Lesson 1.

Four Rules

Absolute value – |−1| = 1

Arithmetic.

Long Multiplication.

23

× 45

115

920

1035

Long Division.

45

23)1035

92

115

115

Brackets.

Multiplication and division take precedence over addition and subtraction

Can be overridden by using brackets

1+2×3=7

(1 + 2) × 3 = 9
 Prime Numbers.

A number that is only divisible by itself and 1

1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, …

1 < 2 one is less than two

1 > 0 one is greater than zero

𝑝
Rational numbers can be represented in the form 𝑞 where p and q are integers

Factors.

The factors of 12 are 2, 3, 4 and 6 (not 12 or 1).

Multiples.

Multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, …

Highest Common Factor.

Find the highest common factor of 24 and 36

Express in prime factors

24 = 2 𝘟 2 𝘟 2 𝘟 3

= 23 × 3

36 = 2 𝘟 2 𝘟 3 𝘟 3
 = 22 × 32

= 23 × 3

Lowest Common Multiple.

Three 2s in 24, two 3s in 36

LCM = 2 𝘟 2 𝘟 2 𝘟 3 𝘟 3 = 72

Prime Factors.

12 expressed in its prime factors is 2 × 2 × 3 = 22 × 3

 Indices.

𝓍2 = 𝓍 × 𝓍

𝓍0 = 1

𝓍1 = 𝓍

1
𝓍 −2 =
𝓍2

1
4
𝓍 0.25 = 𝓍 4 = √𝓍

𝓍 𝑚 𝓍 𝑛 = 𝓍 𝑚+𝑛

𝓍𝑚
= 𝓍 𝑚−𝑛
𝓍𝑛

(𝓍 𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝓍 𝑚𝑛
 Surds.

Addition and Subtraction.

4√2 + 6√2 = 10√2

√2 + √3 ≠ √5

Multiplication.

√4 × √10 = √40

(4 − √5)(3 + √2) = 12 + 4√2 − 3√5 − √5√2

= 12 + 4√2 − 3√5 − √10

Division.

√64 64
= √ = √16 = 4
√4 4

Simplification.

√12 = √4 × √3

= 2√3

Natural Numbers, Integers, Rational and Irrational Numbers.

ℕ1 Natural numbers, excluding zero

ℕ0 Natural numbers, including zero

ℤ Integers – whole numbers

ℚ Rational numbers
 𝑃
Can be represented in the form 𝑄 where P and Q are integers

ⅉ Irrational numbers, eg π, √2 and e, but can be plotted on a graph

ℝ Real numbers

𝕚 Imaginary numbers

ℂ Complex numbers

Weights, Measures and Money.

Decimals.

Multiplication.

Count the number of digits to the right of the decimal points

1 +1= 2

2.3

× 4.5

115

920

10.35

Division.

Multiply top and bottom by 10, 100, etc until decimal point disappears

10 100
=
2.5 25

=4
To indicate a recurring decimal place a dot over the first (and last) digits

0. 1̇ = 0.111 …

0. 1̇23̇ = 0.123123123 …
 Percentages.

Means “out of 100”

25% = ¼ = 0.25
 Fractions.

Top number is the numerator, bottom number is the denominator

Equivalent Fractions.

2 2⁄2 1
= =
4 4⁄ 2
2

A proper fraction is one where the numerator is less than the denominator

A mixed number is one which contains a whole number and a proper fraction

Reciprocal of a fraction is its numerator swapped with its denominator

A fraction multiplied by its reciprocal is 1

2 3
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠
3 2

1 1 3 2 5
+ = + =
2 3 6 6 6

Multiplication.

1 3 1×3 3
× = =
2 4 2×4 8

Division.

To divide a number by a fraction, multiply by its reciprocal

1
2 = 1×4
3 2 3
4
 4
=
6

1
=
3

To convert a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator

5
= 0.625
8
 Ratio

To make pastry, use 2 parts flour to 1 part fat – a ratio of 2:1

 Proportion.

Direct Proportion.

𝐴∝𝐵

Inverse Proportion.

1
𝐴∝
𝐵
 Decimal Places and Significant Figures.

3.1417 = 3.14 (3dp) = 3.142 (4sf)

 Standard Form.

𝓍 × 10𝑦 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 < 𝓍 ≤ 10, 𝑒𝑔 3.14 × 100

 Number Bases.

Denary (Decimal) Base 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

103 102 101 100

1,000 100 10 1

Binary Base 2 0, 1

23 22 21 20

8 4 2 1

Hexadecimal Base 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

163 162 101 100

4,096 256 16 1

Converting from Base 10.

