Applied Geology

Applied or engineering geology can be defined as the application of Geology to

engineering practice. In other words, it is concerned with those geological factors
that influence the location, design, construction and maintenance of engineering
works. Well understanding of the earth’s external processes as rock cycle,
weathering and deposition, internal processes which are reflected on the earth’s
surface as earthquakes and as volcanoes in addition to the various geological
structures are considered as vital aspects in civil engineering.

Different types of soils and rocks are produced through the various processes of
the rock cycle. The physical, mechanical and chemical composition of soils will
depend on the source rock type, mineralogical composition, weathering (physical
or chemical), lithification and cementing matrix.

The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the
mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the
overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally
placed at the Moho’s discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic
velocity. Earth's crust occupies less than 1% of Earth's volume.

The oceanic crust of the Earth is different from its continental crust. The oceanic crust is
5 km to 10 km thick and is composed primarily of basalt, and gabbro. The continental
crust is typically from 30 km to 50 km thick, and it is mostly composed of less dense
rocks than is the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense rocks, such as granite, are
common in the continental crust but rare to absent in the oceanic crust

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The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the
range from about 500 °C to 1,000 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle.
The crust and underlying relatively rigid mantle make up the lithosphere. Because
of convection in the underlying plastic, non-molten, upper mantle the lithosphere is
broken into tectonic plates that move. The temperature increases by approximately
30 °C for every Km deeper.

Matter and Minerals

The Earth's crust is formed or rocks, rocks are defined as aggregate of minerals.
So, minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids that have an orderly internal
structure and a definite chemical composition. Thus any mineral must satisfy the
followings criteria:
1. It must occur naturally.
2. It must be inorganic.
3. It must be a solid.
4. It must have orderly internal structure (i.e. atoms must be arranged in a definite
pattern).
5. It must have a definite chemical composition that may vary within specified
limits.

The composition of minerals

Each of Earth's 4000 minerals is defined by its chemical composition and internal
structure. Minerals are made up of chemical elements (such as K, Na, Si, Mg, and
Ca). There are 112 known elements. Of these 92 only are naturally occurring.
Some minerals like gold or sulfur are made entirely of one element, but most
minerals are a combination of two or more elements, joined to form a chemically
stable compound.

The structure of minerals

A mineral is composed of an ordered array of atoms chemically bonded together
to form a particular crystalline structure. This orderly packing of atom is reflected
in the regularly shaped objects we call crystals.

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Physical properties of minerals
Minerals are solids formed by inorganic processes. Each mineral has an orderly
arrangement of atoms (crystalline structure) and a definite chemical composition,
which give it a particular set of physical properties. Because the internal structure
and chemical composition of a mineral are difficult to determine without the aid of
sophisticated tests and equipment, the more easily recognized physical properties
are frequently used in identification. The following are the main physical
properties of minerals:

Hardness
Hardness is one of the most useful diagnostic properties, which is the measure of the
resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. This property is determined by rubbing
a mineral of unknown hardness against one known hardness or vice versa.

Moh's Scale of Hardness

This is a numerical scale consists of ten minerals arranged in order from 1 (soft) to 10
(hardest) and as follow:

Hardness of some
Relative scale Mineral
common objects
Hardest 10 Diamond
9 Corundum
8 Topaz
7 Quartz
6 Potassium Feldspar
5 Apatite 5.5 glass, pocketknife
4 Flourite
3 Calcite 3 copper penny
2 Gypsum 2.5 fingernail
Softest 1 Talc

Table (2.1) Moh's Scale of Hardness.

Any mineral of unknown hardness can be compared to these minerals or to other

objects of known hardness such as fingernail or copper coins.

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Color
Although color is an obvious feature of a mineral, it is often an unreliable
diagnostic property. Impurities in the common mineral quartz, it gives a variety of
colors including pink, purple, white and even black. Some minerals such as sulfur,
which is yellow, has a constant color all the time.

Crystal form
Most inorganic solid objects are composed of crystals; however, most crystals do
not exhibit their crystal form. Crystal form is the external expression of a mineral
that reflects the orderly internal arrangement of atoms.
Whenever a mineral is permitted to form without space restrictions, it will
develop individual crystals with well-formed crystal faces. Some crystals (such
as Quartz) have a very distinctive crystals form that can be helpful in
identification. However, most of the time crystal growth is interrupted because
of the competition for space, resulting in intergrowth mass of crystals, none of
which exhibits its crystal form.

Luster
Luster is the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral.
Luster is divided into two major types:
1. Metallic luster: minerals that have the appearance of metals regardless of color.
2. Nonmetallic luster include several characters such as: vitreous (glassy), pearly,
silky, resinous, earth (dull).

Streak
Streak is the color of the mineral powder and it is obtained by robbing the mineral
across a piece of unglazed porcelain termed streak plate. The streak color may be
different from the color of the mineral and it is generally more reliable tool in
mineral identification. Metallic minerals generally have a dense, dark streak.

Cleavage
In the crystal structure of a mineral, some bonds are weaker than others. These
bonds will break when the mineral is stressed. Cleavage is the tendency of a
mineral to break along planes of weak bonding. Not all minerals have definite
planes of weak bonding but those that posse cleavage can be identified by the
smooth surfaces that are produced when the mineral is broken.

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 Some minerals have cleavage in one direction such as mica breaking into thin,
flat sheets. Some minerals have several cleavage planes, which produce smooth
surfaces when broken, while others exhibit poor cleavage and others have no
cleavage at all.
Fracture
Minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken, such as quartz are said to
fracture. These minerals that break into smooth curved surfaces resembling
broken glass have a conchoidal fracture. Others break into fibers, but most
minerals fracture irregularly.

