Decolonization in Asia

Background
• Independence movements started in the beginning of 20th century
• Demand for self-determination based upon nationalism (primary ingredient)
• India, Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam, Malaya, Indonesia, Philippines
• UK & USA gave independence peacefully
• France and Holland resisted
Nationalism
• Primary ingredient was Nationalism
• Anti-imperialism and anti-white racial sentiments
• Denial of democracy and self govt. was the chief slogan
• Nationalist movements became strong at the end of WW II
Impact of WW II
• France & Holland were overrun by Hitler
• UK was desperate for survival
• Economically unable to control colonies
• Japan tried to fill vacuum by conquest of South East Asia
• Fostered independence movements with the swift defeat of Europeans
Role of Japan & USA
• Japan set free Indonesians freedom fighters
• Promoted national language
• Granted nominal independence to Burma and Philippines
• Trained national armies to fight against Britishers in India and Burma
• USA opposed continuation of colonial rule
• Gave independence to Philippines in 1946
Partition of India
• History
Formation of Indian National Congress
Cripps proposals (1942) for dominion status
Rejection and resistance movements (Role of Gandhi)
Quit India movement
Churchill wanted to stay for indefinite period
Policy of divide and rule (land reforms)
• Deadlock
Shimla conference 1945 for creating interim coalition govt and delaying independence (Role of M.A
Jinnah)
Muslim league demanded separate State for Muslims
Labour party won elections in UK
Liberation of united India (M.L resisted)
• Towards Partition
Cabinet Mission (1946)
Autonomy for Muslim provinces
Outbreak of Communal violence
Arrival of Mountbatten
July 1948 (date of transfer of power)
Viceroy could not satisfy M.L
Partition plan (June 1947)
Bengal & Punjab divided
Movement of 15 Million people
• Aftereffects
Status of Sikhs and (560) Princely States were not specified
Birth of Pakistan was disappointment to Indian Nationalists and Britishers
Partition led to greater bloodletting
1 Million people lost lives
Unplanned partition and disordered population transfer

Decolonization in South East Asia

• Orderly independence in US and UK colonies

Ceylon (1947)
Burma (1948)
Malaya (1957)
Liberation delayed due to internal strife between Muslims and Chinese
Singapore (1959)
Sarawak and North Borneo and Singapore Joined Malaysia (1963)
Singapore separated from Malaysia (1965)
Brunei (Self-Government in 1971)
• Independence of Indonesia
Dutch were resistant to grant independence to East Indies
Japanese support to Putera (nationalist organization)
At Japanese surrender in WW II, Sukarno proclaimed independence (1945)
Dutch returned to restore colonial rule
Resisted by strong communist & nationalist movement
Plan for “Union of Netherlands and Indonesia”
Rejected by Indonesians
Two years war of independence
Independence (1949)
• Independence of Indochina
French colony since 1858
Unorganized resistance by peasants since 1883 when French extended rule to whole of Vietnam and
Dynasty submitted to colonial rule
Role of Ho Chi Minh
Submitted petition for Vietnamese rights to US delegation after WW I
Founded communist party in 1920
Attracted to communist party for anti-colonial credentials of communists
Went to Moscow in 1924
Later went to China
French army collapsed in 1940
Japanese conquest of South East Asia
Returned to Vietnam & formed Viet Minh
Ho and USA became allies during WW II
OSS provided weapons to Viet Minh
After WW II French did not give independence
Ho Declared independence (1945)
Gunboat diplomacy by France (1946)
1st Indochina War (1946)
French Army was superior
Viet Minh relied on Guerilla tactics
Recruitment of guerilla fighters for political cause
RW= G+P (Revolutionary warfare is guerilla warfare plus psychological and political operations
Political and economic repercussions for French due to prolonged conflict
US financial help to France
No aid to Viet Minh from USSR
Ho rejected the idea of using Chinese troops due old enmity with Chinese
To end war French wanted to entice Vietnamese for conventional war
Attack on Dien Bien Phu
Placement of heavy artillery at the hill top by Viet Minh
French position was doomed
Eisenhower rejected the nuclear option
French lost war
Geneva Conference (1954)

