Indonesia

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Coordinates: 5°S 120°E

Republic of Indonesia

Republik Indonesia (Indonesian)

Flag

National emblem

Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Kawi)

(English: "Unity in Diversity")
National ideology: Pancasila[1][2]

Anthem: "Indonesia Raya"

(English: "Great Indonesia")
 Capital Jakarta
6°10′30″S 106°49′40″E
and largest city

Official language Indonesian

and national language

Regional languages Over 700 languages[3]

Ethnic groups Over 300 ethnic groups[4]

 87.2% Islam
Religion
 9.9% Christianity
(2010)[5]  —7.0% Protestantism
 —2.9% Roman Catholicism
 1.7% Hinduism
 0.7% Buddhism
 0.2% Confucianism
and others

Demonym(s) Indonesian

Government Unitary presidential constitutional

republic

• President Joko Widodo

• Vice-President Jusuf Kalla

• DPR Speaker Bambang Soesatyo

• Chief Justice Muhammad Hatta Ali

Legislature People's Consultative

Assembly (MPR)

• Upper house Regional Representative

Council (DPD)

• Lower house People's Representative

Council (DPR)

Formation

• Hindu and Buddhist 2nd century

kingdoms

• Islamic sultanates 13th century

• Dutch East India Company 20 March 1602

• Dutch East Indies 1 January 1800

• Japanese occupation 9 March 1942

• Independence proclaimed 17 August 1945

• Recognition and federation 27 December 1949

• Unitary republic 17 August 1950

Area

• Land 1,904,569[6] km2 (735,358 sq mi)

(14th)

• Water (%) 4.85

Population

• 2016 estimate 261,115,456[7]

• 2010 census 237,641,326[8] (4th)

 • Density 138/km2 (357.4/sq mi) (88th)

GDP (PPP) 2019 estimate

• Total $3.740 trillion[9] (7th)

• Per capita $14,020 (89th)

GDP (nominal) 2019 estimate

• Total $1.100 trillion (16th)

• Per capita $4,120 (106th)

Gini (2017) 39.5[10]

medium

HDI (2017) 0.694[10]

medium · 116th

Currency Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)

Time zone UTC+7 to +9 (various)

Date format DD/MM/YYYY

Driving side left

Calling code +62

ISO 3166 code ID

Internet TLD .id

Indonesia (/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ ( listen) IN-də-NEE-zhə, /-ˈniːziə/ -⁠ NEE-zee-ə; Indonesian: [ɪndoˈnesia]),

officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia [reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia]),[a] is a
country in Southeast Asia, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the world's largest island
country, with more than seventeen thousand islands,[11] and at 1,904,569 square kilometres
(735,358 square miles), the 14th largest by land area and 7th in the combined sea and land
area.[12] With over 261 million people, it is the world's 4th most populous country as well as the most
populous Muslim-majority country.[13] Java, the world's most populous island,[14] is home to more than
half of the country's population.
 The sovereign state is a presidential, constitutional republic with an elected legislature. It has 34
provinces, of which five have special status. Jakarta, the country's capital, is the second-most
populous urban area in the world. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East
Timor, and the eastern part of Malaysia. Other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam,
the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large
population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support a
high level of biodiversity.[15] The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural
gas, coal, tin, copper, gold, and nickel, while agriculture mainly produces rice, palm
oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices, and rubber.[16] China, the United States, Japan,
Singapore, and India are Indonesia's major trading partners.[17]
The history of the Indonesian archipelago has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural
resources. It has been a valuable region for trade since at least the 7th century when Srivijaya and
then later Majapahit traded with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Local
rulers gradually absorbed foreign influences from the early centuries
and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Muslim traders and Sufi scholars
brought Islam,[18][19] while European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to
monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Although sometimes
interrupted by the Portuguese, French and British, the Dutch were the foremost European power for
much of their 350-year presence in the archipelago. In the early 20th century, the concept of
"Indonesia" as a nation-state emerged, and independence movements began to take
shape.[20] During the decolonisation of Asia after World War II, Indonesia achieved independence in
1949 following an armed and diplomatic conflict with the Netherlands.
Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups, with the largest—and
politically dominant—ethnic group being the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by
a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a
history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal
Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the
country. Indonesia's economy is the world's 16th largest by nominal GDP and 7th by GDP at PPP.
The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the UN,[b] WTO, IMF, G20,
and a founding member of Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Asia-
Pacific Economic Cooperation, East Asia Summit, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,
and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2History
o 2.1Early history
o 2.2Colonial era
o 2.3Modern era
 3Geography
o 3.1Climate
o 3.2Geology
o 3.3Biodiversity
o 3.4Environment
 4Government and politics
o 4.1Parties and elections
o 4.2Political divisions
o 4.3Foreign relations
 o 4.4Military
 5Economy
o 5.1Transport
o 5.2Energy
o 5.3Science and technology
o 5.4Tourism
 6Demographics
o 6.1Ethnicity and language
o 6.2Religion
o 6.3Urbanisation
o 6.4Education and health
o 6.5Issues
 7Culture
o 7.1Art and architecture
o 7.2Music, dance and clothing
o 7.3Theatre and cinema
o 7.4Media and literature
o 7.5Cuisine
o 7.6Sports
 8See also
 9Notes
 10References
 11Bibliography
 12External links