Specific gravity
Specific gravity is a number representing the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the
weight of an equal volume of water. You can estimate the specific gravity of
minerals by hefting them in your hand.

Mineral Groups
Nearly 4000 minerals have been named, few minerals make up most of the rocks
of the Earth's crust and classified as rock-forming minerals.

The two most abundant elements are silicon and oxygen, which combine to form
the framework of the most common group, the silicates. The next most
common group is the carbonates, of which calcite is the most dominant member.
Other common rock-forming minerals include gypsum and halite.

Every silicate mineral contains the elements oxygen and silicon. Moreover, except
for few minerals such as quartz, every silicate mineral includes one or more
additional; elements that are needed to produce electrical neutrality. These
additional elements give rise to the great variety of silicate minerals and their
varied properties.

The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

All silicates have the same fundamental building block, the silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron. This structure consists of four oxygen ions surrounding a much
smaller silicon ion. The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is a complex ion (SiO4-4) with
a charge of -4.

In nature, one of the simplest way in which these tetrahedral join together to
become neutral compounds is through the addition of positively charged ions.

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Common silicate minerals
The silicates are the most abundant mineral group and have the silicate ion (SiO4-4)
as their building block. The feldspars are the most plentiful silicate, comprising
over 50% of Earth's crust. Quartz, the second most abundant mineral in the
continental crust, is the only common mineral made completely of silicon and
oxygen.

Most silicate minerals form (crystallize) as molten rock is cooling. This cooling
can occur at or near Earth's surface (low temperature and pressure) or at great
depth (high temperature and pressure). The environment during crystallization and
the chemical composition of the molten rock determine to a large degree which
minerals are produced.

Some silicate minerals form at Earth's surface from the weathered products of
older silicate minerals. Others formed under the extreme pressure associated with
mountain building. Therefore, each silicate mineral has a structure and a chemical
composition that indicate the conditions under which is formed.

Other silicate structures

In addition to cations providing the opposite electrical charge needed to bind the
tetrahedra, the tetrahedra may link with `themselves in a variety of configuration.
For example the tetahedra may be joined to form single chains, double chains, or
sheet structures.

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Ferromagnesian (Dark) Silicates
The dark or ferromagnesian silicates are those minerals containing ions of iron
(iron: Ferro) and / or magnesium in their structure. Because of their iron content,
ferromagnesian silicates are dark in colour and have a greater specific gravity. The
most common dark silicate minerals are:

Olivine: olivine is a family of high-temperature silicate minerals that are black to

olive green in colour and have a glassy luster and a conchoidal fracture. Olivine is
composed of small, rounded crystals.

Pyroxenes are a group of complex minerals thought to be important components of

Earth's mantle. The most common member augite is a black opaque mineral with
two directions of cleavage that meet at nearly 90 degree angle.

Hornblende is the most common member of a complex group called amphiboles.

Hornblende is usually dark green to black in colour.

Biotite is the dark iron-rich member of the mica family. Like other micas, biotite
posses a sheet structure that give it excellent cleavage in one direction. Biotite has
also a shiny black appearance.

Nonferromangnesian (light) silicates

As the name implies, the light (or nonferromangnesian) silicates are generally light
in colour and have a specific gravity of about 2.7, which is lower than the
ferromagnesian silicates. These differences are attributed to the presence or
absence of iron and magnesium. The light silicates contain varying amounts of
aluminum, potassium, calcium and sodium rather than iron and magnesium.

The most common minerals of these groups are:

Muscovite is a common member of the mica family. It is light in colour and has a
pearly luster. Like other micas, muscovite has excellent cleavage in one direction.

Feldspar the most common mineral group can form under a very wide range of
temperatures and pressures. All of the feldspars have similar physical properties.
They have two planes of cleavage meeting at near 90 degree and are relatively
hard (6 on the Moh's scale) and have a luster that ranges from glassy to pearly.

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The group member rich in potassium is called Orthoclase, the group that contains
both sodium and calcium ions are called plagioclase.

Quartz is the only common silicate mineral consisting entirely of silicon and
oxygen. As such, the term silica is applied to quartz, which has the chemical
formula SiO2. In a pure form, quartz is clear and has hexagonal crystal form. If
contains impurities, it may take several colors. The most common are milky,
smoky, rose and pinky.

Important nonsilicate minerals

Other mineral groups can be considered rare when compared to the silicates,
although many are important economically as:
Carbonate minerals: the carbonate minerals have less complex structure than
silicates. This group is composed of the carbonate ion (CO2-2) and one or more
kinds of positive ions. The two most common carbonate minerals are calcite
(CaCO3) and dolomite Ca(Mg CO3)2. When calcite is the dominant mineral, the
rock is called limestone, whereas, dolostone results from a predominance of
dolomite.

Halite and Gypsum (Evaporites): Both minerals are commonly found in thick
layers that deposited from ancient seas. Both are important nonmetallic resources.
Halite is the mineral name for the common salt table (NaCl). Gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) is the mineral of which plaster and other similar building materials
are composed.

Rock cycle
The rock cycle is a model that describes the formation, breakdown, and
reformation of a rock as a result of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic
processes. All rocks are made up of minerals. A mineral is defined as a naturally
occurring, crystalline solid of definite chemical composition and a characteristic
crystal structure. A rock is any naturally formed, nonliving, firm, and coherent
aggregate mass of solid matter

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 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks
Form the major part of the Earth's crust. The term is derived from the Latin root
ignis which means fire, because these rocks form as molten rocks that cool and
solidify. The parent materials for igneous rocks are called magma, which form by
partial melting of rocks within the Earth's crust and upper mantle at depths
that may be more than 200 km.
Once formed, the magma will rise toward the surface because it is less dense than
the surrounding rocks. In some cases, molten rocks break through surrounding
rocks forming volcanoes. Magma that reaches Earth surface is called lava.

