FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION
LINGUISTICS - the scientific study of language
- involves analyzing language, function,
form, meaning, and language in context.
FIELDS OF LINGUISTICS:
1. Phonetics
2. Phonology
3. Semantics
4. Syntactics
5. Morphology
6. Discourse analysis
1. PHONETICS
• Is the study of the sounds of speech
• “how” sounds are made and how the ear hear
those sounds and can tell them apart
• Art of producing sounds, and figuring out which
sounds you have heard
• In sign language, phonetics refer to the
possible shapes, movement, and use of
physical space
2. PHONOLOGY
• to see how sounds or signs are arranged in a
system for every language
• Focus in syllabication, phrasing, rhythm, tones,
and intonation
3. MORPHOLOGY
• How individual words are formed from smaller
chunks of meaningful units called morphemes.
• Pays attention to the formation of words when
combined with other words
4. SYNTACTICS
• Study on how phrases, clauses, and sentences
are constructed and combined
• STRUCTURE (sentence patterns)
5. SEMANTICS
• Study of meanings
• relationship between words, phrases and bits
of language on how these connect to the world
6. PRAGMATICS
• Study on how speakers of the language use the
language to communicate and accomplish
what they want
• PRACTICALITY OF USAGE
7. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
• Looks at the bigger chunks of language (text,
conversation, speech)
• CONCERNED WITH CONTEXT – environment
(appropriateness of language in situations)
• Evaluates appropriateness of language in
situation
• Ex. Funeral – u can’t crack a joke
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
 COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS – active;
follows creative and convenient ways and
method to achieve a certain goal or objective
 COMMUNICATION AS AN INTERACTION –
binding people to connect (sharing opinions)
 COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL CONTEXT –
activity of producing, transmitting, and
receiving meaningful messages
COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. SPEAKER - creates the message to be sent
- initiates communication
- responsible for creating successful
communication
2. RECEIVER - receives the created messages
- demonstrates feedback in conversation
3. CHANNEL - medium the sender uses to transmit
the message, verbal or non-verbal, oral or
written, symbols or tone
e.g., printed words, oral speech, gestures
4. Process of ENCODING – sender’s attempt to
express ideas and replicate thoughts or feelings
into a message medium through a form of
language or written ideas for the sake of
transmitting thoughts and emotions
5. Process of DECODING – receiver makes
meaning out of the sender’s message
According to Littlejohn (2008), a system is comprised
of the following:
1. OBJECTS: the parts in a given process (e.g., sender,
receiver, message, noise, feedback)
2. ATTRIBUTES: characteristics and purposes of each
object
3. INTERNAL RELATIONSHIPS: connection;
interdependence and interaction of objects
4. ENVIRONMENT: context or situation in which the
interaction takes place
Communication is able to serve its purpose within a
group or organization by means of setting the ff:
1. CONTROL
2. SOCIAL INTERACTION
3. MOTIVATION
4. EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
5. INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
1. SHANNON-WEAVER Communication Model
- Claude-Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver;
1948
- “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”
- ‘the mother of all communication models’
- more technological than other comm. models
 - A.k.a. “telephone model”
3. SCHRAMM COMMUNICATION MODEL
PARTS OF THE SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL:
• Sender – information source; chooses channel
• Encoder – transmitter; sender who uses
machine which converts messages to signals or
binary data; the machine itself
• Channel – medium used to send
• Decoder – receiver; machine used to convert
signals who translates messages from signals
• Receiver – destination; person who gets the
message; provides the feedback
• Noise – physical disturbances
4. JAKOBSON’S COMMUNICATION MODEL
CRITICISMS ABOUT THE MODEL (DANIEL CHANDLER):
SIX COMMUNICATION FUNCTION:
1. It assumes that communicators are isolated
(Roman Jakobson, “Linguistic and Poetics”; 1960)
individuals.
2. It makes no allowance for differing purposes.
3. It makes no allowance for differing
interpretations.
4. It makes no allowance for unequal power
relationships.
5. One-way direction of communication
2. TRANSACTION/CONVERGENCE MODEL
- Proposed by Dean Barnlund (1970) for basic
interpersonal communication
- Senders and receivers are known as
communicators (interchanging roles)
- Includes the role of context and environment;
noise and communication
- Considers also non-verbal communication
- Simultaneous feedback
- Since both the sender and receiver are necessary
to keep the communication alive, the
communicators are also interdependent to each
other.