Example.

Convert 12310 to base 2

61 rem 1

2)123

30 rem 1

2)61

15 rem 0

2)30

7 rem 1

2)15
 3 rem 1

2)7

1 rem 1

2)3

0 rem 1

2)1

12310 = 11110112

Remember to read the number backwards

Converting to Base 10.

Example

Convert 11110112 to base 10

26 25 24 23 22 21 20

64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 1

Adding Binary Numbers.

100

+ 101

1001
 Multiplying Binary Numbers.

100

X 101

100

10000

10100
 Mensuration

Length, Area and Volume

2-Dimensional Shapes

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 4𝑎

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 𝑎2

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2

c h

1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑏ℎ = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
2 2
1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
2

b
 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ
2

3-Dimensional Shapes

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴ℎ
3

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)

4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)

Length of an Arc, Area of a Sector

𝜃𝜋𝑟
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑐 =
180

𝜃𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
360
 Sets.

A collection of elements called members.

A = {1, 2, 3}

B = {3, 4, 5}

Membership.

1𝜖𝐴

Union.

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Intersection.

A ∩ B = {3}

Difference (Compliment).

A – B = B \ A = {1, 2}

Number of Elements (Cardinality).

|𝐴| = 𝑛(𝐴) = 3

Subsets.

𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3} ⇒ B ⊆ A

If 𝑆 = {1, 2, 3}
The subsets of S are Φ, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3) and {1, 2, 3}.

Cartesian Product.

The Cartesian Product is the set of all subsets.

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}

Proper Subsets.

𝐶 = {1, 2} ⇒ 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐵

Universal Set.

ℇ = the set containing all the elements under discussion

Complimentary Sets.

𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝐼 = ℇ − 𝐴

𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝜙

Empty Set.

{1, 2, 3} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = ∅ (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡)

|∅| = 0

∅ is a proper subset
 Venn Diagrams.

A
B

6
4
3
2
5

1
C
 Binary operations and tables, identities and inverse elements

* A B C D

A A B C D

B B C D A

C C D A B

D D A B C

* is the operation

A is the identity element – A * A = A, A * B = B, A * C = C, A * D = D

D is the inverse element of B – B * D = A (the identity element)

 Algebra

Polynomial One or more terms with positive integer powers of 𝑥 only

Expression 5𝓍 + 3𝑦 + 1

Terms 5𝓍, 3𝑦 and 1

Factors 5, 𝓍, 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦

Coefficients 5 and 3

Variables 𝓍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦

Constant term 1

Degree highest power of 𝑥

Changing the Subject of a Formula.

√𝑥 + 1
𝑦=
2

2𝑦 = √𝑥 + 1

4𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 1

𝑥 = 4𝑦 2 − 1

Polynomials

Contain positive integer powers of 𝑥

𝓍4 + 2𝓍 2 + 𝓍 + 3
+ 3𝓍 3 + 2𝓍 + 2

𝓍 4 + 3𝓍 3 + 2𝓍 2 + 3𝓍 + 5

Like terms contain the same variables raised to the same power

We can only add or subtract like terms

To divide an expression, either multiply by the reciprocal of the denominator or multiply out the

denominator

If degree of numerator ≥ degree of denominator, use long division

Long Division

Example 1

2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2
)2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4

2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4

2𝑥

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 2𝑥
∴ 2
= 2+ 2
2𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 6 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 4

Example 2

Method 1

3𝑥
𝑥−4
)3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 4

3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥

𝑥−4

𝑥−4

0
 Method 2 (If known to have no remainder)

2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
= 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥−2

Multiply by 𝑥 − 2, multiply through and compare coefficients

2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 ≡ 𝑎𝑥 3 − (𝑏 − 2𝑎)𝑥 2 + (𝑐 − 2𝑏)𝑥 − 2𝑐

a = 2, b= 1, c = 3

2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
∴ = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3
𝑥−2
 Solving Equations

Algebraic Fractions

Addition and Subtraction

Find the common denominator, ie (𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 − 1)

𝓍 + 2 2𝓍 + 1 (𝓍 + 2)(𝓍 − 1) (2𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 + 1)

− = −
𝓍+1 𝓍−1 (𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 − 1) (𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 − 1)

(𝓍 + 2)(𝓍 − 1) − (2𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 + 1)

=
(𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 − 1)

(𝓍 2 + 𝓍 − 2) − (2𝓍 2 + 2𝓍 + 1)
=
(𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 − 1)

−𝓍 2 − 𝓍 − 3
=
(𝓍 + 1)(𝓍 − 1)