Igneous rocks that form when molten rocks solidify at the surface are called
volcanic igneous rocks. Magma that loses its ability to move before reaching the
surface, gradually crystallize at depth forming plutonic igneous rocks.

Crystallization of Magma:
Magma is molten rock that contains suspended crystals and dissolved gases,
mainly water vapour that are confined within the magma by the pressure of
the surrounding rocks. The bulk of magma is composed of mobile ions of eight
most abundant elements of the Earth's crust. These elements include silicon,
oxygen, aluminum, potassium, calcium, sodium, iron and magnesium.

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As the magma cools, the movement of these ions slow and they begin to arrange
themselves into crystalline structures. This process is called crystallization, and
lead to the precipitation of minerals from the magma.

Igneous Textures
Texture: is the overall appearance of the rock based on the size, shape and
arrangement of its interlocking crystals. Texture can reveal a great deal about
the environment in which the rock is formed.

Factors affecting crystal size

There are three factors that affect the crystal size of igneous rocks:
1. The rate at which magma cools: rapid cooling produces fine grained textures
and vice versa. Very rapid cooling produces glass: amorphous materials with
no texture.
2. The amount of silica present.
3. The amount of dissolved gases in the magma.
Types of igneous textures
Aphanitic (fine-grained) texture: Igneous rocks that form at the surface or as small
masses within the upper crust where cooling is relatively rapid posses a very fine-
grained texture termed: aphanitic. The crystals that make up the aphanitic texture
are too small to be distinguished with the unaided eye.
In some aphanitic rocks, there are voids left by gas bubbles that escape
during the magma cooling. These are called vesicles and the resultant texture
many be called vesicular.

Phaneritic (coarse-grained) texture: When magma slowly solidifies far below the
surface, they form igneous rocks that exhibit a coarse-grained texture described as
phaneritic. These rocks consist of intergrown crystals, roughly equal in size and
large enough to be identified with the unaided eye.

Porphyritic texture: This texture consists of large crystals floating in finer

groundmass. If magma containing some large crystals should change
environments, for example by erupting at the surface, the molten portion of the
lava would cool quickly. The resulting rock, which has large crystals embedded in
a groundmass of smaller crystals, is said to have porphyritic texture. The large
crystals are termed phenocrysts and the smaller crystals are called groundmass.
A rock with such a texture is called porphyry.
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Glassy texture: Rapid cooling may generate rocks having a glassy texture. Glass
results when unordered ions are "frozen" before they are able to unite into a
crystalline form. Obsidian is a common type of natural glass.
Magma movement is a function of its viscosity which is a measure of a fluid's
resistance to flow.

Pyroclastic texture: This texture result from the consolidation of individual rock
fragments that are ejected during a violent eruption. These ejected particles
might be very fine ash, or large blocks.

Pegmatitic texture: Under special conditions, exceptionally coarse-grained igneous

rocks called pegmatites may form. These rocks are larger than a centimeter in
diameter.

Composition of igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are mainly composed of silicate minerals. The mineral composition
of a certain igneous rock is determined by the chemical composition of the magma
from which it crystallize. We mentioned earlier that magma is composed of the
eight elements that are the major components of the silicate minerals. Silicon
and oxygen are the most abundant components of igneous rocks. These
elements plus potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and Iron (Fe) make up around 98%
by weight of most magmas. Magma also contains small amounts of many other
elements such as titanium and manganese with trace amounts of much rarer
elements such as gold, silver and uranium.
As magma cools, these elements combine to form two major groups of silicate
minerals: the dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates that are rich in iron and / or
magnesium and low in silica, and the light silicates that include quartz,
muscovite and the most abundant group, the feldspar.
Despite their great compositional diversity, igneous rocks can be divided into
broad groups according to their content of light and dark minerals.
1. Granitic rocks: these are rocks composed mainly of the light-colored silicates-
quartz and feldspar. They contain 70% silica and they form the continental
crust.

2. Basaltic rocks contain abundant, dark (ferromagnesian) minerals and about

50% silica. They make up the ocean floor as well as many of the volcanic islands

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located within the ocean basins. Basalt is also found on the continents,
whereas, granite is almost totally absent from the ocean basins.
Igneous rocks with compositions between these major groups as well as those
totally devoid of either light or dark minerals are also known.

Bowen's reaction series

In laboratory experiment, Bowen demonstrated that as basaltic magma cools,
minerals tend to crystallize in a systematic fashion based on their melting points.
The first mineral to crystallize is the olivine; further cooling generates calcium-
rich plagioclase feldspar as well as pyroxene, and so forth down the diagram.
During crystallization process, the composition of the melt continually
changes, For example, the removal of iron, magnesium and calcium will cause
the melt to become enriched in sodium, potassium and aluminum

. Further, olivine contains only around 40% silica; the remaining melt would
be richer in SiO2. Thus, the silica component of the melt becomes enriched as
the magma evolves.
Bowen also demonstrated that if the solid components of magma remain in
contact with the remaining melt, they will chemically react and evolve into
the next mineral in the sequence shown in Figure 3-3. For this reason, this
arrangement of minerals became known as Bowen's reaction series.

Discontinuous reaction series: The upper left branch of Bowen's reaction series
shows that as a magma cools, olivine (individual silica tetahedra) will react
with the remaining melt to form the mineral pyroxene (single chain). As the

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magma cools further, the pyroxene crystals will react with the melt to generate
amphibole (double-chain). This reaction will continue until the last mineral in this
series, biotite is formed. This branch of Bowen's series is called discontinuous
reaction series because at each step a different silicate structure emerges.

