provided at intervals of 80 m for smaller diameters and at up to 300 m for larger
diameters. These are necessary for inspection and maintenance, and clearing blockages, etc
• minimum depth of cover to crown of pipe is 0,9 m (1,2 m under roads).
• consider minimum size of sewer, and size sequencing.
• consider house connection junctions - double or single, etc.
• determine depths of connection using a contour plan
• sewers must be sufficiently ventilated to ensure free circulation of air to prevent the build-up of
foul air or poisonous gases such as H2S. With inadequate gradients the residence time in the sewer
will be too long; the oxygen demand of the organics in the sewage depletes the dissolved oxygen
in the sewage; anaerobic or septic conditions develop; hydrogen sulphide (the bad smell) is
formed is sulphates are present.
5.3.2 Construction and Materials

Sewer pipelines in Zimbabwe should be flexible from a combination of rigid pipes and flexible joints.
Pipe types available include
• glazed earthenware [clay]
1. these are durable, inert and resistant to chemical attack.
2. they are brittle, heavy and available in short lengths (1,0 m).
• asbestos cement
1. have good hydraulic properties
2. are susceptibla to abrasion
3. can be corroded (sulphuric acid)
4. are extensively used in Zimbabwe
• steel pipes
1. expensive
2. mainly used where sewers are elevated e.g. pipe bridges or treatment works sites
• UPVC pipes
1. require a foreign exchange component in Zimbabwe
2. need special bedding and support to prevent deformation.
Appropriate trenching and pipeline bedding are essential. Locate sewers at a depth to allow for house
connections (with a cover of less than 750 mm normally). Select sewer routes to suit housing layout
and topography in order to avoid excessive depths. Increase gradients where flows are small. Locate
sewers one metre from the boundary for double rows of houses and on the lower side.

5.4 SEWAGE COLLECTION

5.4.1 Containers
In Asia the transport of human excreta in buckets is common. This method, is called nightsoil
collection. Once per day the excreta will be collected from the households and transported to a place
of treatment.
When vaults are in use, vacuum tanks transport the sewage to treatment plants.
5.4.2 Sewer Systems

There are two types of sewer systems, separated and combined. In a combined sewer system
stormwater and wastewater will be collected in one pipe. The advantages are fewer costs for the pipes
and the treatment of rainwater, which can be polluted in urban areas. In the separated system
stormwater and wastewater will be collected in separate pipes. Therefore the load on the sewage
treatment plant is more constant. The treatment plant can be designed smaller as well as the operation
and maintenance being easier.
5.4.3 Small bore sewers

These are designed to receive the liquid portion of household wastewater. Grit, grease and other
suspended solid materials are separated from the flow in an interceptor. The interceptor is placed
between the house and the sewer.
Advantages of small bore sewers

• reduced water requirements: sewers are not required to transport solids, therefore small quantities
of water are required and there are negligible blockages
• reduced excavation costs: sewers do not need to be designed to maintain a minimum flow velocity
for self cleansing
• reduced material costs: peak flows for which sewers are designed will demand smaller sizes
because the interceptor will even out some of the flows
• reduced treatment requirements: treatment plants will not need screening, grit chambers and
primary sedimentation
Relevance in developing countries

There are situations when the much less expensive on-site systems are not applicable and therefore
requiring the installation of sewer systems or other technologies. The small-bore sewer is usually ideal
especially considering that conventional systems are expensive. It provides an economical way of
upgrading existing sanitation facilities.
Small-bore sewers can be connected to:

• pour-flush toilet systems
• aqua privy systems
• upgradeable VIP latrine systems with soakaway
• septic tanks
Design of Interceptor Tank

The following parameters should be considered at the design stage:
Sedimentation: removal of solids suspended in wastewater. This allows quiescent conditions for the
settlement of solids.
Storage: There should be a sufficient volume to store sludge and scum between desludging
Digestion: There is anaerobic digestion of wastes which has the following effects on tank performance:
§ sludge volume reduction

§ mixing resulting from the bubbling of gas from the sludge layer which seeds the supernatant liquor
with active micro organisms
§ resuspension of settled solids due to gas bubbling - these solids may be transported together with the
wastes
§ toxic, explosive environment may result from the accumulation of methane and other gases.
Each household to be served by a small-bore sewer system must have its own interceptor. The interceptor
reduces the peak flow substantially by providing surge /balancing storage. The volume and geometry of
the interceptor closely resemble those used for the design of septic tanks. Where there is little field data
the design peak factor should be taken as two.
Interceptor desludging
The solids are removed from the interceptor at regular intervals for safe disposal.
Hydraulic design of the small bore sewer

Conventional gravity sewers flow as open channels, whereas small bore sewers may have sections
below the hydraulic grade line and therefore experiencing pressure flow. As a result, flow in small-
bore sewers may alternate between open channel flow and pressure flow.

6. PRINCIPLES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

6.1 GENERAL
Certain physical operations are involved in sewage treatment and in certain circumstances addition of
chemicals may be required. However, the treatment of sewage is mainly biological and is carried out
by naturally occurring micro-organisms. The design of sewage treatment plants should therefore be
directed at assisting these natural processes by providing the best possible conditions for them. By
assisting natural processes to take place at the sewage works we reduce the organic load being passed
onto rivers and dams where damage can occur to the environment.
For treatment purposes a ratio of BOD:N:P of 100:5:1 in the raw wastewater is required. Domestic
wastewater has less Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Therefore it is advantageous to mix domestic with
industrial wastewater, which is often high in Nutrients. The disadvantage with mixing is that domestic
wastewater, which has less heavy metals in it, will be contaminated by the industrial wastewater.
6.2 NATURAL SELF-PURIFICATION

Consider the process of purification as it takes place in a natural stream. In the stream above the point
of entry of sewage or other pollutant the water is clear and sparkling and has abundance of dissolved
oxygen, which it absorbs from the air. Also present is a complex balance of animal, plant and bacterial
life. This life achieves a balance in which the number of small plants present is determined by the
nutrients present; the small animals, which feed on these plants, control to a great extent any increase
in the numbers of plants. Other animals in turn prey on these small animals and the whole balance of
life - birth to death to decay (where the bacteria play their part and produce further nutrients), is
harmoniously supported in the stream.
The sewage added to this stream contains polluting substances in three forms: dissolved matter, very
fine suspensions, and coarse suspended matter. After its addition to the stream it is immediately
diluted by mixing with clean water. At the first opportunity that occurs, that is, in the first quiet pool, a
separation of the coarse sewage solids takes place and these settle to and collect on the bottom. The
remainder of the pollution in the sewage, which is in the dissolved and finely suspended form is now
very dilute and is immediately attacked by the bacteria present.
The bacteria, which occur naturally in streams, use some of the available dissolved oxygen in the
water and there is accordingly a dip in dissolved oxygen concentration in the river downstream of the
point of pollution. Obviously the greater the amount of sewage entering the river, the greater is the
amount of oxygen required and consequently the bigger is the drop in dissolved oxygen concentration.
Provided there is only a small quantity of sewage no harm is done. However, a large quantity of
pollution will cause the dissolved oxygen to drop to nearly zero causing the death of fish and other
aquatic aerobic organisms.
The result of the bacterial action is the oxidation of organic matter in the sewage to stable simpler
forms. These are suitable as a plant food and are therefore absorbed by the plants. These plants, of
course, grow and multiply in numbers with the increase in food but their numbers are quickly checked
by an increase in the numbers of animals, which feed on them. Thus the balance of life is preserved
and the organic pollution removed. The process has not been completed however, as we still have the
solids or sludge on the bottom of the stagnant pools. Here the sludge is not attacked by the oxygen-
loving aerobic bacteria, which have dealt with the dissolved and fine suspended matter, as the
concentration of sludge has the effect of exhausting the oxygen in its immediate vicinity as it starts to
putrefy. Other forms of bacteria which do not require free oxygen to live (anaerobic), however, thrive
and reduce the sludge, if there is not too much, to stable forms in which it can cause no nuisance and
can be assimilated by plants.
Some of the dissolved matter in the sewage is in the form of mineral salts (e.g. common salt), which
are present in sewage from excreta, kitchen sinks, etc and in the case of many towns also from

discharges from various factories. Natural purification does not remove these salts, and we therefore
have to be careful not to accept large quantities of them when admitting factory wastewater. Some of
the suspended matter may be sand or grit, which will not be broken down by natural purification.
Provided the amount of sewage added to a stream is small it causes no harm; but as it is the
putrefaction of the sludge on the bottom which is the slower process, the amount of gross solids added
to the stream is really the controlling factor.
From the above it is evident that sewage may be purified by admitting it in small quantities to good
streams, or by diluting it in the sea, and these processes are used in many countries. However,
uncontrolled feeding of sewage into rivers leads to pollution, nuisance and the spread of disease.
6.3 STAGES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT

The principal sewage treatment stages are Preliminary, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary, and each of
these stages incorporates various “unit processes”. These treatment processes can also be described
using the categories which characterise sewage i.e. Physical, Biological and Chemical. The wastewater
treatment process is a combination of physical, biological and chemical processes designed to remove
organic matter from both suspension and solution. The following is a summary of sewage treatment
under physical, biological and chemical treatment categories.


6.4 PHYSICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES

Physical treatment utilises the differences in physical characteristics of various components of sewage
to separate one portion from another. Physical processes are used in all stages of sewage treatment, but
principally in preliminary and primary treatment.
6.4.1 Screening
Screening removes coarse solids [rags, plastic bags, maize cobs, etc.], which would otherwise block
downstream pipes and damage equipment (pumps, aerators, stirrers), by means of a series of closely
spaced mild steel bars placed across the flow. At small works [e.g. 4-40 Ml/d) screens are hand raked
while at large works mechanically raked screens are used.
Screen gaps may be classified as follows:
>40mm coarse
15-30mm medium
<15mm fine
In selecting screen type consider maintenance problems and costs and also the possibility of power
failures.
Screenings generation is 0,01 – 0,05m3 /day per 1000 population. Disposal is normally by burial or
simple incineration with a coal /wood-fired incinerator. Drying, bagging and mechanical washing are
sophisticated and possibly inappropriate methods for developing countries.
6.4.2 Grit removal

Grit (detritus) comprises the heavy inorganic fraction of sewage solids [sand, grass, eggshells, metal,
ashes, etc.] and some heavier organic matter like vegetable seeds and coffee grounds]. If not removed
in preliminary treatment these heavy materials would tend to settle out in undesirable places.
Grit has a relative density (S.G.) of 2,5 compared with 1,2 for organic matter in sewage, and therefore
settles at about 30 mm/s compared with 3 mm/s for organic matter. Grit channels are designed to
maintain a velocity of flow of 0,3m/s for all rates of flow, a velocity at which grit particles settle out
but organic solids do not (differential settlement).
6.4.3 Comminution (shredding)

This is an alternative to screening mainly used in developed countries. The comminutor (cylindrical
screen with rotating cutting blades inside it) chops up large solids until they pass through. It needs
regular maintenance and replacement of cutting edges. The beauty is that handling of screenings is
avoided even though the load on downstream processes is increased.
Grit disposal (0,05 - 0,15m3 /1000m3 of sewage treated) is by burial with screenings, but these can also
be used for landfill or on solid waste disposal sites if well washed.
6.4.4 Primary settlement

Primary settlement comprises plain gravity settlement in the absence of any chemical coagulants. It is
usually the only primary treatment process and is aimed at
• Clarification (removal of solids from liquid phase) and,
• Thickening (liquid removal from solid phase).
Clarification reduces the load on subsequent treatment stages. Thickening reduces the quantity of
sludge to be stabilised and disposed of.

Sewage solids including their flow are variable. Even the solids concentration is much higher than in
water treatment. As a result rational design methods based on the theory of sedimentation cannot be
used for the primary settlement of sewage. A useful expression is the surface loading rate, also
termed upflow rate or overflow rate,
Surface loading rate = Q/A

where Q = flow and
A = surface area.
Typical values are 1,2 - 1,8m/h at peak DWF.
It is not only simple settlement of particles that occurs in a Primary Settlement Tank (PST). There is
also flocculation by physical, chemical and biological means. PSTs can achieve a reduction of
suspended solids of 40-80% and that of BOD by 30-50%.
Tank types
The three major types are:
Rectangular horizontal-flow tanks, with travelling mechanical scrapers (common in UK and USA).
Radial flow circular tanks: (not common in Zimbabwe but most common world wide). Sludge is
scraped to a central hopper and discharged under hydrostatic pressure through under flow pipe work.
The effluent, known as “settled sludge” is discharged over a peripheral weir into a collecting channel
or “launder” and scum baffles retain the scum.
Hopper- bottomed dortmund tanks

These are simple and reliable, and are preferred in Zimbabwe. However, they have higher capital
costs (deep excavations required), but lower operating costs (no mechanical equipment). The lower
2/3 of the conical bottom is used for sludge thickening. Designed for:
• 1,5 hour retention at PDWF
• a surface loading rate of 1,2m/h at Average DWF or 2,4 m/h at PDWF, whichever is less.
The quantity of settled sludge in a PST is estimated at 1% of the inflow at a 4% solids content.
Typical primary sedimentation tanks: (a) rectangular horizontal flow tank, (b) circular radial flow tank, (c) upflow tank

6.4.5 Secondary Settlement

Secondary Settlement is essential after biological secondary treatment. It occurs in secondary
settlement tanks called “humus tanks” if they follow trickling filters, and “clarifiers” if they follow an
activated sludge process.
The design of the tanks is similar to PSTs, though the choice of surface loading rate depends on the
type of biological process.
6.4.6 Filtration (tertiary treatment)

Filtration is the only physical tertiary treatment process likely to be encountered in Zimbabwe. This is
normally rapid gravity filtration of a good quality secondary effluent for use in watering parks e.g. the
Bulawayo reclaimed water system.
6.5 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES

6.5.1 General
Biological treatment is the commonest way of treating sewage to a fairly high standard, and is also the
cheapest method.
Basically biological treatment designers aim to understand and quantify the biological degradation
process occurring naturally in sewage due to the presence of micro-organisms, and then accelerate
them in the sewage works by providing optimal conditions for large populations of micro-organisms to
develop and thrive.
The bulk of sewage treatment is carried out biologically. From the description in the previous section
it can be seen that naturally occurring bacteria, either aerobic or anaerobic, carry out purification in
rivers. Many of the sewage treatment processes that have been developed are basically methods of
assisting these processes.
6.5.2 Biological or Trickling Filters (Biofilters /Percolating filters)

These consist of stone beds over which the sewage flows, is evenly distributed and through which it
trickles. A layer of slime builds up on the stones containing large numbers of purifying organisms.
Conditions on the biofilter stone (media) are similar to those which would occur if a river containing
sewage passed over shallow rocky rapids or cascades where the oxygen-dissolving capacity of a
stream is at its highest. The biofilter is therefore a type of simulation of a river condition where
purification is most efficient.
6.5.3 The Activated Sludge Process

Consists of an aerated tank where sewage is combined with recycled activated sludge and aerated for a
number of hours, after which the sludge is settled out in a clarifier or settling tank and pumped back to
the aeration tank. The activated sludge consists of a concentrated suspension of purifying organisms
such as exist in rivers in much lower concentrations. In a river the number of micro-organisms cannot
build up to any great extent due to the limitation of the low natural rate of dissolving oxygen from the
air into the water. By aerating the mixture, settling out the organisms and recycling them one can build
up their concentration many thousand times higher than would naturally occur in rivers thus greatly
speeding up the purification process and reducing the volume of space required for treatment.
6.5.4 Anaerobic Digestion

This is widely used for sludge stabilisation. The solids in the sewage are broken down and stabilised
by naturally occurring anaerobic bacteria similar to those that would occur on the bottom of rivers
when organic solids from sewage pollution settle out. By creating the correct conditions of
temperature and pH in the digester tanks the process is again speeded up.
Other methods of treatment are similarly based. Oxidation ponds are artificial lakes sized so that
natural purification mechanisms are stimulated but not overloaded. Rotating Biological Contactors

develop similar organisms to biofilters. Septic tanks allow anaerobic bacteria related to some of those
occurring in digesters to develop.
6.6 CHEMICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES

6.6.1 General
Addition of chemicals in the sewage treatment process maybe with one or more of the following
objectives:
• To reduce the load on a particular part of the process

• To assist in the removal of certain unwanted constituents in the sewage or effluent
• To disinfect the sewage or effluent.
Three chemical processes are of interest at conventional sewage works. These are sterilization,
precipitation of phosphorus and aeration.
6.6.2 Sterilization
Effluent sterilization is undertaken in the USA and Europe using chlorine. It is expensive. Chlorine is
normally added to the treated sewage effluent in order to disinfect it. The chlorine kills off the
bacteria, which may have survived the treatment process. The chlorine may be added as a gas or as
calcium or sodium hypochlorite.
6.6.3 Precipitation of phosphorus

Lime or ferric (iron) salt (chloride or sulphate) addition to raw sewage greatly increases the amount of
suspended solids removed by settlement in the primary sedimentation tanks. It thus reduces the load
on the secondary biological treatment stage (biofilters or activated sludge). Dosage of lime or ferric
salts also removes phosphorus from the sewage by precipitation with the sludge. However, a
disadvantage of the process apart from cost is a marked increase in sludge production. Chemical
dosage of sewage is therefore usually only carried out if a works is overloaded.
Ferric or aluminium salts can be added to the biofilter effluent or to activated sludge mixed liquor
prior to secondary sedimentation. This is normally done for the purpose of phosphorus removal. By
adding the chemical at this point rather than to the settled effluent the need for a separate
sedimentation tank is avoided.
6.6.4 Aeration
Aeration is a gas transfer process important in biological sewage treatment.
There are two major aerator types:- submerged and surface. Submerged aerators use compressed air
or pure oxygen, and the Fine Bubble Diffused Air [FBDA] class is the most expensive but most
efficient. Surface aerators are simple devices with electric motor plus immersed rotor. These fall into
two classes: vertical and horizontal shaft.

