SAT CHEM

A CONCISE REVISION
GUIDE

WRITTEN BY

SAI SAGIREDDY
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Forward - 2

Matter - 4

Atomic Structure and Periodic Table of Elements - 10

Nuclear Transformations and Stability - 24

Gas and Gas Laws - 28

Oxidation and Reduction – 38

Bonding – 43

Groups and Families – 55

Chemical Equilibrium – 60

Moles - 67

Laboratory - 74

Chemical Reactions and Thermochemistry – 75

Acids, Bases, and Salt - 79

Titration – Volumetric Analysis – 83

Carbon and Organic Chemistry – 84

Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes - 95

1
Forward

I have made this book so that an SAT Chemistry textbook will be widely
available to everyone wanting to do the test! Resources are hard to gather,
and there is no one book which, in my opinion, has everything. I have made
this book containing information I studied during my time taking the
Subject Test. After a few weeks of revision and doing the test, this resource
helped me achieve my goal. I share this with you in the hope that it meets
yours.

If you have any questions, doubts, or need to communicate, please email

me at saisrinath2001@hotmail.com.

Kindest Regards,

Sai Sagireddy.

2
Symbol Prefix Multiplication Factor

T tera 1012 1,000,000,000,000

G giga 109 1,000,000,000

M mega 106 1,000,000

k kilo 103 1,000

h hecto 102 100

da deka 101 10

d deci 10-1 0.1

c centi 10-2 0.01

m milli 10-3 0.001

µ micro 10-6 0.000,001

n nano 10-9 0.000,000,001

p pico 10-12 0.000,000,000,001

3
Sai Sagireddy

SAT Chemistry Subject Test

Notes -> All Theory

Matter ->
• Anything that has mass and occupies space
• Mass – amount of matter in a substance
• Depending on Fg, weight is assigned to it.
w=mg

è m = mass of a substance
è g = gravitational constant

• Mass is measured by the resistance to a change in position or

motion (inertia)
• Density = mass/volume

States of Matter

• Solid -> definite size and shape (ice)

• Liquid -> definite volume but takes shape of container (water)
• Gas -> no definite shape and no definite volume (steam)
• Can be changed by the addition and subtraction of heat energy.

4
Composition of matter

Matter:

1. Pure substances
2. Mixtures

* If a substance is made up of any 1 type of atom, it is called an element.

(pure s.)

* atoms are the basic building blocks of matter (pure s.)

* two or more atoms joined in a definite grouping is called a compound

(pure s.). They are combined by the Law of Definite Composition/
Proportion.

* The smallest naturally occurring unit of a compound is called a molecule

(pure s.)

Mixtures Pure Substances

• Composition is indefinite • Composition is made up one

(heterogeneous – marble)
• Properties of constituents are
retained (*Solutions are
mixtures but homogenous)
• Parts of mixture react
differently to changed
conditions
kind of atom (element)/definite
(homogenous – water)
(compound)
• Properties of compounds are
distinct from individual elements
• All parts react the same

5
Chemical and Physical Properties

Physical – Can be observed with our senses (color, density)

Chemical – chemical changes (iron rustin)

Chemical and Physical Changes

• Physical change alters physical property (form and state change)

• Chemical change alters chemical property (accompanied by energy
change).

6
Conservation of Mass

Ordinary Chemical Reactions è Mass of reactions = mass of products

Mass can only be changed from one form to another.

Matter can neither be created nor destroyed but changed from one form
to another.

Einstein è Energy and mass are interchangeable.

Energy

• Energy is defined as the capacity to do work

• WD = F x d
• Energy is measured in Joules
• Energy is also measured in kilocalories
• 1 Kcal = 4.18 x 103 Joules

Forms of Energy

• Heat Energy (commonly given out).

• Energy can be converted from one form to another

7
 • Two general classifications of energy are:- Potential Energy and
Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy è stored energy due to overcoming forces of nature.

Kinetic Energy è energy of motion

Types of Reactions (Exothermic vs Endothermic)

• When physical or chemical changes occur, energy changes are

involved.
• ∆H = Enthalpy
• Every system has a certain amount of heat
• This changes during me course of a physical or chemical change.

∆H = ∆H products - ∆H reactants

è If ∆HP > ∆Hr, ∆H is a +ve value

The reaction is endothermic

è If ∆HP < ∆Hr, ∆H is a -ve value

The reaction is exothermic

Conservation of Mass and Energy

E = mc2

o E = energy
o m = mass
o c = Velocity of light

8
Scientific Method

Process researchers use to carry out investigations.

* only the metric system is used in SATs.

Property Unit Abbreviation

Mass Kilogram Kg

Length Metre m

Time Second s

Current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of substance mole mole

Luminous Intensity Candela* Cd

Heat measurements

• Heat energy is transferred to particles in a body via kinetic energy.

• Calorie = measures the quantity of heat. It is the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1 degree on the
Celsius Scale.

Kcal is used for often

1Kcal = 4.18 x 103 J

1 Cal = 4.18 J

Important Metrics whilst conducting Labs

9
 • Precision
• Accuracy
• Uncertainty
• Standard/Scientific Notation
• Significant Figures

Atomic Structure and the Periodic

Table of Elements

Evidence for the atomic hypothesis began in 1805 by John Dalton

(1805).

AWCCS

A (a) All matter is made up of small discrete particles called atoms.

W (b) All atoms of an element are alike in weight; this weight is

different from that of any other kind of atom.

C (c) Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.

C (d) Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number

rations to form chemical compounds.

S (e) In chemical reactions, atoms can be combined, separated, or

rearranged.

• 1897 – J.J. Thomson discovered an electron beam in a cathode ray

tube.
• 1913 – Neils Bohr – line spectrum of hydrogen
• 1920’s and 1930’s – Work of De Broglie showed that Quantum
theory described a more probabilistic model of where electrons
could be found - resulted in the theory of orbitals.

Electron Discovery – J.J. Thomson (1897)

10
 1.) Evacuated tube connected to a spark coil.
2.) As Voltage increases, a beam became visible. This beam became
cathode ray
3.) Beam became deflected by electrical and magnetic field.

Thomson – Ratio of electrical charge of electron to its mass.

Robert Millikan (1909) – Charge of an electron

-28
mass of e = 9.11 x 10 g

11
9.11 x 10 -31 kg

• Oil drops were charged by gaining or losing electrons

• Negatively charged electrons would rise (electron field adjusted)
• Using rate of upward rise, mass of drop and strength of field,
charge was found.

Ernest Rutherford (1911) – with Hanz Geiger and Ernest Mazden

This experiment showed us that:-

• A lot of empty space is present in the atom.

• Most mass is positively charged

Rutherford discovered the proton!

James Chadwick – 1932 – Neutron

12
Bohr Model of the atom

1913 – Niels Bohr

• Positively charged nucleus

• Negatively charged elections in specific sphericals, also called
energy levels around the nucleus.

Energy level: - 1, 2, 3

Principal Energy Level Maximum Number of Electrons

1 2

2 8

3 18

4 32

5 50

Components of Atomic Structure

Particle Charge Relative Actual mass Discovery

mass

Electron - (e-) 1/1837 9.11 x 10 -31

J.J. Thomson
Kg 1897

Proton + (p+) 1 1.67 x 10 -27

Rutherford
Kg Early 1900’s

Neutron 0 (n0) 1 1.67 x 10 -27

J.C. Chadwick
Kg 1932

13
 1.) Protons and neutrons are nucleons! They are located in the nucleus.
2.) Electrons are outside the nucleus in orbitals.
3.) Atomic number = number of protons.

Henry Mosely determined the atomic number of elements via the use of
elements!

4.) Sum of protons + neutrons = mass number

Z+N=A

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers (atomic mass)

(e.g) Hydrogen

* Protium (1 Proton, 1 electron)

* Deuterium (1 Proton, 1 neutron, 1 electron)

* Tritium (1 Proton, 2 neutrons, 1 electron)

Average Atomic Mass

Depends on: è Mass

è Relative abundance

(E.g.) Copper ð Copper – 63 = 69.17% and 63

Copper – 65 = 30.83% and 65

!".$% ' !(."$"! )(+,.-+ ' !.."(-)

Average atomic mass =
$,,
= 63.55 amu

14
Valence Electrons

Electrons found on the outermost energy level are known as valence

electrons. Others are core electrons.

Every atom tries to achieve a full outer electron.

Atomic Spectra

Bohr model was based on a simple hypothesis: -

(a) Electrons can only exist in certain energy levels without

absorbing or emitting energy.
(b) It must absorb or emit exact amount of energy that will bring
it from the initial state to final state.
(c) Ground state is the lowest energy state available to electrons.
Excited state is any level higher than ground state.