Continuous reaction series: represents the right branch of the reaction series and
illustrates that calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar crystals react with sodium ions in
the melt to become progressively more sodium-rich. During the last stage of
crystallization, after much of the magma has solidified, potassium feldspar forms.
Finally the remaining melt has excess silica, the mineral quartz will precipitate.

Magmatic differentiation
Bowen demonstrated that minerals crystallize from magma in a systematic
fashion. To explain the diversity of igneous rocks, it has been shown that, at one or
more stages during crystallization, a separation of the solid and liquid
component of magma can occur. One example is called (1) crystal settling. This
process occurs if the earlier-formed minerals are denser (heavier) than the liquid
portion and sink toward the bottom of the magma chamber, When the remaining
melt solidifies (either in its place or move to another), it will form a rock with a
chemically composition much different from the parent magma, The formation of
more than one magma from a single parent magma is called magmatic
differentiation.

Assimilation and magma mixing

Once a magma body forms, its composition can change through the incorporation
of foreign material. This process is called (2) assimilation. This process may
operate in a near-surface environment where rocks are brittle. As the magma
pushes upward, stress causes numerous cracks in the overlying rock. The force of
the injected magma is often strong enough to dislodge blocks of "foreign" rock
and incorporate them into the magma body. In other environments, the magma
may be hot enough to simply melt and assimilate some of the surrounding host
rock.
(3)Magma mixing: this is another process that occurs whenever one magma body
intrudes another. Once combined, the two magmas generate a fluid with a different
composition. Magma mixing may occur during ascent, as a more buoyant magma
body overtakes a mass of magma that is rising more slowly.

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Naming igneous rocks
Igneous rock types
* The first minerals to crystallize-olivine, pyroxene, and calcium-rich plagioclase-
are high in iron, magnesium, or calcium and low in silicon. As we mentioned
earlier, basalt is a common rock with third mineral makeup-the term basaltic is
often used to describe any rock of similar composition. Furthermore, because
basaltic rocks contain high percentage of ferromagnesian minerals, these rocks
are also called mafic rocks (from magnesium and ferrum), the Latin name for
iron). They are typically darker and denser than other igneous rocks.

* Among the last minerals to crystallize are potassium feldspar and quartz, the
primary components of the abundant rock granite. Igneous rocks in which
these two minerals predominate are said to have a granitic composition.
Geologists refer to granitic rocks as being felsic (from feldspar and silica: quartz).
* Intermediate igneous rocks contain minerals found near the middle of Bowen;s
reaction series. Amphibole and the intermediate plagioclase feldspars are the main
components of this compositional group. We will refer to rocks that have a
mineral makeup between that of granite and basalt as being andesitic (or
intermediate) after the common volcanic rock andesite.
* Another important igneous rock, peridotite, contains mostly olivine and
pyroxene and thus falls near the very beginning of Bowen's reaction series.
Because peridotite is composed almost entirely of ferromagnesian minerals, its
chemical composition is referred to as ultramafic. These are believed to be the
main constituent of the upper mantle.
Felsic (Granitic) rocks
Granite

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Granite is perhaps the best known of all igneous rocks. This is because of its
natural beauty, which is enhanced when it is polished, and partly because of its
abundance in the continental crust.
Granite is a phaneritic rock composed of between 25-35% quartz and over 50%
potassium Fe; feldspar and sodium-rich plagioclase. The quartz crystals, which are
roughly spherical in shape, are often glassy and clear to light-gray in colour. In
contrast to quartz, feldspar crystals are not as glassy, are generally white to gray or
pink in colour and exhibit a rectangular shape.
Other common constituents of granite are muscovite and some dark silicates,
mainly biotite and amphibole. Although the dark components generally make up
less than 20% of most granites, dark minerals appears to be more prominent than
their percentage would indicate.
Rhyolite
Rhyolite has the same mineral components of granite but with a fine-grained
volcanic texture. Like granite, this rock is composed of light-colored silicates. This
fact accounts for its colour, which is usually buff to pink or sometimes very light
grey. Rhyolite is usually aphanitic and frequently contains glassy fragments and
voids indicating rapid cooling in the surface.

Obsidian
Obsidian is a dark-colored, glassy rock that forms when silica-rich lava cool
rapidly. This rock is not composed of minerals in the same sense as most other
rocks.
Although black or reddish-brown in colour, it has high silica content, Silica is
clear like window glass, the dark colour results from the presence of metallic
ions.

Pumice
Pumice is a volcanic rock that, like obsidian, has a glassy texture. Usually found
with obsidian, pumice forms when large amount of gas escape through lava to
generate a grey, frothy mass. In some samples, the voids are noticeable. Because
of the large percentage of voids, many samples of pumice will float when placed
in water.

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Intermediate (Andesitic) rocks
Andesite
Andesite is a medium grey, fine-grained rock of volcanic origin. Andesite
commonly exhibits a porphyritic texture.

Diorite
Diorite is a coarse-grained plutonic rock that looks similar to grey granite. It can
be distinguished from granite by the absence of visible quartz crystals. The
main components of diorite are sodium-rich plagioclase and amphibole with lesser
amount of biotite.

Mafic (Basaltic) rocks

Basalt
Basalt is a very dark green to black, fine-grained volcanic rock composed mainly
of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase with lesser amount of olivine and
amphibole. It is the most common volcanic igneous rock. Many volcanic
islands such as the Hawaiian Islands are composed mainly of basalt. The
upper layer of the oceanic crust consists of basalt also.

Gabbro
Gabbro is the plutonic equivalent of basalt. Like basalt, it is very dark green to
black in colour and composed primarily of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase.
Gabbro makes up a significant percentage of the oceanic crust.