- This is the most general model of
communication.
Factors affecting the Transactional Model:
1. Environmental noise (physical, physiological,
or psychological)
2. Social context (norms , values, laws and other
restrictions of a society to communicate within
a specific limit)
3. Cultural context (lifestyle, identity and status)
4. Relational context (manners from pre-
established norms and values)
• Devised by Wilbur Schramm, who was
considered the father of communication
studies
• Introduced the idea of feedback
• Circular process; one attribute or element may
exchange position at one point
1. Referential or informative function
- corresponds to the message that describes
through descriptive statements
2. Expressive or emotive/affective function
- signifies how the sender’s expressions can
exude his or her internal state but does not
alter the denotative meaning of the
message
3. Conative function
- engages the receiver to direct action
(imperative)
4. Poetic function
- focuses on the code used as the
operative function in a message (e.g.,
slogans and taglines)
5. Phatic function
- signifies language for the sake of
interaction
- aims to establish and maintain
connection among communicators (e.g.
greetings, okay)
6. Meta-lingual/metalinguistic or reflexive
function
- use of language as code to discuss or
describe itself (e.g., describing your emotion at
the present time)
Vendenber (2013) expounded on the principles of
communication, and presented the foundation of the
purpose of communication as follows:
1. A continuous saga; active
- active; constant and simultaneous sending and
receiving or messages as reactions to the
environment
2. Messages vary in conscious thought
- Sharing of meaning that occur spontaneously,
through learned or carefully constructed
behavior in unique situations
3. Relational
- Reflect relationships either with immediacy
(degree of liking) or control (degree of
dominance); e.g., debate, casual conversations)
4. Guided by culture
- messages that are interpreted based on system
of shared beliefs, values, and behaviors
5. Ethical implications
- communicating based on moral principles of
truth, integrity, fairness, respect for others, and
responsibility
6. Learned behavior
- communication can be learned with proper
skills to be competent for better interaction
SEVEN LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
1. INTRAPERSONAL- extremely private, restricted to self
- e.g., talking to self at a mirror, praying
2. INTERPERSONAL- between two individuals in a one-
on- one conversation
- objects swap roles as sender and receiver in order
to communicate in a clear and interactive manner
3. SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION- more than two
people; 3-20 individuals; requires decision-making; -
e.g., press conferences, board meetings
4. PUBLIC – one publicly addresses a large gathering of
people, like in campaigns and speeches
- has limited feedback
5. ORGANIZATIONAL- can be external or internal
- to achieve organizational effectiveness
using available resources
 Flow of communication in organization:
a. downward information – necessary for
staff to work on (e.g., policies and
procedures, orders)
b. upward (reports, requests, opinions,
complaints)
c. horizontal (messages bet. departments,
functions, or people of the same level
in the organization)
6. MASS COMMUNICATION – use of print and
broadcast
- e.g., newspapers, magazines, radios, television
7. CROSS-CULTURAL – people from different cultures
communicate based on the learned and acquired values
and manners
COMMUNICATION ETHICS
1. Truthfulness and Honesty – communication must be
anchored on factual statements
2. Integrity- similar to honesty but the moral
responsibility of the communicator
- refers to strong ethical principles that will not be
compromised despite the presence of any temptation
3. Fairness – being impartial and having a strong sense
of balance in sending and receiving messages
4. Respect – a sign of courtesy and goodwill; not being
tactless in expression
5. Responsibility – being accountable for one’s actions
4C MODEL OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. COMPREHENSION – understanding the message by
making it clear, sharp and simple
2. CONNECTION – getting the message, its meaning,
and significance using rational / emotional appeal, and
eventually SPARKING A RESPONSE AND BEHAVIOR.
3. CREDIBILITY – believing who is saying the message,
what is being said and how it is being said to establish
connection
4. CONTAGIOUSNESS – catching the so-called “message
fever” (e.g., taglines, catchy phrasings by artists)
CHAPTER 2: COMMUNICATION IN MULTI-CULTURAL
SETTINGS
Communication – composed of people
occupying a territory and bounded by
common interests and beliefs
Culture – characteristic of a particular
group of people, defined by everything
including language, religion, cuisine,
social habits, music, and arts.