7. OUTLINE OF TREATMENT PROCCESSES

The treatment of sewage includes four processes which are described in detail in the following
sections (preliminary treatment is sometimes taken as a part of the primary treatment process):
• Preliminary treatment
• Primary Treatment Process
• Secondary or Biological Treatment Process
• Tertiary Treatment Process

7.1 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT PROCESSES

The aim of preliminary treatment is to remove large floating objects and heavy mineral particles.
The two distinct physical processes in preliminary treatment are screening and grit removal. A
Parshall or Venturi flume is normally provided after screening and grit removal to measure flow.
7.1.1 Screening
The purpose of screening is to remove debris, rags, paper, plastic, etc at the inlet to the sewage
works. If not removed this material can cause blockages in sludge pipes and pumps and can
contribute to the formation of scum in digesters (resulting in a reduction in digester capacity) and
can complicate the ultimate disposal of sludge.
Screenings can be removed from sewage by hand raked screens, mechanically raked screens, very
fine static or rotary screens or they may be cut into small pieces by passing the sewage through
disintegrating machines. It is common to find a very coarse trash rack followed by a finer screen
especially on larger works.
The amount of screenings removed from sewage depends on the width of the screen openings and
the velocity of flow through the bars.
Hand raked screens

On small works, where flows do not warrant a mechanically raked screen a simple, inclined, hand
raked screen will be adequate. These screens usually consist of simple bars of flat mild steel
placed at an angle to the flow with
openings between the bars varying from
20mm to 50 mm in width. They prevent
relatively large and heavy objects from
entering the plant, especially in the case of
large out fall sewers; trash racks with
spacing of 75 mm to 100 mm are often
provided.
The screens are raked regularly by hand,

the frequency of raking depending on the
accumulation of material on the bars.
After racking, the screenings are usually
sorted on a draining slab and excreta soft
paper removed in the screening process is
returned to the sewer.
The objective of screening is to remove rags and coarse floating solids while minimising the
removal of excreta which not only increases the volume of the screenings but makes them far
more offensive and increases the problem of hygienic disposal. Apart from the sorting process
mentioned above, a raking technique in which the screening are washed by moving them up and
down the bars with the rake to break up and wash out the soft organic material, can also be
practised.
Hand raked screens should be installed in a by-pass channel alongside mechanically raked or
disintegrating machines to provide standby facilities in the event of mechanical or failure.

Mechanically raked screens

The principle of mechanical screening is similar to that of manually raked ones in that mechanical
rakes periodically sweep the screenings from the screen and deposit them in a trough from which
they are removed for further processing. Mechanical screening devices are used to reduce labour
costs, promote better flow conditions and produce fewer nuisances by ensuring regular cleaning
of the screen.
The operation of most installations is fully automatic with control equipment consisting of an
adjustable process timer to periodically activate the scraping mechanism. An overriding high-
level electrode provides continuous operation sheen flow conditions for demand and differential
level electrodes, which detect the difference in water level across the screen resulting from partial
blockage of the screen, cause the raking mechanism to be activated.
Disintegrating machines
An alternative to screening is to pass the whole flow through a macerating machine. Various
proprietary devices have been developed. All utilise the basic principles of a screen or slotted
drum to intercept solid matter in the flow and a cutting unit to cut and shred the solid matter to a
size which allows it to pass through the screen openings.
Handling and Disposal of Screenings

Raw sewage screenings are objectionable to handle, and disposal of these materials presents a
problem. In the past, a fairly common practice was to reduce the solids to smaller particles by
maceration, and to return them to the flow. This can result in problems in the downstream
processes, such as the build-up of scum in digesters, particularly as screenings now contain a
fairly high proportion of plastics and synthetic fibbers which are non-biodegradable and which
are not reduced in the treatment process. For the same reason, composting is also becoming less
attractive. Once removed from the sewage flow, screenings should not be returned but should be
handled and disposed of separately.
Methods to convey screenings to a skip or container for transportation to ultimate disposal can
vary from a simple collection trough on hand raked screens to automatic belt conveyors operating
together with mechanically raked screens. Modern methods include the washing, pressing and
bagging of screenings in preparation for burial or incineration. Washing has the advantage of
removing faecal matter from the screenings and the final product can be handled without
objectionable odours or other nuisances. Pressing reduces the moisture content of the screenings
that can then be incinerated with the addition of little or no supplementary fuel.
Burial is probably the simplest and most economical method of disposing of screenings, provided
sufficient suitable land is available. Much labour is required for digging the pits /trenches and
covering the screenings with a layer of soil after dumping. The trenches are subsequently filled
with screenings and covered every day with a layer of soil. It is important that the material be
covered without delay in order to prevent nuisance, odours and the attraction and breeding of flies
and rodents.
Incineration is probably the best method of disposing of screenings.
7.1.2 Grit removal

Inorganic grit and silt should be removed from the sewage early in the treatment stage in order to:
• Protect moving mechanical equipment, such as pumps, centrifuges, mechanical mixers in
digesters, etc from abnormal wear due to abrasion.

• Prevent sedimentation and subsequent clogging in pipes and channels

• Reduce the frequency of digester and settling tank cleaning resulting from the accumulation
of grit.
Grit can be removed either before or after screening. Where mechanical disintegration of
screenings is employed, grit should be removed first; otherwise screening should come first in
order to avoid the removal of rags and other heavy objects with the grit.
The basic principle on which grit removal depends is that grit, which has a high density, settles
out much more rapidly than organic solids, which are carried through with the sewage. It must be
emphasised, however, that because of the large variation in size of both inorganic an organic
particle, complete separation of inorganic and organic matter cannot be obtained. The greater the
degree of grit removal required, the greater would be the quantity of organics removed with the
grit.
The degree of grit removal to be aimed at will depend on the efficiency of the de-gritting unit and
the capacity of the sedimentation tanks and digesters to accept the remaining grit passing through
with the sewage.
The quantity of grit removed will depend very much on local circumstances, but a rough
indication of quantities to be expected is 8-90 l of grit with a moisture content of between 14%
and 34% for every cubic metre of sewage treated.
Types of grit removal units

The many different types of grit removal units can be classified into two broad groups:
Constant velocity channels

These are fairly long channels, which are so shaped, or have the outlets so controlled by weirs or
flumes that the velocity of flow through the channel is constant whatever the sewage flow.
The cross-sectional area is so proportioned to the orifice, weir or flume that whatever rate of flow the
velocity in the channel will remain constant - around 0,3 m/s. Channels designed on this basis are
called constant velocity grit channels. The grit accumulates on the bottom of the channel. In large
works, travelling grit pumps or dodgers can clean the channels without emptying the channels. In
South Africa, channels are usually confined to smaller works where the practice is to provide
multiple channels side by side so that at least one at a time can be closed off, drained and the grit
removed manually. The two main classes of channel are:
• Parabolic cross sectional channel controlled by a rectangular standing - wave flume

• A channel of approximately rectangular cross-section controlled by a specially shaped weir
plate.
Tanks with spiral currents

These consist in the main of small chambers in which a horizontal or vertical spiral current is
created by means of diffused compressed air, impellers, draught tube or a flow-induced vortex.
The velocity of the roll or agitation must be low enough to remove the chosen size of particle of
given specific gravity, but must also be sufficiently high to carry out the organic matter.

Handling and Disposal of grit

The problems associated with screenings apply equally to the handling and disposal of grit.
Because of its highly abrasive nature, high wear and tear on machines handling grit must be
expected. The problems can be reduced to some extent by washing the grit to remove as much
organic matter as possible. The most usual method of disposal is by burial on the treatment plant
site, but disposal in a sanitary landfill could also be considered.
Hydraulics of Grit Removal Systems

Grit settlement is based on Stokes' law and is given by the equation:
2gr2(ds-dl)
v=
9n
where v = settling velocity of particle in m/s

ds = density of particle in kg/m3
r = radius of particle in m
n = viscosity of liquid in kg/m.s
dl = density of liquid in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity
The difference in density between the grit particles and the wastewater in which they are suspended
is an important factor. The density of grit is around 2 500 kg/m3. The grit chamber is designed so
that the velocity of flow will be such that only the grit settles and not the organic fraction of the
wastewater. The size of the grit-collecting tank is based on surface area according to Hazen's theory.
The smallest particle to be settled must be given time to fall from the surface of the water to the
invert of the tank or it will be swept out with the flow. If the tank is made deeper the particle has a
longer distance to fall and therefore the capacity of the tank is increased in direct proportion to the
depth while the surface area remains the same. On the basis of this it is argued that the surface area
of a settling tank (in this case the grit chamber) must be of such magnitude that, where the whole of
the flow is upwards, the velocity at the maximum rate of flow must be less than the falling velocity
of the smallest particle to be settled. Under low flow conditions much finer materials and
considerable organics will be settled in the tank.
Falling velocities of siliceous sand
Diameter Falling Speed

(seconds per metre of fall)
0,013 100
0.02 55
0,05 20
0,1 10
0,4 4
1,0 2
The table shows that a 1m deep tank designed to remove particles of 0,02 cm diameter must of
necessity have a detention time greater than 55s.

In small works the removal of grit is done manually. On large works vacuum pumps on travelling
gantry may be used.
Parabolic Grit channel
The discharge of the controlling standing wave flume is given by
Q = 1.706BH3/2
and the width of channel at any point above the invert to give a velocity of 0.3m/s is given by
X = (4.9Q/H)
where X = width of channel at water level

H = depth of flow in metres
Q = rate of flow at the depth in m3/s
Example
Determine the shape of a parabolic grit channel to settle grit from a community whose wastewater
flows are given by the following:
Maximum flow, Qmax = 0.04 m3/s

Average flow, Qave = 0.016 m3/s
Minimum flow, Qmin = 0.01 m3/s
Assume a throat width of 0.2 m
Solution:
i) calculate for the three known values of Q corresponding values of H from the equation Q =
1.706BH3/2
ii) Knowing H and Q calculate the corresponding value of X from the equation X = 4.9 Q/H
iii) Pick other values of Q and repeat the same process
iv) Plot H versus X
v) Draw a tangent to the curve at the minimum value of Q
vi) Draw a perpendicular line at the maximum value of Q. The shape of the parabola is
estimated by these two lines.
Exercise
Design a grit chamber for the following flows
Average water consumption per capita per day = 150 l
Peak consumption = 1. 75 x average, minimum consumption = 0.75 x average
Population = 3000 people
Throat width = 0.3 m
Water to waste return ratio = 0.85
7.1.3 Grease Removal

Raw sewage contains a fair amount of grease, which often arrives at the works in the form of
grease balls floating in the sewage. Grease comes mainly from dish and pot washing in the home,
and from food manufacturing industries. It is discharged to the sewer as an emulsion in the warm
sewage. As it cools down in the sewer and on cooling down, it forms small particles. These
coagulated particles collect on the walls of the sewer until they reach such a size that they break

off and float down the sewer. The particles are soft and, as a result of frequent bumping into walls
of the sewer, form a round shape. Grease still in the form of an emulsion when it reaches the
works quickly hardens and floats to the surface in sedimentation tanks where, together with other
floating matter, it forms a scum. It can cause a great deal of nuisance as the grease continually
deposits at the water line on the walls of channels, baffles and scum boards and must be cleaned
off regularly.
The recovery of grease is seldom economically justified since the quantities are small, it is not
easy to separate and the purification of grease into a usable form is fairly expensive. The usual
method of disposal is to send it together with other scum from the sedimentation tank to the
digesters, where it is gradually broken down.
Accidental discharges of grease from factories processing vegetable oils or scraps can occur,
which may result in large quantities of grease reaching the works. Every attempt must be made to
intercept this material as soon as possible in the treatment works, as it can be very troublesome.
Plant structures and equipment will be fouled up and it can seriously affect the operation of
biological filters.
Sewage works will treat animal and vegetable oils satisfactorily in the anaerobic digesters, but
mineral oils and greases from the motor industry are not readily broken down and must be
excluded from the sewers.
7.2 PRIMARY TREATMENT

7.2.1 Sedimentation
This is the process whereby settleable, mostly organic, material in the sewage is allowed to settle
in tanks designed for this purpose. This permits the solids or sludge, which comprise a significant
portion of the overall load, to be separately treated in an economical manner and reduce the load
on the biological oxidation process. It is necessary after the biological filter process, to remove
humus solids sloughed off the biofilters. Sedimentation tanks of somewhat different design are
also used after the activated sludge process to settle the activated sludge for return to the head of
the aeration tank, and to clarify the effluent.
Sedimentation removes more suspended solids than any other process and in so doing reduces the
BOD considerably. There is however limited reduction in the dissolved solids content, which must
be removed by other means.
Primary tanks have to settle a great variety of solids from large organics to fine suspended solids.
They intercept floating material - scum. Secondary tanks deal with sludge which is easily settleable
but if ignored tend to bubble - generating scum.
Terms and definitions

Settled sewage
This is the liquid which overflows from the primary sedimentation tank and from which the
settleable material has been removed.

Primary sludge (raw sludge)

Settled sewage particles removed from the bottom of the primary sedimentation tanks are known
as raw primary sludge. In raw sewage the settleable particles amount to 1 to 2% by volume, and
0,1 percent by mass; but in raw sludge, depending on the type of sedimentation tank and draw-
off, there is about 3 – 5% by mass of sludge particles. The sludge is then said to have 3 to 5%
solids content. Proportions vary at different sewage works but usually the mineral content of the
primary sludge solids is about 20% by mass. (i.e. 20% of the 5%).
Detention (or Retention) Time

This is the time taken for a particle of the liquid to flow though a tank. The term has to be used
carefully in that the detention period can be either the theoretical or the effective detention period.
The theoretical detention period is the time for a particle of liquid, which is in the tank at the time
our particle enters, is discharged before our particle in turn is discharged. This does not happen in
practice, however and many particles often short circuit or take a short cut through the tank and
pass through very quickly; the average time taken for such particles to pass through the tank is
called the effective detention period.
When considering the average or effective retention time it should be appreciated that some
particles may remain in the tank for considerably longer or shorter periods than the average.
Capacity
The capacity of a sedimentation tank is the total volume of liquid, usually expressed in cubic
metres, held by the tank when it is filled to its normal operating level.
Surface area
The surface area of a tank is the area of the surface of the contained liquid. This area does not
include the area of any collecting channels, etc.
Surface Loading or Upflow rate

The surface loading or upflow rate is the upflow velocity expressed in metres per hour (m/h). It is
the rate at which the surface level of the tank would rise assuming that the effluent weir was
suddenly raised. Under normal conditions in a circular tank therefore it is nearly equal to the
theoretical vertical velocity of flow by which the liquid, under perfect conditions, approaches the
surface for draw off. This rate is important in relation to the settling velocity of the suspended
solids, as clearly if this overflow rate is greater than the settling velocity of a particle, the particle
cannot settle and will always be carried over. The surface loading is calculated by dividing the
flow in cubic metres per hour (m3 /h) by the tank surface area in square metres (m2).
Weir Overflow rate

The overflow rate from a settlement tank represents the loading in flow terms over the weir.
Excessive weir loading means that high flow velocities will occur in the vicinity of the weir. This
can set up currents, which disturb the settling process and give rise to carryover of solids in the
settled effluent. The overflow rate is calculated by dividing the flow (m3/h) by the weir length
(m). The units of overflow rate (m3/m.h) represent the volume of overflow per unit length of weir.
Top water level

Usually abbreviated to T.W.L., this is the maximum level of the liquid surfaces in a tank or
channel when the flow rate through the tank or channel is equal to the designed maximum.