Multiplication

Multiply the numerators and denominators separately

𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 + 1)
× =
𝑥+1 𝑥−1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)

Short Division

Method 1 – Multiply by the reciprocal of the denominator

1 3𝑥 + 1
3+𝑥
= 𝑥
5 5 + 4𝑥
𝑥+4 𝑥
 3𝑥 + 1 𝑥
= ×
𝑥 5 + 4𝑥

3𝑥 + 1
=
5 + 4𝑥

Method 2 – Multiply out the denominator

1 1
3+𝑥 3+𝑥 𝑥
= ×
5 5 𝑥
𝑥+4 𝑥+4

3𝑥 + 1
=
5 + 4𝑥

Linear Equations

2𝑥 − 4 = 0

Add 4 to both sides

2𝑥 = 4

Divide both sides by 2

𝑥=2
 Quadratic Equations

Factorisation

Not all quadratic equations can be factorised

6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 45 = 0

Take out any common factors

3(2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 15) = 0

Multiply the coefficient of 𝑥 2 by the constant term

2 × −15 = −30

Find the two factors of this product which add to give the coefficient of 𝑥 which in this case is −6 + 5

= –1

Rewrite the term in 𝑥 using these two factors

3(2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 15) = 0

Take out common factors for each pair

3(2𝑥(𝑥 − 3) + 5(𝑥 − 3)) = 0

Factorise completely
3(2𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3) = 0

Solve

2𝑥 + 5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 3 = 0

5
𝑥=− 𝑜𝑟 3
2
 Difference of 2 Squares

Example

Factorise 𝑥 2 − 49

𝑥 2 − 49 = 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 49

= 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 7𝑥 − 49

= 𝑥(𝑥 + 7) − 7(𝑥 + 7)

= (𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 7)

∴ 𝑥 2 − 49 = (𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 7)

𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)
 Differences of Squares

4𝑝2 − 9𝑞 2 = (2𝑝2 ) − (3𝑞 2 ) = (2𝑝 − 3𝑞)(2𝑝 + 2𝑞)

Completing the Square

Rewrite the following equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 16 = 0

Divide by the coefficient of 𝑥 2

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8 = 0

Move the constant term to the right-hand side of the equation

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 8

Complete the square by halving the coefficient of 𝑥 and balance this by adding the same value to the

right side of the equation

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 8 + 4

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 12

(𝑥 + 1)2 = 9

Take the square root on both sides of the equation

𝑥 + 1 = 3 𝑜𝑟 − 3

Subtract the number that remains on the left side of the equation to find 𝑥

𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 − 4

Quadratic Formula

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝓍=
2𝑎

2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 3 = 0

−7 ± √72 − 4 × 2 × 3
𝑥=
2×3

1
=− 𝑜𝑟 − 2
3
 Simultaneous Linear Equations

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13 (1)

𝑥 − 𝑦 = −1 (2)

Method 1 – Solution by Elimination

Multiply (2) by 3

3𝓍 − 3𝑦 = −3

Add to (1)

5𝑥 = 10 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 3

Method 2 – Solution by Substitution

Add 𝑦 + 1 to both sides of (2)

𝑥+1=𝑦

2𝑥 + 3(𝑥 + 1) = 13

5𝑥 = 10 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 3

Simultaneous Equations with 1 Quadratic

𝑥+𝑦 =7 (1)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 (2)
Rearrange (1) and substitute into (2)

𝑥 2 − (7 − 𝑥)2 = 25

𝑥 2 − (49 − 14𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) = 25

2𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 − 74 = 0

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

−14 ± √142 − 4 × 2 × 74
=
2×2
 Functions

Domain

The set of values that 𝑥 can take

Range (Co-domain)

The set of values that y can take

Composite Functions

𝑔𝑓(𝑥) means go f first, then g

Inverse Functions

𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
 Variation

𝑦 ∝ 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑥, 𝑖𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

1 𝑘
𝑦∝ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑥, 𝑖𝑒 𝑦 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑥 𝑥

k is called a constant of proportionality

Example

1
𝑦∝ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 3, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 5
𝑥

𝑘 = 𝑦𝑥 = 15

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 30, 𝑦 = 0.5

 Differentiation

Differentiation of Polynomial Functions

𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ⇒ = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Stationary Points

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 − 12
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Stationary Point at (3, –18) (𝑑𝑥 = 0)