Change in energy (∆E)

absorb

emit

∆Eelectron = Efinal – Einitial

15
Principle Energy Level

When energy is
released, it is released
in discrete radiant
energy called photons

Spectroscopy
Increased λ

Increased f

16
Mass Spectroscopy

• To identify specific atomic structures is mass spectroscopy

• Concept: - Difference in mass charge degree of bending that occurs
in a beam of ions passing through a magnetic field.

• Intensity on photographic plate indicates the amount of each

particular isotope. Other plates can be used instead of photographic
plate.

Wave-Mechanical Model

In the 1920’s, difficulties with the Bohr atom were evident.

A new law governing the way in which electrons moved was needed

è Quantum or Wave mechanics.

Albert Einstein developed relativity mechanics model to deal with the

nature of mass as its speed approaches the speed of light.

A similar model was needed to fit the data of atomic model.

17
Max Planck – Quantum theory of light that light has both particle and
wavelike properties.

1924 – Louis de Broglie – particles might have particle-like and wave-like

properties.

1927 – electron diffraction experiments.

Diffraction – a property associated with waves.

1927 – Werner Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

• It is impossible to know both the location (precise) and precise

velocity of a subatomic particle at the same time.

• Heisenberg and Schrodinger agreed with the De Broglie concept

that electron is attached in a wavelike manner to the nucleus.

This gave rise to wave-mechanical model of atom.

Solution deals with Orbitals – probable location of electron.

Quantum Numbers and Pauli Exclusion Principle

Each electron orbital may be described by a set of 4 quantum numbers: -

Wave mechanical model.

PAMS:

Principal quantum number (n)

è Distance of orbital
from nucleus
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Angular momentum quantum number (l) è This number refers

s, p, d, f to shape of orbital

l = (n-1)

18
0 = spherical shaped s orbital

1 = dumbbell shaped p orbital

2 = 5 orbital orientation d orbital

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) – The number of spatial orientations of

orbitals

s = 1 space oriented orbital

p = 3 space oriented orbital

d = 5 space oriented orbital

f = 7 space oriented orbital

Spin Quantum Number (MS) – Describes the spin in two possible

directions

Each orbital – 2 é ś

Pauli Exclusion Principle: - In an atom, not two electrons have the

same four quantum numbers.

Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity and Aufbau Principle

Aufbau Principle: - electrons will fill lowest energy orbitals first.

Afterwards filling is known as Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicy.

Elements 24 and 29 are weird!

24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p2 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

29Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

19
Noble Gas Notation

Ne – 1s2 2s2 2p6

Sodium – [Ne] 3s1

Transition Elements

• The elements all have a ‘d’ subshell

• Elements 24 and 29 are areas of interest.

ODICC RTSP - Properties

• They often form coloured compounds

• They have in incomplete d electron subshell
• They have a variety of oxidation states
• They form complex ions
• They are good catalysts
• They are slivery blue at room temperature (except Cu and Au)
• Solid at room temp. (except mercury)
• Paramagnetic due to unpaired electrons.

Periodic Table of the Elements

History

• John Newlands, 1863, repeating octaves of properties.

• Dimitri Mendeleev, 1869, first periodic table.
è 17 columns
è arranged elements in groups according to weight and pop
• Lothar Meyer proposed something similar at the same time
• 1871, the periodic table was revised to have 8 groups. The long
periods were broken.

20
 acid properties increase

base properties increase

atomic radii decrease

Ionisation energy increases

Non-metallic properties increase

Periodic Law

Early 1900s è Henry Mosely – properties of elements are a periodic

function of their atomic numbers.

21
The Table

• Horizontal rows are called periods.

è (1st) 3 periods have only 8 elements

è Additional periods: - 4 and 5 have 18 elements

6 have 32 elements

7 have 22 elements

Properties Related to Periodic Table

• Metals are found to the left of periodic table.

è Most active metal is in the bottom left.
• Non-metals are on the right side of periodic table.
è Most active are top right.

Metals along step line are called metalloids because they have acid and
base properties.

Radii of Atoms

• Size of atoms are difficult to describe

• Unlike a football, an atom does not have a definite circumference.
• Size of atom is estimated by describing its radius.

Important Trends: -

1.) Atomic radius decrease from left to right across a period.

2.) Atomic radius increase from top to bottom across a period.

22
- Atomic Radius in Periods -

Some number of electrons increase in the outer principal energy level as

you go from left to right. Increase in nuclear charge pulls electrons more
tightly around nucleus. As a result, radius is generally reduced.

Inert gas at the end of period has slight increase because of electric
repulsion.

THIS TREND IS SEEN ACROSS EVERY PERIOD!

- Atomic Radius in Groups –

Each atom has an additional filled shell. Electrons held there are less
tightly held by the nucleus. This is due to increased distance from
nucleus.

- Ionic Radius –

Metal ions have small radii.

Non-metal ions have larger radii.

Electronegativity

- Strength with which atom of element attracts valence electrons in a

chemical bond.

0 – 4 Scale.

Fluorine is most electronegative è A value of <2 indicates a metal!

Francium is most electropositive è Electronegativity decreases down a

group.

Electronegativity increases across a period

Inert gases should be ignored!

Ionisation Energy

- The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom

allowing it to become an ion.

23
After 1st electron is removed, it becomes increasingly difficult to remove
other electrons!

Lowest IE is present in most electropositive atoms.

Nuclear Transformations and Stability

Scientists are noticing emissions from atoms!

.
• Alpha Particles (He
,
• Beta Particles 2$e
,
• Gamma Rays ,γ

Alpha

𝟒
• 𝟐𝐇𝐞
• Range is 5cm in air
• Stopped by skin, paper
• é Energy, average Velocity

(+, ((! .
",Th è --Ra + (He

Beta

– ejected when neutron decays to proton + electron

,
• 2$e
• high velocity, low energy
• Range: 12 metres
• Stopped by 1cm aluminium or a book

24
(+. , (+.
"$Po è 2$e + "(U

Gamma

• EM radiation identical with light

• Beta and gamma are usually emitted together: - Beta first then
gamma
• Shielding done by lead.

Detections

• Photographic plate;
• Scintillation counter, and;
• Geiger counter

25
Half Life

Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Change

Type Decay Particle Particle Change in Change in

Particle Mass Charge Mass No. Atomic No.

Alpha α 4 2+ Decrease by Decrease by

4 2

Beta β 0 1- _ Increases by
1

Gamma γ 0 0 _ _

Positron β+ 0 1+ _ Decrease by
1

Electron e- 0 1- _ Decrease by
1

Radioactive Dating

- To determine ages of substance

(e.g.) Carbon14 t½ = 5700yrs

$. $. ,
!C è %$N + 2$e

Tree initially has 5 grams 5700 years age

When found, it has 2.5 grams

26
Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear reactions have been in use since the 1940’s.

(+A $+" ".

"(U + $,n è A!Be + +!Kr + $
+,n + energy

Fission

Splitting of heavy nucleus è lighter nuclei

• Nuclear chain reactions

Fusion

Combination of light nuclei to make heavy nuclei

High temperature and pressure required.

Combining Two Deuterium : -

( +( .
$H $H è (He + energy

Combining Tritium and Protium: -

+ +$ .
$H $H è (He + energy

27
Gas and Gas Laws
There are various gases in our atmosphere: -

(a) Nitrogen (78%)

(b) Oxygen (21%)
(c) Carbon Dioxide (0.04%)
(d) Argon (0.9%)

Greenhouse effect!

Oxygen

• Most important Gas (21% of atmosphere).

• The weight of O2 found on Earth is equal to weight of all other
elements combined.
• 50% of Earth’s crust is O2.

Preparation of oxygen: -

Joseph Priestley (1774) heated mercuric oxide which decomposed into

mercury and oxygen.

2HgO è 2Hg + O2

Made in lab by heating Potassium chlorate

2KclO3 + MnO2 è 2Kcl + 3O2 + MnO2

Heated in a test-tube which is connected to a water container. The water

is displaced upon injection of O2.

MnO2 lowers the temperature at which KClO3 decomposes. è This speeds

up the reaction MnO2 is a catalyst.

28
Properties of O2: -

• gas
• glowing splint ignites (N20 does some)

Ozone è O3
3O2(g) + electricity è 2O3(g)
Ozone layer protects us from UV Rays!

Preparation of Hydrogen: -
1776 – Henry Cavendish
A. Lavoisier named in hydrogen.