7.2.2 Sedimentation Tank Design basics

There are two theories of sedimentation tank design:
1. stresses the importance of surface area
2. stresses capacity or detention time
The first is that the smallest particle to be settle must be given time to fall from the surface of the
water to the invert of the tank or it will be swept out with the flow. If the tank is made deeper, the
particle has a longer distance to fall and therefore the capacity of the tank is increased in direct
proportion to depth while the surface area remains the same - Hazen's theory.
The surface area of a sedimentation tank must be sized so that when the whole flow is upwards, the
velocity at maximum rate of flow must be less than the falling velocity of the smallest particle to be
settled, assuming there is no turbulence.
However, in continuous flow sedimentation basins or channels there is turbulence in the form of
eddies which produce velocities in all directions - the design of the inlet of a continuous flow
sedimentation tank is therefore of great importance.
American Practice
Surface area
0.1m2 per 2.25m3/day average rate of flow for primary sedimentation tanks
0.1m2 per 5.5m3/day for humus tanks
Detention time 1 - 3 hours (usually 2 hours) for primary sedimentation tanks

1 - 2 hours for humus tanks
British Practice
0.1m2 per 0.75 - 1.33 m3/day, at maximum flow for primary sedimentation basins.
0.1m2 per 1.25 - 1.5m3/day at maximum flow for final sedimentation tanks.
Small particles in suspension tend to remain in suspension unless favourable conditions are created.
However they tend to flocculate, a process which can be enhanced by gentle stirring and also the
introduction of chemicals. Chemicals are expensive and are hardly used in developing countries.
Upward flow sedimentation basins are designed to effect flocculation. Upward flowing wastewater,
which carries with it small particles from a low level inlet to surface weirs encounters falling
floccules and combines with them and falls to the bottom of the tank. Similar processes occur in the
flocculating chamber of a water treatment plant.
Tank Design
Critical parameters are:
Surface overflow rate (SOR) = Flow, Q divided by area, A (m3/m2/s)
Detention time = Volume, V divided by flow, Q
Weir Loading = Flow, Q divided by circumference of weir, πD

Example
Design a primary sedimentation tank system for a community with a population of 50 000 persons.
Size the sedimentation tanks so that the SOR will not be more than 40 m/day at peak flow with one
unit out of service and not more than 25 m/day at average flow. The minimum retention time is to be
one hour and the maximum weir overflow rate 370 m3 per day per metre.
Solution
Let An be the total area of sedimentation units, Q the total flow, An-1 be the total area of basins
when one is out of action and r the radius of each tank.
Q Qpeak
An-1 = =
SOR 40
Similarly An = Qave/25
Qave Qpeak
If all tanks are equal then the area of one tank = An - An-1 = -
25 40
Detention time = 1hr

=1/24 days
But detention time = volume, V divided by flow, Q
Assume average flow of 0.15 m3 per person per day.

Total flow = 0.15 x 50000 = 7500 m3/day
Assume a peak factor of 1.5
An = 7500/25 =300 m2
An-1 = 1.5 x 7500 / 40 = 281.25 m2
Area of one tank = 300 - 281.25 = 18.75 m2
No of tanks = 300 / 18.75 = 16
7.2.3 Sedimentation Tank Types

Introduction
Though the types of sedimentation tank to be encountered may differ widely in appearance and
design they have features in common as they are designed to perform the same function.
The inlet is invariably a baffle or chamber, called a stilling chamber which is designed to destroy
the energy present in the incoming sewage so that it may enter the main body of the tank proper
at a low velocity to promote quiescence and permit settling of the sludge.
The outlet, that is the effluent outlet, is invariably a long weir over which the liquid flows in a
thin film over v-notches. This weir is often protected by a shallow board (scum baffle) placed
close to the weir which serves to prevent floating scum from being drawn off with the tank
effluent and is also intended in certain cases to prevent short circuiting.

Ordinarily, the solids settling from the sewage to the bottom of the tank from a putrescible sludge
(termed raw or primary sludge) should not remain in the tank long enough to start fermenting and
giving off gases as such fermenting will cause the sludge to rise (belch). In cold climates the
sludge may be left for some days, but in Zimbabwe it is usually drawn off twice daily.
Sludge is invariably drawn off through a pipe the opening of which is placed at the lowest part of
the tank. The means by which the sludge is conveyed to this pipe vary from design to design, but
there is usually a cone-shaped compartment to store the sludge before it is discharged through the
pipe. Mechanical means may be used to scrape the sludge into the outlet, or in other tanks it
settles there naturally. To reduce the accumulation of solids on exposed surfaces other than the
bottom of the tank all beams and other structural components of the tank should slope steeply
away from the vertical. Easy means of access to the outlet pipe where it leaves the tank should
also be provided for cleaning in case of blockages.
Hydrostatic Sludge Removal Tanks

The vast majority of tanks encountered will be of this type. The principle of operation is that
sludge at the bottom of the tank is forced out through the outlet pipe by a hydrostatic difference in
head. This enables sludge to be removed without interrupting tank operation and without
additional mechanical equipment.
Horizontal flow rectangular tanks

This type of tank is not common in Southern Africa. Though it is cheap to build, it permits a great
deal of short circulating and therefore requires long theoretical detention periods. As the bottom
is flat, it is not easy to desludge. These difficulties are much less serious in cold climates, where
sludge may be drawn off at intervals of several days. In warm climates such as we enjoy in
Southern Africa, sludge must be removed at least twice daily if belching or rising of the sludge is
to be avoided.
The tank is usually rectangular in plan, being at least twice as long as it is broad on average. The
sewage enters at one end either through pipes in the wall or over an inlet weir and immediately
strikes a stilling board. This board runs across the tank usually from the surface to near the
bottom and is designed to destroy the energy of the incoming liquid.
There is usually a sludge hopper at the inlet of the tank and the remainder of the tank floor may
be flat or sloping towards the inlet. The outlet usually consists of an overflow weir, protected by a
scum board, leading to the effluent channel.
Circular Radial Flow Tanks

This type of tank is commonly used in Zimbabwe. It is similar in operation and principle to the
horizontal flow tank but differs in that it is circular in plan and the flow takes place from a central
inlet to a peripheral weir. The tank bottom can be flat but this is unusual for primary tanks.
Normally the floor has a 71/2 o to 15o slope from the sidewall to the centre where a sludge hopper
is situated. Steeper slopes need not be used since mechanical sludge scrapers are installed.
There are two types of sludge (and scum) scraping and conveyance mechanisms:
1. Rotating Bridge
2. Fixed Bridge
The Rotating Bridge system consists of a bridge (or more usually a half-bridge) which
rotates on a bearing mounted on the central pillar and is peripherally driven by a geared

motor through a cable and slip-ring assembly at the centre column. The bridge carries a single
category scraper or a number of angled scrapers, which move the sludge, settled on the
bottom to the central hopper. The bridge also has a surface scraper which moves scum
accumulated on the surface to a trough or hopper, which is usually slightly above T.W.L.
The Fixed Bridge system consists of a bridge spanning the tank, on which a rotating scraper
mechanism is suspended.
Sludge removal from both types of scraped tank is usually the normal hydrostatic head
displacement system. However, certain rotating bridge designs may carry air–lift or other pumps
to assist sludge removal for specialised applications.
Dortmund vertical flow tanks

The tanks derive their name from the city of Dortmund in Germany where they originated. They
are commonly used in Southern Africa. The tank design is particularly suited to smaller works
and plant situated far from cities as it is simple to operate and has no mechanical parts.
A Dortmund tank differs from the previously mentioned radial tank in that the bottom is a deep
cone or hopper, the sides of which are usually at about 60o to the horizontal.
Influent enters at the centre, by means of a pipe, which is directed upwards. Around this inlet
there is a deep stilling chamber wherein a great deal of turbulence is caused, resulting in the
destruction of the energy of the incoming liquid. The sewage then enters the tank proper through
the open bottom of the stilling chamber and moves vertically upward to the surface where it is
drawn off over a peripheral weir, as is the case in the radial flow tank. The sludge draw-off pipe
is placed at the tip of the conical bottom of the tank and thus all sludge can be drawn off without
any difficulty or mechanical aids. This makes the operation of the tank very simple.
Another common type of tank is the hopper-bottomed tank. The hopper-bottomed tanks are preferred
because of their mechanical simplicity and low cost of maintenance.
7.3 SECONDARY (BIOLOGICAL) TREATMENT

Generally in wastewater treatment biological treatment is achieved through
• trickling filters
• activated sludge
• rotating biological contactors
7.3.1 Biological (Trickling) Filters

Filter components:
• filter media: stone or plastic
• a wall: strong enough to retain the media
• a distribution system
• an underdrain system
The filter media provides the surface upon which the micro-organisms grow. The enclosure must be
of concrete or other suitable material. Avoid cracks. The distributor provides a uniform hydraulic
load (flow per unit cross-sectional area) over the entire reactor. A common distribution system is
rotary, with the distribution arms being driven by the reaction of the wastewater at the nozzles. The

arms rotate at 0.1 rev per minute under a pressure head of approximately 0.61m. If such a head
cannot be easily achieved then a dosing siphon is used.
The underdrain must support the media, allow free flow of liquid, allow for ease access of air to the
bottom of the drains to supply oxygen to the microbes.
Generally the filter media is 1.5 - 2.1m deep. A common depth is 1.8m. However plastic media
filters can be up to 6m deep. The system is strictly speaking facultative although it is usually
regarded as aerobic.
The filter is usually in the form of a bed filled with stone or other similar material. The media should
be uniform and of sufficient size to allow free circulation of air through the unit, normally 25 mm -
75 mm. It is provided with a distribution system for applying settled sewage to the media, and under-
drains to remove the filter effluent. The filter accomplishes wastewater treatment through the
biological action of organisms (mainly oxidation), that grow on the media. It does not purify by
filtering out the suspended solids (as in the case of a sand filter) the voids between the stones are too
large for this.
To successfully treat wastewater on a trickling filter, three items are essential

• A surface area must be provided for the development of biological life.
• An adequate supply of free oxygen must be available to the organisms.
• The waste must be amenable to biological treatment.
The purifying organisms are naturally present in sewage and the filter media provides a large surface
area for the development and accumulation of gelatinous growths containing bacteria, protozoa,
algae, fungi, worms and insect organisms.
The excess film that accumulates from growths of new organisms is periodically sloughed from the
filter and passes on to the humus or final settling tank. Worms, fresh water snails, spiders, insect
larvae and other relatively large organisms establish themselves in a filter creating a biological
balance which assists in the treatment process by scavenging for food and in so doing break up the
growths of film or zoogloea (as it is sometimes referred to). The commonest insect larvae are those of
small moth-like flies, psychoid. The sloughing of the zoogloea is an essential part of the efficient
operation of a filter since it keeps the voids in the media open for the free circulation of air. However
to obtain a reasonable degree of treatment it is essential that the wastewater be free of toxic materials,
such as excessive amounts of copper, chromium, cyanide and other heavy metals or insecticides.
Such substances will either inhibit the development or kill the biological fauna and flora which is
essential for the oxidation of the dissolved and suspended organic matter.
As the settled waste passes over the media in a thin film, the gelatinous growth retains much of the
suspended, colloidal and dissolved organic material contained in the waste water. This material is
used as food by the cells for energy and is converted to carbon dioxide and water.
Different types of bacteria undertake the oxidation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous material.
Nitrification can only take place in the presence of appreciable concentrations of dissolved oxygen
and therefore commences once a certain degree of carbonaceous oxidation has taken place.
Nitrifying bacteria appear in the lower levels in a filter.
Uniform distribution of settled sewage on the surface of the filter is essential to obtain maximum
utilisation of the unit. The most common method of distribution is by a rotary distribution, which
consists of a central column supporting four, or more horizontal pipes, which have outlet orifices,

spaced along their length at different intervals. With a properly designed distributor every square
metre of media will receive the same volume of sewage.
The settled sewage to be spread over the surface of a biological filter is delivered either by
intermittent pumping or through dosing tanks fitted with a siphon discharge. This is necessary to
ensure sufficient settled sewage is passed to the filter when the rate of sewage flow is too low to
operate the distributor.
When excessive loading for any long period occurs, ponding may result. This is due to excessive
growth of zooglea, algae or fungi clogging the voids in the media and thereby restricting the flow
through the filter.


Humus Removal
The solid waste matter resulting from the purification processes in biological filtration is known as
humus and is discharged continuously in suspension in the effluent. The major portion of this humus
is removable from the effluent by sedimentation in humus settlement tanks which are usually similar
in design to the primary settlement tanks. The humus sludge is drawn off either intermittently or
continually from these humus tanks, and re-settled with the raw sludge.
A certain proportion of the humus in the effluent is not removed by ordinary settlement, and if a clear
effluent is required the humus tank effluent undergoes final sand filtration or some other treatment to
remove the unsettleable humus particles.
Humus is brown in colour and flocculent in consistency; it usually contains a large mass of dead and
dying insects e.g. psychoda larvae, worms, snails etc. Large masses of zoogloea containing other
organisms, also wash out in the filter effluent.
Generally the practice and control for primary settling tanks applies equally to humus or final settling
tanks that follow trickling filters, the exception being that no scum draw off or outer perimeter baffle
board is required.
The inlet can be located in the centre of the tank in an upward direction to ensure that any gas
entrained in the solids will be released to the surface. The efficiency of treatment attained by trickling
filter plants is greatly affected by the operation of the humus tanks. If the humus sludge is allowed to
accumulate for any length of time decay of the organic matter can occur rapidly.
It is essential that sludge be removed from the tanks before it bulks (rises to the surface) and is
carried away with the final effluent. Preferably the sludge draw off valve should be adjusted so as to
allow a small continuous flow to the pump sump and the valve (if not automatic) must be opened
fully for a few minutes every hour to ensure a more rapid scouring of the sludge collecting area of
the tank. Humus sludge if allowed to decompose in the tank will absorb oxygen from the effluent
causing denitrification thus reversing the chemical changes that have taken place in the filters. The
humus sludge is pumped back to the head of the works where some benefit is obtained by the
inoculation of the raw sewage with aerobic bacteria. The sludge is then settled out in the primary
sedimentation tanks from where it is drawn off with the raw sludge, and pumped to the anaerobic
digesters.
A properly designed and well managed humus tank should produce an effluent containing less than
0,4 ml/l settleable solids.
7.3.2 Activated Sludge Treatment

What is Activated Sludge?
The process was discovered by the aeration of holding tanks for distributing raw sewage onto
land. It was noticed by some observant operators that the nature of the sewage improved during
aeration which was applied mainly to prevent odours from forming. This improvement was even
more marked when some of the sludge that was suspended and settled to the bottom during
decanting was resuspended during aeration of the following batch of sewage. This led to the Fill
and Draw method of treatment by which the sludge was allowed to settle to the bottom before
decanting the effluent, filling the tank again with raw sewage, resuspending the sludge by
aeration and repeating the decanting process.