Etymology
Further information: Names of Indonesia
The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indos (Ἰνδός) and the word nesos (νῆσος),
meaning "Indian islands."[21] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of
independent Indonesia.[22] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the
terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian
Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago."[23] In the same publication, one of his students, James
Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[24][25] However, Dutch
academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia; they preferred Malay
Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië),
popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[26]
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and
native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[26] Adolf Bastian, of the University of
Berlin, popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen
Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in
1913 he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau.[22]

History
Main article: History of Indonesia

Early history
A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur temple, c. 800 CE. Outrigger boats from the archipelago may have
made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.[27]

Based on fossils and the remains of tools, Homo erectus, known as "Java Man", inhabited the
Indonesian archipelago between 1.5 million and 33,000 BCE.[28][29][30] Homo sapiens reached the
region around 43,000 BCE.[31] Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern
population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan. They arrived around 2,000 BCE,
and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the indigenous Melanesians to the far eastern
regions.[32] Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the
8th century BCE[33] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE.
The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including
links with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, which had existed since several centuries
BCE.[34] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[35][36]
From the first until the 16th century CE, the archipelago was home to a series of Hindu-Buddhist
polities.[37] From the 7th century, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade along with
the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism.[38] The agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and
Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments
such as Borobudur, Sewu and Prambanan between the 8th and 10th century. This period marked a
renaissance of Hindu-Buddhist art in ancient Java.[39] The late 13th century saw the founding of the
Hindu Majapahit kingdom in eastern Java. It was one of the most powerful empires in Southeast
Asia, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia.[40]
The earliest evidence of a Muslim population in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern
Sumatra, although Muslim traders first travelled through Southeast Asia early in the Islamic
era.[41] Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in
Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with
existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in the
archipelago, particularly in Java.[42]
Colonial era
Main article: Dutch East Indies
The submission of Prince Diponegoro to General De Kock at the end of the Java War in 1830

The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of the archipelago began in 1512,
when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolise the sources
of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[43] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the
Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC), and in the following decades, they gained
a foothold in Batavia and Amboina. For almost 200 years, the company was the dominant European
power in the archipelago.[44] It dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy, and
the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony.[45]
Since the VOC's establishment, trade had been the primary motivation behind the enlargement of
Dutch territory.[46][47] Starting from 1840, the Dutch began a period of expansion, this time to protect
areas already held and to prevent intervention from other European powers.[47] As a result, they
became involved in conflicts against various native groups throughout the 19th century, such as
the Padri War, Java War, and Aceh War.[48][49][49] It was only in the early 20th century that the Dutch
exerted control over what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries,[50] with the addition
of Western New Guinea in 1920.
In 1901, the Netherlands introduced the Dutch Ethical Policy, which had the purpose of improving
living conditions and welfare, expanding education to native peoples,[51] and preparing the
archipelago for self-government under Dutch control.[52] The policy, however, contributed to
the Indonesian National Awakening, and subsequent rise of independence movements[52] that the
Dutch actively suppressed.[53] During World War II, the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied the
archipelago, effectively ending Dutch rule.[54][55] Despite causing a total of four million deaths,[56] the
Japanese occupation was fundamental for Indonesian independence, as the Japanese encouraged
and facilitated Indonesian nationalism, promoted nationalists such as Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta,
and Ki Hajar Dewantara, and provided weapons and military training.[53]
Modern era

Sukarno, the founding father and first President of Indonesia.