Method of obtaining Hydrogen è

(a) Electrolysis of water

(b) Displacement reaction with metal.

Activity Series è

PoCaSoMAZIT (4) CMSG

(c) For lab preparation, Zinc + H2SO4 (dilute) is used

29
Properties: -

1) Gas
2) Slightly soluble in water
3) Diffuses the fastest!
4) Burns in air or oxygen giving off large amounts of heat.

General Characteristics of a gas: -

Measuring pressure of a gas:-

• Pressure in force per unit area.

• Pressure in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.
• Pressure of atmosphere varies with altitude
è At higher altitudes, weight of atmosphere is less, so pressure is less.
è Air pressure varies with weather as well.
è Air pressure at sea level can support at column of mercury 760mm
in height.

• Instrument used for measuring air pressure: -

Mercury barometer!

1 atm = 760mmHg = 760 tom = 101325 Pascals

• A manometer can also be used to measure pressure!

Kinetic Molecular Theory

SMC

S (a) Matters (all states) is composed of extremely small particles. The

space occupied by those gas molecules is ignored in comparison to the
volume of space they are contained in.
M (b) Particles of matter are in constant motion.

C (c) When particles collide, there is no loss of energy.

30
è As temperature increased, the kinetic energy of a gas increased,
increasing random motion.

è At a particular temperature, not all particles have the same Kinetic

Energy, but temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of
particles.

When temperature decreases, it reaches a point where kinetic energy

cannot overcome attractive forces between particles and the gas
condenses to a liquid. è Condensation!

Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of

low concentration is referred to as Diffusion.

Effusion is the movement of gases through a tiny orifice into an

evacuated chamber.

Graham’s Law of Effusion

- relates the rate at which a gas diffuses to the type of molecule in the
gas.

The rate of effusion (diffusion) of a gas is inversely proportional to the

square root of its molecular mass.

Example: -

Rate A Molecular Mass of B

=
Rate B Molecular Mass of A

31
Let A be H2 and B be O2

Rate H( 32 16 4
= = =
Rate O( 2 1 1
H2 diffuses 4 times faster than O2.

STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure

273K

760mmHg

Charles Law

V
=K
T
• Constant Pressure
$
• When a gas is heated from 0oC to 1oC, it expands times of its
(%+
volume.
• It contracts this amount when the temperature is dropped from 1oC
to -1oC.
• If a gas was cooled from 0oc to – 273oc, the volume would be zero.
è However, all gas is converted to liquid before this temperature is
reached.

Provided the pressure is constant, the volume is directly

proportional to the absolute temperature.
VW VY VW
= or = K
XW XY XW

32
 V

V$ V(
Example: =
T$ T(
T1 = 20oc
A,, VY
273 x =
V1 = 500ml ("+ $

T2 = 0oc V2 = 465 ml

V2 =?

Boyle’s Law

PV=K

• Volume decreases when pressure increases

• Temperature is held constant
• P1V1 = P2V2
è Provided that temperature is constant, the volume of the gas is
inversely proportional to pressure changes.

P1V1 = P2V2 at a constant temperature.

33
Volume
As the volume is
increased by 2, the
pressure drops by ½.

$
For straight line, V vs .
\
$
For straight line, P vs .
V

Pressure

200 x 1.05 = 1.01 x ?

Example
$.,A
V1 = 200ml 200 x = ?
$.,$
P1 = 1.05 atm
V2 = 208ml
P2 = 1.01 atm

V2 = ?

Combined Gas Law:

P( V$ P( V( Combination of Charles’s Law and

= Boyle’s Law
T$ T(

P2 = 760mm Hg
Example

P1 = 780mm Hg T2 = 0oC = 273K

T1 = 30oC = 303K V2 = ?

V1 = 500ml

34
780 x 500 760 x V(
=
303 273K

780 x 500 x 273

V( = = 402ml
303 x 760

Pressure vs Temperature è Gay Lussac’s Law

For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly

proportional to the absolute temperature.

\W \Y P
= or = K
XW XY T

Example

T1 = 27oC T2 = 100oC
P2 =?
P1 = 12atm

12 P(
=
300 373

373 x 12
P( = = 14.9 atm
300

35
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

When a gas is made up of a mixture of different gases, the total pressure

is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the components.

Partial Pressure: - Pressure of the individual gas if it alone occupied the

volume.

PTotal = Pgas1 + Pgas2 + Pgas3

Example

PTotal = 760mm Hg 65% Nitrogen

15% Oxygen
20% Co2

0.65 x 760 = 494

0.15 x 760 = 114

0.2 x 760 = 152

Corrections of Pressure

Correction when a gas is collected over H2O

When gas is collected over H2O, some water vapour is present and
contributes to total pressure.

Assuming gas is saturated with water vapour, you can find partial
pressure due to water vapour.

This vapour pressure must be subtracted from total pressure to find

partial pressure of gas being measured.

Pgas = Patm – PH2O

36
Correction of Difference in the height of the fluid

When eudiometers are used, it is not always possible to get level of two
liquid inside the tube to equal the level on the outside. This deviation is
important when measuring pressure of enclosed gas!

Two possibilities: -

1.) When level inside is higher than outside: -

pressure inside is less!
If mercury, subtract difference from outside pressure to get correct
pressure

If water, must convert to mercury (÷ by 13.6)

2.) When level inside is lower than level outside, a correction must be
added.

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT

P = Pressure

V = volume

T = temperature

n = number of moles

R = ideal gas constant

R, gas constant, must be determined

Temp = 24oC

37
 PV=nRT

P = 1atm PV
R=
V = 24.38L nT

n = 1 mol 1 x 24.38
=
1 x 297
R =?
R = 0.0821

Ideal Gas Deviations

Ideal Gas è High temperature

Low pressure

Deviation è High pressure

Low Temperature

Oxidation-Reduction
A type of reaction is called Single Replacement. This reaction works to
replace the element in a compound.

Reactions like these can be predicted!

Causes of
exothermic è Heat of formation of compound in products is
reaction negative

è Hf value bigger than reactions value

Contains Copper and

Nitrate ions
é
2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) è Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

é
Silver and nitrate
ions surrounded by
water molecules

38
Nitrate ions are spectator ions. These are cancelled and an ionic equation
is written: -
Gain of 2 electrons

Loss of 2 electrons

2Ag+ + Cu(s) è Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Reaction occurs via transfer of electrons!

Oxidation is the loss of electrons

Reduction is the gain of electrons

Both are commonly called redox.

Po Greater tendency to lose

electrons than elements
So below

Ca

Reactivity M
è
A
Series
Z

Oxidation States

Redox is easy with ionic species.

Redox is not easy with molecular species.

39
Rules: -

è Sum of all states is 0 for electrically neutral compounds.

è Sum of states must be equal to charge on polyatomic ions.

(a) Oxidation state of an element is 0.

(b) Oxidation state of monoatomic ion is its charge.
(c) Oxidation state of Fluorine is -1.
(d) Oxidation state of Oxygen is – 2 (except when bonded to
Fluorite and peroxides è oxidation state in peroxides is -1).
(e) Oxidation state of Hydrogen is almost +1 all the time (in
hydrides, it is -1).

Example

Na2SO4

2 x (+1) + (-2)

+2-2=0

Using oxidation states to recognise Redox reactions.

(not redox)
+1 -2 +2+6-2 +1+6-2 +2-2
Reaction 1: Na2S(aq) + CuSO4(aq) è Na2SO4(aq) + CuS(s)

redox
0 0 +1 -1
2Na(l) + Cl2(g) è 2NaCl(s)

40
Combustion Reactions

Aka burning

0 0 +2 -2
(eg) 2Mg(l) + O2(g) è 2MgO(s)

The amount of heat released when 1 mole of a fuel burns is referred to as

heat of combustion, ∆HC.

C(s) + O2(g) è CO2 + 393K J

∆HC = -393.5 KJ

Rates of Chemical Reactions

Measurement of reaction rate: -

(a) Rate of appearance of product

(b) Rate of disappearance of reactant
For most reactions, the concentration of all participants change most
rapidly at the beginning of the reaction.

reactants è products
Greatest rate of Greatest rate of
decrease increase

Factors affecting Reaction Rates

NCSTP

1.) Nature of Reactants – Depending on type of reaction

2.) Concentrations – Reaction rate or concentration of reactants. More
molecules mean more reaction will occur.