It was noticed that under these conditions the sludge became more active and this process was
referred to as activating the sludge. It was a small but very significant step to separate the
aeration and decanting procedures to establish the continuous process of activated sludge for
wastewater treatment in which a sedimentation basin where the active sludge is separated from
the liquid and returned to the aeration basin follows the aeration basin.
Even though many modifications followed the basic principle of sewage treatment, the activated
sludge process has not changed substantially from the original concept. The wastewater,
containing numerous organic compounds serves as a food source for micro-organisms in the
mixture of the activated sludge and raw or settled sewage and recycled micro-organisms, which is
called mixed liquor. Air is supplied for the respiration or breathing of these organisms and also
for keeping the organisms in suspension and in contact with the food source. As in the case of
human beings, the organisms eat the food to obtain energy, thereby growing to form new micro-
organisms, carbon dioxide and water. The mass of organisms is constantly passed to the settling
tank to be separated by settling and recycled by pumping back to the aeration basin. The surplus
sludge formed by the additional growth of organisms must be removed from the system to keep
the total mass of organisms constant. The process is similar to the trickling filter where the total
mass of organisms are attached to media such as stone or plastic while the liquid is passed over
the media. In this instance the surplus organisms slough off the filter and must be removed in the
humus tanks.
Which Wastes can be treated in the Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process can treat any bio-degradable organic material in solution or in
suspension in wastewater. Apart from domestic sewage, which is highly bio-degradable many
other industrial wastes can also be treated in this way, including effluents from pulp and paper
mills, food industries, abattoirs, textile mills, edible oils, coal gasification wastes, bio-degradable
pharmaceutical and petrochemical wastes and even some oil refinery wastes. Many of these
industrial wastes are easily degradable and would not cause serious problems in the operation of
activated sludge units, provided that the in-plant activities at the industrial locations are carefully
controlled. This is not always the case and problems arise from these sources.
Domestic waste as well as many industrial wastes contains a large amount of suspended solids
that can be settled prior to treatment. The major part of these may be bio-degradable. In the case
of domestic waste up to 40% of the BOD load in the raw sewage can be removed by settlement,
which would reduce the load to the activated sludge unit. However, it is not essential to remove
this material and activated sludge plants can be designed to treat either settled or unsettled
sewage without any effect on the quality of the final effluent.
The Concepts of Loading

The best effluent quality is obtained when the bacteria are kept in a virtual state of starvation by
underfeeding them. Experience has shown that under these conditions a very stable population is
formed that will bind together to form a stable floc, which can then be easily separated from the
liquid. Even though one may refer to high rate activated and low rate activated sludge systems,
these terms are only relative since in both cases the micro-organisms are starved of food and this
is referred to as operating the activated sludge plant in the endogenous or starvation phase.
Some people use the total mass of sludge as representing the organisms while others use only the
volatile fraction that will burn away at 600oC. Typical loading rates in terms of F/M ratio are 0,5
kg BOD/kg solids per day for a high rate, 0,3 kg BOD/ kg solids per day for a nitrification plant
and 0,05 kg BOD/kg solids per day for a low rate or extended aeration plant.

Under normal operating conditions new organisms are continually formed while at the same time
organisms die at a steady rate in the aeration basin. The difference between these two rates gives
the rate of formation of surplus sludge. The longer the organisms remain in the aeration basin,
the more they diminish through death and decay and less surplus sludge is produced.
Sludge or Solids Retention Time (SRT)

The mass of organisms in terms of actual sludge in the aeration basin can be expressed as the
concentration of the sludge (kg/m3) multiplied by the volume of the basin in m3. The product is
the mass of sludge in kg. The mass surplus sludge wasted per day can be expressed in kg per day.
Under stable operating conditions the mass of surplus sludge produced per day must equal the
mass of sludge wasted per day. If not there will either be an increase or a decrease in the mass of
sludge in the aeration basin that would lead to either sludge flowing over the weirs or to a total
washout of the sludge. If for instance, the total mass of solids in the aeration basin is 100 kg and
5 kg per day are wasted, the average time that the organisms will spend in the aeration basin will
be equal to 100 divided by 5, which equals 20 days. The sludge age or solids retention time can
be expressed as the mass of solids in the aeration basin divided by the mass of solids removed per
day.
Ignoring the sludge in the clarifier the mass of sludge in the aeration basin in kg is:
X = V x MLSS
Where V = Volume in m3
MLSS = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration, in kg/m3 or g/l
X = sludge mass in the aeration basin, kg
The sludge age or solids retention time (SRT) in days is then
X
SRT =
dx
Where dx = mass of sludge wasted per day (kg/d)
Since the amount of sludge wasted per day must equal the amount of new sludge formed per day,
there is a relationship between the loading rate expressed as the F/M ratio and the solids retention
time. The solids retention time is much easier to control as will be explained later, and can easily
be determined by the operator without the help of sophisticated equipment. For this reason the
operational control preferred in South Africa is that of the solids retention time or sludge age.
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)

It is clear that if the flow rate to a sewage treatment plant is defined in m3/day and the volume of
the aeration basin is expressed in m3 a certain hydraulic retention time i.e. the time the liquid
spends in the aeration basin, will be obtained. By recycling sludge from the final settling tank to
the aeration basin, liquid is returned to the aeration basin, thereby shortening the actual retention
time but passing water through more than once. For this reason the term nominal retention time
is used when reference is made to the average flow to the plant divided into the volume of the
plant and the actual HRT is the retention time when considering all the recycled liquid in the
process.
There is no direct relationship between the nominal retention time and the solids retention time in
an activated sludge plant since such a relationship will depend on the strength of the sewage, the

mixed liquor suspended solids concentration and the rate of breakdown of solids. For normal
strength sewage a solids retention time of about 20 days may result in a liquid retention time of
about 18 hours, at 20o C and mixed liquor suspended solids of about 4,5 kg /m3 (4 500 mg/l).
Since the stability of the waste sludge, the effluent quality, the degree of nitrification and the need
for further treatment of the sludge depends to a large degree on the SRT, the liquid retention time
or HRT is not of major importance in the design and operation of the plant.
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS)

The mixed liquor suspended solids is the dry mass of solids per unit of liquid volume in the
aeration basin and is determined by filtering or centrifuging the sludge from a certain volume of
the mixed liquor, drying the sludge at 103oC and weighing.
The daily determination of the MLSS and of the rate of sludge wastage per day will enable the
determination of the SRT. To control the SRT at a given number of days the operator can vary
the sludge wastage.
Return Activated Sludge (RAS)

Sludge being settled in the clarifiers is continuously pumped back to the aeration basin as
discussed before. When the sludge in the clarifiers settles well to a thick consistency the rate of
recycling can be relatively low. However when the sludge will not thicken well the rate of
recycle will need to be higher to maintain the MLSS in the system and to avoid loss from the
clarifier. From there the total flow of all the individual units is pumped back to the inlet to the
aeration basin.
Waste Activated Sludge (WAS)

It is most important to accurately control the mass of sludge wasted per day since it must match
sludge production for the day. By dividing the kg sludge in the aeration basin by the kg wasted
per day one can determine the SRT. If the SRT thus determined is higher than stipulated one
should waste more sludge during the next cycle and when the SRT is below the prescribed value,
the amount of sludge wasted should be reduced. A daily plot should then be made to determine
the trend of the SRT.
When wasting from the aeration basin, the concentration of the wasted sludge is the same as the
MLSS. The sludge may be thickened further in a small additional clarifier, thickened directly on
the drying beds or be discharged on land in the diluted or in the thickened state. If flotation
thickening is desired, the mixed liquor could be passed directly to the thickening unit.
Stability of Sludge
The longer the mixed liquor is aerated the longer the SRT, the more stable the sludge is. If
sufficiently stable it can be dried on drying beds provided that it is applied in thin layers. When
applied in such thin layers the sludge will dry rapidly without causing nuisance smells and can be
lifted in as little as 2 days after placing. However, when the SRT is less than 25 days or the
sludge is applied in thick layers, drying will be slow and nuisance smells may develop.
Modified Activated Sludge Treatment

The conventional activated sludge process allows the removal of carbon compounds and to a certain
degree nitrogen and phosphorus. Because of the new Water Act with the higher standard on nitrogen
and phosphorus removal the modified activated sludge (MAS or Bardenpho method) is now the
common technology for Zimbabwe’s treatment plants.

Sludge Bulking
Certain operating conditions in the activated sludge plant may result in the predominance of light
filamentous bacteria, which do not settle well, forming a thin sludge with a high SVI leading to
the overflow of sludge over the weirs of the final clarifiers. This condition is referred to as sludge
bulking. It is caused by the excessive growth of a large number of bacterial species. The
presence of some filaments in the sludge helps in the formation of a well flocculated mass but
excessive filament growth prevents good thickening.
Bulking may also be caused by

• lack of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorous when treating industrial waste,
• hydrogen sulphide discharge to the plant,
• too low or too high pH values,
• high carbohydrate discharges such as beer brewery wastes and shock loads.
Most of these causes are not common in domestic sewage but where industrial wastes are being
treated, attention should be paid to all possible causes.
Most modern nutrient removing plants tend to have a higher SVI and low effluent suspended
solids, which assist in keeping down the phosphate concentration in the effluent.
Nitrification
Nitrification refers to the two stage biological process by which ammonia is first converted to
nitrites by the bacterial species Nitrosomonas. The nitrites are in turn converted to nitrates by the
species Nitrobacter.
Ammonia (NH+)  Nitrites (NO2) by Nitrosomonas

Nitrites  Nitrates (NO3) by Nitrobacter
The rate of conversion of ammonia to nitrites determines the rate of the reaction and the second
group of bacteria will normally convert all nitrites formed. Thus under normal operating
conditions very little nitrite appears in the effluent. When ammonia is not converted to
nitrates in the treatment plant this conversion will usually take place in the receiving body
of water using up available dissolved oxygen and creating an oxygen shortage in the stream
or lake!
The nitrifiers are sensitive organisms which are:

• easily upset by slugs of chemicals or other poisonous substances,
• directly affected by pH or dissolved oxygen
• highly temperature-depended.
For these reasons nitrification will dictate the plant operation to a large degree.
The growth rate of nitrifying organisms drops sharply with the lowering of temperatures.
Denitrification
Denitrification differs from nitrification in that the organisms responsible for the reduction of
nitrates are the normal heterotrophic bacteria responsible for the removal of the organic matter in
the activated sludge system. Some of these organisms can obtain their energy from using nitrates

instead of dissolved oxygen. One can therefore replace the supply of oxygen with a supply of
nitrates and these organisms can proceed to break down the organic matter using the nitrates.
In the process of using the nitrates the nitrogen is reduced to the gaseous state, which forms small
gas bubbles that rise to the surface and escape to the atmosphere. Microbiologists refer to the
process where free oxygen is used as respiration; to the use of nitrates as anaerobic respiration
and to the destruction of sludge in the digester as fermentation. In engineering practice a
different nomenclature developed, referring to the oxygen process as aerobic, the nitrate
reduction process as anoxic and to the fermentation process as anaerobic, these latter terms
are used in this manual.
In the activated sludge process nitrification only occurs when full destruction of the other organic
matter also takes place.
The Bardenpho process can remove between 90 and 95% of all the nitrogen present in the raw
sewage by recycling nitrate-rich mixed liquor to an anoxic zone ahead of the aeration basin where
denitrification takes place in the absence of oxygen. Further denitrification may be obtained by
adding a second anoxic basin for the removal of the nitrates remaining after recycling.
Phosphorous Removal
Phosphorus can be removed from the sewage by:
v the addition of chemicals such as Alum, Ferric-chloride, Ferrous Sulphate, Sodium
Aluminate or waste pickle liquor, to the activated sludge process, or
v biological means in which the phosphates are incorporated into biological sludge and
removed with the sludge.
• Chemical Addition
Chemical removal of phosphate through the addition of lime entails the precipitation of
calcium phosphate at a high pH of at least 10. Lime can therefore not be added to the
activated sludge process. Removal of phosphate with alum and ferric salts can take place
simultaneously in the activated sludge process or can be applied separately.
• Biological phosphate removal

Biological phosphate removal can be achieved by allowing the activated sludge to pass
through a stage where it is completely anaerobic before aeration.
In the Pho-strip process the anaerobic conditions are created by passing the return sludge
through a thickener creates the anaerobic conditions. The sludge is allowed to become
anaerobic through endogenous respiration or the normal breathing of bacteria in the
absence of a food source.
Effluent Quality
Activated sludge plants are usually referred to as high rate plants when having an SRT of less
than 5 days and as low rate plants when having an SRT of more than 15 days. When plants are
designed not to nitrify they usually fall in the low SRT range. Plants designed for nitrification
will have an SRT in the intermediate range. In colder climates long SRT’s will be required.
High rate plants usually produce an effluent BOD of less than 20 mg/l with little or no
nitrification having most of the effluent nitrogen in the ammonia form. Suspended solids may
also vary between 15 and 25 mg/l.

Low SRT or extended aeration plants produce a fairly clear effluent with suspended solids
between 5 and 15 mg/l and a BOD less than 10. The permanganate value or OA of such effluents
will also be less than 10 mg/l. The nitrogen in the effluent will consist mostly of nitrates and
where denitrification is allowed for, the total nitrogen may be less than 5 mg/l. With care low
rate plants can be operated to give virtually complete nitrification resulting in very low ammonia
concentration of the effluent where this is desirable.
With provision for biological phosphate removal both high rate and low rate plants can produce
effluent with less than 1 mg/l of P.
7.3.3 Rotating Biological Contactor

This is a relative new application of an old idea of removal of soluble organic matter. Essentially a
fixed film reactor in which the physical support medium is partially submerged in the liquid
undergoing treatment and continuously rotated on horizontal axis. The biomass on the medium is
subjected to periods of immersion and therefore intimate contact with the liquid, alternating with
periods of exposure to the air to achieve oxygenation.
As a point of the disc rises above the liquid level, a thin film of liquid remains attached to it and
oxygen is transferred to that film as it passes through air. The return of that point into the water with
this highly aerobic liquid to the reactor increases dissolved oxygen.
Air is entrained by the build of the liquid due to the turbulence caused by the rotation of the discs.
The mixing within the reactor disperses this air, thereby maintaining a relatively uniform dissolved
oxygen concentration.
Grease and fats may cause problems of fouling of disk surfaces. It is therefore necessary in such
circumstances to provide interceptors upstream of rotating biological contactors.
7.4 SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION

Sedimentation tanks placed after the biological filter are named secondary sedimentation tanks.
Often we use the name humus tank when the tank follows a biological filter and clarifier when it
follows a biological filter. Because of the similarity in duty as regards the amount of solids
requiring removal and the sedimentation rate, it is normal practice to provide types of tanks which
are very similar to or identical to the primary sedimentation tanks.
7.4.1 Humus tanks

Humus tanks are required to remove by sedimentation, the solids present in the effluent
discharged from biological filters (biofilters). The settleable solids in biofilters effluent consist of
particles of the slime material containing the purifying organisms. These develop in increasing
thickness on the biofilter media until they are sloughed off or washed out of the media by the
passage of the sewage feed.
Quantity and Nature of Sludge Solids

The amount of settleable humus in biofilter effluent is relatively small. The mass of humus solids
is normally about 30-40% of that settled from raw sewage in the primary sedimentation tanks.
Since primary tanks normally remove approximately 250 mg/l of suspended solids it follows that
humus tanks remove 75-100 mg/l of suspended matter.

Types of sedimentation tanks

The humus tanks are sometimes slightly larger in diameter but are mostly identical in size to the
primary tanks. The problem of accumulation of fats or scum does not normally occur at the
secondary sedimentation stage and facilities for scum removal are therefore not provided.
7.4.2 The Clarifier

For our purposes the tanks used for sedimentation following activated sludge aeration will be
termed clarifiers. The term secondary clarifier is often used though it is common in Zimbabwean
practice for the clarifiers to be the only sedimentation tanks on a particular works. This is
because many sewage works of recent design are extended aeration activated sludge plants, which
treat unsettled sewage.
Unlike biofilter works where only a small quantity of humus solids is required to be removed an
activated sludge plant operates with continuous recycling of large concentrations of activated
sludge. The activated sludge is in suspension in the aeration tank and must be settled out of the
mixed liquor in the clarifier to produce two streams. The overflow from the clarifier is the clear
treated effluent from the process, and the underflow, which contains the settled sludge solids, is
the sludge return or recycled stream.
Quantity and Nature of Sludge

Unlike humus tanks which handle small masses of solids with good settling
characteristics, clarifiers are required to deal with large masses of solids with relatively
poor settling characteristics.
A humus tank is expected to remove approximately 100 mg/l of settleable solids.