Decolonization in Africa

Background
• Colonial powers in 1945
UK, France, Belgium, Portugal
• Independent nations
Ethiopia, Liberia, South Africa
• By mid 1950’s UK started independence process
• By early 1960’s French followed the same
• Decolonization was different with respect to region and colonial powers
• Differences due to colonial policy, tribalism and artificial boundaries
Late Rise of Nationalism
• Reasons
Colonies were artificially created making ethnicity trans-colonial
Growth of nationalism required loyalty to nation
Protectorate policy by UK
Local leaders given autonomy and support
Illiteracy among Africans
• Political consciousness when Africans got educated
• Liberties and democracies to colonies
Rise of Nationalism
• Nationalism aroused urge for independence
• Bonding among nationalist leaders (Pan-African movement)
• Factors encouraging independence movements
Use of armed force in WW 2
Decolonization in Asia
Formation of UNO
Colonies became financial & political liability
British Departure
• Britain Colonial Policy
UK permitted greater participation by native peoples
Establishment of Executive & Legislative councils
Nationalist leaders organized political parties
Universal suffrage
Self rule and then full independence
Independence of Gold Coast (Ghana)
• Kawame Nkruma
Organized nationalist political party
Use of legal and illegal practices
Political pressure including “Positive Action”-Strikes & Boycotts
Won elections in prison (1951)
• Self govt (1954)
• Full Independence (1957)
• Became champion of African liberation
• Two conferences at Accra (1958)
• Formation of Organization of African Union (1958)
Independence of Kenya
• Settlers’ colony (59000 lived in Highlands)
• Discrimination against Blacks
• Settlers wanted multi-racial state to maintain land, power, wealth
• Kikuyu (Tribe) launched “Mau Mau” movement (1952)
Demanded return of lands to Blacks
Violence against Whites and Pro-British Blacks
Mau Mau suppressed but threat remained (1955)
• Jomo Kenyatta
Kikuyu and other tribes formed National Party
Jailed from 1952-59
Electoral victory (1959)
Independence (1963)
• Political formula
Majority rule + protection of White minority
Settlers left for fear
Independence in South-Central African Colonies
• Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia joined to form federation (1953)
For securing economic interests and maintaining White rule
• Black majority demanded independence
• Federation dissolved (1961)
Nyasaland (Malawi) became independent (1961)
Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) became independent (1963)
Southern Rhodesia
• Ian Smith defied independence and majority rule constitution
• Unilaterally declared independence (1965)
• Guerilla attacks from neighboring countries
• International pressure
• Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) became full independent (1979)
French Departure
French Colonial Policy
• Aim was assimilation (abandonment of native culture)
• Seats given to natives in National Assembly
 • No equality and recognition of cultural and racial diversity
• Workable Alternative
Felix Boigny’s New Policy
• Self Government
• Greater autonomy for colonies
• Economic and Military Aid
• French Prime minister, African Vice Ministers
• Universal suffrage
Rise of Nationalism & De Gaulle’s Policy
• Formation of branches of National party by Felix
• Charles De Gaulle offered either membership of French community or
Independence (1958)
• Guinea wanted and got independence (1960)
• All West African French colonies were abruptly granted independence after two
years of struggle (1960)
• New nations were unprepared politically & economically for independence
• Remained unstable for years to come

