Negros Oriental State University

College of Arts & Sciences

Department of Geology
Dumaguete City

Geol 201 Petrology

Guide Questions (Part 1)

Llenos, Camryn E.
B.S. GEO2-B

1. Illustrate the basic compositional subdivision of the earth’s

internal structure with corresponding approximate measurements.

The basic compositional subdivision of the earth’s internal structure

from Tarbuck & Lutgens(2016).

2. Differentiate petrology from petrography. What is the main focus

of each of these two branches of geology?

The term petrology comes from the Greek petra (rock) and logos
(explanation).It refers to the study of rocks and the processes that
produce them. Such study includes the description and classification
of rocks, as well as the interpretation of their origin. Meanwhile,
petrography is the branch of petrology that deals with microscopic
examination of thin sections, cut from rock samples and ground down to
0.03-mm thickness so they readily transmit light. Basically it is the
branch of petrology that deals with the description and classification
of rocks, but the majority use the term to connote the study of rocks
in thin section. (Winter, 2001)

3. What are the common rock forming minerals? Why are they common?
What factor drives its concentration in the earth’s crust?

According to Best (2003) the major rock-forming minerals include

olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, feldspars, quartz, feldspathoids,
and Fe-Ti oxides (chiefly magnetite and ilmenite). These are under
the silicate group and are common because they are made up of the two
most abundant elements in the earth’s crust, oxygen and silicon. The
factor that drives their concentration in the crust is owed to
chemical differentiation that happened early in the earth’s formation.
What happened during this is that the lighter lithophile elements
floated to the top while the siderophile elements sunk to the
innermost part of the earth.
 4. What is plate tectonics? Who established the foundation of plate
tectonics theory?

According to Condie (2015), plate tectonics is an umbrella term

that aims to describe the mechanisms in the crust and mantle. On the
same note, it tries to explain the origin of the deformation of the
crust, mid-ocean ridges, supercontinents, and earthquake distribution.
Additionally, Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016) furthers this idea by
enumerating the facets of the theory such as: the rigid lithosphere
overlying the weak asthenosphere, the lithosphere being divided into
plates, and the movement of the plates. Moreover, Winter (2001) states
simply that plate tectonics is an amalgamation of the various methods
(mapping and sampling of ocean basins, probing of the mantle using
gravity and seismic wave variation) and prominent theories that were
available. These theories include seafloor spreading, and the
continental drift theory postulated by Alfred Wegener. Wegener is
highly credited as the person who laid down the foundation for plate
tectonic theory.

5. What are the types of slabs? The driving mechanism of these

slabs? Their respective boundaries?

The types of slabs are: oceanic and continental plate slabs (Winter,
2001). According to Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016) the driving mechanisms of
these slabs are called ridge push and slab pull. Slab pull, a major
driving force of plate motion, is the subduction of cold, dense slabs
of oceanic lithosphere. It occurs because cold slabs of oceanic
lithosphere are denser than the underlying warm asthenosphere which
leads them to sink; they are pulled down into the mantle by gravity.
Ridge push is a gravity-driven mechanism which results from the
elevated position of the oceanic ridge, this causes slabs of
lithosphere to “slide” down the flanks of the ridge. It appears to
contribute far less to plate motions than slab pull. Their respective
boundaries consist of convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries and
transform boundaries. As stated by Winter (2001) convergent plate
boundaries are areas where subduction of one plate beneath another.
Divergent plate boundaries are areas with spreading systems that are
usually oceanic in origin. Transform plate boundaries are areas where
plates slide horizontally past one another, without the production or
destruction of lithosphere (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

6. What are the types of rocks? How do they form? What processes
controls the formation of each rock type? Draw the rock cycle to
precisely illustrate your answers.
Illustration lifted from Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016).