Gradients

𝑦 = 𝑥2

𝑑𝑦
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 (2, 4) =
𝑑𝑥

= 2𝑥

=4

Rates of Change

Maxima and Minima

Where gradient = 0
 Matrices

Uses, eg solving simultaneous equations

Order

Number of rows 𝘟 number of columns

Identity and Null Matrices

1 0 0
𝐼 = (0 1 0)
0 0 1

Example of a diagonal matrix where every element not on the principal = 0

0 0 0
𝑁 = (0 0 0)
0 0 0

Addition

𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎+𝑤 𝑏+𝑥
( ) + (𝑦 𝑥) = ( 𝑐 + 𝑦 )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑑+𝑧

Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

𝑎 𝑏 𝑥𝑎 𝑥𝑏
𝑥∙( )=( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑥𝑐 𝑥𝑑

Multiplication of Matrices

Can only multiply if

Number of columns in the 1st matrix = number of rows in the 2nd

𝑢 𝑣
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑤 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑣 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑧
( )( 𝑥) = ( )
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑒𝑤 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑧
In general,

𝑀1 𝑀2 ≠ 𝑀2 𝑀1

Determinant

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝐷𝑒𝑡 ( )=| | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑏
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑

Inverse

𝑀 −1 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀−1 = 𝐼

1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝑀 −1 = ( )
|𝑀| −𝑐 𝑎

(Non-)Singular Matrices

Singular matrices have no inverses – determinant is zero

Transformations and Combinations

If a 2 𝘟 2 matrix is multiplied by a 2 𝘟 1 column vector, the result is also a 2 𝘟 1 column vector

 Vectors and Scalars

Representation

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵

Sum and Difference

Modulus

Multiplication by a Scalar

𝐹1 ∙ 𝐹2 = |𝐹1 ||𝐹2 | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Multiplication by a Matrix
Geometry
 Trigonometry

Opposite θ Hypotenuse

Adjacent

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

The Sine Rule

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶

The Cosine Rule

𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 =
2𝑏𝑐
 Graphs

Pie Charts

A 50

B 40

C 10

A
B
C

Bar Charts

60

50

40
%
30
Column1
20 Column2

10

0
A B C

Histograms

Similar to a bar chart but groups numbers into ranges

Mean and Median

Tree Diagrams
 Sum and Product Rules of Probability

The likelihood that an event will happen.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

Probability >= 0 (an impossibility) and <= 1 (a certainty)

𝟏
A dice is rolled once. Probability of rolling a six = 𝟔

1 5
Probability of not rolling a six = 1 − 6 = 6

Sum Rule
1 1 1 3 1
Probability of rolling an even number = 6 + 6 + 6 = 6 = 2

Product Rule

A dice is rolled twice

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Probability of rolling two sixes = 𝟔 × 𝟔 = 𝟑𝟔
H

H
T

H
T

T
 Alternative Ordinary Level

Pure Mathematics and Theoretical Mechanics Syllabus 871

2 papers (2½ hours each)

Section A – 8 short compulsory questions, Section B – 4 out of 6 questions

Paper 1

Pure Mathematics

Identities

Factor Theorem

𝑥 + 𝑐 is a factor of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) ⇔ 𝑓(𝑐) = 0

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3

f(1) = 1 + 2 – 3 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 – 1) is a factor

f(2) = 4 + 4 – 3 ≠ 0 ⇒ (𝑥 – 2) is not a factor

Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑐), the remainder is 𝑓(𝑐)

Simultaneous Linear and Quadratic Equations

Linear and Quadratic Inequalities

Example 1

3𝑥 + 15 < 6

3𝑥 < −9
𝑥 < −3

Example 2

7 < 3𝑥 + 1 ≤ 13

7 < 3𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑥 + 1 ≤ 13

6 < 3𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑥 ≤ 12

𝑥 > 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≤ 4
 Series

Arithmetic Series

𝑎1 , 𝑎1 + 𝑑, 𝑎1 + 2𝑑, … + {𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = {2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}
2 2

∞
4(−1)𝑛+2
𝜋=∑
2(𝑛 + 1) − 1
𝑛=0

Geometric Series

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , … , 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
 Binomial Theorem

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 5 = 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120

𝑛 𝑛!
𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( ) =
𝑘 𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘)!

∞
𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘
𝑛
𝑘
𝑘=0

(𝑎 + 𝑥)5 = 1𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑥 + 10𝑎3 𝑥 2 + 10𝑎2 𝑥 3 + 5𝑎𝑥 4 + 1𝑥 5

 Proof by Induction.