However, a clarifier is normally required to settle and remove between 2 000 and 5 000
mg/l of suspended solids from the feed.
Hydraulic Loading
In any clarifier or sedimentation tank it is necessary to ensure that the upward velocity or
surface loading on the tank (in m3 of effluent per m2 of tank surface per hour, or m/h)
does not exceed the settling rate of the particles to be removed.
Thus for activated sludge which settles at (say) 1 m/h the upward velocity through the
clarifier should be less than 1 m/h. If the tank is operated at a higher surface loading it
will become overloaded through excessive hydraulic flow and carryover of sludge solids
will occur.
Hydraulic overloading of a clarifier will generally occur at the time of day when the flow
to the works is at a peak, usually during early or mid morning.
7.5 TERTIARY TREATMENT

Tertiary treatment follows the conventional biological treatment process.
Even the best effluent from one of the secondary treatment systems already described will still
contain impurities including:
• Finely suspended matter in the form of humus or activated sludge.

• Dissolved chemicals such as chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, sodium potassium, and
many others;
• Bacteria, including some pathogens.
Depending upon the purpose for which the effluent is to be re-used, it may be necessary to remove
most or at least some of these.
Advanced treatment methods are essentially designed to cope with nutrients and organic substances
commonly present in domestic effluent. More sophisticated techniques such as reverse osmosis and
ion exchange can be applied to remove both organic and inorganic substances, but the economic
feasibility of these processes has still to be demonstrated on a large scale.
Some of the advanced treatment methods, which are employed in wastewater treatment, are:
Impurities Physical and chemical treatment

Phosphates and Flocculation with lime, alum, ferric colloids salts and polymers.
organic Separation of solids by floatation or sedimentation and disposal of
resultant sludge by incineration or reclamation of chemicals.
Ammoniacal Nitrogen Excess lime added to raise pH to11,0 then stripping with air in a cooling
tower. Oxidation of residual ammonia with chlorine.
Organic carbon and Adsorption into beds packed with granular activated carbon, or with
COD subsequent separation of carbon by flocculation and sedimentation.
Micro-organisms Breakpoint chlorination, ozonation or ultra-violet radiation in a suitable
contacting unit after removal of organics in suspension.
Synthetic detergents Separation of methylene blue active substances (MBAS) by foam fraction,
followed by activated carbon adsorption treatment.
Hardness, alkalinity Iron exchange, electrodialysis
A trend in wastewater treatment is to combine some of the above physical and chemical methods
with conventional biological treatment. Investigations are also in progress where independent
physical treatment methods are applied to raw sewage without a biological treatment stage.
Advanced treatment methods have been applied successfully for the reclamation of sewage effluent
for potable and for industrial reuse, and the wide use of these methods has become a most effective
approach to combat pollution of streams.
Examples of Tertiary Treatment methods

Micro-straining:
Straining is a simple filtration process in which solids are separated from liquids by passage through
some kind of network of wires and threads, fibres or other porous membrane.
The objective is clarification of liquids by straining from them the maximum possible amount of
solids, providing at the same time a ready means of cleaning the strainer without interrupting the
operation. The process involves the use, as straining media, of very finely woven fabrics of stainless
steel which are capable of causing the solid matter being strained off to form a mat on their surface,
this mat then retaining suspended solids of sizes still smaller than the minute apertures of the fabric.

Sand filtration:
To render the effluent from humus tanks or micro-strainers almost entirely free of suspended solids,
sand filtration in various forms is adopted.
It is useless to try and filter incompletely purified effluent through sand. Such effluent will still have
some colloidal matter present, and this chokes the pores of the filter very rapidly.
Maturation ponds:
Maturation ponds are for further purification or "polishing" of an effluent after aerobic treatment.
Maturation ponds must be shallow and they should cover a large area, sufficient to give a retention
period of two to three weeks, in order to function well. Short-circuiting through the ponds must be
prevented and precautions against mosquito breeding taken.
Maturation ponds reduce the bacteriological count of an effluent to a very large degree, and they also
reduce the ammonia, nitrate, phosphate and potash content (these being plant) and other biological
nutrients. Through this further purification, which cannot be obtained in percolating filters or
activated sludge units, the ponds make the effluent much more suitable for discharge to streams.
Maturation ponds act as a buffer in the event of over-loading or a breakdown at a sewage works.
A final large maturation pond or dam can be made an attractive feature of a sewage purification
works, and will readily attract wildfowl, especially if the dam is stocked with fish. The fish can also
be a good source of protein food.
Wetlands (marshes) either natural or of artificial construction, can also be used for improvement of
effluent.
Land treatment:
Controlled irrigation of final effluent, including its use for crops, can be helpful in further
purification. Agricultural products obtain many of their chemical nutrients from the effluent,
rendering it more fit for discharge to streams. The bacteriological quality is also greatly improved.
Where sewage effluent is available for irrigation, this tends to be overdone and becomes very
wasteful of water. Careful consideration must be given to all possible methods of re-using water
before it is just freely discharged over land.
Chlorination:
The addition to sewage of chlorine gas or compounds containing active chlorine serves many
important and useful purposes, its main uses being confined to the following: -
• Disinfection, or the destruction of disease producing organisms.
• Destruction or control of undesirable growths.
• Delay of decomposition and septic conditions.
• Destruction of odours.
• Increase of grease removal in aerated skimming tanks.
• Disinfection treatment of industrial wastes.
With final effluents the first two uses are those commonly sought. It is generally undesirable to
chlorinate effluent for irrigation. Some chlorination may be indicated in certain instances, but it
should not be carried out to such an extent that the effluent becomes completely sterile. Such a
sterilized effluent could make an ideal media for breeding undesirable bacteria if these are

subsequently introduced into the stream or elsewhere, whereas a normal effluent would contain a
mixed, balanced microscopic life, much of which is helpful in destroying undesirable bacteria.
In some cases, for example if an effluent is to be used as cooling water at a power station, the
addition of 3 to 4 mg/l of chlorine to the effluent can be very effective in controlling the growth of
algae or slime.
At a water purification works, after the water has been filtered it is only necessary to add 0,25 to 0,5
mg/l of chlorine to ensure complete sterility. Higher doses are always necessary for sewage works
effluent which, however clear they may look, still contain some ammonia and organic matter, both of
which absorb chlorine. The costs are therefore prohibitive.
7.6 EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE DISPOSAL

7.6.1 General
In the management of wastewater effluents it is necessary to attain certain effluent standards to avoid
problems associated with discharges to watercourses and to land. These problems include:
• oxygen depletion due to excessive BOD
• fish kills particularly due to ammonia, where there is no full nitrification
• sludge bank formation in rivers due to excessive suspended solids
• adverse health effects on downstream users due to toxic substances or pathogens in drinking
waters. Nitrates impact negatively on babies. Most drinking water in developing countries is not
treated. Hence the need to protect water sources from sewage effluent pollution.
• a build up in salinity may result from irrigation with sewage effluent
• eutrophication is a major problem in southern Africa whereby plant nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds) lead to excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants, which eventually
die and decompose, turning the water anaerobic and causing taste and odour problems in water
treatment.
• For land discharge (irrigation of pastures, crops, trees, gardens, parks, etc.) it is essential to
protect the land from toxic substances and salinity, crops, animals, workers and the public from
pathogens and toxic substances.
7.6.2 Effluent Standards
The purpose of wastewater treatment is the production of an effluent of a certain quality –
normally established by a national agency. Designs of treatment works should therefore be
capable of meeting the established standard. Even in cases where there is no formal standard the
treatment works should aim to achieve an effluent which does not constitute a public health risk
and which will not pollute receiving water bodies. In particular bacteriological quality should be
based on the faecal coliform count.

Recommended (minimum) effluent standards

Effluent use BOD faecal coliforms algae
(mg/l) (per 100 ml) (per 100 ml)
Effluent to be discharged into surface water < 25 < 5 000 < 100 000
Effluent to be used for restricted irrigation - < 5 000 -
Effluent to be used for unrestricted irrigation - < 100 -
source: Feacham, McGarry & Mara
Effluent standards should ideally be set for each effluent discharge, considering all relevant
factors. This, however, is impractical for developing countries. In Zimbabwe overall standards
have been set on a regional basis, and these allow for exemption where a lower standard will not
be detrimental.
Effluent disposal in Zimbabwe is governed by two sets of regulations issued under the Water Act
and the Public Health Act, with the former controlling discharges to rivers while the much less
strict later controls discharges to land.
• for discharge to rivers: Water (Effluent and Wastewater Standards) Regulations (GN 687/77),
issued under the Water Act (1976). The Act has just been amended!
• for discharge to land: Public Health (Effluent) Regulations (GN 638/72) issued under the
Public Health Act.
In Zimbabwe discharge standards to rivers were introduced to control eutrophication of important

dams, and these require nutrient removal. Nutrient removal is now possible at reasonable cost
and is adopted:
• where reuse is essential because of limited water resources
• where irrigation costs are too high
• where irrigation expansion is not economically possible.
Effluent irrigation
Even with acceptable effluent quality, the main problem with irrigation is due to weather:
• sewage flows are at a maximum in the wet season when irrigation is not required, while
• flows are at a minimum in the dry season when irrigation is required.
Balancing storage is expensive and has potential problems of eutrophication. Pasture grass or
gum trees can withstand huge variations in the irrigation rate. Generally provide 35 hectares /1
000 m3 /day ADWF.
The “Guidelines for disposal of sewage and sewage effluent” issued by the Ministry of Water
Development in 1978 allow direct discharge of treated effluent in excess of 1 x ADWF to rivers
in periods of prolonged wet weather.
7.6.3 Sludge Digestion

With regard to ultimate disposal the most important feature is the fact that digested sludge is
biologically stabilised and lends itself to prolonged periods of storage without creating smell
pollution. In addition to this the digestion process converts between 50 and 70 percent of the
organic solids to methane gas. This gas can be beneficially utilised as fuel. Finally the digestion
process kills off a large percentage of pathogens present in the raw feed sludge (90% or more)
and the result is that digested sludge is much safer than raw sludge.

Anaerobic Sludge Digestion

Sludge produced in wastewater treatment plants may be reduced in volume through the treatment
processes outlined above before being subjected to an anaerobic sludge digestion process.
The objectives of anaerobic digestion include:

• decomposing sludge organics to stabilised humus
• reducing mass and volume of sludge
• obtaining useful by-products
• destroying or controlling pathogenic organisms
The Digester Tank

Digesters are usually round in shape. The floor of the tank is sloped, so that sand, grit and heavy
sludge will tend to be removed from the tank with the digested sludge when it is withdrawn from
the digester. Most digesters constructed today have fixed roofs which are normally designed to
maintain a gas pressure of no more than 200 mm water column pressure.
7.6.4 Sludge disposal

Ultimate disposal of dewatered solids may be by
- landfill
- incineration
- land application if biologically stabilised
The ultimate disposal of sludge has emerged as a severe problem only during the past ten to
twenty years. This did not happen because of any significant changes in the sludge itself, but
more due to an increased public awareness of the health risks associated with the usage of sludge.
Two constituents in sludge can be singled out as being largely responsible for this health risk:
• Viable pathogenic and /or parasitic organisms
• Heavy metals derived from industrial wastes
These two factors have caused a severe decline in the traditional demand for sludge as a fertiliser
or soil conditioner for farming or domestic gardening activities. The responsibility for finding
safe, acceptable alternative disposal methods rested on the shoulders of the authorities operating
sewage works. To make the problems even worse, sludge quantities have increased out of all
proportion not only because of normal population growth but also because stricter purification
standards have encouraged the use of sludge generating processes such as the activated sludge
process.

8. WASTE STABILISATION PONDS

8.1 Introduction
Waste stabilisation Ponds (WSP) are shallow man-made impoundments for treating wastewater by
entirely natural processes utilising natural physical, chemical and biological processes. They offer
advantages of low cost, simplicity and high efficiency. The WSP systems comprise a series of ponds
(anaerobic, facultative and several maturation) into which wastewater flows and from which, after a
retention time of many days (compared to hours in conventional treatment processes), a well-treated
effluent is discharged. They are appropriate in tropical and subtropical climates. There are no
machinery or energy requirements (except the sun).
There are three main types of pond in practice and these are joined in series. Typical systems include
anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds.
8.2 Anaerobic ponds

Anaerobic ponds are basically open septic tanks and their primary function is BOD removal. They
are used as a pre-treatment reactor ahead of facultative ponds to treat large volumes of strong wastes.
The ponds are 2-5 m deep and receive such a high organic loading that they contain no dissolved
oxygen (DO) and no algae.
BOD removal is by sedimentation of suspended solids (SS) which are then rapidly digested by
anaerobic bacteria. The partially treated effluent then passes on to the facultative ponds for further
treatment. Typical retention times are 1-4 days and preferred depths are 2-4 m. Odour release can be
avoided by volumetric loadings above 400 g /m3 /day of BOD and the concentration of sulphate ion
in raw waste should not exceed 100 mg /l as SO42-. The main source of odour is hydrogen sulphide
formed mainly by anaerobic reduction of sulphate by sulphate-reducing bacteria. Odour is only
caused by escaping H2S molecules seeking to achieve a partial pressure in the air in equilibrium with
their concentration in it.
BOD removal at temperatures above 200C is at least 50% at 1 day retention,

60% at 2,5 days retention, and
70% at 5 days retention.
For the normal range of Zimbabwean temperatures (15 – 200C) BOD reduction is reduced by 10 –
20% from the above figures.
Land savings are achieved through the use of these anaerobic ponds as they greatly reduce the BOD
of a strong sewage thereby reducing the area of the required facultative pond.
Sludge accumulation rate is about 0.04 m3 /person /year and desludging is required every 3 – 5 years.
8.3 Facultative Ponds

The facultative pond (1 – 2 m deep) normally forms the largest pond in the system and receives
settled wastewater (usually from anaerobic ponds), septic tanks and also raw sewage. Facultative
means that both aerobic and anaerobic conditions exist, resulting in a two-phase biological sewage
treatment process.