41
 3.) Surface area – most reactions depend on reactants coming into
contact. So more surface area increase reactions.
4.) Temperature – As temperature increases, Kinetic energy increases,
movement increases and particles have a greater chance of colliding
into one another.
5.) Presence of a catalyst – increases rate without itself undergoing any
chemical change, lowers activation energy.
(There are also substances called negative catalysts which decrease
rate).

Activation energy is the energy required to cause a reaction to occur.

Energy
Difference in activation
energy

A+B

AB

Reaction
Rate

Reaction Rate Law

Relationship: reaction rate and masses of substances (concentration)

è Law of Mass Action aA + bB è

r α [A]a x [B]b K = specific rate constant

r = K [A]a [B]b

1+ 1 = 2
H2(g) + I2(g) è 2HI(g)
Second order reaction
r= K [H2]1 [I2]1

42
Reaction mechanism and Rates of Reaction

Some reactions do not directly occur between reactants but go through

intermediates. è Reaction mechanism

Step 1 – Slow S1 is the rate determining step.

Step 2 – Fast
concentrations of reactants of Step 1
Step 3 – Fast must be increased.

Step 4 – Fast

Bonding

Bonding
Some elements show no tendency to combine with like atoms or other
elements è monoatomic molecules (e.g.) Helium, Neon, and Argon
(Valence shells filled)!

A molecule is a compound that retains the properties of the original

substance

Water – Triatomic molecule

- 3 atoms combined to form atom with characteristic properties

Attractions between atoms in a molecule are known as a chemical bond.

(a) When a chemical bond is formed, energy is released.

(b) When a chemical bond is broken, energy is formed.

Type of Bonds è Intramolecular

(a) Ionic
When electronegativity values of two kinds of atoms differ by 1.7 or
more, the more electronegative atom borrows electrons to fill its valence

43
shell. The other less electronegative atoms lend until it receives a stable
octet.

è Borrower is anion

è Lender is cation

Ions do not form individualised molecules in the liquid or solid phase all
are arranged in giant crystalline lattices.

High Mp, conduct electricity in molten state

(b) Covalent
When the electronegativity difference between two or more atoms is
between, inclusive of, 0 and 0.4, atoms tend to share valence
electrons in valence energy levels. This is a nonpolar covalent bond.

• Gases or liquids or solids (rare)

• Low Bp and Low Mp
• Do not conduct electricity

Between 0.4 and .6, polar covalent bonds exist. The atoms (more en)
tends to pull electrons to itself causing electrostatic changes in the bond.

(e.g.)

44
(dipoles are present)

Polar covalent bonds exist in non-polar molecules.

In some special cases of covalent bonding, both shared electrons can

originate from the same atom.

45
 Potential Energy graphs can be
shown to describe a covalent
bond!

Metallic Bonds

In most metals, one or more of the valence electrons become detached

from one atom and migrate in a sea of free electron among positive metal
ions.

• Factors reflected in the amount of the heat required to vaporise the

metal.
• The strong attraction between different charged particles is known as a
metallic bond.
è High Mp
è High Strength
è High electrical conductivity

Intermolecular Force of Attraction

- refers to attraction between molecules.

(a) Dipole – Dipole Attractions

Dipoles exist due to polar covalent bonds

è Positive attracts negative and vice versa.

(b) London Dispersion Forces

Found in polar and non-polar substances

46
The LDF is attributed to non-polar substances in that n-polar substances
can become polar. è Motion of electrons.

Temporary dipoles may be formed. This causes dispersions.

Weakest forces.

Explains condensing and freezing of substances that are non-polar iodine

crystals and math balls.

(c) Hydrogen Bonding

A hydrogen nucleus has a high concentration of positive charge.

When a hydrogen atom is bonded in a small, highly electronegative atom,

its positive charge will enhance attraction for electrons.

* Boiling points are high (H-bonding increases Bp)

Smaller Interatomic distances

Double and Triple Bonds Greater bond strength

è When you share two pairs of electrons, a double bond is produced!

è Sharing 3 pairs means triple bond

47
Resonance Structures

Benzene Resonance Structures: -

VSEPR AND HYBRIDZATION

Properties of molecules depend also on molecular geometry è 3D

arrangement of atoms in space.

48
VSEPR è Valence Shell Electron Pour Repulsion Theory

49
VSEPR and Unshared Electron Pairs

Ammonia (NH3) and water (H20) are examples in which the central atom
possesses both shared and unshared electron pairs.

Lewis Structure of Ammonia: -

50
Hybridization

Molecular configurations can be derived by VSEPR but also by

hybridisation.

(1) Sp Hybrid Orbitals Linear

Trigonal planar
(2) Sp2 Hybrid Orbitals
Boron triflouride, BF3, BA of 120o

51
(3) Sp3 Hybrid Orbitals

Methane, CH4, 1s2 2s2 p2

In some compounds, only certain sp3 orbitals are involved in bonding

(a) Water, H2O

52
Sigma and Pi Bonds

When bonding occurs between an s and p orbital, each bond is identified

by a special term.
(a) Sigma bond: - (1) Bond between s orbitals
(2) Bond between s orbital and p orbital

It includes bonding between hybrids such as sp, sp2, and sp3.

(e.g.) in CH4, Sp3 orbitals are bonded to hydrogen. These are sigma
bonds.

109.5O

H
H

(b) PI bond: - When two p orbitals are electrons in a covalent bond, a

pi bond is formed.
Example: C2H4

53
 Sharing between P orbitals
is a pi (π) bond.

Properties of ionic substances: -

• Does not conduct electricity in the solid phase

• Conduct electricity when molten
• High Mp and high Bp
• Have velocity and low vapor pressure
• Brittle

Properties of molecular crystals and liquids: -

• Neither the liquid nor the solid conduct electric current.
• Many exist as a gas and many solids and are volatile liquids
• Mp and Bp are low
• Soft and waxy consistency (solids)
• A large amount of substances is required to decompose substances

54
Groups and Families
• Salts formed with HSO4- ions are acid salts
• Salts formed with SO42- ions are normal salts.

Sulfur Family

• Sulfur is found in volcanic regions for free

• It is removed from the rock by heating in furnaces or retorts.

Allotropes of Sulfur

Shape – (1) Rhombic or Octahedral crystals

Pale Yellow, brittle

(2) Monoclinic crystals

Yellow, brittle

(3) Amorphous or non-crystalline dark, tough

55
Sulfuric Acid

H2SO4 (l) + H2O (l) è HSO4- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Ka is very large

HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l) è SO42- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) Ka is somewhat small

to for strong acid solution.

Acid Reactions

Acid + Metal è Salt + H2(g)

Acid + Base è Salt + H2O(l)
Acid + Metal Oxide è Salt + H2O(l)
Acid + Carbonate è Salt + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Sulfuric Acid has other characteristics: -

• Oxidising agent
• Dehydrating agent

Compounds of Sulfur

(1) Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S(g)

è colorless gas
è rotten egg odor
èsoluble in water
è poisonous

(2) Sulfur dioxide

è colorless gas
è suffocating odor

56
Halogen Family

Most active F2 9 Most active Pale yellow (g)

non-metal Cl2 17 Green (g)
Br2 35 Dark Red (l)
I2 53 Least active Purple crystals (s)

Compounds

(a) Hydrochloric acid

è Common acid prepared in the lab by reacting sodium chloride and
Sulfuric acid.

(b) Silver Bromide and Silver Iodide

è Used on photographic film
è Light intensity is recorded by developing as black metallic silver

(c) Hydrofluoric Acid

è acid used to etch glass by reacting with SiO2 to release silicon
fluoride gas.

(d) Fluorides
è used in drinking water and toothpaste.

Nitrogen Family

Inactive gas due to triple bond.

Nitric Acid

• Colorless liquid
• 1.5 times dense than water

57
• Good oxidizing agent

Metals

• Metallic cluster
• Heat conductor
• Electricity conductor
• Malleable
• Ductile
• Electropositive

Reduction Methods of Iron ore

Iron ore is refined by reduction in a blast furnace.

Components: è (a) Iron Ore (haematite, Fe2O3)

(b) Limestone
(c) Coke

A hot air blast, enriched with oxygen, is blown into the lower part of the
furnace through a series of pipes called tuyeres.

Burning Coke: 2C + O2 è 2CO(g)

C + O2 è CO2(g)

Reduction of CO2: CO2 + C è 2CO(g)

Reduction of Ore: Fe2O3 + 3CO è 2Fe + 3CO2(g)

Fe2O3 + 3C è 2Fe + 3CO(g)

Formation of Slag: CaCO3 è CaO + CO2(g)

CaO + SiO2 è CaSiO3

The molten iron from the blast surface is called the pig iron.

From pig iron, the metal can undergo steel making processes.