The cycle can be started with magma or lava that cools down and
solidifies in a process called crystallization. This process is the
genesis of igneous rocks that can either be intrusive or extrusive
respectively. These igneous rocks undergo weathering that wear down
the rock. The loose parts of the rock than have been worn down by
weathering undergo transport and deposition. These materials are
transferred to another location by varying mediums such as through the
wind or by water and are deposited as sediment. As sediments, they
begin the process of lithification or the conversion into sedimentary
rocks. They undergo compaction and cementation where the sediments are
tightly squeezed together and are bonded to each other. The collective
term for the overall changes that a sedimentary rock goes through is
called, diagenesis. After that, due to changes in the environment such
as further deposition of a new layer of rocks on top of the
sedimentary rock, the sedimentary rock is buried further deeper into
the earth’s crust. Factors such as extreme pressure and stress under
metamorphism begin to alter the sedimentary rock into a metamorphic
rock. Once it becomes a metamorphic rock, it may undergo remelting to
become magma therefore restarting the cycle all over again.

Additionally there are alternative paths that rocks may pursue

rather than the main paths illustrated in the cycle. For example, an
igneous rock may completely bypass the process of becoming a
sedimentary rock and undergo metamorphism instead. Or it can be
completely remelted back into magma. Sedimentary rocks may once more
undergo diagenesis and be broken down into sediments. Metamorphic
rocks can re-experience metamorphism or go through the process of
weathering, uplift, transportation and deposition. All in all, the
rock cycle has many alternative paths that rocks have experienced to
arrive at their present form (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

7. What is an igneous rock? What are the factors that led in the
formation of igneous rocks?

Simply put, an igneous rock is a crystallized material from a

melt (Winter, 2001). As stated by Hefferan & O’Brien (2010), the
factors that led in the formation of igneous rocks are:
 The composition, temperature and depth of the source rock.
 The percent partial melting of the source rock.
  The source rock’s previous melting history.
 Diversification processes that change the composition of the
magma after it leaves the source region.
8. The two (2) main forms of igneous rocks.

The two main forms of igneous rocks are intrusive and extrusive.
According to Winter (2001) intrusive or plutonic rocks are those that
crystallized slowly beneath the surface of the earth while extrusive
or volcanic rocks are those that crystallized rapidly at the earth's
surface.

9. Types of Intrusive rocks.

According to Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016) the types of intrusive rocks

are:
Granite is a coarse-grained rock composed of about 10 to 20
percent quartz and roughly 50 percent feldspar. When examined close
up, the quartz grains appear somewhat rounded in shape, glassy, and
clear to gray in color.

Gabbro is the intrusive equivalent of basalt. Like basalt, it

tends to be dark green to black in color and composed primarily of
pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.

Diorite is the intrusive equivalent of andesite. It is a coarse-

grained rock that looks somewhat like gray granite. The mineral makeup
of diorite is primarily plagioclase feldspar and amphibole. Because
the light-colored feldspar grains and dark amphibole crystals appear
to be roughly equal in abundance, diorite has a salt-and-pepper
appearance.

Peridotite is referred as the mantle rock with an ultramafic

composition that generates hot basaltic magma during partial melting.

10. What are concordant features? Discordant features?

Cross-cutting bodies are called discordant, and those that are

intruded parallel to the country rock structure are called concordant.
(Winter,2001)

11. Define and illustrate each concordant features:

a. Dikes

Image lifted from Nelson (2015).

A discordant tabular body is called a dike. A dike is a

magma-filled fracture that cuts across bedding or other
country rock structure (Winter, 2001).

b. Ring dikes
 Illustration from Winter (2001)

Ring dikes occur when the pressure exerted by the magma is

less than the weight of the overlying rocks (Winter, 2001).
c. Cone sheets

Image from Winter (2001)

Cone sheets form when the pressure of the magma is greater

than the confining pressure of the overlying rocks (Winter,
2001).
d. Batholith

Illustration by Nelson (2015)

A batholith is a pluton with an exposed area larger than

100 km^2 (Winter, 2001).
e. Ethmolith

Diagrammatic section of an ethmolith (Daly, 1914)