Two days after the surrender of Japan, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence on
17 August 1945[57][58] and were selected as the country's first President and Vice-President
respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic
struggle ensued. On 27 December 1949, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence in
the face of international pressure,[59] except for the Netherlands New Guinea, which is subject to
ongoing Papua conflict.[60] Despite extraordinary internal political, social and sectarian divisions,
Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.
In the late 1950s, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and
maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist
Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI).[61] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965
was countered by the army, which led a violent purge that left at least 500,000 people killed,[62] and
the PKI officially blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[63][64][65] The head of the military,
General Suharto, outmanoeuvred the politically weakened Sukarno and was appointed president on
27 March 1968. His New Order administration,[66] supported by the United
States,[67][68][69] encouraged foreign direct investment,[70][71] which was a crucial factor in the subsequent
three decades of substantial economic growth. However, rampant corruption was widespread, as
well as the suppression of political opposition.[72][73][74] On 7 December 1975, Indonesia invaded and
annexed neighbouring former Portuguese colony, East Timor.[75]
The 1997 Asian financial crisis, which hit Indonesia particularly hard,[76] brought an end to the New
Order in 1998,[77] and subsequently, the occupation of East Timor. In the post-Suharto era,
strengthening of democracy has included a regional autonomy programme and the first direct
presidential election in 2004.[78] Political, economic and social instability, corruption,
and terrorism slowed progress; however, in recent years, the economy has performed strongly.
Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, though sectarian discontent and
violence have persisted.[79] Indonesia was the worst-hit country by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
and tsunami that killed around 130,000 people, mainly in Aceh.[80] The aftermath of the disaster
played a part in achieving political settlement to the region's insurgency in 2005.[81]
At the conclusion of the 2014 presidential election, Joko Widodo, also known as Jokowi, emerged
victorious as the first president outside the military and political elite.[82] His administration has
emphasised the building and improvement of public infrastructure, social programs, and the
country's overall economic standing.[83] In 2019, Jokowi announced that the province of East
Kalimantan on Borneo would be the site for the new capital city, realising a plan that has been
around since the 1950s.[84]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Indonesia

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's
highest.

Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is the
largest archipelagic country in the world, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west
and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.[85] According to the country's Coordinating
Ministry for Maritime Affairs, Indonesia has 17,504 islands (16,056 of which are registered at the
UN),[11] scattered over both sides of the equator, and with about 6,000 of them inhabited.[86] The
largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New
Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo,
Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor, and
maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.
At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is
the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan
and New Guinea and include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam. They serve as
communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.[87]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Indonesia

Typical Indonesian rainforest, mostly found in Kalimantan and Sumatra.

Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round.[88] Indonesia
has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter.[89] For
most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between April and October with the wet season between
November and March.[89] Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical
rainforest climate found in every large island of Indonesia. The tropical monsoon
climate predominantly lies along Java's coastal north, Sulawesi's coastal south and east, and Bali,
while the tropical savanna climate lies in isolated parts of Central Java, lowland East Java, coastal
southern Papua and smaller islands to the east of Lombok. More cooling climate types do exist in
mountainous regions that are 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The
oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with
reasonably uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and
tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is prevalent with a more
pronounced dry season.

Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for Indonesia[90]

Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and
temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more
pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet. Rainfall is plentiful,
particularly in West Sumatra, West Kalimantan, West Java, and Papua. Parts of Sulawesi and some
islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba are drier. The almost uniformly warm waters that
constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain relatively constant. The
coastal plains average 28 °C (82.4 °F), the inland and mountain areas, 26 °C (78.8 °F), and the
higher mountain regions, 23 °C (73.4 °F). The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%.
Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and
east in June through October, and from the northwest in November through March. Typhoons and
large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesian waters; significant dangers come
from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.
Geology
Main article: Geology of Indonesia
See also: Volcanoes of Indonesia

Major volcanoes in Indonesia. Indonesia is in the Pacific Ring of Fire area.