58
(1) Basic Oxygen furnace è pig iron is poured and high speed O2 is
allowed in è This burns out impurities!

(2) Open-Hearth furnace è Flame!

(3) Electric arc furnace è Graphite cathodes

Electrolysis

Alloys

Brass – Copper and Zinc

Bronze – Copper and Tin
Steel – A lot of metals involved.
Silver – alloyed with copper

Metalloids

Properties are intermediate between that of a metal and non-metal.

Flame Test

Lithium – Red
Strontium – Red
Calcium – Orange
Sodium – Yellow
Barium – Green
Potassium – Violet

59
Chemical Equilibrium
In some reactions, no product is formed to allow the reaction to go to
completion, i.e., reactants and products can interact in both directions.
A+BDC+D
(a) Indicates A+B reacts to form C+D
(b) Indicates C+D reacts to form A+B

Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

The reaction is said to have reached equilibrium when the forward

reaction rate is equal to the reverse reaction rate. (DYNAMIC)

(e.g.) Copper Sulphate crystal and solution è equal amount going in and
out.

To calculate rate, we use the Law of Mass Action. Concentrates: mol/dm3

A2 + B2 è 2AB K = rate constant

R α [A2] x [B2]
é3 é2
R = K [A2] x [B2]
R = K1 x 3 x 2 = 6K1

Backwards Reaction is also occurring

2AB (AB + AB) è A2 + B2

R1 α [AB] x [AB]
R1 α [AB]2
R1 = K [AB]2

60
Showcasing both reactions:
*A2 +B2 D 2AB
*note double arrow

At some point, the rate of the forward reaction and reverse reaction are
equal. {Dynamic Equilibrium is reaction}.
R=R1
*A2 +B2 è 2AB
2AB è A2 + B2
K1 [A2] x [B2] = K2 [AB]2

cW [ef]Y [ef]Y
= , K =
c eY ' [fY ] eY ' [fY ]

Keq is called the equilibrium constant!

Another example:
aA + bB D cC + dD

Reaction rates: -
R = K1 [A]a x [B]b
R1 = K2 [C]c x [D]d

K1 x [A]a x [B]b = K2 x [C]c x [D]d

K$ [C]( x [D](
= ( =K
K [C] x [C](

Equation to be graphed: -
aA + bB D cC + dD

At the beginning, concentrations of C and D are 0.

At the beginning, concentrations of A and B are maximum.
When reaction rates equal, equilibrium is reached.

61
 A+BèC+D
(Forward reaction

Equilibrium ð Forward
rate = reverse rate

C+DèA+B
(Reverse reaction

If Keq is large, equilibrium does not occur until product concentration is

large and reactant concentration is small.
If Keq is small, it means that occurs almost at once and relatively little
product is made.

(E.g.)
[H2] = 3moldm-3
[I2] = 3moldm-3
[HI] = 0 moldm-3

H2 + I2 D 2HI
[ij]Y
Keq = = 45.9
iY ' jY

At equilibrium
[H2] = (3.00 – x)
3 – 2.32 = 0.68
moldm-3
[I2] = (3.00 –x) =0.68

=4.64
[HI] = 2x moldm-3

62
 [(']Y
Then = Keq = = 45.9
+2' (+2')

2x
= 6.77
3−x

X= 2.32

Keq stays the same at a given temperature.

Le Chatelier’s Principle

è Basically, the system works to return the system to normal when a

change is made
(e.g.) A rise in temperature favors the reaction where heat is absorbed to
return the temperature to normal

Effects of changing conditions

Concentration è Concentration of reaction (reactant) increased,

equilibrium is displaced to the right.
Concentration of product increased, equilibrium is displaced to the left.

Temp è Temperature of equilibrium changed, reaction will shift to a new

equilibrium point.
If temperature of a system is raise, system shifts to a reaction in which
heat is absorbed è causes a change in value of equilibrium constant.

Pressure è only affects equilibrium in reactions where reactions or

products are gases.
An increase in number of molecules is the increase in pressure.
A decrease in number of molecules is the decrease in pressure.
When pressure is increased in a system, system tends to decrease
pressure (lower number of molecules).

63
Equilibrium in Heterogeneous Systems

è Keq for systems involving solids ç

CaCO3(s) D CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Any equilibrium constant does not include solids

NH4Cl(s) D NH3(g) + HCl(g)

K = [NH3(g)] x [HCl(g)]

Acid Ionisation Constants

Weak acids ionises è equilibrium is reached

The equilibrium constant is called acid dissociation constant

HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) D H3O(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)

64
Ionisation Constant of Water

Water is a very weak electrolyte.

2H2O(l) D H3O+(aq) + OH-

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1x10-14

[H3O+] [OH-] = 1x10-7

pH = - log [H+]

65
pH = - log [1x10-7] =7

Solubility Product

AgCl(s) D Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl-] = 1.2 x 10-10 at 25oC

Common Ion Effect

NaCl(s) D Na+ + Cl-(aq)

1.) Additon of HCl (12m)
2.) Causes equilibrium to move left
3.) Decreases solubility

Driving Forces of Reactions

è Minimum Energy (Enthalpy) to Maximum Disorder (Entropy)

Some reactions go to completion because equilibrium is achieved (all

reactants are converted to products).

On the other hand, some reactions go to completion with very little

product formed.

è Reasons: - Very large K values and very small K values.

Two driving forces determine the extent of reaction and when equilibrium
will occur.
1) Lowest heat content, enthalpy (-∆H = exothermic)
2) Greatest randomness, enthalpy (+ve ∆S, greater randomness)

Second Law of Thermodynamics è entropy increases for any spontaneous

reaction.

Entropy of a system may increase or decrease.

66
If decreases, entropy of surroundings must increase so that overall
change is positive.

∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings

Often times, a compromise must be reached between enthalpy and

entropy.
Change in free energy of a system. The Gibbs equation
∆G = Free Energy
∆G = ∆H - T∆S Gibbs – Free energy equation

Positive è too spontaneous

Positive è reaction is improbable
0 è equilibrium, therefore no net reaction

Moles
Stoichiometry
è Dimension Analysis is very important

Mole Concept

Mole = 6.02 x 1023 particles

Molar mass and Moles

The mass of a mole of particle is referred to as molar mass.

For most elements in the periodic table, the molar mass is the mass on
the table. Some atoms exist ass molecules and the molar mass is the
mass of the molecules.

67
 Molar mass and Gas volumes

è Avogadro, in 1811 stated that equal volumes of different gases contained

equal number of particle at the same temperature and pressure.

V/n = K

At STP (237k and 1atm), the smolar volume of a gas is 22.4dm3.

è Molar mass and molar volume. (Calculations)

è Density and molar mass

Density = mass/volume

(Eq) Find the molar mass of a gas when the density is given as 1.25
gram/liter

STP = 22.4L

1.23 × ss.4 = 28g/ M2i

Stoichiometry: Mole – mole problem

More Ratios are important!

68
 Mass-mass problems

Volume – Volume Problems

Molar volume of gas at STP is 22.4 dm3

69
 Mass - Volume or Volume – mass problems

Problems with excess regent or limiting reagent

Example
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) è CO2(g)

How much Methane?

70
 Percent yield of a product

Chemical Formulas

è Naming and writing Chemical formulas ç

Category 1- Binary ionic compounds

è Ions from Group 1 and Group 2 metals e.g. CaCl2

è These have only 1 type of charge

a) Name cation and then onion

Calcium Chloride

Reduce the subscript by the common factor unless you are sure
compound exists.

Category 2: Binary Ionic compounds

71
In this category, metal atoms form more than one ion, with a different
charge. They bind with a negatively charged ion.

Fe2+, Fe3+
Cu+, Cu2+
Hg22+, Hg2+
Sn2+, Sn4+
Pb2+, Pb4+

Category I and II logic compound formed with polyatomic ions

A polyatomic ion is a group of elements that act like a single ion when
forming a compound.
If compound formed with polyatomic ion has 3 elements, it is known as a
ternary compound.

Ca2+ SO42-
-
ClO hypochlorite
ClO2- chlorite Ca2(SO4)2 è CaSO4

ClO3- chlorate Fe2+ SO42-

ClO4- perchlorate
FeSO4

Category III è Binary covalent Compounds

• Formed between two non- metals

e.g. CO
è Carbon monoxide

72
1) First element is named using full elemental name.
2) Second element is named as if it is anion
3) Prefixes are used to state the amount of the second element.
4) Mono is never used in naming first elements

Name and formulas of common acids and bases.