An ethmolith is a downward tapering, funnel-shaped,

discordant intrusion of igneous rocks ("Ethmolith", 2003).
 f. Harpolith

A large, sickle-shaped igneous intrusion that was injected

into previously deformed strata (Van Reenen, 2011) and was
subsequently deformed with the host rock by horizontal
stretching or orogenic forces ("Definition of harpolith -
mindat.org glossary", 2019).

g. Chonolith

It is used to describe intrusive igneous bodies with a

nonspecific, irregular shape that does not fit into other
categories of plutonic structure (“Definition of chonolith –
mindat.org glossary”, 2019).

12. Define and illustrate each discordant features:

a. Sills

An image of a sill from Nelson (2015).

A concordant tabular body is called a sill, A sill occurs

when magma exploits the planar weaknesses between sedimentary
beds or other foliations, and is injected along these zones
(Winter, 2001).
b. Laccolith
 Illustration from Winter (2001).

A laccolith is a concordant stock with a flat floor and an

arched roof (Winter, 2001).
c. Lopolith

Image lifted from Winter (2001).

A lopolith is a concordant type of pluton intruded into a

structural basin. They are usually mafic, and
characteristically much larger than laccoliths (Winter,2001).
d. Bysmalith

A bysmalith model (Pasquare Mariotto & Tibaldi, 2006)

Cross section of the Black Mesa bysmalith (Morgan et. Al.,

2005).

A bysmalith is a body of igneous rock that is more or less

vertical and cylindrical; it crosscuts adjacent sediments
("Bysmalith", 2003).

e. Phacolith
 A phacolith is a minor, concordant, lens-shaped, and usually
granitic intrusion into folded sedimentary strata
("Phacolith", 2003).

13. What is a volcanic neck? How does it form?

There are stocks that are remnants of the cylindrical conduit and
magma chamber beneath volcanoes. This type of stock is called a plug.
The exposed portion of a plug, commonly remaining after the more
easily eroded volcanics of the cone have been eroded and removed, is
called a volcanic neck. (Winter,2001)

14. What controls viscosity of magma? How? Show illustrations.

Viscosity (the resistance to flow) is determined by the composition

and temperature of the magma. The strong Si-O and Al-O bonds in
silicate melts can link together (or polymerize) to form extensive
networks (Winter,2001). Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016) add another factor
that controls the

The following chart from Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016)

15. What are lava flows? What type of feature is lava flow? Why/How?

Lava flows are the dominant form of volcanism in the planet. Lavas
with low viscosity and low volatile content are the most prevalent
conditions for lava flows to occur of (Winter, 2001). Lava flow is a
type of extrusive feature because it has been spewed out into the
surface of the earth (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

16. Cluster the structures of igneous rocks and define each sub-
classifications.

The structures of igneous rocks according to (Frost & Frost, 2014)

include

1. Structures in Volcanic Flows

1.1. Aa is referred to as blocky lava
1.2. Pahoehoe is massive lava with a ropey surface
1.3. Columnar jointing refers to the production of vertically
oriented columns, which are typically hexagonal in cross-
section. It forms by contraction that cracks the rock as heat
from the flow dissipates to the ground surface.
1.4. Pillows are formed where basalts erupt or flow into water.
A distinctive lobate is formed as the magma that contacts water
is chilled and quenched. As lava continues to flow, it breaks
the solidified crust of the initial pillow to form another lobe.

2. Structures in Pyroclastic Deposits

2.1. Bombs are clots of magma that were partly or entirely
plastic when erupted
 2.2. Blocks are erupted fragments of solid rock.
2.3. Lapilli are solid or liquid materials between four and
thirty-two millimeters in size at the time of eruption.
2.4. Ash is incoherent ejecta less than four millimeters in
diameter and may be vitric, crystal, or lithic ash depending on
the proportion of glass, crystals, or rock fragments.
2.5. Pumice and scoria are ejecta of melt that have a porosity
of 30 to 80 percent.
2.6. Tuff is consolidated volcanic ash.