Tectonically, Indonesia is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes.[91] It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific
Plate are pushed under the Eurasian plate where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep.
A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda
Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.[92] Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are
active.[93] Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.[94] Volcanic
ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.[95] However, it has also resulted in
fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining high population densities of Java and Bali.[96]
A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to
have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate, and subsequently led to a genetic
bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate.[97] The 1815 eruption of Mount
Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former
caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash which spread and blanketed parts of
the archipelago, and made much of Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.[98] The latter
produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself
and the resulting tsunamis. There were significant additional effects around the world years after the
event.[99] Recent catasthropic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.
Biodiversity
Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia and Flora of Indonesia
Species endemic to Indonesia. Clockwise from top: Rafflesia arnoldii, orangutan, greater bird-of-paradise,
and Komodo dragon.

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support a high level of
biodiversity.[15] Its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[100] The islands of
the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia, and have a
wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian
elephant, and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have
dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa
Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna.[101] Papua was part of the
Australian landmass and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia,
including over 600 bird species.[102] Forests cover approximately 70% of the country.[103] However, the
forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human
habitation and agriculture.
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species
of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[104] Tropical seas surround Indonesia's
80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country has a range of sea and coastal
ecosystems, including beaches, dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal
mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.[21] Indonesia is one of Coral
Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650
species in eastern Indonesia only.[105]
British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described a dividing line (Wallace Line) between the
distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[106] It runs roughly north-south along the
edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait,
between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east
from Lombok they are increasingly Australian until the tipping point at the Weber Line. In his 1869
book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.[107] The
region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[106]
Environment
Main article: Environment of Indonesia

Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation.

Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental
issues. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced
governance.[108] Problems include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation—and
the resulting Southeast Asian haze—over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage
management, and reliable water and wastewater services.[108] These issues contribute to Indonesia's
poor ranking (#133 out of 180 countries) in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index. The report
also indicates that Indonesia's performance is among the lowest in the Asia-Pacific region.[109]
Expansion of the palm oil industry requiring significant changes to the natural ecosystems is the one
primary factor behind much of Indonesia's deforestation.[110] While it can generate wealth for local
communities, it may degrade ecosystems and cause social problems.[111] This situation makes
Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[112] It also threatens the
survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened, and 15 as critically endangered,
including the Bali starling,[113] Sumatran orangutan,[114] and Javan rhinoceros.[115]
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate
change.[116] They predict that unreduced emissions will see an average temperature rise of around
1℃ by mid-century,[117][118] amounting to almost double the frequency of scorching days (above 35℃)
per year by 2030. That figure is predicted to rise further by the end of the century.[117] It will raise the
frequency of drought and food shortages, having an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet
and dry seasons, the basis of Indonesia's agricultural system.[118] It will also encourage diseases and
increases in wildfires, which threaten the country's enormous rainforest.[118] Rising sea levels, at
current rates, will result in 42 million households in over 2,000 islands being at risk of submersion by
mid-century.[119] A majority of Indonesia's population lives in low-lying coastal areas,[118] including the
capital Jakarta, the fastest sinking city in the world.[120] Impoverished communities will likely be
affected the most by climate change.[121]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia
A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the Parliament Complex Jakarta, 2014

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998,
political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional
amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches.[122] Chief among them is the
delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary
state.[123] The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government, commander-in-
chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI), and the director of
domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of
two consecutive five-year terms.[124]
The highest representative body at the national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis
Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution,
inaugurating and impeaching the president,[125][126] and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The
MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat,
DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah,
DPD), with 136.[127] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch. Reforms since
1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance,[122] while the DPD is a new chamber
for matters of regional management.[128][126]
Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the
High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court of Indonesia (Mahkamah Agung) is the
country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts
include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; the State Administrative
Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government;
the Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to listen to disputes concerning legality of law,
general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and
the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Islamic Law (sharia)
cases.[129] Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors the performance of
judges.
Parties and elections
Main articles: List of political parties in Indonesia and Elections in Indonesia
 Joko Widodo
7th President of Indonesia.