Hydrochloric acid – HCI

Sulfuric acid – H2SO4
Ternary compound acid can exist

Chemical Formulas: - Their meaning and use!

By using atoms assigned, formula mass can be obtained

Simplest ratio formula è empirical formula
Actual formula è molecular formula

(E.g.) Ca(OH)2 40+32+2 = 74

Mass Weight of Element 100

Percentage composition = x
Total mass of element 1

Law of Definite Composition and Multiple Proportion

H2O è 2:16 or 1:8

H2O2 è 2:32 or 1:16

Writing and balancing equations is also important!

You can change subscript of formulas whilst balancing!

73
Ionic Equations

At times, chemist choose to show only substances in the chemical action

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) è ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

2H+(aq) + Zn(s) è Zn2+ + H2(g)

The Laboratory
Microscale equipment (allow experiment to be done
on a small scale)
Laboratory
Macroscale equipment (Actual equipment)

Most labs require a student to learn how to use technologies tools

• Gravimetric Balance – technology
• PH meters – pH readings
• Spectrophotometers – percentage of light transmitted at specific
frequencies – maturity of a sample can be
determined without doing a titration.
• Computer assisted labs – use probes to take readings

è Know lab safety rules

74
Chemical Reactions and
Thermochemistry

Reaction can be categorized into 4 sections:

1) Combination (synthesis)
2) Decomposition
3) Single replacement
4) Double replacement

1) - Synthesis
Involves the making of a more computer product from simpler substances
(two or more)
(eg) Formation reaction (all are synthesis, not vice versa)
Zn(s) + S(s) è ZnS(s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) è CaCl2(g)
C(s) + O2(g) è CO2(g)

2) – Decomposition (can also be said analysis)

It involves the breakdown of one reactant into two or more products. It
can be viewed as the reverse of a synthesis reaction.
2H2O(l) è 2H2(g) + O2(g)
C12H22O11(s) è 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
2HgO(s) è 2Hg(s) + O2(g)

3) – Single Replacement
An element is exchanged with an ion- there are two types depending on
metal and non-metal.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) è FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) è ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) è 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

75
4) – Double Replacement – Exchange of partners
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) è AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) è Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Thermochemistry

Chemical rxns either liberate or absorb heat.

Energy changes in a reaction are due to a large extent in potential energy
that accompany the alterations in the interaction between particles
(Breaking and making of a chemical bond).
A better origin of chemical energy lies in me parenteral and kinetic energy
of the atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles that make up a sample,
in addition to me situation in which sample exists à pressure and volume.
Each of these factors contribute to the total capacity. These particles have
to exchange heat.
This is enthalpy, ∆H. It is not possible to measure enthalpy in an absolute
manner, but changes can be measured! (∆H) à heat of reaction.

76
 Predicting Reaction

Why reactions take place?

1) Combination (synthesis)
è A heat of formation table should be referenced. Phase of compound is
important for value.
-∆H = exothermic +∆H = endothermic
If ∆Hf is largely negative, reaction occurs spontaneously (driving force is
for chemical system to lower its energy)
If ∆Hf is largely negative, or even positive, reaction is non-spontaneous
and might require energy to process
(E.g) Zn(s) + S(s) è ZnS(s) + 202.7 KJ
∆H = -202.7KJ

2) Decomposition
è Heat of formation table
a) If ∆Hfo is largely negative (exothermic) for reactions, the reaction will be
difficult to conduct!

A low negative ∆Hf value can decompose.

A high positive ∆Hf value can decompose.

3) Single replacement.
è Production based on the comparison of ∆Hfo value of original compound
and that of compound to be formed.

The activity series can also be used.

Higher elements replace element below.
(Copper is lower than hydrogen in the activity series)

4) Double Replacement

to go to completion: -
• insoluble, ppt. is formed

77
 • non – ionizing substance formed
• a gas product is given off.

1) Product insoluble ppt.

NNK soluble
CPSH – insoluble except NNK
Carbonates Sulfides Chlorides soluble (Ag, Hg, Pb except some)

Phosphorus Hydroxides Nitrates soluble

Sulfates soluble except Pb, Ca

Entropy

- Measures the degree of disorder.

- If product has increases enthropy, this drives the change
(s) è (g)

Changes in Enthalpy

1) Calorimetry (Experimentally)
2) Hess’s Law (Theoretically)

Calorimetry (enthalpy change)

Calorimeter is used to measure changes in a physical or changes process.
(a) Open – Open to surrounding è Heat that flows in or out is equal to
change in enthalpy
(b) Closed

Heat and Cooling Curves

78
Heating Curves

Hess’s law of Constant Heat Summation

There is a theoretical way of determining heat of reaction of a process

∑ = Summation
N = number of moles of substances
∆Hfo = Standard heat of formation found

Acids, Bases and Salts

There are several ways in which we can define an acid: -
1) Water (Aqueous) solutions of acid conduct electricity à degree of
conduction depends on degree of ionization
2) Acids will react with metals higher than hydrogen to liberate hydrogen.
3) Acids can change color of indicators

79
 Litmus is obtained from plant life (dyestuff)

Near complete Moderate ionization Slight ionization

ionization
Nitric HNO3 Oxalic H2C2O4 Acetic HC2H3O2
Hydrochloric HCl Phosphoric H3PO4 Carbonic H2CO3
Sulfuric H2SO4 Sulfurous H2SO3 Hydrosulfuric H2S
Hydrobromic HBr
Hydrioiodic HI

4) Acid react with bases to form salt and water.

Acid + Base è salt + water

5) Acids react with carbonate to give Co2 and H20.

Common theory used in the Arrhenius Theory.

• Acids yieds hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution

Bases

• Bases are conductors of electricity in on aqueous solution, degree of

conduction are based on degree of ionization.
Completely ionized Slightly ionized
KOH NH4OH
NaOH
Ba(OH)2
Sr(OH)2
Ca(OH)2

• Base cause a color change in indicators

• Bases react with acids to give salt and water (neutralization r × n )
• Bases react with fats to form soap (saponification)
• Aqueous bases feel slippery, stronger bases are caustic to the skin.

80
Arrhenius Theory defines a base as a substance that yield hydroxide ions
(OH’) in on aqueous solution.

Broader Acid Base Theories

a) Bronsted Lowry Theory

b) Lewis theory

A à Acids are proton donors whilst bases are proton acceptors

Conjugate Acids and Bases – Original acid gives up its proton to become a
conjugate base.

Original base is now a conjugate acid!

The stronger on acid, the weaker its conjugate base!

The stronger on base, the weaker its conjugate acid

Lewis Theory

- Defines acids and base in terms of electron pair concept à most

useful.
Acid à electron pair acceptor.
Base à electron pair donor

81
Acid concentration expressed as pH

The pH system is used commonly to express acid and base

concentrations.

pH = -log[H+] H+= conc of H+ in moldm-3

(eg) 0.1 moldm-3 HCl

1 x 10-1
- log [10-18]
- (-1)
=1

pOH = - log [OH-]

PH + pOH = 14

Indicators

è These can be used to give an estimate of pH.

Mixture
zone
Methyl Orange (Red) 3.1 à 4.4 (Yellow)
Bromomethyl Blue (Yellow) 6 à 8 (Blue)
Litmus (Red) 4 à 8 (Blue)
Phenolpthalin Colorless 8 à 10 (Pink)

82
To use an appropriate pH, we must consider pH of the product.

Titration – Volumetric Analysis

(E.g.) Acid Base Reactions
Given 0.1m NaOH
Conc of HCl?

(a) Use pipettes to transfer NaOH into conical flask.

(b) 2 Drops of suitable indicator (ADD) è Litmus
(c) Add HCl from burette until color changes (endpoint)
(d) The point where acid neutralises base completely is called the
equivalence point.

If 21cm3 was used for neutralisation: -

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) è H2O(l)

Macid x Vacid = Mbase x Vbase

M x v = no of moles
Macid x 21.5 = 0.1 x 25
Macid = 0.116m

Buffer Solutions

è These are equilibrium systems that resist changes to pH of a solution

when acids or bases are added to them.

If excess OH is added
HC2H3O2(aq) D H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)

H+ + OH- è H2O

83
When excess OH- ions are added.
H + + C 2 H 3 O 2 D H 2 C 2 H 3 O2

Salts

A salt is defined as ionic compound containing a positive ion other than H+

and a negative ion other than OH-

Common method: - Acid + Base è Salt + water

5 methods:
(1) Neutralisation:
(2) Single replacement
(3) Direct combination
(4) Double Replacement
(5) Reaction of metallic oxide with non-metallic oxide.