- Ways of living and adapting within a
social context
- Latin ety. “cultura” (cultivation)
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
o Inter (between) + communication
o Exchange of communication
information between people from
different cultures (Samovar &
Porter, 2005)
o Manage messages and creation
of meaning across cultures
through socially constructed
transmission of symbols,
meanings, and rules
o This happens as individuals interact,
negotiate, and create meanings while
 bringing in their varied cultural
backgrounds (Ting-Toomey, 1999)
o It pertains to communication among
people from different nationalities
(Gudykunst, 2003)
A. DISTINCT PURPOSES OF I.C:
1. Culture Specific – focuses on
identifying communication behaviours
and finding out what is yet unknown
in a country
- Pointing out the positive and
negative features of cultures and
choosing which to adapt as part
of your preference / belief as
good.
2. Culture General – seeks to understand
common features between different
cultures
3. Intercultural interaction – hybrid of CS
and CG; identifying of specific pos and
neg activities and also the commonality
between cultures (e.g., Chinese
practices adapted in PH: lunar festival)
B. GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CULTURE:
1. Material – tangible or physical objects
valuable in a cultures’ way of life (also
called high culture)
2. Non-material – abstract concepts, e.g.,
rituals, language, custom morals, ethics,
and beliefs
*Doringer (2014): Culture can be described in an
iceberg or onion theory: high culture or the tip of
the berg refers to the sensible features in a culture;
whereas low culture refers to the deeper elements
that constitute one’s culture or belief.
C. DIMENSIONS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
(Gerard Hendrick “Geert” Hofsteede, 2005):
1. Identity/individualism vs. collectivism –
refers to either a personal want or need or
the social harmony of a group in which the
individual belongs. An example of
individualism is seen the sense of
independence of the American youth.
Once they turn 18 years old, they are ready
to live on their own. On the other hand,
collectivism is shown by the Filipino
version of family ties.
2. Equality vs. power distance – refers to the
sense of equality vs. status and position.
For instance, Japanese business practice
equality by getting rid of tables which
denote position in the workplace as
compared with Filipino managements
giving importance to status by providing a
cubicle for the manager as distinguished
from the staff.
3. Uncertainty avoidance vs. tolerance –
refers to the goal of either reducing risks
and problems or tolerating some mistakes
in a given culture. The Germans are an
example of people whose rigid culture does
not allow uncertainty or problem.
Meanwhile, in Arab culture, uncertainties
are allowed to happen and can be met with
spontaneity and flexibility.
4. Masculinity and femininity – refers to
giving much value to things associated with
men, or women. A bias of culture states
that the masculine achievement-printed
while the feminine world is care-oriented
5. Short term vs. long term orientation –
refers to cultures which give importance to
something that brings them immediate benefits
or advantages in a long run. Example of this is in
Filipino general belief, we go for YOLO—one
time millionaire so take the risk. However in
Chinese traditions, they believe that money
counts, may it be a cent or dime. Upon
collecting these silver pieces, we can convert
them to something greater in number.
D. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
65-95% includes interpretation of
body language, speech patterns,
and facial exression. 95% are
governed by lecutres.
TYPES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND I.C.
PRODUCES:
1. Reinforcement – support of verbal message
of non-verbals
2. Substitution – replacement of verbal
symbols of non-verbal symbols
3. Accentuation – nonverbal intensifying the
verbal message
4. Contradiction – conflict between verbal and
nonverbal message
5. Regulation – signals hand
gestures to indicate communication to
stop or continue
EXAMPLES OF NV IN IC:
1. Haptics: handshakes
2. Oculesics: eye contact / movement
3. Proxemics: space
E. BARRIERS IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
(Barne 1998)
1. Assumption of similarities
2. Language differences
3. Non-verbal misinterpretations
4. Preconceptions or stereotypes
5. Tendency to evaluate / make pre-judgment
6. High anxiety
DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF INTERCULTURAL
SENSITIVITY Bennet&Bennet (2004)
STAGE 1: DENIAL
 The individual does not recognize cultural
differences
STAGE 2: DEFENSE
 Individual starts to recognize cultural
differences and is intimidated by them

STAGE 3: MINIMIZATION
 Universality of ideas than on cultural
differences
STAGE 4: ACCEPTANCE
 Begins to appreciate important cultural
differenes. VALUES.
STAGE 5: ADAPTATION
 Indiv is very open to world views when
accepting new perspectives

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENT INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION World Bank (2010)
Politeness
Adaptability
Flexibility and ability to tolerate high levels of
uncertainty
Reflectiveness or mindfulness
Open-mindedness
Sensitivity
Engages in divergent or systems-level thinking