Pyroclastic rocks
Pyroclastic rocks are composed of fragments ejected during volcanic eruption.
One of the most common pyroclastic rocks called tuff, which is composed of tiny
ash-sized fragments that were later cemented together.

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Summary of common igneous rocks
Common Igneous Rocks
Classification Igneous Color Common Minerals
Rock
Intrusive Igneous Granite Felsic Quartz, potassium feldspar,
Rocks (light-colored) plagioclase feldspar, mica
Diorite Intermediate Plagioclase feldspar,
amphibole, pyroxene, mica
Gabbro Mafic Plagioclase feldspar,
(dark-colored) pyroxine, olivine
Extrusive Rhyolite Felsic Quartz, potassium feldspar,
Igneous Rocks plagioclase feldspar, mica
Andesite Intermediate Plagioclase feldspar,
amphibole, pyroxene, mica
Basalt Mafic Plagioclase feldspar,
pyroxine, olivine
Pumice Felsic/Intermediate Various silicates
Obsidian Variable Various silicates

Uses of igneous rocks

Granite is massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread
popularity as a aggregates for Road Construction, tiles, cladding, decorative
and dimension stones.

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 Sedimentary Rocks
The word sedimentary is derived from the Latin sedimentum, which means
"settling", a reference to solid material settling out of a fluid (water or air).
Sedimentary rock consists of sediment that, in most cases, has been lithified into
solid rock by the processes of compaction and cementation.
They cover some 75 percent of the continents and most of the ocean floor and
form about 5 % by volume of the earth's outer crust. Sedimentary rocks
typically form horizontal, flat layers until subjected to deformation (mainly
folding and faulting).
Sedimentary System:
The formation of sedimentary rocks (sedimentary system) should be include the
followings:
1. Source rock type: from which the sediment is derived and it influences the
mineralogy of the final products.
2. Weathering: is the process by which rocks are disaggregated (mechanical
weathering) or undergo chemical reactions (chemical weathering).
3. Transport mechanism: such as wind, ice, water, or gravity; and it influence the
sorting, grain size and type of layering of the sediment.
4. The site of deposition: such as river, lake, ocean, or desert; and it gives
differences in color, bedding, mineralogy, grain size distribution.
5. The plate tectonic setting: sedimentary rocks formed at convergent margins are
different from those, formed at plate interiors.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Detrital (clastic) Sedimentary Rocks:
The term "clastic" means made of clasts (particles or grains).This type of
sedimentary rocks originates and is transported as solid particles derived from
both mechanical and chemical weathering. Deposits of this type are termed
detrital and the sedimentary rocks that they form are called detrital sedimentary
rocks.

2. Chemical Sedimentary (Non-Clastic) Rocks

The second major source of sediment is soluble material produced largely by
chemical weathering. When these dissolved substances are precipitated by either
inorganic or organic processes, the material is known as chemical sediment and
the rocks formed from it are called chemical sedimentary rocks.

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Sedimentary rock consists of sediment that, in most cases, has been lithified into
solid rock by the processes of compaction and cementation

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

A wide variety of minerals and rock fragments may be found in detrital rocks, clay
minerals and quartz are the chief constituents of most sedimentary rocks in
this category. Clay minerals are the most abundant product of the chemical
weathering of silicate minerals, especially the feldspars. Clays are fine-grained
minerals with sheet like crystalline structures similar to the micas. The other
common mineral, quartz, is abundant because it is extremely durable and very
resistant to chemical weathering. Thus, when igneous rocks such as granite are
attacked by weathering processes, individual quartz grains are freed. Other common
minerals in detrital rocks are feldspars and micas. Particle size is the primary basis
for distinguishing among various detrital sedimentary rocks

The Particle Size Classification for Detrital Rocks

Note that the term clay refers only to a particle size and not to the minerals of the
same name. Although most clay minerals are of clay size, not all clay-sized
sediment consists of clay minerals.

The Common detrital sedimentary rocks are:

1. Conglomerates: made up of pebbles, cobbles or boulders (>2mm) embedded in
a matrix of mud, sand or carbonate.
2. Breccia: if the fragments are angular rather then rounded
3. Sandstones: made up of sand-sized grains (1/16-2mm), include quartz
sandstone, arkose and greywacke.
4. Siltstones: fine-grained equivalent to sandstones, made of silt (<1/16 mm).
5. Mudstone: may contain tiny grains of clay minerals or mica.
6. Shale: during compaction, the clays and micas in mudstones might develop an
orientation more or less parallel the bedding.

A brief description of some common detrital rocks:

 Shale
Shale is a sedimentary rock consisting of silt- and clay sized particles. The
particles in these rocks are so small that they cannot be readily identified without
great magnification. Dark shales containing plant remains are relatively common.

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  The tiny grains in shale indicate that deposition occurs as the result of gradual
settling from relatively quiet, non turbulent currents. Such environments
include lakes, river floodplains, lagoons, and portions of the deep-ocean
basins.
-As silt and clay accumulate, they tend to from thin layers, which are commonly
referred to as laminea. Initially the particles in the laminae are oriented
randomly. This disordered arrangement leaves a high percentage of open space
(called pore space) that is filled with water. However, this situation usually
changes with time as additional layers of sediment pile up and compact the
sediment below. During compaction, the clay and silt particles take on a more
nearly parallel alignment and become tightly packed. This rearrangement of grains
reduces the size of the pore spaces and forces out much of the water. Once the
grains are pressed closely together, the tiny spaces between particles do not readily
permit solutions containing cementing material to circulate. Therefore, shales are
often described as being weak because they are poorly cemented and
therefore not well lithified

Common
Size Ranges Particle
Sediment Detrital Rock
(millimeters) Name
Name
>256 Boulder
64-256 Cobble Conglomerate or
Gravel
4-64 Pebble breccia
2-4 Granule
1/16-2 Sand Sand Sandstone
1/256-1/16 Silt
mud Shale or mudstone
<1/256 Clay

-The ability to split into thin layers along well-developed closely space
planes. This property is termed fissil. The rock breaks into chunks or blocks, the
name stone is applied.