3. Structures in Hypabyssal Rocks

3.1. Lava domes include both hypabyssal and eruptive classes of
igneous structures. They form from highly viscous lava that
forms bulging, dome-shaped bodies that may be several hundred
meters high.
3.2. Volcanic neck is an irregularly shaped spire of hypabyssal
rock

4. Structures in Plutonic Rocks

4.1. Plutons are irregularly shaped plutonic rocks. A pluton
larger than 100 km2 in outcrop is called a batholith

17. Texture of igneous rocks is a function of?

The texture of igneous rocks is a function of the interplay between
the factors and conditions that led to the formation of the rock.
These factors include the rate of cooling or crystallization, chemical
composition, and mineralogy (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

18. What are the three classifications which defines the

crystallinity of igneous rocks?

The three classifications that define the crystallinity of igneous

rocks are holocrystalline with 100% crystals in its composition,
hypocrystalline or hypohyaline, and holohyaline with 100% glass.
(Mackenzie, Donaldson & Guilford, 1988)

19. What are the sizes of grains of igneous rocks?

The grain sizes of an igneous rock are indicated by these three types.
Coarse grained igneous rocks have a crystal diameter greater than five
millimeters. Medium grained igneous rocks have a crystal diameter
ranging from one to five millimeters. Lastly, fine-grained igneous
rocks have a crystal diameter less than one millimeter. As further
stated, some petrologists include a new category for those under 0.05
mm called very fine-grained (Mackenzie, Donaldson & Guilford, 1988).

20. Illustrate the following crystal shapes:

These are the crystal shapes from Mackenzie, Donaldson & Guilford
(1988).
a. Euhedral

b. Subhedral
 c. Anhedral

Mackenzie, Donaldson & Guilford (1988)

21. Illustrate the following grains distribution of an igneous rock:
These are the grain distribution of an igneous rock as
illustrated by Mackenzie, Donaldson & Guilford (1988).

a. Equidimensional

Illustration from Mackenzie

b. Tabular
 c. Prismatic

22. What are the mutual relationship of crystals?

According to Mackenzie, Donaldson & Guilford (1988) the mutual
relationship of crystals refers to the arrangement of the crystals and
any amorphous materials present. These include: equigranular textures,
inequigranular textures, oriented textures, intergrowth textures,
radiate textures, overgrowth textures, banded textures, and cavity
textures.

a. What are equigranular crystals? What are its forms? Briefly

explain each.

Equigranular crystals are crystals that have uniform grain

sizes (Winter, 2001). According to Mackenzie, Donaldson &
Guilford (1988) equigranular crystals have three forms. First,
euhedral granular (panidiomorhpic granular) have the bulk of
their crystals as euhedral and uniform of size. Subhedral
granular (hypidiomorphic granular) have the bulk of their
crystals as subhedral in form and uniform in size. Lastly,
anhedral granular or simply granular (allotriomorphic granular)
have a majority of the crystals as anhedral and uniformly
sized.

b. What is a porphyritic texture? How do porphyritic texture

forms?

Having a porphyritic texture in a rock means having two

distinct grain sizes with one size being noticeably larger than
the other. This type of texture can occur in scenarios with
two-stage cooling occurring (Winter, 2001).

c. What is a vitrophyric texture? How does it forms?

 Vitrophyric texture in a rock happens when the phenocrysts
are set in a glassy groundmass during a two-stage cooling process
(Winter, 2001).

d. What is a poikilitic texture? How does it form? Illustrate

on a simple diagram.

Poikilitic texture from Geology

Universe
Poikilitc texture in a rock happens when the phenocrysts
contain numerous inclusions of another mineral that they
enveloped as they grew (Winter, 2001). Additionally, due to
variable orientation, the enclosed grains extinct unequally. In
contrast to ophitic texture, automorphism of crystals is
important in the poikilitic texture ("Atlas of magmatic rocks",
2019).

e. What is an ophitic texture? How does it form?