1. Prove true for some value, say N = 1.

2. Assuming true for N = k, prove true for N = k + 1.

 Vectors and Scalars

Addition and Subtraction

Multiplication by a Scalar

Resolution

Position Vector

Unit Vector

Coordinates

Equation of a Straight Line

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Integration of Polynomials

𝑎
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝐶, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ≠ – 1
𝑛+1

Integration of Trigonometric Functions

1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎

1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎

Area under Curve

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Volume of Revolution about the x-axis

𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Volume of Revolution about the y-axis

𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑎
 Trigonometry

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1
 Theoretical Mechanics

Vectors, Displacement, (Relative) Velocity and Force

Vector quantity – direction as well as magnitude (size), eg displacement, velocity

Scalar – magnitude only, eg distance, speed

Kinematics – study of displacement, velocity and acceleration

𝑑𝑠
𝑣= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠), 𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚), 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
𝑎= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚/𝑠 2 ), 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠), 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑑𝑡

𝑠 = 𝑡 3 ⟹ 𝑣 = 3𝑡 2 ⟹ 𝑎 = 6𝑡

Resultant Vectors and Components

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶

θ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵

Moments

Principle

Sum of clockwise moments about a point = sum of anti-clockwise moments

Centre of Mass

Acceleration
 Projectiles

Derivation

𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝐶

𝑡 = 0 ⟹ 𝑣(0) = 𝐶

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(0) + 𝑎𝑡

𝑠(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

= ∫ 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣(0) 𝑑𝑡

1 2
= 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 + 𝐶
2
 Newton’s Laws of Motion

1st Law

Every particle remains at rest or at constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force

2nd Law

The acceleration of a particle is directly proportional to the force applied to it

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑁), 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔), 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚/𝑠 2 )

3rd Law

Action and reaction are opposite and equal

 Work, Energy and Force

Force Diagrams

Weight Tension

Friction Pull

Normal Reaction

W = Fd, W = Work done (scalar) (Joules, J), F = force (N), d = distance (m)
 Momentum and Impulse

Momentum

mv

Impulse

The change in momentum over time

𝑡2
𝐼 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
 Advanced Level Mathematics

Syllabus 371

Pure Mathematics

Functions

Logarithms

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑝 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑞 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑝𝑞

𝑝
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑝 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑞 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑞

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑝

Vectors

Curves

Radians

Permutations and Combinations

Polynomials
Quadratic Functions

Inequalities
 Partial Fractions

Before a fractional function can be expressed directly in partial fractions, the numerator must be of at

least one degree less than the denominator

Type 1 – Denominator Containing Distinct Linear Factors

𝑥 𝑥
=
𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)

𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥+1 𝑥+2

Express

Method 1 – Substitution

Multiply by (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)

𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)

𝑥 = −1 ⟹ 𝐴 = 1

𝑥 = −2 ⟹ 𝐵 = 2

𝑥 1 2
∴ = +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2

Method 2 – Equating Coefficients

𝑥 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
Equate the constant terms

0 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 (1)

Equate the coefficients of x

1=𝐴+𝐵 (2)

Subtraction (2) from (1)

𝐴 = −1 ⇒ 𝐵 = 2

Type 2 – Denominator Containing a Quadratic that can be Factorised

Type 3 –Denominator Containing Repeated Linear Factors

𝑥+5 𝐴 𝐵
2
= +
(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 + 3)2

Multiply by (𝑥 + 3)2

𝑥 + 5 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵

𝑥= –3 ⇒ B = 2, 𝑥= –5 ⇒ A = 1

𝑥+5 1 2
∴ 2
= +
(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 + 3)2

Type 4 – Denominator Containing Distinct Irreducible Quadratic Factors

𝑥2 + 1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2
Multiply both sides by (𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)

𝑥 2 + 1 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 2) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 1)

1 1 2
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ B = 3, 𝑥 =-1 ⇒ B = 3, 𝑥 = ⇒ A = 3

𝑥2 + 1 𝑥+1 2
∴ 2 = +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 3(𝑥 2 + 2) 3(𝑥 − 1)

Denominator Containing Repeated Irreducible Quadratic Factors

1 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
= +
(𝑥 2 + 1)2 𝑥 2 + 1 (𝑥 2 + 1)2

𝑥=

Series
 Differentiation

Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑑 1
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑 1
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑 1
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2

Differentiation of Exponential Functions

𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑛|𝑎|
𝑑𝑥

Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

𝑑 1
𝑙𝑛|𝑥| =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑛|𝑎|
 Chain Rule

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= ∙ = ∙ ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥

Example
2
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝑣 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑣, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑢

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 2
⟹ = 2𝑥, = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 2 , = 𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
= . .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑣 ∙ 𝑒 𝑢
𝑑𝑥

2
= 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
 Differentiation of Products

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example

𝑦 = (2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥)(2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 )