-Mudstone is often grouped with shale but fissility is siltstone. As its name
implies, siltstone is posed largely of silt-sized particles and contains less sized
material than shale and mudstone.

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 Sandstone
Sandstone is the name given rocks in which sand grains predominate. Sandstone
is the most abundant sedimentary rock, accounting for approximately 20
percent of the entire group. Sandstones form in a variety of environments often
contains significant clues about their origin including sorting, particle shape, and
composition.

Sorting: is the degree of similarity in particle in a sedimentary rock. For

example, if all the grains in a sample of sandstone are about the same size, the
sand is considered well sorted. Conversely, if the rock contains mixed large and
small particles, the sand to be poorly sorted. Deposits of windblown sand are
usually better sorted than deposits sorted by wave activity.

The shapes of sand grains can also help d the history of sandstone. When
streams, winds, or waves move sand and other sedimentary particles, the grains
lose their sharp edges and corners and become more rounded as they collide with
other particles during transport. Thus, rounded grains likely have been airborne
or waterborne. Further, the degree of rounding indicates the distance or time
involved in the transportation of sediment by currents of air or water. Highly
rounded grains indicate that a great deal of abrasion and hence a great deal of
transport has occurred.
Very angular grains, on the other hand, imply two things: that the materials were
transported only a short distance before they were deposited, and that some
other medium may have transported them. For example, when glaciers move
sediments, the particles are usually mad more irregular by the crushing and
grinding action of the ice.
In addition to affecting the degree of rounding and the amount of sorting that
particles undergo, the length of transport by turbulent air and water currents also
influences the mineral composition of a sedimentary deposit. Substantial
weathering and long transport lead to the gradual destruction of weaker and less
stable minerals, including the feldspars and ferromagnesians. Because quartz is
very durable, it is usually the mineral that survives the long trip in a turbulent
environment.

Quartz Sandstone:
it is a type of sandstone characterized by predominant quartz mineral.
Arkose: When sandstone contains appreciable quantities of feldspar, the rock is
called arkose. In addition to feldspar, Arkose usually contains quartz and sparkling
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bits of mica. The mineral composition of arkose indicates that the grains were
derived from granitic source rocks. The particles are generally poorly sorted and
angular, which suggests short distance transport, minimal chemical weathering in
a relatively dry climate, and rapid deposition and burial.

Greywacke: It is dark colored rock contains abundant rock fragments and matrix.
Matrix refers to the silt- and clay-sized particles found in spaces between larger
sand grains. More than 15 percent of greywacke volume is matrix. The poor
sorting and angular grains characteristic of greywacke suggest that the
particles were transported only a relatively short distance from their source area
and then rapidly deposited. Before the sediment could be reworked and sorted
further, it was buried by additional layers of material. Greywacke is frequently
associated with submarine deposits made by dense sediment-choked torrents
called turbidity currents."

Conglomerate and Breccia

Conglomerate consists largely of gravels. The particles are commonly large
enough to be identified as distinctive rock types; thus, they can be valuable in
identifying the source areas of sediments. More often than not conglomerates
are poorly sorted because the opening between the large gravel particles contain
sand or mud. Gravels accumulate in a variety of environments and usually indicate
the existence of steep slopes or very turbulent currents. The coarse particles in a
conglomerate may reflect the action of energetic mountain streams or result from
strong wave activity along a rapidly eroding coast. Some glacial and landslide
deposits also contain plentiful gravel.

Breccia
If the large particles are angular rather the rounded, the rock is called breccia.

Because large particles abrade and become rounded very rapidly during transport,
the pebbles and cobbles in a breccia indicate that they did not travel far from their
source area before they were deposited.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

They are formed by direct precipitation of minerals from seawater. Chemical

sediments derive from material that is carried in solution to lakes and seas. These

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become rocks such as limestone, chert, and rock salt. This precipitation of material
occurs in two ways.

Inorganic processes such as evaporation and chemical activity can produce

chemical sediments.

Organic (life) processes of water-dwelling organisms form chemical sediments,

said to be of biochemical origin.

Limestone: representing about 10 percent of the total volume of all sedimentary

rocks. Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock. It is composed
chiefly of the mineral calcite (CaC03) and forms either by inorganic means or as
the result of biochemical processes. The mineral composition of all limestone is
similar, yet many different types exist. This is true because limestone is produced
under a variety of conditions. Those forms having a marine biochemical origin are
by far the most common.

Coral Reefs. Corals are one important example of organisms that are capable of
creating large quantities of marine limestone. These relatively simple invertebrate
animals secrete a calcareous (calcite-rich) external skeleton.

Although they are small, corals are capable of creating massive structures called
reefs. Reefs consist of coral colonies made up of great numbers of individuals that
live side by side on a calcite structure secreted by the animals. In addition, calcium
carbonate-secreting algae live with the corals and help cement the entire structure
into a solid mass. A wide variety of other organisms also live in and near the reefs.

Coquina and Chalk: It is a biochemical -type Limestone composed of coarse,

poorly cemented shells and shell fragments.

Chalk: is a soft, porous rock made up almost entirely of the hard parts of
microscopic marine organisms.

Inorganic Limestones.

Travertine: this type of limestone having an inorganic origin form when chemical
changes or high water temperatures increase the concentration of calcium
carbonate to the point that it precipitates., the type of limestone commonly seen in
caves. When travertine is deposited in caves, groundwater is the source of the

23
Calcium carbonate. As water droplets become exposed to the air in a cavern, some
of the carbon dioxide dissolved in the water escapes, causing calcium carbonate to
precipitate.