Amphoteric – Can act as an acid and a base.

Acid Rain

• Sulfuric and nitric acids

Carbon and Organic Chemistry

Carbon in unique
è It forms inorganic substances such as CO2, graphite, and diamonds.
è It forms organic substances as well.

84
Forms of Carbon

Carbon occurs in three allotropic forms: -

* Graphite * diamond * amorphous
Fullerenes (formed from Scot) è Carbon material burned with limited
oxygen.

Diamond è closely packed crystalline structure (hard)

è each carbon is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms
è Mp 3550oC
è Used Sp3 hybrid orbitals to explain tetrahedral structure.

Synthetic diamonds (used for dies) can be made when carbon is subject
to extreme temperature and pressure.

85
Graphite è planes of hexagonal rings that are weakly bonded to the
planes above and below the ring.
è electrical conductor
è weak intermolecular forces explain graphite slippery feeling,
(lubricant).
è uses the trigonal sp2 hybrids.

Carbon Dioxide
* Carbon cycle (0.04% of the air).

è Preparation: reacting marble chips with HCl

è Test: Test through limewater, cloudy if white precipitate if present.

Repeated passing will form soluble Calcium bicarbonate.

Back to cloudy white precipitate by reducing pressure, increase

temperature.

86
Uses of CO2: -

(1) Carbonated drinks

H2O(l) + CO2(g) è H2CO3
(2) Dry ice (absorb more heat)
(3) Fire extinguishers (heavier than air)
(4) Photosynthesis

Organic Chemistry

There are over a million organic compounds and increasing!

Carbon atoms have 4 electrons in its outermost energy level è Show a

tendency to be shared in covalent bonds (electronegativity of 2.5)

Hydrocarbons

• Contains only hydrogen and carbon

• CH4
• Structural formulas are crucial

Alkanes or Paraffin series

Reactions
• CnH2n+2
• Found in petroleum and natural gas (a) Combustion

• Separated by fractional distillation (b) Cracking

(c) Halogenation è forms
alkyl halides

87
Cycloalkanes – form single bonded ring compounds

C3H6

Cyclopropane

CnH2n

Properties of Alkanes
• Non-polar so only weak intermolecular forces and London Dispersion
forces.

Alkene series (unsaturated)

• Double bond between two atoms
• CnH2n

Alkyne series (unsaturated)

C=C
CnH2n-2
Ethyne Structure

88
Pi bonds are between p orbitals
Sigma bonds are between s and p orbitals

Bond formed between p orbitals and 1 bond formed between sp orbitals

make up the bond

Aromatics

• Unsaturated ring structures

• CnH2n-6
• Simplest è C6H6

è Benzene is a resonance structure

89
C to C bonds are not single or double but hybrid bonds. è resonance
Structure.

Most have an aroma, that’s why they are called aromatics!

C6H5 è Phenyl

If a methyl group is added to a phenyl, then methyl benzene is added.

90
Isomers
Many chained hydrocarbons have some molecular formula but the
structures may differ.

Conditions: AlCl3, 70o è 100o

Alcohols

• R-nH
• CnH2n+1OH

• Simplest: CH3OH (Methanol)

Properties and Uses: -

• Colorless
• Flammable liquid
• Boiling point 65oC
• Miscible
• Fuel
• Cannot be drunk
• Poisonous

91
Ethanol:

• Colorless
• Flammable
• Boiling point 78oC
• Miscible
• Soluble
• Drinkable

-
OH attached to 1C attached to 1C is a 1o alcohol
-
OH attached to 2C attached to 1C is a 2o alcohol
-
OH attached to 3C attached to 1C is a 3o alcohol

92
Aldehydes

RCHO
Aldehydes can be prepared from the oxidation of alcohol.
è Insert hot copper wire into alcohol.

Carboxylic Acids

Can be prepared via oxidation of aldehyde

Ethanoic acid (acetic acid)

Conc è glacial acetic acid

Vinegar è 4 to 8% acetic acid

Ketones

When a 2o alcohol is oxidized, a ketone is formed.

93
Ethers

R-O-R1
When 1o alcohol is dehydrated via H2SO4, an ether is formed.

Amines and Amino Acids

• NH2- is found in the amine ion and amino group

• Resulting compound is an amine

94
Esters

H2SO4
Organic acid + alcohol è Ester + H2O

Sweet smells
è Perfume
è Flavor
extracts

Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes

Liquids and solids are condensed phases of matter

è Macroscopically, solids have rigid materials that maintain shell shape

regardless of container they are in.
è This rigidity is what differentiates them from solid and liquid.

Liquid and gases are fluid, they take the shape of the container

Solid Liquid Gas

Definite shape Variable shape Variable shape
Definite volume Definite volume Variable voluem

In order to explain these differences, an understanding of the states is

required
Liquids (particle close) and solids are condensed phases of matter
Gas è particles very far

States of matter for same substance at different temperature .

95
 Phase Solid Liquid Gas
Particle proximity * Very close * Close Far apart

Average KE Low Moderate High

Attractive Force Some Some Some
strength

* Water is an exception. Particles in water are closer in liquid state than

solid state. Ice floats on water.

It is important to notice that when different substance have different

phases, they are in the same temperature sometimes!

Third Law of Thermodynamics è all substances must be > OK

All phases have particles in motion: -

V • Vibration (solids) (liquids)
R • Rotation
Translation is limited
T • Translation (gases)

An increase in temperature increase the average KE of the molecules.

è Not all particles in a substances possess the same KE

96
Maxwell – Boltzmann Graph

Another difference between phases is orderliness.

Solids è Polycrystalline Liquid: Clusters
Crystalline
Amorphous

Solid Liquid Gas

V VRT VRT
Orderliness Long range Short range None
(crystalline) (clustery) (random)

Important Properties of Liquids

Surface Tension

è Defined as the resistance of a liquid to create a new surface as the

result of an imbalance of attractive forces.

Particles on the surface lack an attraction upwards and are drawn to the
net force below!

Particles on the surface have a desire to be interior particles.

97
 Generally, higher attractive force means higher surface tension. (Stronger
net force in = greater resistance).

Hydrogen Bonding (H2O)

Strongest
Permanent dipole – dipole (acetone)

Temporary dipole – dipole

London dispersion forces (C6H14)

Viscosity – resistance of a liquid to flow.

é attraction, ê ability to flow, é viscosity

Capillary action

The attraction of the surface of the liquid to the surface of a solid. It is

closely related to surface tension.

Liquid will rise very quickly in a narrow tube if a large attraction force
exists. è attraction pulls molecules up.

* Capillary action is linked with paper chromatography.

Heat of Vaporisation

∆Hvap è amount of heat required to vaporise a liquid at is boiling point.

• Attractive forces in clusters must be overcome

• Same KE, Same temperature
• PE rises as energy is stored (e.g.) H2O, 41KJ/mol
• é ∆Hvap, é intermolecular bond strength CCl4, 32KJ/mol

Equilibrium Vapor Pressure

è Envision a situation where a particle on the surface has high enough

energy to break away from the cluster into a gas. This is precisely
evaporation. A specific portion of liquid particles meet this threshold, a
portion turns into vapor particles. è below Bp, only on surface.

98
Evaporation is the loss of high energy particles, so it’s known as a cooling
process. Temperature decreases KE goes down.

• Liquid placed in a closed container, same temperature.

• Evaporation occurs, vapor particles fill space above liquid.
• Because container is closed, some vapor particles would collide with
the surface of liquid è in this process, they may lose energy and get
captured into the clusters of the liquid.
• This is what happens in condensation.

è Initially, R [evaporation] é then R [condensation] because not many

vapor particles are around.

è As vapor particles increase, so does R [condensation].

è After time, R [evaporation] = R [ condensation]

è This is dynamic equilibrium.

Translating gaseous particles create pressure as they collide with particle

walls è equilibrium vapor pressure.

Equilibrium vapor pressure α attractive force strength.

Higher attractive force means lower vapor pressure.

Boiling Point

Boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the liquid’s vapor

pressure equals the atmospheric pressure.

Boiling has several different characteristics associated with evaporation.

è Boiling occurs throughout, not on surface as evaporation

(Bubbles in liquid during boiling)

99
9 This mandates that the vapour pressure be high enough to withstand
atmospheric pressure

9 Consequently, a temperature that high enough must be used.

Boiling point occurs at a particular temperature called boiling point.

