Semiconductor Memories

By Gurpreet Singh

19-Apr-17 1
 Introduction
 Memory: Any system which processes digital data needs a facility for
storing the unprocessed, partially processed and completely processed data
is know as memory
 In earlier days the memory used to be a magnetic tapes
 But now a days we use semiconductor memories of various types and
size.
 Advantages of Semiconductor Memory
 Small Size
 High Speed
 Better Reliability
 Low Cost
 Ease of expansion of memory

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 Memory Organization
Flip Flop is capable of storing single bit so the basic element of a semiconductor
memory is Flip – Flop
To Store a 4 –Bit word we need to use Four Flip Flops
There are a number of locations in a memory with each location storing a word
of required length

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 Memory Size
 If a particular memory chip is capable of storing M words with
each word having N bits in it then the size of the memory will
be M x N
 So if the size of memory chip is specified a 16 x 4 then it
means that this memory consists of 16 locations and each
location can store 4 – bit word.
 The commonly used values of number of words per chip are
64, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096 etc. and the common word size
are 1, 4 and 8.

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 Block Diagram of Memory
Device

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 Types of Inputs Lines and
Output Lines
 There are three types of inputs to an M x N memory Device
i. Address Input Lines or address Bus
ii. Data Input Lines or Data Bus
iii. Control Inputs
and there are N number of data output lines or Output data bus.
 Data Input Lines: There are N – number of data input lines. The data to be
stored is put on these lines word by word each word N – bit long.
 Address Input Lines: There are ‘P’ number of address input lines. These lines
are used to specify the „address‟ of the required memory location, for reading the
already stored data or writing a new data.
 Data Output Lines: The data available in the selected memory location can be
“read” on the data output lines. The number of data lines is N i.e. equal to the
number of bits per word.
 Input and output data buses are unidirectional. That means the data flows only in
one direction.
 In most of memory chips the same set data lines is used for data input as well as
data output. Such data bus is called as Bi – directional data bus
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 Selection of Location using address lines
 To access any one of the M possible locations, we need P address lines such that

 For example if M = 16 locations, then P = 4, So we need 4 address lines to have

sixteen different combinations from 0000 to 1111.
 If address inputs 1100 i.e. 12 then we will able to access the twelth location of the
memory chip as shown bellow

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Memory chip with bi – directional
data bus

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 Control Lines
 The control lines include the read/write line and the chip select line (which acts as the enable
input)
 The bi – directional bus is used as input data bus for specific time when input data is to be
loaded into the memory (Write Operation)
 And it is used as output data bus for specific time when the stored data is be read (Read
Operation)
 The Bidirectional data bus saves „N’ data lines.
 There is only one control line and it is denoted by line
o If = 1, Reading operation takes place that means data bus acts as output data bus.
o If = 0, Write operation takes place that means data bus acts as input data bus.
 Chip Select line: The chip select input is active high input.
 When CS = 1, then only the chip is enabled and reading or writing will take place

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 Classification of Memories
 The memory devices can be classified, on the basis of various
parameters. The parameters used as basis of classification are
as follows:
i. Principle of Operation
ii. Physical Characteristics
iii. Mode of Access
iv. Technology Used for fabrication

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 Classification of based on Principle
of Operation

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 Sequential Memories
 Sequential Memories: In these memories the memory locations are
organized in a sequence (one after the other). The reading/writing from
such memories is a sequential process. Hence the time required to access a
memory location is different for different locations.
 Examples: Magnetic tape audio/Video Cassette
 The sequential memories are further classified into two types:
i. Shift Registers: already done in unit 5
ii. Charge Coupled Devices (CCD)
 The CCD are manufactured using MOS [Metal Oxide Semiconductor] or
Unipolar technology
 Advantages of CCD are high density and low cost

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 Random Access Memory (RAM or
RWM)
 The memory locations in this type of memory are organized in such a way
that access time required for accessing any location is the same. This is the
advantage of using RAM over the sequential Memories
 RAM can be fabricated using either Bipolar technology or Unipolar
technology
 RAM is a volatile memory so it loses the stored data when power is turned
OFF.
 RAM also further classified into two types:
i. Static RAM (SRAM)
ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

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 Types of RAM
 Static RAM: SRAM cells are basically flip flops which can store a bit as long as
power to the circuit is not interrupted.
 SRAM possible to implement using the bipolar as well as MOS technology.
 Dynamic RAM: In DRAM, the data is stored in the form of charge on the
capacitor.
 The Sense and control lines are used as column and row signals. When both these
lines are high MOSFET acts as closed switch and charges the capacitor and when
these lines are low, MOSFET turns OFF and capacitor retains its charge

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Comparison between SRAM and DRAM

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 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 These memories are designed only for reading the information which is already stored on
them. The user cannot write any new information on them. These are similar to prerecorded
cassettes.
 A manufacturer or someone else can write ROM‟s, but the writing process is much more
complicated as compared to that of a RAM.
 ROM is non - volatile memory such memories can hold the information even after switching
off the power supply.
 ROM also further classified as follows