Oolitic limestone: It is a rock composed of small spherical grains called ooids.

Ooids form in shallow marine waters as tiny "seed" particles (commonly small
shell fragments) are moved back and forth by currents. As the grains are rolled
about in the warm water, which is supersaturated with calcium carbonate, they
become coated with layer upon layer of the precipitate.

Dolostone: it is composed of the calcium-magnesium carbonate mineral dolomite.

Although dolostone can form by direct precipitation from seawater, most
dolostone probably originates when magnesium in seawater replaces some of the
calcium in limestone. Most dolostones are ancient rocks in which there was vast
time for magnesium to replace calcium.

Chert: it is a name used for a number of very compact and hard rocks made of
microcrystalline silica (Si02). One well-known form is flint, whose dark color
results from the organic matter it contains. Jasper, a red variety, gets its bright
color from the iron oxide it contains. The banded form is usually referred to as
agate.

Evaporites: they are chemical sediments that form naturally by chemical

precipitates when desert lakes, shallow bays, or seas dry up. Minerals commonly
precipitated in this fashion include halite (sodium chloride, NaCl), the chief
component of rock salt, and gypsum (hydrous calcium sulfate, CaS04.2H20), the
main ingredient of rock gypsum. Both have significant importance. Halite is
familiar to everyone as the common salt used in cooking and

In the geologic past, many areas that are now dry land were basins, submerged
under shallow arms of a sea that had only narrow connections to the open ocean.
Under these conditions, seawater continually moved into the bay to replace water
lost by evaporation. Eventually the waters of the bay became saturated and salt
deposition began. Such deposits are called evaporites.

When a body of seawater evaporates, the minerals that precipitate do so in a

sequence that is determined by their solubility. Less-soluble minerals precipitate
first and more-soluble minerals precipitate later as salinity increases. For example,

24
gypsum precipitates when about two-thirds to three-quarters of the seawater has
evaporated, and halite settles out when nine-tenths of the water has been removed.
During the last stages of this process, potassium and magnesium salts precipitate.
One of these last-formed salts, the mineral sylvite, is mined as a significant source
of potassium ("potash") for fertilizer.

Coal: is made of organic matter which is the end product of large amounts of plant
material, buried for millions of years. Close examination of coal reveals plant
structures such as leaves, bark, and wood that have been chemically altered are
still identifiable. Coal is a major energy resource. Its role as a fuel and some of the
problems associated with burning coal are still under study.

Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock

Lithification refers to the process by which unconsolidated sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks. One of the most common processes
affecting sediments is compaction. As sediments accumulate through time, the
weight of overlying material compresses the deeper sediments. As the grains are
pressed closer and closer, there is a considerable reduction in pore space.
Cementation is the most important process by which sediments are converted to
sedimentary rocks. The cementing materials are carried in solution by water
percolating through the open spaces between particles. Through time, the cement
precipitates onto the sediment grains, fills the open spaces, and joins the particles.
Calcite, silica, and iron oxide are the most common cements. It is often a relatively
simple matter to identify the cementing material. Calcite cement will effervesce
with dilute hydrochloric acid. Silica is the hardest cement and thus produces the
hardest sedimentary rocks. An orange or dark red color in a sedimentary rock
means that iron oxide is present.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
The classification scheme in the following Table divides sedimentary rocks into
two major groups: detrital and chemical. Further, we can see that the main
criterion for subdividing the detrital rocks is particle size, whereas the primary
basis for distinguishing among different rocks in the chemical group is their
mineral composition.

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1- Detrital sedimentary rocks
Sediment Name and DETRITAL ROCKS
Texture Rock Name
Particle Size Comments
Rounded rock fragments Conglomerate
Gravel (>2 mm)
Angular rock fragments Breccia
Quartz predominates
Quartz sandstone
Quartz with considerable
Clastic feldspar Dark color;
Sand (1 /16-2 mm) Arkose
Quartz with considerable
Graywacke
feldspar, clay, and rocky
fragments
Splits into thin layers Breaks Shale
Mud (<1 /16 mm)
into clumps or blocks Mudstone

2-Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Group Texture Composition Rock Name
Calcite, CaCo3 Limestone
Clastic or nonclastic
Dolomite, CaMg (C03)2 Dolostone
Nonclastic
Microcrystalline quartz, Chert
Inorganic Nonclastic
Si02 Rock salt
Nonclastic
Halite, NaCl Rock
Nonclastic
Gypsum, CaS04 o 2H20 gypsum
Clastic or nonclastic Calcite, CaCO3 Limestone

Nonclastic Microcrystalline quartz,

Biochemical
SiO2 Chert
Nonclastic
Altered plant remains Coal

Clay is a term used to describe a variety of complex minerals that have a sheet
structure. The clay minerals are very fine grained. They are the products of the
chemical weathering of other silicate minerals. Thus, clay minerals make up a
large percentage of soil. The clay minerals are a part of a general but important
group within the phyllosilicates that contain large percentages of water trapped
between the silicate sheets. Most clays are chemically and structurally analogous
to other phyllosilicates but contain varying amounts of water and allow more
substitution of their cations. There are many important uses and considerations of

26
clay minerals. They are used in manufacturing, drilling, construction and paper
production. Clays are characterized by many physical, chemical and structural
properties that define this group:

 Clay minerals tend to form microscopic to sub microscopic crystals.

 They can absorb water or lose water from simple humidity changes.
 When mixed with limited amounts of water, clays become plastic and are
able to be molded and formed in ways that most people are familiar with as
children's clay.
 When water is absorbed, clays will often expand as the water fills the
spaces between the stacked silicate layers.
 Due to the absorption of water, the specific gravity of clays is highly
variable and is lowered with increased water content.
 Clays tend to form from weathering and secondary sedimentary processes.
environments.