Ophitic texture is the envelopment of plagioclase laths by larger

clinopyroxenes, and is commonly interpreted to indicate that the
clinopyrox-ene formed later (Winter, 2001. Mackenzie, Donaldson &
Guilford (1988) further elaborate that as a variant of the poikilitic
texture the haphazardly placed chadacrysts are elongated and are
completely or partially enclosed by the oikocryst. A common example
mentioned is the bladed crystals of plagioclase surrounded by
subequant augite in dolerite.

23. What is a crystal intergrowth? Types? Composition for each types?

Crystal intergrowth is the joining together of two individual crystals

along a crystallographic orientation (Sunagawa, 2005). Additionally,
it describes the interprenetative patterns that appear as a straight
line, simple curve, complex curve or interlock in the junction between
two crystals under thin section. Types include

 Consertal texture- interdigitations of the boundary between the

crystals involved. Examples of its composition are granodiorite
and gabbro.
 Micrographic texture- appearance of cuneiform , semitic or runic
writing. Its best known composition is quartz and alkali
feldspar.
 Granophyric texture- an assembly of micrographic intergrowth of
quartz and alkali feldspar which is either crudely radiate or is
less regular than micrographic texture. As mentioned, its
composition is quartz and alkali feldspar.
 Myrmekitic texture- formation of embayment in the microcline
crystal which occupies most of the upper part of the field of
view. Its composition is quartz and plagioclase.
 Symplectite texture- is an intimate intergrowth of two minerals
in which one mineral has a wormlike habit. Examples of its
composition are fayalite-quartz.
  Lamellar and bleb-like intergrowths- all those with the same
optical orientation are enclosed in a single host rystal of
another mineral.
24. What is a magma?

Magma is partly or completely molten material that is

the parent material of all rocks (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016). Most
magmas originate by melting in the Earth's mantle, but some show
evidence of at least a partial crustal component (Winter, 2001).

a. What generally consist magma in terms of chemistry?

Magma is generally made up of the most common elements

found in the crust of the earth. The elements in descending
order of their quantity are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and some other trace
elements (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

b. What could be the possible mineralogical composition of magma

based on your answer in item a?

The possible composition of the magma would be minerals from

the silicate group. They contain the two most abundant elements,
silicon and oxygen, and give rise to hundreds of silicate
minerals with a wide variety of properties, including hard
quartz, soft talc, sheetlike mica, fibrous asbestos, green
olivine, and blood-red garnet (Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

25. How magma solidifies? What best describes magmatic sequence of

crystallization? Who established the sequence? Illustrate the
sequence series.
Magma solidifies under the process of crystallization.According to
Winter (2001), there is a specific diagram that best describes this
magmatic sequence of crystallization, Bowens Reaction Series. It was
established by Norman L. Bowen due to the observation of the
crystallization process (fractional crystallization) of basaltic magma
(Tarbuck & Lutgens, 2016).

Photo lifted from Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016).

26. What are the factors which controls crystallization of magma?

Give at least 5.

According to Winter (2001), the factors that control the

crystallization of magma are:
 Temperature of the melt
 Composition of the melt
  Pressure can affect the temperature range at which a melt
crystallizes. It may also affect the minerals that crystallize
 The nature and pressure of any volatile components (such as H2O
or CO2)
 Location of crystallization

27. What is a magmatic differentiation? What factors controls it?

It is defined as any process by which magma is able to diversify and

produce a magma or rock of different composition. By far the most
common forms of magmatic differentiation involve the physical
separation of phases in multiphase systems. The effectiveness of this
separation depends upon factors such as contrasts between the phases
in physical properties such as density, viscosity, and size/shape. The
energy providing the force for the separation is usually thermal or
gravitational (Winter, 2001).