𝑑𝑦
= (2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥)(6𝑥 2 + 10𝑥) + (2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 )(4𝑥 + 6)
𝑑𝑥

= 20𝑥 4 + 88𝑥 3 + 90𝑥 2

Check

𝑦 = 4𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 4 + 30𝑥 3

= 4𝑥 5 + 22𝑥 4 + 30𝑥 3

𝑑𝑦
= 20𝑥 4 + 88𝑥 3 + 90𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
 Differentiation of Quotients

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 − 𝑢
( ) = 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣

Example

2𝑥 3
𝑦=
4−𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 2𝑥 3 ⟹ = 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = 4−𝑥 ⟹ = −1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (4 − 𝑥)6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 (−1)
=
𝑑𝑥 (4 − 𝑥)2

24𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3
=
(4 − 𝑥)2
 Integration

Integration of Polynomial Functions

𝑎
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ – 1
𝑛+1

Definite Integration
2
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 2 ]12
1

=4−1

=3

Integration of Logarithmic Functions

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥

Integration of Exponential Functions

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

1 𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 +𝐶
𝑙𝑛 𝑎

Integration of Trigonometric Functions

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 + 𝑥2

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1 − 𝑥 2
 Integration by Parts

Integrate the product rule for differentiation, then rearrange

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
∫𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.

∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑥, = 𝑒𝑥 ⟹ = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 1 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

Example 2.

∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 × 1 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 1
𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 , =1⟹ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

= 𝑥(𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

What to make u

- Logarithmic

- Algebraic

- Trigonometric

- Exponential

Example 2

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑥2, = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ⇒ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Example 3

Evaluate
4
∫ 2𝑥√𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
3

4 12
∫ 2𝑥√𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3 5

Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 4 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑢 = 5, 𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑢 = 12

4 12
∫ 2𝑥√𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3 5

3 12
2𝑢2
=[ ]
3
5

= 20.3 (3𝑠𝑓)
 Complex Numbers

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑏 2 > 4𝑎𝑐 ⇒ y has no real roots

i = √−1

√−16 = 4𝑖

Complex number has real and imaginary parts

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 in rectangular form

𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖 is the conjugate of 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖

When a complex number is multiplied by its conjugate, the answer is real

Division of complex numbers – multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the

denominator

Standard form – no i’s in the denominator

Modulus

If

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖

Then

⌈𝑧⌉ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
On a graph, use the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part

Polar form 𝑥 +yj = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

Where r is the modulus and θ is the argument

𝑧 = 7 − 5𝑖

𝑟 = √72 + (−5)2

= √74

5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
7

= 324.46°

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 in exponential form, where 𝜃 is in radians

𝜋
1° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
180
Iteration
 Applied Mathematics

Differentiation of a Vector

Centre of Mass

Force

Moments

Couples

Friction

Direction of frictional force is opposite to direction of motion

μ is the coefficient of friction

μR

30∘ 10

μR – 10 sin 30∘ = 0

R – 10 cos 30∘ = 0

μ = tan 30

1
=
√3
 Hooke’s Law

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁), 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑁/𝑚), 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)

𝜆𝑥
𝑇=
𝑙

T=tension (N), λ=modulus of elasticity, x=extension, l=natural length

Kinematics in a Straight Line

(Relative) Velocity and Acceleration

Kinematics in a Plane

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Uniform Motion in a Circle

Momentum

Direct Impact of Elastic Bodies

Work, Energy and Power

Probability

Conditional Probability

Sum
 Product

Independent Events
 A Level Further Mathematics

Syllabus 372

Pure Mathematics

Hyperbolic Functions

𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 =
2𝑒 𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 =
2𝑒 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = =
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1

1 2𝑒 2𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = = 2𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 + 1

1 2𝑒 2𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1

𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥

𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥| + 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥) + 𝐶

𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ | + 𝐶
2

Integration by Reduction

Example 1

𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑥𝑛, = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2

𝐼0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝐼1 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝐼2 = 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝐼3 = 𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 6𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶

Example 2

𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑣 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝐼𝑛 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − ∫ −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 (𝑛 − 1)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑛 − 1
=− + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
 Differential Equations

Maclaurin Series
∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥
𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑒𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑙𝑛|1 + 𝑥|
 Partial Fractions

Type 4: Denominator Containing a Quadratic Factor

1 − 5𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
(2 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 ) 2 − 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2

Multiply both sides by (2 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

1 − 5𝑥 = 𝐴(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(2 − 𝑥)

9
𝑥=2⇒𝐴=−
5

7
𝑥=0⇒𝐶=
5

1
𝑥= ⇒ 𝐵 = 33
5

1 − 5𝑥 9 165𝑥 + 7
∴ = +
(2 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 ) 5(2 − 𝑥) 5(1 + 𝑥 2 )
 Integration