Clays are rarely found separately and are usually mixed not only with other
clays but with microscopic crystals of carbonates, feldspars, micas and quartz
Clay minerals are divided into four major groups. These are the important clay
mineral groups:

The Kaolinite Group

The general structure of the kaolinite group is composed of silicate sheets (Si2O5)
bonded to aluminum oxide/hydroxide layers (Al2(OH)4) called gibbsite layers. The
silicate and gibbsite layers are tightly bonded together with only weak bonding
existing between the silica-gibbsite paired layers. An example is kaolinite
Uses: In ceramics, as filler for paint, rubber and plastics and the largest use is in
the paper industry.

presentation of sheets. kaolin structure

The Smectite Group /Montmorillonite

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The structure of this group is composed of silicate layers sandwiching a gibbsite
(or brucite) layer in between, in an s-g-s stacking sequence. The gibbsite layers of
the kaolinite group can be replaced in this group by a similar layer that is
analogous to the oxide brucite, (Mg2(OH)4).The variable amounts of water
molecules would lie between the s-g-s sandwiches. This group is composed of
several minerals including pyrophyllite, talc, vermiculite, and Montmorillonite.
They differ mostly in chemical content. The general formula is (Ca, Na, H)(Al,
Mg, Fe, Zn)2(Si, Al)4O10(OH)2 - xH2O, where x represents the variable amount
of water that members of this group could contain. .

Uses: Are many and include a facial powder (talc), filler for paints and rubbers, an
electrical, heat and acid resistant porcelain, in drilling mud and as a plasticizer in
molding sands and other materials.

Montmorillonite structure. Illite structure.

The Illite (or The Clay-mica) Group

The structure of this group is similar to the montmorillonite group with silicate
layers sandwiching a gibbsite-like layer in between, in an s-g-s stacking sequence.
This group is basically a hydrated microscopic muscovite. The mineral illite is the
only common mineral represented, however it is a significant rock forming
mineral being a main component of shales and other argillaceous rocks.

Uses: A common constituent in shales and is used as a filler and in some drilling
mud.

The Chlorite Group

This group is not always considered a part of the clays and is sometimes left alone
as a separate group within the phyllosilicates. It is a relatively large and common
group although its members are not well known

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SedimentaryEnvironments
Sedimentary rocks are important in the interpretation of Earth history. By
understanding the conditions under which sedimentary rocks form, geologists can
often deduce the history of a rock, including information about the origin of its
component particles, the method and length of its transport, and the nature of the
place where the grains eventually came to rest; that is, the environment of
deposition.
Sediments are deposited at Earth's surface. Thus, they hold many clues about the
physical, chemical, and biological conditions that existed in the areas where the
materials accumulated. By applying a thorough knowledge of present-day
conditions, geologists attempt to reconstruct the ancient environments and
geographical relationships of an area at the time a particular set of sedimentary
layers were deposited. Such analyses often lead to the creation of maps, which
depict the distribution of land and sea, mountains and plains, deserts and glaciers,
and other environments of deposition.
Sedimentary environments are commonly placed into one of two broad categories:
terrestrial (continental) or marine. Because the shore zone exhibits
characteristics of both, it can be considered transitional between land and sea.
When a series of sedimentary layers is studied, we can see the successive changes
in environmental
Common Sedimentary Rocks
Classification Sedimentary Composition Depositional Environment
Rock
Clastic Shale Clay and/or silt Swamp, floodplain, river
(Detrital) bottom
Sandstone Sand Beach, desert
Conglomerate Various-sized pebbles Riverbed
Non-Clastic Limestone Calcite or fragmented Shallow sea, coastline
(Chemical) shells
Chert (flint) Chalcedony (quartz), Formed from a silica-rich
traces of other precipiate in a deep ocean
minerals environment.
Bituminous Plant material Ancient forest or swamp
Coal

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 Sedimentary Structures
Sediments and sedimentary rocks commonly contain clues concerning the
conditions of their formation referred to as sedimentary structures. In addition to
variations in grain size, mineral composition, and texture, sediments exhibit a
variety of structures.
Bed or lamina: Sedimentary rocks form as layer upon layer of sediment
Accumulates in various depositional environments. These layers, called strata,
or beds, are probably the single most common and characteristic feature of
sedimentary rocks. Each stratum is unique. It may be coarse sandstone, a fossil-
rich limestone or black shale. The thickness of beds ranges from
microscopically thin to tens of meters thick. Separating the strata are bedding
planes, flat surfaces along which rocks tend to separate or break.
Graded bedding: in a single layer, the clast size becomes progressively smaller
upward through the layer. Graded beds represent other special types of bedding. In
this case the particles within a single sedimentary layer gradually change from
coarse at the bottom to fine at the top. Graded beds are most characteristic of rapid
deposition from water containing sediment of varying sizes. When a current
experiences a rapid energy loss, the largest particles settle first, followed by
successively smaller grains. The deposition of a graded bed is most often
associated with a turbidity current, a mass of sediment choked water that is denser
than clear water and that moves down slope along the bottom of a lake or ocean.
Cross-bedding: is formed from moving currents (wind or water) that flow in
different directions. The cut-away section of this sand dune shows cross-bedding.
The cross-bedding of this sandstone indicates it was once a sand dune.
Mud Cracks: when wet mud dries out, it shrinks and cracks. They are important
when we find them in ancient rocks because they tell us that the mud was
originally deposited in shallow water and climate was arid.
Ripple Marks: are small waves of sand that develop on the surface of a
sedimentary layer by the action of moving water or air.

Ripple marks
Mud cracks Cross bedding Gradded bedding

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