In the aerobic upper layers:

v bacteria oxidise a large portion of the BOD using oxygen produced in the pond by
photosynthesis of algae during daylight hours.
v algae produce oxygen used in bacterial metabolism while bacteria respire carbon dioxide and
release inorganic nutrients (N, P) required for algal growth. This is referred to as symbiosis
(association of mutual benefit). DO concentration fluctuates daily due to changes in light
intensity and pH. Vertical mixing induced by wind ensures a uniform distribution of BOD, DO,
bacteria and algae and results in a better degree of waste stabilisation.
In the deeper anaerobic zone of the pond

v organic matter is digested by anaerobic bacteria
v Settleable solids in the incoming sewage settle to the bottom forming a sludge layer in which
anaerobic digestion occurs if the temperature is above 150C, resulting in an incoming BOD
reduction of up to 30% and reduction of sludge buildup so that desludging is required every 10 –
20 years.
Pond depth should be at least 1m (1,2 – 1,5m used in Zimbabwe) to prevent vegetable growth and
mosquito breeding.
8.4 Maturation Ponds

These are used as a polishing stage after facultative ponds or conventional sewage treatment,
primarily for pathogen reduction. They also ensure further BOD reduction, nutrient removal (nitrate,
phosphate), and most of the reduction in numbers of faecal bacteria and viruses. The ponds are
wholly aerobic during the day. High pathogen removals are achieved because of the high DO, high
pH and good light penetration. Pathogens are removed mainly by ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
while worm eggs settle out.
It is normal to provide 3 maturation ponds, with retention time of 5 days and a depth of 1 – 1,5 m.
Alternatively provide 4 ponds with retention times of 10, 5, 5 and 5 days for high effluent quality. In
warm climates each pond with a retention time of 5 days removes at least 95% of the faecal
coliforms entering it. However due to the algal and nutrient content of effluent, in Zimbabwe this
effluent cannot be discharged to rivers but will have to be irrigated.
Maturation ponds provide excellent conditions for fish breeding.
8.5 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of WSP include
v land recovery
v low treatment cost
v potential for resource recovery
v high level of removal of organic matter (BOD)
v can achieve a much better microbiological effluent quality e.g. excreted pathogens at low cost
when compared to conventional treatment
v low level of maintenance
v require no routine operation
v ability to absorb both hydraulic and organic shock loads
v can treat a wide variety of domestic and industrial wastes
v flexibility of system to extensions for new capacity
v savings in foreign exchange and spare parts
v no energy requirements

v can cope with high levels of heavy metals.
Major disadvantages are

v inability to remove nutrients to very low levels
v effluents normally carry a high level of suspended algae. Hence disposal must be by irrigation,
which requires 10 times more land area than the ponds.
v take up a lot of space.
8.6 Design of Anaerobic Ponds

Anaerobic ponds should be designed to have a volumetric loading rate, λv, of 250 g /m3 /day of
BOD.
Volumetric BOD loading rate, λv, is the daily amount of BOD entering the pond divided by the pond
volume, V.
λv = LiQ/Va = 250 g /m3 /day
where Li is the influent BOD, mg /l (=g /m3)
Q is the flow of sewage (m3 /day), and
Va is the anaerobic pond volume, m3
If Q and Li are known, Va can be calculated.
Therefore Retention time t* = Li = Li_

λv 250
___________________________________________
8.7 Design of Facultative Ponds

Assume the ponds are completely mixed reactors in which BOD removal is governed by a first order
reaction equation
Le = _ 1___
Li 1 + k1t
where Le = effluent BOD (normally 50 – 70 mg /l for pond depths of 1 – 1,5 m)

Li = influent BOD
k1 = reaction constant (about 0,3 d-1 at 20oC, varies with temperature)
t = retention time (days)
t = (Li _ 1) 1
(Le k1
But t = A x d where d = pond depth; Q = volumetric flow rate (m3 /d)

Q
Therefore A = Q (Li _ 1)
dk1 Le
k1 is temperature dependent and is given by k1(T) = 0,3(1.05) T - 20

The temperature is the mean temperature of the coldest month (mean monthly ambient air
temperature).

If we aim for an effluent BOD of 60mg/l
A = Q (Li - 60)__
18d (1.05)T-20
However an empirical procedure by McGarry and Pescod gives a straight line relationship of
λs = 20T - 60
where λs is the design loading (maximum permissible loading), kg/ha/day and T is the mean monthly
ambient air temperature of the coldest month in oC.
Note: If λs is the weight of BOD applied per unit area per day, then the weight (g) of BOD applied
over an area A (m2) each day is LiQ
hence λs = 10LiQ
A
where λs is in kg/ha/day
__________________________
Example
Design a facultative pond given
Flow = 10 000m3/d
BOD = 630 mg/l
Temperature = 200C
let the effluent BOD = 60mg/l
Area, A = 10 000(630 –60)

18.d(1.05)20-20
If depth is taken as 1.5m

Area = 10 000 x 570 m2
18 x 1.5 x 1
= 211 111m2
Organic load
λs = 10LiQ
A
= 10 x 630 x 10 000
211 111
= 298kg/ha.day
Check permissible loading

λs = 20T - 60
= 20 x 20 - 60
= 340 kg/ha,day
The organic load is less than the maximum permissible and can be accepted.
However had this been higher than the maximum permissible then we could try reducing the depth
to 1.2m in which case
A = Q (Li – 60)
18d(1.05)T-20
= 10 000 x 570
18 x 1.2 x 1
= 263 889m2
Organic load λs = 10LiQ

A
= 10 x 630 x 10 000
263 889
= 239 kg /ha /day
which is much less than the maximum permissible, and therefore still ok!
____________________________________
8.8 Maturation Pond Design

The reduction of faecal bacteria in a pond (anaerobic, facultative or maturation) has been found to
follow first order kinetics
Ne = Ni
1 + Kbt
where
Ne = number of FC/100ml of effluent
Ni = number of FC/100ml of influent
Kb = first order rate constant for FC removal, d-1
t = retention time
For n ponds in series this becomes
Ne = Ni_____________________
(1 + Kbt*1)(1 + Kbt*2)(1 + Kbt*3) …(1 + Kbt*n)

Where t*n = retention time (days) in the nth pond and Kb is a temperature dependant constant.
Kb(T) = 2.6 (1.19) T - 20
where Kb(T) = value of Kb at T0C
Influent coliform counts are usually in the order of millions per 100 ml, say 4 x 107 FC /100ml.
The detention times change as more ponds are connected to the series
Example, maturation pond design:
Start with 2 ponds of 7 days retention time each, and influent coliform count of 4 x 107FC/100ml and
T = 200C.
Aim for FC < 5000FC/100ml
then Ne = 4 x 107 ____

(1 + Kbt1)(1 + Kbt2)
Kb = 2.6 (1.19)20 - 20 = 2.6
t1 = t2 = 7 days
Ne = 4 x 107 = 4 x 107 __
(1 + 2.6 x 7)(1 + 2.6 x 7) 19.2 x 19.2
= 10 8507 FC/100ml
> 5 000 FC/100ml
Try 4 ponds, 2 with a retention time of 7 days each and 2 with retention time of 5 days each.
Ne = _ 4 x 107 ____________________
(1 + 2.6 x 7)(1 + 2.6 x 7)(1 + 2.6 x 5)(1 + 2.6 x 5)
= 4 x 107 ______
19.2 x 19.2 x 14 x 14
= 553 FC/100ml < 5 000 FC /ml
therefore OK!
However, 3 ponds of 7 days detention time could also have been ok.
Retention time, t =A x d
Q
Therefore pond size, A = Qt/d

If d = 1.5, t = 7 days, and Q = 10 000m3/day

A = 10 000 x 7
1.5
= 46 667m2
say 100 m x 467m (width and breath)

____________________________________
8.9 Operation and Maintenance of Ponds

It is essential to commission ponds at the onset of the hot season to ensure quick establishment of
microbial populations to effect waste stabilisation. Ensure also that all ponds are free from
vegetation. Commission the facultative pond before the anaerobic pond to avoid odour release.
Preferably fill the facultative and maturation ponds with river, lake or well water for gradual
development of algae and bacterial populations. Seed anaerobic ponds with digesting sludge
from e.g. anaerobic digestor.
Routine maintenance requirements and responsibilities, though simple, must be clearly defined at the
design stage and undertaken regularly. These include:
v removal of screenings and grit from the inlet works
v cutting grass on the embankments regularly and removing it so that it does not fall into the pond
to prevent mosquito breeding
v removal of floating scum and floating macrophytes from facultative and maturation ponds and
burn or bury it. This is necessary to maximise photosynthesis and surface re-aeration and
obviate fly breeding.
v spraying the scum on anaerobic ponds with clean water or pond effluent to prevent fly breeding.
v removal of accumulated solids in the inlets and outlets.
v repair of any damage to the embankments caused by rodents, rabbits or other animals.
v repair of any damage to external fences and gates.
v anaerobic and facultative ponds will require desludging every few years as necessary.
(Anaerobic ponds every 3 to 5 years; facultative ponds every 10 to 15 years).
System operators should receive precise instructions on the frequency at which these tasks should be
performed. Operators should have their work constantly supervised and should fill in a maintenance
record sheet.

9. SEPTIC TANKS
9.1 General
Septic tanks comprise buried, watertight receptacles designed and built to receive wastewater
from a home, for separating solids from the liquid, providing limited digestion of organic matter,
storing solids, and allowing the clarified liquid to discharge for further treatment and disposal.
9.2 Treatment Principles

Septic tanks are basically sedimentation basins with no moving parts or added chemicals.
Partially decomposed sludge and settleable solids settle to and accumulate on the bottom of the
tank. Lighter material, including fats and greases, form a thick matt (scum) which rises to the
top. This matt reduces the absorption of oxygen thereby maintaining an anaerobic environment in the
tank. Partially clarified liquid flows out through an outlet pipe structure just below the floating
scum layer and is disposed of through soil absorption systems like soakaways, soil mounds,
evaporation beds and anaerobic filters.
The process appears simple but various complex processes occur and interact with each other, the
major ones being:
v the separation of solids
v anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in the sludge and scum to form water, carbon dioxide
and methane as end products
v anaerobic stabilisation of liquid
v Growth of micro-organisms. There is an overall reduction in the number of micro-organisms,
though large numbers of viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminths can still be present in the
sludge, scum and effluent.
9.3 Performance of Septic Tank

The performance depends largely on detention time, but other factors are:
v Ambient temperature, which affects the rate of utilisation and/or break down of organic
matter by micro-organisms. Sludge and scum digestion is accelerated by an increase in
temperature up to about 35o C.
v Nature of influent wastewater, which affects the biodegradability of wastes, toxicity,
alkalinity or acidity.
v Position of inlet and outlet in the septic tank, which affects the turbulence of wastes thereby
affecting the degree or efficiency of settlement. Quiescent conditions encourage
sedimentation, though efficient digestion requires thorough mixing.
v Microbial population, which refers to the number of active cells that need food, affects the
digestion of sludge and scum.
v Organic matter content in the wastewater.

9.4 Design and Construction

Septic tank design should aim to ensure removal of virtually all suspended solids and a high degree
of anaerobic digestion of the colloidal and soluble organic solids. This can be achieved through
allowing for
v a liquid volume sufficient for a 24 hour liquor retention time at maximum sludge depth and scum
accumulation.
v the right positioning of inlet and outlet structures and adequate sludge and scum storage space to
prevent the discharge of sludge or scum in the effluent.
v allowing for the escape of gases discharged from the tank. There is however no need to allow for
direct ventilation as the decomposition process is anaerobic.
The volume of the tank must be sufficient to guarantee liquid retention (not less than 24 hours) and
storage of sludge and scum between cleaning. . This gives heavy solids enough time to settle to the
bottom and lighter solids and grease to float. Cleaning frequency depends on the rate of sludge
accumulation which in turn depends on ambient temperature, liquid retention time, materials used for
anal cleaning, and volume of wastewater. Sludge accumulation rates vary considerably. Mara gives
the sludge accumulation rate of 0.03 - 0.04 m3/head/yr for Zambia and an average value in South
Africa of 0.032 m3/head/yr. (Note: Similar values were obtained for the sludge build up rate for VIPs
in Zimbabwe although the figures are still not very conclusive).
9.5 Tank and soakaway location

Septic tanks and soakaways should not be built too close to buildings or sources of drinking water.
The table below gives guidelines for the distances from a septic tank and soakaway to different
properties and soakaway respectively.
Property Septic Tank (m) Soakaways (m)

Buildings 1.5 3.0
Property Boundaries 1.5 1.5
Wells 30 30
Streams 7.5 30
Cuts or embankments 7.5 30
Pools 3 7.5
Paths 1.5 1.5
Source: Mara, 1976
9.6 Tank sizing approaches

There are several methods for calculating the required tank capacity, most of which are not
applicable for developing countries. (Various codes of practice are used for sizing tank sizes.)
A. British Standard Code of Practice (CP 302, 1972) gives the capacity, C in litres as
C = 180P + 2000
where C is the tank capacity in litres and P is the contributing population.
B. For developing countries the number of users or the average daily flow rate is the most
appropriate criteria for sizing a septic tank. One general expression for calculating the effective
capacity of a septic tank is

C = A + P (rq + ns)
where A is a constant, r is the minimum retention time (days) of the wastewater in the tank
just before desludging is carried out (normally taken as one day), q is the wastewater flow in
litres per person per day, n is the number of years between desludging and s is the sludge
accumulation rate in litres per person per year.
C. The capacity can also be calculated by assuming that sludge and scum are removed when they
occupy two thirds of the capacity, and the retention time is never less than a day.
D. The following detailed method (Pickford) of sizing the tank takes into account local variations.
There are three steps in the calculation, since the tank has to accommodate both solids (sludge
and scum) and liquids.
Step 1
Calculate the capacity required for sludge and scum storage.
C1 = Pnfs (litres)
where C1 is the required sludge storage capacity, P is the number of people expected to
contribute to the tank, n is the number of years between desludging (assume 3 years if no
other information is available), s is the rate of sludge and scum accumulation in litres per
year, say 35 l /head /year, and f is a factor to correct the sludge build up rate which depends
on ambient temperature. (At more than 200C: f = 1.0 for a desludging period above one
year.)
Step 2
Calculate capacity required for liquid retention
C2 = Pqr (litres)
where q is the per capita wastewater flow per day, (can be measured over a period of time or
estimated from water consumption figures - approximately 85% of water consumed returns
as wastewater in the absence of extensive gardening), C2 is the required liquid retention
capacity.
Step 3.
Calculate the total capacity
C = C1 + C2
If C2 > 0.5C1, the minimum tank size is C = 1.5C1
The size of small tanks is often determined by other considerations e.g. width of tank should not be
less than 60 cm to allow a person to work inside it.
A single compartment tank normally provides acceptable performance, though an equivalent

capacity two-compartment tank is better in terms of reduction in BOD, suspended solids and organic
colloids. Two compartment tanks are appropriate for populations under 100 and for soakaways in
very dense soil.
Example

A household has 6 members. The water consumption per member is 40 l/day. The ambient
temperature is estimated at 20O C. Calculate the required capacity for the relevant septic tank.
C1 = P x n x f x s
C1 = 6 x 3 x 1 x 30 = 540 litres (capacity for sludge and scum storage)
C2 = P x q x r
C2 = 6 x (40 x 0.85) x 1= 204 litres (capacity needed for liquid retention at max. sludge
depth).
C = C1 + C2 = (540 + 204) litres = 744 litres = 0.744m3 (required total capacity of the septic
tank)
Check: C2 > 0.5 C1 (it is not)
Exercise
Calculate the tank size, assuming a water to wastewater conversion of 85%, a sludge build up rate of
30 litres per head per year and an ambient temperature estimated at 20O C. The water consumption is
120 l/head/day. The household has 10 people.
9.7 Subsurface irrigation

The effluent is discharged directly to a number of drainage trenches connected in series with each
other. Each trench consists of open joint agricultural drainage pipes of 100 mm diameter laid on a 1
m depth of rock fill. (20 - 50mm grading). Unless a more accurate figure is known, the rate of
infiltration per m2 of sidewall area may be conservatively estimated at 10 l/m2/day.
In calculating the sidewall area an effective depth of trench is assumed, which is usually less than
1m.
effluent flow l/day
Sidewall areas (m2) = ( )
infiltration rate l/m2 day
The trench has two sides. (the area of the floor will be ignored.)
0.5 x sidewall area m2

Length of the trench (m) = ( )
effective depth m
Exercise
Design a subsurface irrigation trench system for the above exercise.
___________________________
9.8 Operation and Maintenance

There are no moving parts therefore minimal routine maintenance is required. The only maintenance
essential for a well constructed and properly utilised septic tank is the removal of surplus sludge and
scum to leave a clear central zone for the liquor.
Once or twice annually inspect sludge and scum accumulations. Desludge the tank when
v bottom of scum layer is within 76 mm of the bottom of the outlet structure or when
v sludge level is 200 – 320 mm of the bottom of the outlet device /structure.

Empty septage using a tanker with a pump and hose, otherwise dig out the sludge with a long-
handled shovel. Leave behind some 5 – 10 litres of old sludge at the bottom to ensure seeding
(continued digestion).
The operation of a septic tank will be strongly hindered if strong disinfectants or alkalis are present
or large volumes of detergent are discharged. Fresh sludge contains pathogens and needs to be
decomposed over time before it can be used for agriculture.
9.9 Disposal of Tank Effluent

Effluent still contains pathogenic micro-organisms and a high BOD. Avoid discharging into water
courses or on land. Subsurface irrigation in drain field trenches is one common method of disposal.
The site conditions must be suitable and should not pose any hazard to groundwater quality. A sand
filter system is an option where conventional soil absorption systems are not favourable.
9.10 Sludge Disposal

Accumulated solids are removed regularly by pumping the septage (mixture of sludge and
supernatant) from the septic tanks. Disposal options are
v at a wastewater treatment facility,
v composting
v land application
v anaerobic /aerobic treatment
Ensure there is no resultant danger to public health when disposing of sludge. Manholes can also be
used for disposal if approved by the local authority.
Exercise
Design a septic tank together with the effluent disposal system for a family of 12, where water
consumption is 140 l/head/day. Effluent disposal is by subsurface irrigation in a drainfield. State
your assumptions.