28. The following are the processes of magmatic differentiation

briefly discuss each and give sample precise illustration.
a. Fractional Crystallization

Fractional crystallization is the dominant mechanism by which

most magma, once formed, differentiates (Winter, 2001).
b. Flow segregation

Illustration from Drever, H.,

& Johnston, R. (1958).

It is the process where crystals may be segregated from the

liquid occurs when crystal-rich magmas flow in a laminar
fashion near the walls of the magma body (Winter, 2001).
c. Volatile Transport
 Chemical differentiation can also be accomplished when a
separate vapor phase coexists with a magma, and liquid-vapor
fractionation takes place. e. A vapor phase may be introduced
in three principal ways (Winter, 2001).
d. Magma Mixing

Image from Tarbuck & Lutgens

(2016).

Magma mixing is the opposite of liquid immiscibility. It is

often present in magmas that are different such as between
basaltic, intermediate or silicic magmas (Winter, 2001).

e. Assimilation

Illustration from Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016).

Assimilation is the incorporation of chemical constituents

from the walls or roof of a magma chamber into the magma itself
(Winter, 2001).
f. Gravity Settling
 Illustration from Hefferan & O’Brien (2013).

Gravity settling involves the differential motion of

crystals and liquid under the influence of gravity due to their
difference in density (Winter,2001).
g. Zone melting

Zone melting is the combination of assimilation and stoping

wherein the minerals of the roof rock melt, and an equivalent
amount of magma at the floor crystallizes (Winter, 2001).

h. Filter Pressing

Filter pressing happens when the crystal-liquid system is

squeezed like a sponge, and the liquid migrates from the
compacted solids (Winter, 2001).
i. Liquid Immiscibility
 According to Winter (2001), liquid immiscibility in magmas
is when both magmas do not mix and are in equilibrium with each
other.

j. Gaseous Transfer

Gaseous transfer is the separation from a magma of a gaseous

phase that moves relative to the magma and releases dissolved
substances, usually in the upper levels of the magma, when it
enters an area of reduced pressure ("Definition of gaseous
transfer - mindat.org glossary", 2019).

29. What are the 3 scenarios that may occur during magmatic
assimilation? How do they differ with each other?

As stated by Winter (2001) the three scenarios that may occur during
magmatic assimilation are stoping, zone melting, and ballooning.
Stoping refers to the dislodging of blocks of the roof over a
rising pluton when rocks become sufficiently brittle.
Zone melting or or solution tsoping is the combination of
assimilation and stoping. During this, the minerals of the of the roof
rock melt, and at equivalent amount of magma at the floor
crystallizes.
Lastly, ballooning is the radial expansion of the magma chamber
from below.

30. What are the factors affecting magmatic assimilation?

The factors affecting magmatic assimilation are: the limitation

on the degree of to which the magma can assimilate the country rock is
based on the amount of heat available in the magma, the sloping of
wall and roof rocks that can boost the assimilation process, and the
composition of the country rock with major elements resisting
assimilation compared to trace amounts and isotopes (Winter, 2001).

31. What reaction will take place if felsic magma has been
assimilated with basaltic country rock? Why?

Based on Tarbuck & Lutgens (2016), the dislodging of the basaltic

country rock by felsic magma, incorporation of foreign material can
occur and change the overall composition of the magma.
 32. What is a QAPF Diagram? How do these diagram works?

A QAPF diagram is a guide that is recommended by the

International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) to be utilized in
the identification and classification of igneous rocks. This diagram
works by classifying the pyroclastic, carbonatitic, melititic,
lamprophyric and charnockitic rocks individually before entering the
main QAPF classification for plutonic and volcanic rocks which is
based on the modal mineral proportions of quartz (Q), alkali feldspar
(A) and plagioclase (P) or of alkali feldspar (A), plagioclase (P) and
feldspathoids (F) (Le Bas & Streckeisen, 1991).