Independence in Algeria
• French honour and position in Africa resisted Algerian independence after its defeat
in Vietnam
• French presence since 1830
Algerian Arab Muslims never accepted French conquest
• Presence of 1 Million French citizens
• Seizure of best lands across coast by French
• Considered Algeria a province
• Justified conquest as part of their civilizing mission (Catholic Mission)
Towards Independence
• Inter-War Period
Liberals suggested citizenship to Muslims without converting to Catholicism
French orthodox and Muslim Algerians opposed it
• After WW II
Algerians presented the bill for their services to French
Demand of independence through peaceful demonstrations
French responded with force
Killing of 16000-20000 Algerians
French called violence as reaction to food shortages
• Formation of FLN
Establishment of Front De Liberation Nationale (FLN) in 1954
• Tactics of Terrorism
• French responded with brute force (Battle of Algiers, 1956)
• People like Farhet Abbas joined FLN
• French troops increased to 4 Lacs
• 2-3 Million Algerians became refugees
• 1 Million died
• Role of De Gaulle
• Division in French society over independence issue (due to corruption of
soldiers)
 • “White Rebellions” threatening to topple French government (1957)
• De Gaulle Offered Algerians right to vote (1958)
• Offered Algeria “Own govt, own institutions, own laws”
• Settlers resented policies
• Independence (1962)
Belgian Departure
• Congo (largest and richest colony)
• Private domain of King Leopold
• Consisting of 200 tribes
• Belgian policy of "Enlightened Paternalism”
• Wave of nationalism (Insurrection in Leopoldville, 1959)
• New order for Congo
Universal Suffrage
Guarantee of liberties
Elimination of Racial discrimination
• Independence 1960
• Rift between Lumumba & Kasavubu on the basis of ethnicity
• Tshombe announced secession of the province of Katanga (rich in cooper mines)
• Invited Belgian military
• Lumumba requested military insistence from UN
• UNSC could not reach agreement
• Lumumba turned to USSR
• Lumumba overthrown by military coup (supported by CIA)
• 3 sided 24 years war
• Renamed to Zaire with Katanga included on its own terms
• Effects of Katanga war
• Damaged credibility of African nationalists
• Tarnished reputation of UNO
• Cold war shifted to Third world
Portuguese Departure
• Angola & Mozambique
• Colonies 20 times greater than Portugal
• Portugal considered provinces oversees provinces
• Nationalist insurrection suppressed in Angola with 50,000 casualties (1961)
• Similar uprising quelled in Mozambique (1964)
• Salazar regime ignored condemnation of colonial policies
• Change of regime in Portugal (1974)
• Transfer of power to Angola (1975)
• Eruption of warfare b/w rival nationalists
• East-West rivalry
• Independence of Mozambique (1975)
 Apartheid in South Africa

Background
• Dutch settled in South Africa since 1652
• Afrikaners/Boers
• English control started in 1795
• Great Trek 1835
Religious procession to build a new Jerusalem
1838- 470 Boers defeated 12500 Zulus on the bank of “Blood River”
• 1902- British again became dominant
• Since then Afrikaners fought for reestablishing principles of Great Trek
Rule of Dutch
• Dutch replaced Britishers in 1949
• Claim on land
Discovery
Conquest
Economic development
Will of God
• Proponents were ministers of Dutch reformed church
Apartheid (Apartness)
• Religious determination
• Racial superiority
• Laws of Segregation
Prohibited marriage of different colors
Schools, jobs, pay scales determined by segregation laws
Listing of individuals on the basis of race
Residential segregation
Political organization/Strikes by non-whites were outlawed
Creation of Bantustans (homelands)
Blacks Demands
• Equal pay for equal work
• Equal political representation
• Equal protection under the law
Struggle Against Apartheid
• African National Congress (Formation 1912)
• Policy
Sought for peaceful establishment of nonracial democracy
• Shift in policy-1960
Struggle against Apartheid (led by Nelson Mandela)
• 1961- Formation of Umkhonto “ spear of nation” (Militant wing)
• 1962- ANC made cause with Communist party (entry of USSR)
• 1963- Arrest of Mandela (assistance from CIA)
Rise of Black Consciousness
• Steve Biko Doctrine
“Whites must be made to realize that they are only humans, [and] not superior”
• Prisoned and died in custody 1977
• Establishment of Azanian People’s Organization (Azapo), militant wing of pan-African Congress
• Demands
Expulsion of all Whites
Declared war on them under slogan “One Settler, one bullet”
Ideological conflict with ANC
Zulu Nationalism
• Rift between Buthelezi and Mandela
Buthelezi favored Zulu nationalism against South African nationalism
Demanded Kwazulu (Zulu homeland)Zulu
Created split among blacks
Black-on-Black violence, eclipsing white terror
Struggle Gets Stronger
• Mandela refused deal for liberation from prison-1985
• Another voice of opposition against Apartheid
• Bishop Desmond Titu
Nobel peace prize for working out a peaceful solution to political dilemma
Change of Government in South Africa
• De klerk became president in 1989
• Anti-Apartheid protests permitted
• Lifting on ban on ANC
• Unconditional release of Mandela
• Inkatha movement led by Buthelezi
• Black-on-black bloodletting 1985-86
• 10000-15000 casualties
• Tactics of Radical blacks (Young Lions)
• Necklacing their victims
Towards Independence
• De klerk abolish Apartheid laws 1991
• ANC demand
One man, one vote (majority rule)
• De klerk won referendum for negotiating constitution with nation’s black leaders
• ANC did not recognize Bantustans
• Mass campaigns against homelands
• Intikhada freedom party was convinced to participate in elections
• ANC won elections 1994
• Mandela became first non-white president of South Africa