Boiling point of liquid is variable è atmospheric pressure

Decrease in atmospheric pressure (mountains), decrease in Bp

9 The temperature the liquid must be raised to raise up to atmospheric

pressure will not be high

Evaporation Boiling

Particles break away from liquid Clusters to form a gas

Endothermic reaction

Below Bp At Bp

Occurs on surface Occurs throughout

Critical Temperature

There is a limit to the attractive force that binds particles in a liquid, it is

only so strong.

There will be temperature which will inhibit gas clustering into liquids è
critical temperature.

Higher IM bonds have higher critical temperatures.

Important Properties of Solids

• Attractive forces between particles dictate its properties.

100
è Heat of Fusion ç

∆Hf is the amount of heat required to liquefy a certain amount of solid at

its melting point.

No temperature rise is connected.

PE increases

∆Hf = 6KJ/mol (H2O)

Melting Point

• It is dependent on vapor pressure just like liquids and boiling point.

è If a solid is placed in a closed container, we see e.g. VP. High energy

particles break away from crystal and enter the gaseous state.
(Sublimation)

When rate [sublimation] = rate [ vapor deposition] equilibrium is

achieved

Higher attractive force strength indicates higher melting point/freezing

point

Electrical conductivity è must contain charged particles that can be

moved translationally.

• Not possible for all

• Possible for metallic atoms/ions

Solubility

- The solubility of a solid varies with the type of boiling point present
between particles and type of substance it dissolves in. “like dissolves
like”

Type of Solids

• What particles make up solid?

• Type of bonds they are held together?

101
Type Eg Pertinent Bonds Properties
particles

Macromolecule C (graphite Non-metal Covalent High∆Hf

(network diamond) atoms
solid) éMp,
SiC or SiO2 êelectrical
cond, ê
water
solubility

Ionic NaCl, Metal and Ionic é ∆Hf, éMp,

MgSO4, non-metal éWater
K2Cr2O7 atoms solubility,
êelectrical
cond.

Metallic Cu, Mg, Hg Metal Metallic Ω to é∆Hf,

atoms éMp, é
electrical
cond,
êsolubility
for all
solvents

Molecular SO2, NH3, Molecules Intermolecular Low ∆Hf, Mp,

CH4 Electrical
cond,
variable
solubility in
water

There is a special type of solid containing ions and molecules combined

è Hydrate

(e.g.) CuSO4•5H2O èhydrous is blue, anhydrous is white

MgSO4•7H2O è lose water at r.t. in a process called effervescence.

Some ionic particles want their hydrates, i.e., attracted to water, they
become hydrates using moisture from air. These are referred to as
HYGROSCOPIC.

CaCl2 is hygroscopic

102
Extreme hygroscopic is called deliquescent. An example is NaOH

Phase Diagrams

• Temperature and pressure are important in determining phase

Phase Diagram of Water (Not to scale)

• BD is the vapor pressure curve for water’s liquid phase.

• When pressure is 760mmHg, temperature is 100oC. If pressure
increase, Bp rises, of if lowered Bp is lowered.

The triple point is the only temperature and pressure at which all three
phases exist

• AB is vapour pressure curve for solid water

• B = Vp of solid = Vp of liquid

As pressure is increased the temperature at which this is true goes down.

103
è This is different from water as ice is less dense than water.

• End of Vp curve for liquid è critical temperature is the temperature

above which a certain liquid ceases to exist as a liquid è If liquid can
exist, no Vp associated the pressure at that point is called critical
pressure. Combination of critical temperature and critical pressure is
the critical point.

Solutions

3 phases 3 phases

• Homogenous mixture (solute and solvent)

• 3 x 3 = 9 types of solutions
• Common: solid in liquid, gas in liquid
• Substance is smaller amount is solute

Water (common solvent)

Purification

Distillation involves evaporation and condensation of water. It removes

substances with a higher Bp than H2O.

Distillation

1) Boil
2) Condense

104
Polarity and H-bonding in water

Water is different from most solids, greatest density is at 4oC, then the
volume expands. At 0oC, it expands by 9%.

X-ray studies showed that, in ice crystals, H2O molecules are bound into
large molecules where each oxygen atom is connected to four other
oxygen atoms through hydrogen bonding. It becomes an open structure.

Water solutions and mixtures

To make a solution (aq), water molecules must cluster around and

disperse the other substance, they must overcome the force that keeps
these molecules together.

Once surrounded, the ion is insulated from

other ions in solution due to the dipole
property.

Na+, Cl- and H2O all of

this is called a hydrated
ion

è Exothermic if energy is released in the process

è Endothermic if energy from water is used up is more than energy

released in freezing particle.

Two liquids mixed: Molten metals mixed is

(a) Dissolved – miscible called an alloy

(b) Separated - immiscible

105
Water mixtures

Size of particles in order of increasing: -

(1-5nm) (1000nmè)
Solutions è Colloids è Suspensions

Solutions Colloids Suspensions

è 1-5nm è 1000nm è

Clear or may have Cloudy, opaque color

color. The particles do particles settle on
not settle standing

Particles pass through Do not pass through

filter paper filer

Pass through semi- Cannot Cannot

permeable membrane

Not visible Visible in ultra m Visible in micro-s or

naked eye

* Separation of a solution from colloid through semi-permeable

membrane is called dialysis.

* Brownian motion è Robert Brown discovered it.

Solubility – the degree to which a solute can dissolve in a solvent is

called solubility.

Remember “like dissolves like”

106
 - Temperature influences solubility è phase change involved of solute.

Substances Temperature Pressure

Solid dissolved in a Sé, Té

liquid --
Sê, Tê

Gas dissolved in a Sé, Tê Sé, Pé

liquid
Sê, Té Sê, Pê

Factors that affect Rate of Solution Making

The following factors increase rate: -

P • Pulverising – increases surfaced exposed to solvent

• Stirring – brings more unsaturated solvent into contact with
S
solute.
H • Heating – increases molecular action and gives rise to mixing by
convection currents.

Solubility of a substance in a solvent shown in a curve shows the

maximum amount soluble è we cannot actually know for sure.

• When only a certain amount of solute is released in a solvent, the solution

is said to be unsaturated.
• When maximum amount of solute is dissolved, the solution is saturated.
• When extra solute is dissolved in solvent, the solution is called
supersaturated. (quasi-stable manner)
• Dilute – small amount of solute in solvent
• Concentrated – large amount of solute in solvent

A substance is solute if 0.1 moles of a substance can dissolve to make a

1L solution.

107
 Mass of solute (g) 100
Percent by mass (Solubility) = x
Mass of solution (g) 1

Moles of solute = molarity

Litres of solution

Dilution McVc represents molarity

and volume in conc. Case
McxVc = MdxVd MdVd represents molarity
and volume in dilute case
(McVc = no of moles)

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Properties of solutions that show predictable variation from those of

solvent itself and that are dependent primarily on number of solute
particles present in solution (not particularly identity) are called
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES.

1) Vapour Pressure (C.P.) è When solute dissolve, new interaction

occur. In cases of : (s) or (l) dissolved in solvent, Vpê, due to new
interactions.
This is called vapor pressure lowering.

108
Recall: Bp occurs when Vp = atmp, Bp increases for solution because Vp
has been lowered.

Salt in water raises temperature!

Freezing when Vpsolid = Vp liquid associated with it.

Since Vp of liquid is lowered, usual Fp is not followed è Wintertime use of

salt to melt ice on streets and roads.

The extent of differences depend on number of particles! NOT IDENTITY.

Nature of solute does carry little effect.

è Small particle remain intact after dissolving, some dissociate (IDAS)

after dissolving, getting the number of particles to increase.

109
Most particles however do not dissociate!

For water, most polar molecues dissolve wwell and do not break apart to
a noticeable manner. This means Vp will be less modified from pure water
compared to an ionic substance (of equal mass) dissolving.

Table sugar, sucrose (polar molecular)

Table salt, NaCl (ionic substance)

Balancing Charge in equations

2IO3-(aq) + 12H+(aq) è I3(s) + 6H2O(l)

+10charge 0 charge

• You can (either) add 10H+ on the right side

• You can (or) add 10 electrons on the left side

For extra oxygen, add H2O to other side

For extra [1+] add an H+ on other side.

è Break into ½ equation, balance and add!

Alloys

1) Brass – copper and zinc

2) Bronze – copper and Tin (third)
3) Steel – a lot of elements inside
4) Sterling Silver – alloyed with copper

Significant numbers

Multiplication or Division è have same number of Sf as the smallest

number involved in calculation.

Addition or subtraction è have some as lowest number of decimal places.

110
Partial Pressure

n(gas)
x P (total)
n (total)

PV = nRT

Pm = drt

111