33. Differentiate plutonic from volcanic rocks in terms of

a. Mineral assemblage
Plutonic rocks are mafic while volcanic rocks are felsic.
b. Texture
Plutonic rocks often have a coarse-grained or phaneritic
texture. Meanwhile, volcanic rocks have a very fine-grained or
aphanitic texture (Winter, 2001). However, both rocks are not
limited to each respective texture as plutonic rocks can also
exhibit a porphyritic texture due to two-stage cooling.
c. Compositional variance
The compositional variance of both rocks varies from their
environment and history.
d. Color
Plutonic rocks are often darker while volcanic rocks are
lighter in color.
e. Temperature of formation
Plutonic igneous rocks have temperatures of formation from high
to low especially during cooling.

34. What is a volcaniclastic rocks? Its types based on the

texture/sizes of pyroclasts?
According to White & Houghton (2006) volcaniclastic rocks are
accumulations of particles that were mobilized directly by explosive
or effusive volcanism and not stored at any time prior to arrival at
the depositional site. There are ten types based on the texture or
sizes of pyroclasts. In terms of millimeters, those >1/16 mm have an
unconsolidated name of extremely fine ash and extremely fine tuff if
lithified. Ranging from 1/16–1/8 mm are called very fine ash if
unconsolidated and very fine tuff if lithified. From 1/8-1/4 mm
unconsolidated material is called fine ash and as for lithified, fine
tuff. 1/4 -1/2 mm are called medium ash if unconsolidated and medium
tuff for lithified. Ranging from 1/1-1mm, coarse ash is the term used
for unconsolidated while coarse tuff for lithified. From 1-2 mm, very
coarse ash is used to distinguish the unconsolidated material from the
lithified, very coarse tuff. Ranging from 2-4 mm, unconsolidated
material is called fine lapilli while lithified ones are called fine
lapilli-tuff. Medium lapilli is the term used for unconsolidated
material while medium lapilli-tuff if lithified for grain sizes
ranging from 4-16 mm. Much bigger than that are grain sizes that are
16-64 mm, with unconsolidated termed as coarse lapilli and lithified
material as coarse lapilli-tuff. Lastly, those >64 mm are called
block/bomb if unconsolidated and breccia if lithified.

35. Differentiate scoria from pumice in terms of:

a. Cooling rate

According to Winter (2001) scoria results from rapid vesiculation of

basaltic magma during explosive eruptions. Pumice as a glassy volcanic
rock is inferred as having a faster cooling rate rendering it to form
glassy materials instead of atomic crystal structures (Tarbuck &
Lutgens, 2016).

b. composition
Scoria’s origin is from basaltic magmas while its silicic
counterpart is pumice (Winter, 2001).
 c. Density
Because the vesicles in pumice are isolated, pumice may
have a density less than that of water and can float (Frost &
Frost, 2014).
36. You were tasked to examine your rocks samples from 201 fieldwork
under thin section examination. The point count analysis gave you
the following values:
Alkaline Feldspar = 50%
Plagioclase = 5%
Feldspathoids = 30%
Mafic minerals = 15%

Assuming that the following values were already normalized,

determine the rock's name by plotting it in QAPF diagram. Show
your plot.

37. What is a phase diagram? Types? How do they differ with each
other? Support your answer with illustration and brief
descriptions.
A phase diagram is a visual portrayal of the physical states such
as the solid and liquid states of a substance when subjected to
varying temperature and pressure. There are four categories: one
component, binary, ternary, and systems with more than three
components phase diagrams (Winter, 2001).

An example of a one
component phase diagram
from Winter (2001).
One component phase diagram often presents the relationship
between a chosen material, pressure, and temperature as the case
presented by the SiO2 pressure-temperature phase diagram by Winter
(2001).

A binary phase diagram from Winter (2001).