Jusuf Kalla
10th and 12th Vice President of Indonesia

Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since the fall of
the New Order, no political party has managed to win an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian
Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which secured the most votes in the 2014 elections, is the
party of the current President, Joko Widodo.[130] The Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra) is
the third-largest political party.[131] Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional
Groups (Golkar), the Democratic Party, and the National Awakening Party (PKB). Based on the
2014 elections, the DPR consists of ten political parties, with a parliamentary threshold of 3.5% of
the national vote.[132] The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and
the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a
president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-
aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.[127][122] Beginning with 2015 local elections,
elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. As of 2019, both legislative
and presidential elections coincide.
Political divisions
Main article: Subdivisions of Indonesia
Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level is the provinces, five out of a total of 34
have special status. Each has a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an
elected governor. The second is the regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati)
and mayors (walikota) respectively and a legislature (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). The third is
the districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua), and finally the fourth is the administrative villages
(either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). This number has
evolved, with the most recent change being the split of North Kalimantan from East Kalimantan in
2012.[133]
The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community
groups (rukun warga, RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga,
RT). In Java, the village (desa) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which
are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001,
regencies and cities have become chief administrative units, responsible for providing most
government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life
and handles matters of a village or neighbourhood through an elected village chief (lurah or kepala
desa).
Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher
degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. Aceh has the right to
create some aspects of an independent legal system, and several regional parties participate only in
elections held there.[134] In 2003, it instituted a form of sharia.[135] Yogyakarta was granted the status of
Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting the Republicans during the National
Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a republic.[136] Papua, formerly known as Irian
Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in
2003.[137] Jakarta is the country's Special Capital Region (Daerah Khusus Ibukota, DKI).

Aceh

North
Sumatra

West
Sumatra

Riau

Riau
Islands

Bangka
Belitung

Jambi

South
Sumatra

Bengkulu

Lampung

Banten

Jakarta
 West
Java

Central
Java

Yogyakarta

East
Java

Bali

West Nusa
Tenggara

East Nusa
Tenggara

West
Kalimantan

Central
Kalimantan

North
Kalimantan

East
Kalimantan

South
Kalimantan

North
Sulawesi

North
Maluku

Central
Sulawesi

Gorontalo

West
Sulawesi

South
Sulawesi

Southeast
Sulawesi

Maluku

West
Papua

Papua

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Indonesia
Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra, Australia

Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies.[138] The country
adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in
proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other
countries.[139] Indonesia was a significant battleground during the Cold War. Numerous attempts by
the United States and the Soviet Union,[140][141] and China to some degree,[142] culminated in the 1965
coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy. Quiet alignment
with the West while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy
since then.[143] Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and is a founding member of
ASEAN and the East Asia Summit. In common with most of the Muslim world, Indonesia does not
have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine. However, observers have
pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly.[144]
Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and was a founding member of
the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).[145] Indonesia
is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade
Organization (WTO), and an occasional member of OPEC.[146] During the Indonesia–Malaysia
confrontation, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations
Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a
member state had attempted a withdrawal.[147] Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development
aid recipient since 1966,[148][149][150] and recently, the country has expressed interest in becoming an aid
donor.[151]
Military
Main articles: Indonesian National Armed Forces and Military history of Indonesia
Indonesian Armed Forces. Clockwise from top: Indonesian Army during training session, Sukhoi Su-30, Pindad
Anoa, and Indonesian naval vessel KRI Sultan Iskandar Muda 367.

Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine
Corps), and Air Force (TNI–AU).[152] The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence
spending in the national budget was 0.8% of GDP in 2017,[153] with controversial involvement of
military-owned commercial interests and foundations.[154] The Armed Forces were formed during
the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia.
Since then, territorial lines have formed the basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining
domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.[155] The military has possessed a strong political
influence since its founding, reaching its greatest extent during the New Order. Political reforms in
1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its
political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level.[156]
Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies
and separatist movements.[157] Some, notably in Aceh and Papua, have led to an armed conflict, and
subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[158][159] The former was
resolved peacefully in 2005,[81] while the latter continues, amid a significant, albeit imperfect,
implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence
and human rights abuses since 2004.[160] Other engagements of the army include the campaign
against the Netherlands New Guinea to incorporate the territory into Indonesia, the Konfrontasi to
oppose the creation of Malaysia, the mass killings of PKI, and the invasion of East Timor, which
remains Indonesia's most massive military operation.[161][162]