Integration by Substitution

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
Choose substitution so that 𝑑𝑥 is simpler than u, eg 𝑙𝑛 𝑥, 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑒 𝑛𝑥

√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

√𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃

𝑑𝑢
=3
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 4

1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
3

1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3

1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 + 𝐶
3

1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (3𝑥 + 4) + 𝐶
3
 Integration by Reduction

𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Curve Sketching

Differential Equations

Applications of Integration

Cartesian and Parametric Equations

Polar Coordinates

Vector Products

Linear Transformations

Groups
 Applied Mathematics

Differential Equations

Numerical Solutions

Resisted Motion

Particle Motion in a Vertical Circle

Moments of Inertia

Radii of Gyration

Vector and Scalar Products

Radial-Transverse Acceleration

2 dimensions, using Cartesian and polar coordinates

Oblique Impact of Elastic Bodies

Random Variables

Continuous Random Variables

Probability density and distribution functions

Expectation of a Function of a Continuously Random Variable

Exponential, Uniform, Normal, Binomial and Poisson Distributions

 STEP Mathematics II

Implicit Differentiation

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1

𝑑 2 𝑑
(𝑥 + {𝑦(𝑥)}2 ) = (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

Logarithmic Differentiation

𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥

𝑙𝑛|𝑦| = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 𝑥 |

= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛|𝑥|

𝑑 𝑑
𝑙𝑛|𝑦| = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛|𝑥|
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 1 ∙ 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝑥 ∙ 1
𝑦 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 1)
𝑑𝑥

Integration using 2 Substitutions

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 − 𝑥) {2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 − 𝑥)}4

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 − 𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥, 𝑣 = 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢

𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
STEP Mathematics III
 Part IA

Group Theory

Definition

Non-empty set G and a binary operation ⊥ : G 𝘟 G → G

∀ For all

∃ There exists

st, : Such that

→ Tends to (approaches)

∞ Infinity

Lim Limit

⅓ ⅔ ½ ¼ ¾

Lemma (plural lemmas or lemmata) is a proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to a

larger result rather than as a statement of interest by itself

Matrix – row echelon, rank, transposition

Axioms

Closure: a⊥b∈G

Associativity: (a ⊥ b) ⊥ c = a ⊥ (b ⊥ c)

Identity: ∃𝑒∈G|a⊥𝑒=𝑒⊥a=a

Inverse: ∃𝑥∈G|a⊥𝑥=𝑥⊥a=𝑒

Commutativity: a⊥b=b⊥a
 Analysis

Leibniz’s Rule

𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑2𝑢

= 𝑢 + 2 ∙ + 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑3 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑2 𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑3𝑢
= 𝑢 + 3 ∙ + 3 ∙ + 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3

𝑛
𝑑𝑛 𝑛! 𝑑 𝑖 𝑢 𝑑𝑛−𝑖 𝑣
(𝑢𝑣) =∑ . .
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑖! (𝑛 − 𝑖)! 𝑑𝑥 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−𝑖
𝑖=0
 Limits and Continuity.

1 𝑛
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 + )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ↔ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝛿𝑥 → 0

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ↔ → 𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑎𝑠 𝛿𝑥 → 0
𝛿𝑥

Differentiation from First Principles

B(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦)

𝛿𝑦
A(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝛿𝑥

Gradient of tangent to curve at A ≈ gradient of line AB

Gradient of AB dependent on position of B

4−1
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = (1,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (2,4), 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = =3
2−1
9−1
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = (1,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (3,9), 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = =4
3−1
1−1 0
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = (1,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (1,1), 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = =
1−1 0
 Polynomial 1

𝑦 = 𝑥2

𝑑𝑦 (𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦) − 𝑦
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑥

(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)2 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + (𝛿𝑥)2 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + (𝛿𝑥)2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑥(2𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥→0

= 2𝑥

Polynomial 2

𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑥 (𝛿𝑥)2 +. . . +𝑛𝑥(𝛿𝑥)𝑛−1 + (𝛿𝑥)𝑛 ) − 𝑥 𝑛
2!
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝛿𝑥+. . . +𝑛𝑥(𝛿𝑥)𝑛−2 + (𝛿𝑥)𝑛−1
𝛿𝑥→0 2!

= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Or

𝑙𝑛|𝑦| = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 𝑛 |

= 𝑛 𝑙𝑛|𝑥|

1 𝑑𝑦 1
=𝑛
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑥𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Linear

𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 2𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

=2

Constant

𝑦=𝑐
𝑑𝑦 𝑐−𝑐
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 ℎ

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 0
𝛿𝑥→0

=0

Example

1
𝑦=
𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 −
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)𝛿𝑥 𝑥𝛿𝑥

−𝛿𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝛿𝑥→0 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)

1
=−
𝑥2

Exponential

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

𝑙𝑛|𝑦| = 𝑙𝑛|𝑎 𝑥 |

= 𝑙𝑛|𝑢| + 𝑙𝑛|𝑣|

Example

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 𝑥+𝛿𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥
= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥
= lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑥
𝑒 𝛿𝑥 − 1
= 𝑒 lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

= 𝑒𝑥

Logarithmic

𝑦 = ln|𝑥|

𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒𝑦
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑒

1
=
𝑥

Example

𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 ln|𝑥|
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑒 𝑥 ln|𝑥| (𝑥 ln|𝑥|)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
= (𝑥 + 1 ln|𝑥|) 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥

= 𝑥 𝑥 (1 + ln|𝑥|)

Sum

𝑦 =𝑢+𝑣

𝑑𝑦 (𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑥

= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑢(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑥

lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑢(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑢𝑥 𝑣(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑣𝑥

lim + lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Product

𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣

𝑙𝑛|𝑦| = 𝑙𝑛|𝑢𝑣|

= 𝑙𝑛|𝑢| + 𝑙𝑛|𝑣|
1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑦( + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑢𝑣 ( + )
𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=𝑣 +𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Or

𝑑 𝑢𝑣(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑢𝑣𝑥

(𝑢𝑣) = lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑢(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)𝑣(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑢𝑥𝑣𝑥

lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑢𝑣(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑢𝑣𝑥

lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

Quotient
𝑢
𝑦=
𝑣

𝑢
𝑙𝑛|𝑦| = 𝑙𝑛 | |
𝑣

= 𝑙𝑛|𝑢| − 𝑙𝑛|𝑣|
1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= −
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑦( − )
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= ( − )
𝑣 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= −
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 −𝑢
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣2
 Gauss
𝑛

∑ 𝑗 = 1 + 2+ . . . +(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑛
𝑗=1

1
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2

=1

Proof by Induction

1. Prove for 𝑛 = 1.

2. Assuming true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, prove for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

1
1= × 1 × (1 + 1)
2

𝑛+1
1
∑ 𝑗 = 1 + 2 + (𝑛 − 1) + 𝑛 + (𝑛 + 1) = (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
2
𝑗=1

Integration from First Principles.

Find

4
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0

To find the area under a curve, divide the area into a number, n, rectangles of equal width, 𝛿𝑥.

4 𝑛
2
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑
0 𝛿𝑥→0
𝑖=1
 𝑛 𝑛

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ≈ ∑ 𝛿𝐴𝑖 ≈ ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝛿𝑥

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

As 𝛿𝑥 → 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 → ∞,

Area of rectangles = (𝑏 × ℎ1 + 𝑏 × ℎ2 + ⋯ + 𝑏 × ℎ𝑛 )

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝛿𝑥(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 +. . . +𝑦𝑛 )

𝛿𝑥→0

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝛿𝑥(𝑥1 2 + 𝑥2 2 + . . . +𝑥𝑛−1 2 + 𝑥𝑛 2 )

𝛿𝑥→0

2
𝑎 2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2 𝑎
= (0 + ( ) + (2 ) + ⋯ + ((𝑛 − 1) ) )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑎 𝑎 2 2
= ( ) (0 + 12 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)2 )
𝑛 𝑛

𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑏 𝑏

∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 2𝑥 …
𝑎 𝛿𝑥→0
𝑎

𝑥3 1
= (2𝑛3 − 3𝑛2 + 𝑛)
𝑛3 6

1 3 3 1
= 𝑥 lim (2 − + 2 )
6 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
 1 3
= 𝑥 ×2
6

1 3
= 𝑥
3

Functions

Range – the set of the images of all elements in the domain.

One-to-One (Injective)– each element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one element of the

domain.

Onto (Surjective) – each element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one element of the domain.

Bijective – each element of the codomain is mapped to by exactly one element of the domain.

Limits

Continuity

Boundedness

Differentiation

Integration

L'Hopital's Rule

Taylor Series

Maclaurin Series

Cauchy-Reimann

Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

Rolle's Theorem

Mean Value Theorem

 Reimann Integrals

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Fourier Series

Lagrange

Laplace Transforms

Jacobeans

Function Mapping and Limits

Green's Theorem

Stoke's Theorem

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Simpson

Partial Differentiation

Multiple Integration