According to Winter (2001) two component or binary phase diagram has a

second component added under consideration. The second component can
interact with the first in a variety of ways. This is the reason why
there are a few types of binary component phase diagrams mentioned:
 Binary systems with complete solid solution - both components mix
completely with each other.
 Binary Eutectic Systems - the additional component does not enter
into a solid solution, but changes the melting relation-ships
nonetheless
 Binary Peritectic Systems - another inflection point in this
system (point i), called the peritectic point There are still
only two components in binary peritectic systems, but an
intermediate phase, in this case enstatite (En), is located
between the end-mem-ber phases
 The Alkali Feldspar System - The system at this low pressure is
like a cross between the plagioclase solid solution system and
the Di-An eutectic system Complete solid solution is possible so
that there is a looped liquidus-solidus pair (as in the
plagioclase or olivine systems). The loop, however, shows a
minimum temperature, thus forming two loops on either side of a
eutectic minimum point.

A ternary component phase diagram from Winter (2001).

As stated by Winter (2001) three component or ternary phase diagram

can either utilize isobaric three-dimensional T-X-X diagrams or
explore other ways to further simplify to two dimensions. Similar with
binary phase diagrams, there are also other types of ternary phase
diagrams.
  Ternary Eutectic System- The simplest three-component system;
eutectic systems with no solid solution.
 Ternary Peritectic Systems - an example of a ternary system with
a peritectic, consider the Fo-An-silica system , which is a
combination of the familiar Di-An binary eutectic system and the
Fo-silica binary peritectic system , which form two of the T-X
sides of the triangle. The third binary, An-silica, is an
eutectic system with the liquidus minimum at 52 wt.% An and
1368°C.
 Ternary Systems with Solid Solution – In the system Di-An-Ab,
there is complete miscibility between two components (Ab and An),
whereas the third (Di) is insoluble in either of the others.

An illustration of a phase diagram with more than three

components from Winter (2001).

For more than three component systems, each additional

component adds a potential degree of freedom to a system, and
either an additional phase or a solid-solution component in
existing phases. The addition of a third component, for example,
changes the three-phase (pyroxene + plagioclase + liquid)
eutectic invariant point in the two-component Di-An system into a
three-phase cotectic univariant curve in the three-component Di-
An-Fo system. The ternary situation returns to an invariant one
when a fourth phase (forsterite) joins the other three at point M
(Winter, 2001).

38. What is a liquidus phase? Solidus phase? What separates these two
phases?

They are the two curves that specify a relationship between the
composition of both the liquid and the solid with respect to the
temperature. The upper curve is called the liquidus. It specifies the
composition of any liquid that coexists with a solid at a particular
temperature. The lower curve is the solidus, which specifies the
composition of any solid that coexists with a liquid phase at some
particular temperature (Winter,2001). What separates these two is the
crystal-plus-melt region (Hibbard, 1995).

39. What is a eutectic point? How does it differ from peritectic

point?

According to Winter (2001) in a binary eutectic system, the low

point on the liquidus, point d, is called the eutectic point.
Meanwhile the peritectic point is another inflection point besides the
eutectic minimum on the liquidus in a peritectic system.

To further this point, Nelson (2011) clarifies that the eutectic

point is the point on a phase diagram where the maximum number of
allowable phases is in equilibrium. When this point is reached, the
temperature must remain constant until one of the phases
disappears. Meanwhile, the peritectic point is the point on a phase
diagram where a reaction takes place between a previously precipitated
phase and the liquid to produce a new solid phase. When this point is
reached, the temperature must remain constant until the reaction has
run to completion.

40. What are the types of melting? How do they differ with each
other?

According to McSween, Richardson & Uhle (2003), there are three types
of melting: equilibrium melting or batch melting, fractional melting,
and incremental batch melting. They are different in the way they
happen as equilibrium melting is a relatively simple process in which
the liquid remains at the site of melting in chemical equilibrium
with the solid residue until mechanical conditions allow it to escape
as a single “batch” of magma. Fractional melting involves continuous
extraction of melt from the system as it forms, thereby preventing
reaction with the solid residue. Fractional melting can be visualized
as a large number of infinitely small equilibrium melting events.
Incremental batch melting lies between these two extremes, with melts
extracted from the system at discrete intervals.