10. FLOW MEASUREMENT

10.1 General
The hydraulic and biological performance of wastewater treatment plants can be assessed only from
an accurate knowledge of the flow and the load. Flow rates are dynamic quantities – varying on an
hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly basis. At most treatment works in the region flow measuring
devices are made a part of the inlet works.
Flow is measured in terms of volume passing a given point in unit time.
Purpose of flow measurement:

Flow measurements are often required at certain stages in a sewage treatment plant to allow
operating personnel to control various processes. Flow record are also valuable for planning, design
and costing purposes.
10.2 Flow Measurement:

Devices, which are in common use for flow measurement at treatment works, include the standing -
wave flume, rectangular or V-notch weir, venturi meter, electromagnetic meter and ultrasonic
sensors.
The rate of flow passing a fixed point in an open channel is the product of the average velocity at that
point and the cross-sectional area of the liquid. In an open channel the cross-sectional area will vary
with the head of flow upstream.
10.3 Open Channel Flow

Flow measurement for raw sewage, treated effluent and sludge are normally undertaken by means of
flumes and weirs. In open channel flow there is no excess pressure – there is a free surface. A flume
– a constriction in a channel – is often used in measuring open channel flow. The constriction
compels the liquid to increase velocity and form a hydraulic jump (standing wave) on the
downstream side of the flume. The flow depth of the liquid above the flume is then used as an
indicator of the rate of flow. The depth is measured in a stilling well by a float or bubble tube or
other device. A rating /calibration curve is then used to convert the depth to a flow.
Standing -Wave flume
A flume is a specially-shaped open channel providing a constriction, which results in an increase in

velocity and a change in the level of the liquid flowing through it.
It has a converging section to restrict the flow, a throat, and a diverging section and there must be
sufficient length of channel upstream and downstream to ensure local stability. There is a unique
relationship between the depth in the throat at the critical velocity and the depth in the approach
channel.
For a standing wave flume

Q = k BH1.5
Q = flow rate in m3/s
B = width of throat at its narrowest point in m
H = height of liquid above invert of throat which is measured upstream of
where the throat starts (m)

k = a constant depending on geometry of channel and depth of flow,

commonly 1.75.
Flumes can cope with a wide range of flows with a small loss in head.

Venturi Flume
This is not related to the standing wave flume. For the venturi flume it is necessary to measure the
head in the approach channel and also at the throat. The flow Q in m3/s is given by
Q = 0.3Bh x {210 (H-h)}0.5
where H is the head over the invert in the approach channel (m)
h is the depth over the invert in the throat (m)
B is the width of the throat of the flume (m)
Thin Plate Weir

This weir consists of an obstruction placed across the channel with an opening or notch of precisely
defined shape and size through which liquid flows. The thin plate weir (sharp-crested weir) is made
up of a vertical metal plate set at right angles to the flow. The top edge is chamfered. The rate of
flow depends on the head over the weir.
Triangular or V-notch weir

This is the most commonly used type of weir and normally has a 900 vee cut into a thin plate. The
flow can be calculated from
Q = 1.42 H2.5
where Q is the rate of flow (m3/s) and H is the head of water above the point of the vee.
For small flows notch angles of 5308' or 2804' are used with appropriate changes to the formula.
Rectangular Weir
This is more applicable to large flows than V-notches. The flow in a sharp-crested weir (e.g. steel
plate) is given by
Q = 2.0 Lh1.5
while that in a broad-crested weir is given by
Q = 1.7 Lh1.5
where Q is in (m3/s)
L is weir length (m), and
h is water depth (m).

11. GENERAL MAINTENANCE AND RECORDS
11.1 Maintenance of Sewerage Systems and Works

Maintenance includes all activities which lead to effective and continuous use of equipment and
processes. This includes preventive maintenance (precautions taken to prevent any breakdown), and
corrective maintenance (repair works to be done after breakdown).
Proper sewer maintenance ensures a sewer system that is in good working condition. Key aspects of
maintenance include:
• prevention of flow back up in plumbing fixtures and into basements and buildings
• avoidance of failure in the internal drainage system
• avoidance of health hazards
• good maintenance builds cordial relations with and confidence of public
• responsible personnel should have sufficient knowledge of all features of the sewer network
Some of the maintenance-related problems include

• sewer clogging due to grit, grease, growth of fungi in sewers and penetration of tree roots into
sewers. Clogging can be minimised through the use of sewer cleaning equipment like rodding
machines, scrapers or sewer cleaning rods.
• collection of material in manholes. Removal of this material is achieved through the use of
sewer balls, flush bags or dredgers.
In most cases design and construction procedures will influence the maintenance costs, for instance
• the installation of inverted siphons creates cleaning problems
• the laying of pipes at appropriate grade ensures self-cleaning velocity, which reduces
maintenance
• the design of sufficiently sized manholes increases working space and the safety of personnel
• worker safety will be enhanced at pumpstations by the installation of suitable guards for tanks
and other openings, and moving parts of machinery
• bacterial infection for workmen will be reduced at pumpstations with proper insulation and
earthing of all wiring, good ventilation, illumination and fire protection measures against sewage
gases.
In order to achieve effective maintenance there is need for knowledge of equipment and processes,
suitable tools, adequate spares and a planned programme. A planned maintenance programme for
preventive maintenance should be drawn up for all equipment, structures, unit processes, etc in order
to prevent expensive breakdowns and loss of service. This also improves the efficiency of the
organisation. The maintenance programme activities includes aspects such as the following:
• regular greasing, lubrication oil changes, inspection, cleaning, replacement
• systematic arrangement of maintenance for equipment (e.g. staggered)
• systematic planning; keeping records to avoid reliance on memory
• revise timetable depending on experience
• record date of maintenance, nature of work, condition of equipment, parts replaced or ordered,
time spent and costs
• record serial numbers of spares replaced – for future orders. Keep bearings, oil seals, gears, etc.
in stock
• regular servicing of pumps, motors, etc
• regularly paint all store rooms, pumphouses and other buildings so that these are neat and clean

• maintain buildings, equipment and gardens, etc in a neat condition.
11.2 Record keeping

Records are valuable particularly for a new person in charge of works as they provide the history of a
plant, size, age, capacity of units, daily working times of each unit, daily capacities of units /sections
of plant, necessary maintenance, and repairs undertaken. They are also useful for ordering supplies
and equipment.
Accurate and adequate records of construction and O&M are important for the following major
reasons:
1. operation:- the correct running of a works requires a knowledge of its size, characteristics and
history of all parts of the plant.
2. planning:- the planning of future works, extensions, etc relies on an accurate record of flows and
strengths and the behaviour of the works with respect to changing raw sewage quality. Records
allow problem detection well before they reach serious proportions.
3. maintenance:- records assist in the timely servicing and repair of plant.
4. costing:- the controlling and budgeting of expenses requires a record of what work was done, by
whom and how much was spent on materials.
5. research:- a full and accurate record is essential for the study of aspects of operation of the
works.
It is important to distinguish between equipment and structure characteristics from variables. It is

also better to maintain more records than less.
Important records to be kept include

1. plans:- maintain a full set of the final, “as built” drawings showing the layout, size, shape and
details of all components of the works, especially buried items like pipelines and cables.
Update all drawings by marking all changes and additions to the works components. These
are a useful source of information when problems occur or when modifications are planned.
2. design parameters:- these assist the operator by indicating what the plant is expected to do and
under what conditions. By understanding the plant an operator can tell when plant components
are under or overloaded.
3. maintenance history:- these records are important for the efficient operation of the works.
Therefore maintain a record of repair works undertaken, and dates, costs, materials used, and the
preventive maintenance carried out. Plant and equipment particulars should be recorded for
instance repairs, outages, modifications, additions, etc. for all the items e.g. the number, size,
shape, volume and sludge removal systems for clarifiers. A full O & M manual should be kept
on site.
4. daily log:- record aspects like staff movements, visitors, appointments, weather conditions,
deliveries made, etc. Also note any significant occurrences like strange smells (including dates
and times).
5. flow records:- record influent flow rate continuously to monitor variations and carefully label
and file the recorded discs or strips. Also record instantaneous maximum and minimum flows
for each day (this assists with the assessment of groundwater or rainwater infiltration).
6. performance records:- regularly sample raw, partially and fully treated sewage for analysis and
record the results together with the flow. Also record the sewage temperature (inlet and outlet)
and the plant running times. Use a separate log sheet for each shift if appropriate.
7. Accounting:- record the costs of labour, materials, spares, new equipment, electricity and hired
plant. Also record delivery notes and invoices paid so any problems can be simply and quickly

cleared. This helps in making the cheapest decision for future jobs e.g. it may be cheaper to buy
a new pump than to have the various components overhauled and reassembled.
Systematic filing is a requirement as records are only useful if they can be located easily and reliably.

12. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
12.1 Introduction
Solid waste comprises non-liquid waste material arising from domestic, trade, commercial,
industrial, agricultural and mining activities and from public services. Waste disposal is more
defined as a problem in urban areas than in rural areas; in developing countries than in
industrialised countries. Per capita waste production is higher in industrialised countries than in
developing countries due to more spending power in the former. A high rate of reuse is witnessed
in the poorer developing countries. On the contrary in most cities of developing countries there
are volumes and volumes of poorly managed refuse including unplanned dumps. These dumps
support people, rats, dogs, and birds. Solid waste management encompasses waste generation,
storage, collection, street cleansing and disposal.
12.2 Characteristics of solid wastes

Solid wastes generation rates depend on various factors including incomes, living and eating habits.
The composition of the wastes also varies both between developing and industrialised countries and
within developing countries between the various socio-economic classes. Waste collected ranges
from a high of 2 kg /person /day in Europe and North America to between 0,3 and 3 kg /person /day
for tropical cities. Major influences are lifestyles, climate, consumption habits and industrialisation.
The following tables summarise typical waste compositions.
Approximate compositions of town refuse in India compared to Europe
Characteristic (%) India Europe

Paper 2 27
Plastics 1 3
Metals 0.1 7
Glass 0.2 11
Ash and fine earth 12 16
Rags 3 3
Vegetable matter 75 30
Other (stones, ceramics, etc) 7 3
Weight (kg /person /day) 0.1-1.0 0.8-2.6
Density (kg /l) 0.33-0.57 0.13-0.27
Source: After Cairncross (1993)
Domestic waste comparison, Harare
Characteristic (%) Mbare Mt Pleasant

Paper and cardboard 9.5 16.7
Glass and ceramics 2.8 8.2
Metals 1.8 5.7
Plastics 6.9 19.3
Leather and rubber 0.2 3.0
Textiles 1.2 4.6
Vegetables 57.2 43.5
Miscellaneous 16.1 5.0
Source: (MLGRUP, 1995)

Solid wastes can be characterised by the weight generated, density or constituents. Typical values
are 0,25 kg /person /day world-wide and 100 – 600 kg /m3 density. The estimation of waste
quantities is essential to enable rational decisions on design of waste collection and disposal services
regarding:
• method and capacity of storage of domestic wastes
• type of collection vehicle
• optimum crew sizes
• collection frequency
• recycling potential of wastes
12.3 Problems associated with solid wastes

Among the various environmental hazards of poor handling or management of wastes are:
• mosquito, rats and fly breeding from uncovered piles of decomposing wastes
• transmission of faecal oral diseases by flies
• transmission of diseases (plague, fever, etc) by rats
• diminished landscape aesthetics
• public nuisance
• clogging of sewers and drains leading to flooding
• road encroachment
• unpleasant odours and irritating dusts
• health hazards to collection and disposal workers
• contamination of surface and ground water and air pollution
• risk of fire.
12.4 Waste management legislation

Legal, economic and administrative considerations are prerequisite to proper waste management.
Waste management in Zimbabwe is vested in various statutory instruments, of which the Public
Health Act is the principal law with a bearing on human health. The act makes provisions for local
authorities to deal with any public health nuisances arising from their areas of jurisdiction.
The other major act is the Regional, Town and Country Planning Act which provides for the control
of developments (e.g. the deposit of refuse or waste materials on any land, the use on any land of any
vehicle or similar object as a building for residential or other purposes) in districts, regions, etc.
Further, each local authority can promulgate by-laws in terms of the Urban Councils Act or the Rural
District Councils Act to control various activities in its area, e.g. for Harare there is
• Harare (waste management) By-laws 1979 (as amended)
• Harare (Anti-litter) by-laws 1981
• Harare Public Health by-laws 1962 (as amended)
At international level there is:

1. The Basil convention of 1989 which is a global treaty which regulates transboundary movements
of hazardous wastes.
2. The Bamako convention which is the same as above but for the African continent.

12.5 Collection and storage

The planning of a proposed refuse collection service should be pilot-tested in stages prior to full
introduction into the whole city. Collection frequencies should be appropriate for the social
grouping:- high-income, low-density areas, or high density suburbs. Individual bins may be
appropriate in one setting while community bins could be provided in other areas.
Appropriate vehicles are essential to collect bin contents. Efficient operation and maintenance of
vehicles is a must as any uncollected routes due to breakdowns will affect a whole suburb’s
collection. Compaction equipment is not highly effective on collection vehicles servicing low
income communities because of the relatively high density of the refuse. A simple tractor and trailer
is normally practical and effective for small settings. Hand and animal drawn vehicles are labour
intensive but cheaper to buy and more reliable to operate.
12.6 Treatment and disposal

There are three major methods of treating and disposing of solid wastes:
1. incineration
2. controlled tipping
3. composting
12.6.1 Incineration
Incineration (burning) of refuse requires fairly expensive plant and sufficiently combustible refuse.
Large amounts of fuel are required for incineration especially with wet refuse. Incineration has the
advantage that it can be carried out relatively close to the point of waste generation. The volume and
weight of the residue is greatly reduced even though the residue is no longer of any value to
agriculture.
12.6.2 Controlled tipping (sanitary landfill)

Controlled tipping has advantages in that it can be used to dispose of refuse while reclaiming
quarries, excavations, gravel pits, swamps, etc. Wastes are tipped systematically tipped, compacted
and covered with a layer of soil on a daily basis. Scavenging is a part of life on the landfills,
providing employment, income generation and reduced quantities of wastes to be covered.
Compaction and cover are undertaken in order to:
• limit odour emmision
• prevent wind from blowing away refuse
• prevent emergence of fly larvae
• prevent fly breeding
• control rats (by preventing penetration)
• reduce fire risk
• make site less attractive to birds
• provide good conditions for biological degradation of organic matter in the landfill and
stabilisation (by retaining heat generated by the decomposition of organic matter).
• minimise surface water pollution.
Potential problems may arise from ground and surface water pollution from leachate and also fire
hazard from methane gas generation.
12.6.3 Composting

This option converts the organic content of refuse into compost, a soil conditioner for agricultural
use.
12.7 Health and safety

Workers should be provided with the maximum protection against risks of accidents and ill-health,
and the following issues are important:
• encourage regular use of protective clothing
• encourage personal hygiene by the provision of showers for use before leaving work
• avoid dangerous methods of riding on vehicles
• report all cuts and animal bites without delay so that first aid or medical attention can be
provided
• avoid standing underneath hydraulically tipped vehicle bodies as these sometimes descend
suddenly without warning.

13. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL SAFETY

13.1 Introduction
The sewage arriving and undergoing treatment at a sewage treatment works contains pathogens.
Care must be exercised so as to safeguard the health of the operators and prevent contamination
of the external environment since these pathogens survive to varying degrees as the waste is
transported, treated and disposed of on land or elsewhere. Waste reuse should be based on the
health risk and degree of treatment provided.
Sewerage reticulation networks and the sewage treatment works have hazards of disease
infection. At the works there is also operating machinery for which safe working procedures and
precautions need to be adhered to. A sewage treatment works is just like a factory, which
requires the formulation of and adherence to safe working procedures.
13.2 Occupational Health

The following are basic precautions:
• ensure pump station has a superstructure which facilitates ventilation and entry of natural light
• provide additional ventilation in special test areas of the laboratory
• separate storage areas for dangerous chemicals
• at the incinerator ensure satisfactory methods for to handling dry pulverised sludge; also
preclude dust accumulation that results in potential dust explosion hazards
• provide automatic shutdown controls to terminate the flow of hazardous waste materials to the
incinerator in the even of accidental flames
• clearly label containers
• separate storage of the various groups of chemicals
• use suction bulbs on pipettes
• use gloves for glassware
• gas – store outside lab in well-ventilated area.
• install fencing around all plant structures where unauthorised entry could result in personnel
mishaps or disruption of plant operations
• provide for the safe collection of samples
• provide shower facilities with hot and cold running water for employees
• separate eating rooms from other facilities
• install warning signs indicating non-potable water outlets
• provide equipment for noise reduction where possible
• provision of natural light in pump rooms where possible
• provide exterior lighting to facilitate night operations
• provide hoists to lower or raise men and equipment into pit areas
• consider the applicability of handlift trucks for chemical handling
• avoid entering deep sumps without testing for hydrogen sulphide
13.3 Physical Safety

Basic safety procedures should be formulated and adhered to. These include:
• Regular inspections with the assistance of a factory inspector. (The Zimbabwe Occupational
Safety Council can be of assistance.)
Fire
• locate a fire alarm at plant

• fire fighting facilities should be strategically located

• doors from potentially hazardous areas to be tight lifting and self-closing
• laboratory wall surfaces, ceilings and furniture to be made of fire resistant materials
• waste gas burners and vents should be located at safe distances from buildings
• all electrical equipment should be properly insulated and grounded
• Routinely test fire extinguishers
Burns
• install cages or guards around accessible hot exhaust piping
• maintain essential first aid kits
Explosions
• entry ways for the room holding a gas or oil-fired heat exchanger to comply with safety
requirements.
• install automatic gas alarm systems, both visual and audible to detect explosive and /or
combustible gases and vapours
• laboratory to be equipped with two easily reached exists reasonably remote from each other
Electric Shock
• all medium and high voltage cables to be completely enclosed and adequately marked to warn
personnel of contents
• install electrical 'lock out' facilities to prevent accidental starts when machinery and equipment is
being worked on or otherwise taken out of service.. Do not touch electrical equipment and
switches; treat as live if not isolated.
• provide and ensure use of safety equipment including safety tools
• prevent unauthorised people from handling electrical equipment, panels, supplies, isolate and
lock, test installations before commissioning
Falls
• provide rest landings on stairways
• ensure that fixed ladders covering more than one storey height are equipped with safety cages
• provide and ensure use of non-slip surfaces and boots
• provide process tanks with adequate railings, life saving devices and interior ladders
• encourage use of life belts where appropriate
• routinely test ladders
• Ensure catwalks are replaced if corroded
• Use barricades and warning signs
Drowning
• avoid entering deep sumps without testing for hydrogen sulphide and wear a harness attached to
a rope
• ensure adequate widths of walkways in tanks
Impact
• elimination of 'head knockers' created by low pipes, valves, ceilings, and suspended equipment
• equipment, piping, valves and other appurtenances arranged for ease of access

Machinery (including rotating machinery parts)

• provide cages around exposed rotating shafts and all other moving parts
• provide an emergency shut off switch clearly labelled at all machinery units
• avoid touching moving machinery
• use correct tools
• use lifting gear
• isolate mechanical or electrical equipment
Materials handling
• provide lifting attachments such as hooks or eyes on heavy equipment
• ensure human lifting associated with bags and drums of chemicals is kept a at a minimum
General
• Utilise protective clothing where required – hard hat, non slip boots, earmuffs, goggles, gloves,
acid resistant dust coats
• keep first aid kit
• use appropriate tools: wear goggles when grinding, lifting gear for lifting heavy objects
• maintain all equipment without leaving it to deteriorate. Supervisors to ensure safety procedures
are adhered to.
Manholes, sewers and sumps

• isolate job site from traffic
• test for oxygen deficiency, flammable gases and H2S, and ventilate if necessary.
• use life harness and self-contained breathing apparatus if necessary
• use safety hat, overalls (prevent contamination of clothes)
Digestors and sludge tanks

• close gas line after filling digestor to highest level, and venting to atmosphere; lower tank
contents until empty; continually monitor atmosphere
• disconnect power supply
• have more than two people at the entrance
• ensure no smoking accessories – cigars, pipes, matches, lighters.

GLOSSARY
Activated sludge process. A biological wastewater treatment process which speeds up the
decomposition of wastes in the wastewater being treated. Activated sludge is added to
wastewater and the mixture (mixed liquor) is aerated and agitated. After some time in the
aeration tank, the activated sludge is allowed to settle out by sedimentation and is disposed of
(wasted) or reused (returned to the aeration tank) as needed. The remaining wastewater then
undergoes more treatment.
Activated sludge. Sludge particles produced in raw or settled wastewater (primary effluent) by
the growth of organisms in aeration tanks in the presence of dissolved oxygen. The term
"activated" comes from the fact that the particles are teeming with bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.
Activated sludge is different from primary sludge in that the sludge particles contain many living
organisms, which can feed on the incoming wastewater.
Aeration tank The tank where raw or settled wastewater is mixed with return sludge and aerated.
It is the same as an aerator or reactor.
Aeration The process of adding air to water. In wastewater treatment, air is added to freshen
wastewater and to keep solids in suspension. With mixtures of wastewater and activated sludge,
adding air provides mixing and oxygen for the micro-organisms treating the wastewater.
Aerobic: containing molecular oxygen as part of the environment.
Growing or occurring only in the presence of molecular oxygen..
Aerobic Bacteria are a bacteria culture, which depends on the availability of molecular oxygen
for their metabolism /growth.
Aerobic digestion The breakdown of wastes by micro-organisms in the presence of dissolved
oxygen. This digestion process may be used to treat only waste activated sludge or trickling filter
sludge and primary (raw) sludge, or waste sludge from activated sludge treatment plants designed
without primary settling. The sludge to be treated is placed in a large aerated tank where aerobic
micro-organisms decompose the organic matter in the sludge. This is an extension of the
activated sludge process.
Aerobic Process. Bacteria use oxygen as an electronic acceptor. The end products are CO2, H2O,
SO4-, NO3-, NH3 and more bacteria.
Anaerobic Bacteria are a bacteria culture, which do not require oxygen for their metabolism
Anaerobic digestion Wastewater solids and water (about 5% solids, 95% water) are placed in a
large tank where bacteria decompose the solids in the absence of dissolved oxygen. At least two
general groups of bacteria act in balance: (1) SAPROPHYTIC bacteria break down complex
solids to volatile acids, the most common of which are acetic and propionic acids; and (2)
METHANE FERMENTERS break down the acids to methane, carbon dioxide, and water.
Anaerobic processes: Anaerobic bacteria oxidise organic matter utilising electron acceptors other
than oxygen. The end products are CO2, H20, H2S, CH4, NH3, N2, reduced organics and more
bacteria. End products are likely to be odorous and intermediates such as the volatile acids may be
toxic to bacteria, thus promoting an upset of the process.
Biomass refers to mass of organismic culture
BOD abbreviation for biochemical oxygen demand, which is a measure of the concentration of
organic impurities in wastewater. (The amount of oxygen utilised by micro-organisms in
stabilising organic matter under aerobic conditions, (mg/l)).

COD stands for chemical oxygen demand and is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of that
portion of organic matter that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidising agent.
Coliform bacteria: a group of bacteria predominantly inhabiting human or animal intestines, but
also occasionally found elsewhere. This is used as an indicator of faecal contamination.
Denitrification An anaerobic process that occurs when nitrite or nitrate ions are reduced to
nitrogen gas and bubbles are formed as a result of this process. The bubbles attach to the
biological flocs and float; the flocs to the surface of the secondary clarifiers. This condition is
often the cause of rising sludge observed in secondary clarifiers or gravity thickeners.
Detention (retention) Time is the total time a fraction of a liquid remains in a tank before it
flows out in a continuous flow system – it is therefore dependant on the volume of reservoir
(basin or tank) and the quantity of flow - (= volume /flow)
Digestion: biological decomposition of organic matter in sludge.
Dissolved Solids is the solid fraction of wastes, which is in solution. Can be separated from the
liquid fraction by evaporation - expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l)
Dry weather flow is wastewater flow collected without any ingress of rainwater.
Facultative bacteria is bacteria culture capable of carrying out either anaerobic or aerobic
reactions depending on the availability of oxygen
Facultative Pond: this is a pond in which there exists aerobic conditions close to the surface and
anaerobic conditions at the tank bottom above the sludge layer. A symbiotic relationship exists
between the algae (at the surface) and the anaerobic bacteria at the bottom. The ponds are
designed primarily for the removal of BOD.
Flow rate the volume of liquid passing into or out of a given system per unit time
Free oxygen. Molecular oxygen available for respiration by organisms. Molecular oxygen is the
oxygen molecule, 02, that is not combined with another element to form a compound.
Hydraulic Load is total flow being imposed on a system - expressed in m3 per unit time
Industrial wastewater is wastewater generated from industrial processes such as meat
processing, dyeing, tanning, electroplating, etc.
Inorganic waste. Waste material such as sand, salt, iron, calcium, and other mineral materials,
which are only slightly affected by the action of organisms. Inorganic wastes are chemical
substances of mineral origin; whereas organic wastes are chemical substances usually of animal
or plant origin.
Nitrification An aerobic process in which bacteria change the ammonia and organic nitrogen in
wastewater into oxidised nitrogen (usually nitrate). The second-stage BOD is sometimes referred
to as the "nitrification stage" (first-stage BOD is called the "carbonaceous stage").
Nutrients Substances, which are required to support living plants and organisms. Major nutrients
are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous. Nitrogen and phosphorous are
difficult to remove from wastewater by conventional treatment processes because they are water
soluble and tend to recycle.
Organic load is the total organic load being imposed on a system - expressed as equivalent BOD
in mg/l
Organic waste: Waste material which comes mainly from animal or plant sources. Organic
wastes generally can be consumed by bacteria and other small organisms. Inorganic wastes are
chemical substances of mineral origin.

Pathogenic: disease causing

Sanitary sewage refers to domestic wastewater originating from houses, commercial premises,
institutions and is made up of approximately two thirds sullage.
Sanitary sewer: A pipe or conduit (sewer) intended to carry wastewater or waterborne wastes
from homes, businesses and industries to the Treatment Works. Storm water runoff or unpolluted
water should be collected and transported in a separate system of pipes or conduits (storm sewers)
to natural watercourses.
Septic: A condition produced by anaerobic bacteria. If severe, the wastewater produces hydrogen
sulphide, turns black, gives off foul odours, contains little or no dissolved oxygen, and creates a
high oxygen demand.
Sewage refers to the wastewater conveyed by a sewer. It contains a mixture of excreta and
sullage and sometimes industrial effluents.
Sludge is the thick, grease mud of settled wastes.
Soakaway: pit or trench filled with stones to allow water to filter into the ground and disperse.
Sullage is domestic wastewater from sinks, baths and wash basins but not from toilets
Surface Overflow Rate is the velocity of flow over a given area (flow /area) - expressed in m3
per m2 per unit time
Suspended Solids is the solid fraction of wastes which is in suspension - expressed in milligrams
per litre (mg/l)
SVI (Sludge Volume Index). this indicates the tendency of activated sludge solids (aerated solids)
in the secondary clarifier to thicken or to become concentrated during the sedimentation
/thickening process. When mixed liquor has an SVI well above 100mL/gram of solids, it tends to
form a thin slurry or billowing sludge blanket or to form bulky sludge.
TOC. Total Organic Carbon. TOC measures the amount of organic carbon in wastewater.
Total Suspended Solids is the total mass of all solids in wastes, which includes both the
dissolved and suspended fractions - expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l)
Volatile acids: Fatty acids produced during digestion, which are soluble in water and can be
steam-distilled at atmospheric pressure. Also called "organic acids". Volatile acids are commonly
reported as equivalent to acetic acid.
Volatile: a volatile substance is one that is capable of being evaporated or changed to a vapour at
relatively low temperatures.
Wastewater treatment plant refers to any process to which wastewater is subjected to in order
to remove or alter its objectionable constituents so as to render it less offensive.
Wet weather flow is flow collected with ingress of rainfall.

REFERENCES
Cairncross, S and Feachem RG, 1983. Environmental Health Engineering in the Tropics.
Feacham R., McGarry M. and Mara D. (1982), Water, Wastes and Health in Hot Climates
Hammer M J (1986) Water and Wastewater Technology, Prentice Hall,
Institute of Water Pollution Control, 1984, Manuals of British Practice in Water Pollution Control:
Unit Processes;
Kerri D, ed (1996) Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A field study training program,
Volume I and II, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations,
California State University, Sacramento
L. B. Escritt , 1984. Sewerage and Sewage Treatment International Practice,
Mara D (1976) Sewage Treatment in Hot climates.
Otis,R J; Mara D 1985, The design of small bore sewer systems, UNDP
Ross Institute Bulletin No. 8 (1988) Small Scale Sanitation,
Sanitation Manual 5, Design procedures, SALA. 1990.
Steel W, McGhee T J, McGraw(1979) Water Supply and Sewerage
University of Zimbabwe la. handouts.
Water Institute of Southern Africa, 1988, Manual on the Design of Small Sewage Works;
WEDC lab Handouts
World Bank, Information and Training for Low Cost Water Supply and Sanitation; 5.1 On-site
Sanitation
World Bank, Information and Training for Low Cost Water Supply and Sanitation; 5.2 Waterborne
Sanitation;

Wastewater and Excreta Disposal

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Wastewater and Excreta Disposal

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Module

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN WATER SUPPLIES & SANITATION 6

Institute Of Water And Sanitation Development

DIPLOMA IN WATER SUPPLIES AND SANITATION

• Water supply systems

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development i

1.1 WHY TREAT WASTEWATER?............................................................................................1

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SANITATION SYSTEMS .......................................................................2

3. PLANNING SANITATION SYSTEMS.......................................................................................9

5. WASTEWATER GENERATION AND COLLECTION.........................................................19

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development ii

5.1 WASTEWATER GENERATION .....................................................................................................19

6. PRINCIPLES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT............................................................................24

6.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................24

7. OUTLINE OF TREATMENT PROCCESSES........................................................................31

7.1 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT PROCESSES ...................................................................................33

8. WASTE STABILISATION PONDS .........................................................................................60

8.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................60

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development ii

8.9 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PONDS ..............................................................................68

9. SEPTIC TANKS .........................................................................................................................69

9.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................69

10. FLOW CONTROL ..................................................................................................................74

10.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................74

11. GENERAL MAINTENANCE AND RECORDS .....................................................................77

11.1 MAINTENANCE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS AND WORKS............................................................77

12. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT...........................................................................................80

12.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................80

13. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL SAFETY................................................84

13.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................84

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development iii

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 1

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 2

2.2 DRY ON-SITE SYSTEMS

2.2.2 Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 3

2.2.3 Multiple-Pit VIP latrine

2.2.4 VIDP latrine

The advantages of the VIP latrine are:

The disadvantages are:

2.2.5 The Overhung latrine

2.3 WET ON-SITE SYSTEMS

Pour Flush Toilet

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 4

Among the advantages of the latrine are

The major disadvantages are

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 5

§ requires some water for flushing

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 6

Its main advantages are:

Its major disadvantages are:

2.3.3 Septic Tanks

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 7

2.4 WET OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

2.5 DRY OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

The system is suitable in densely populated urban areas where

2.5.2 Bucket latrine

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 8

3. PLANNING SANITATION SYSTEMS

3.2 CHOICE OF TECHNICAL OPTION

Factors influencing the technical options include the following:

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 9