 Bipolar ROMs are faster and they have higher driving capabilities whereas MOS ROMs
(Unipolar ROMs) require less area and consume less power.
 Now a days we used only MOS ROMs which have improved speeds (typically equivalent to
Bipolar ROMs
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 Classification of ROM
 Mask Programmable ROM: Mask ROM (MROM) is a type of read-only
memory (ROM) whose contents are programmed by the integrated circuit
manufacturer (rather than by the user)
 MPROM are not Reprogrammable
 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): It is also known as Field
Programmable Read-only memory (FPROM) or one-time programmable non-
volatile memory (OTP NVM)
 A user can program these ROMs using PROM programmer
 A PROM can programmed only once after its fabrication. After programming the
contents will become permanently fixed in ROM.
 PROM are not Reprogrammable
 Erasable PROM: These ROMs can be erased and programmed again and again.
 The commonly used techniques for erasing are as follows:
 Erasing using Ultraviolet Radiation are known as EPROM
 Erasing using Electricity are known as EEPROM [Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory]

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 Comparison between EPROM and EEPROM

EPROM EEPROM
i. Ultraviolet Light is used to erase the i. EEPROM contents are erased using
content of EPROM electronic signal [ 20 to 25 Voltage is
ii. EPROM has a transparent quartz applied]
crystal window at the top. ii. EEPROM are totally encased in an
iii. EPROM chip has to be removed opaque plastic case.
from the computer circuit to erase iii. EEPROM chip can be erased and
and reprogram the computer BIOS. reprogrammed in the computer
iv. Time required for erasing a data is circuit to erase and reprogram the
long about 10 to 15 min. content of computer BIOS.
v. EPROM is an older technology. iv. Time required for erasing a data is
vi. Less Expensive short about 10 ms..
v. EEPROM is a modern version over
EPROM.
vi. Very Expensive

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 Comparison between RAM and ROM

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 Classification based on Physical
Characteristics
 The Classification based on physical characteristics as
i. Erasable or non erasable Memories
ii. Volatile or non volatile Memories
 Erasable Memories: In these type of memories, stored information can be erased and new
information can be stored.
 Examples: EEPROM, RAM, CAM, EPROM
 Non Erasable Memories: In these type of memories, stored information can be not be
erased.
 Examples: ROM
 Volatile Memory: If the information stored in memory chip is lost when electrical power
switched off, then the memory is called as volatile memory
 Example: RAM
 Non Volatile Memory: If the information stored in memory chip does not lost when
electrical power switched off, then the memory is called as non - volatile memory
 Example: ROM and its all types

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 Classification based on Mode of Access
 Mode of access means the manner in which a memory location is accessed while
performing the read or write operation.
 There are two possible mode of access as follows:
i. Sequential access
ii. Random access
 Sequential Access:
 The sequential memories have sequential access (one after the other) to various
memory locations.
 So the time required to access various locations will be different.
 Examples: Magnetic Tapes, Audio / Video Cassettes etc
 Random Access:
 In these type of memories we can access any memory location without going
sequentially.
 Accessing any memory location for read or write needs same time of amount
 Examples: RAM, ROM and CAM

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 Classification based on Fabrication
Technology
 These are two basic fabrication techniques used as follows:
i. Bipolar Technology
ii. Unipolar Technology [MOS Technology]
 Bipolar Technology:
 Conduction takes place due to both charge carriers electron as well as holes
 Example: TTL, ECL, RAM, ROM, EPROM
 MOS or Unipolar Technology:
 Conduction takes place due single charge carrier either electrons or holes only
 Examples: RAM, EPROM, EEPROM
 Important Note:
 Bipolar ROMs are faster and they have higher driving capabilities whereas MOS
ROMs (Unipolar ROMs) require less area and consume less power.
 Now a days we used only MOS ROMs which have improved speeds (typically
equivalent to Bipolar ROMs

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Programmable Logic Device

• What is a Programmable Logic Device (PLD)?

 an IC that contains large numbers of gates, flip-flops and

registers that are interconnected on the chip

 can be configured by the user to perform a logic function

 many of the connections are fusible links that can be broken

 Programmable Logic Device

 Problems of using standard ICs in logic design:

 require hundreds or thousands of these ICs
 require a considerable amount of circuit board space
 require a great deal of time and cost in inserting, soldering, and
testing
 require to keep a significant inventory of ICs
 Large power requirement
 No security
 Additional costs are required if the existing circuit is to be modified
 Advantages of using PLDs
 Advantages of reducing the no. of ICs using PLD:
 less board space
 fewer printed circuit boards
 Increased speed of switching
 lower power requirements (i.e., smaller power supplies)
 faster and less costly assembly processes
 higher reliability (fewer ICs and circuit connections => easier
troubleshooting)
 availability of design software
 Reprogrammable is possible to be done within few seconds.
 Modifications can be carried out within a short span of time
 Types of PLDs
Various types of PLDs are as follows:
i. Read only Memory (ROM)
ii. Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
iii. Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
iv. Simple Programmable Logic Devices (SPLD)
v. Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLD)
vi. Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA)

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 Combinational PLDs
 A combinational PLD is an integrated circuit with
programmable gates divided into an AND array and an OR
array to provide an AND-OR sum of product implementation.
 PROM: fixed AND array constructed as a decoder and
programmable OR array.
 PAL: programmable AND array and fixed OR array.
 PLA: both the AND and OR arrays can be programmed.

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Combinational PLDs

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 PLA Logic Implementation
A B C
Design Example
ABC

Multiple functions of A, B, C A

B
F1 = A B C C

A
F2 = A + B + C
B
F3 = A B C C
ABC
F4 = A + B + C
ABC

F5 = A  B  C ABC

ABC
F6 = A  B  C ABC

ABC

ABC

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6