Maxwell’s Equations and

Electromagnetic Waves
 Maxwell’s 1st Equations or Gauss's
law
• The first is Gauss’s Law which is an extended
form of Coulomb’s Law
• Gauss's law states that the total displacement
or electric flux through any closed surface
surrounding charges is equal to the amount of
charge enclosed.
• Consider a point charge q located in a
homogeneous isotropic medium whose
dielectric constant is ϵ. The electric field
strength at any point a distance r from the
charge q will be
𝑞𝑞
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑟𝑟̂
4πϵ𝑟𝑟2
• and the displacement density or electric flux
density at the same point will be
𝑞𝑞
D = ϵ𝐸𝐸 = 𝑟𝑟̂
4π𝑟𝑟2
• The total displacement through the closed
surface will be ψ=q
• The total charges inside the closed surface is

ψ = q = ∫ ρ dV
V

• The total displacement through the surface is

Ψ = ∫ D ⋅ da
S

∫ D ⋅ da =∫ ρ dV
S V
 Divergence Theorem
• The divergence theorem (also called Gauss's
theorem) relates an integration throughout a
volume to an integration over the surface
surrounding the volume.
• By the definition of divergence
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷𝑧𝑧
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐷𝐷 = + +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

 ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz 

∫V∇ ⋅ DdV = ∫∫∫  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z  dxdydz
• By definition of a scalar product
• 𝐷𝐷 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐷𝐷𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 + 𝐷𝐷𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 +𝐷𝐷𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧
• where dax indicates the x component of da,
and so on.
• According to divergence theorem

∫V
∇ ⋅ DdV = ∫ D ⋅ da
S
• Making use of Gauss's law which states

∫S
D ⋅ da = ∫
V
ρ dV
• and applying the divergence theorem

∫ ∇ ⋅ D dV = ∫ ρ dV
V V
• As the volume considered is reduced to an
elemental volume, this becomes the point
relation,
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌
• This is the alternative statement of Gauss's
law
• It states that at every point in a medium the
divergence of electric displacement density is
equal to the charge density.
• In a free space or charge free region , this
equation becomes
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐷𝐷 = 0
 Magnetic Flux Density B.
• The magnetic flux per unit area through a loop
of small area is called the magnetic flux
density B at the location of the loop.
• Relation between Current I and magnetic flux
density B is
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
𝑩𝑩 = = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 or
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼
𝐻𝐻 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
 Magnetic field strength H
• The magnetic field strength H is thus defined
by this relation in terms of the current which
produces it and the geometry of the system.
• Magnetic field strength is a vector quantity,
having the same direction as the magnetic flux
density (in isotropic media),
• It can be stated as the vector relation
𝑩𝑩 = µ𝑯𝑯
 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
• The law asserts that the net magnetic flux Φ
through any closed Gaussian surface is zero.
Here B is the magnetic field
• Total magnetic flux through a closed surface is
Φ = ∫ B ⋅ da = 0
S
Applying the divergence theorem

∫ B ⋅ da = ∫ (∇ ⋅ B )dV = 0
S V

∇⋅B = 0
 Ampere's Work Law in the
Differential Vector Form
• Ampere's Circuit law states that the magnetomotive
force around a closed path is equal to the current
enclosed by the path.
• Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the
tangential component of H around a dosed path is the
same as the net current I enclosed by the path.
• That is
∮ 𝐵𝐵 � 𝑑𝑑𝒔𝒔 = 𝜇𝜇𝑰𝑰
This law may he put into an alternative form as follows:
• By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand
side above of eq.
∫ H ⋅ dS= ∫ ( ∇ΧH ) ⋅ da
L S

But total current through surface surrounded by

Closed line
ITotal == ∫ J ⋅ da
S

Where J is the current density

Comparing the surface integrals In eqs

Or
∫
S
J ⋅ da
= ∫ ( ∇ΧH ) ⋅ da
S

𝐽𝐽 = 𝛻𝛻 × 𝐻𝐻
 CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S
THEOREM
• The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector
whose magnitude is the maximum circulation
of A per unit area as the area tends to zero
and whose direction is the normal direction of
the area when the area is oriented so as to
make the circulation maximum.
ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
CurlA = ∇ × A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
 Stokes's theorem
• Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a
vector field A around a (closed) path L is equal
to the surface integral of the the curl of A over
the open surface S bounded by (see Figure 3.20)
provided that A and 𝛻𝛻X A are continuous on S.

∫ A ⋅ dS= ∫ ( ∇ΧA ) ⋅ da
L S
 Magnetic Induction and Faraday's
Law
• Magnetic flux ɸ through any loop is defined as the
time integral of voltage induced in the loop
throughout the interval during which the magnetic
field is being established; or having been established,
as the time integral of voltage throughout the
interval in which the field is being reduced to zero.
• (These quantities are equal but of opposite sign.)
That is
𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which is Faraday's induction law.
• Faraday state that the induced emf
(electromotive force in volts), in any closed
circuit is equal to the time rate of change of
the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.
𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where total magnetic flux is Φ = ∫ B ⋅ da
S

d
Vemf ∫L E ⋅ dS =
= −
dt ∫
S
B ⋅ da
• Applying stokes theorem
d
∫S ( ∇XE )da =
∫L E ⋅ dS = −
dt ∫
S
B ⋅ da

• Hence for time-varying fields

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝛻𝛻 × 𝐸𝐸 = −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 Volume Distribution of Current and
Equation of Continuity.
• The relation between current and current
density
I = ∫ J ⋅ da
S
• If S is a closed surface, then conservation of
charge requires that the net, steady current
passing through the surface be zero. Thus

∫S
J ⋅ da = 0
• Application of the divergence theorem to the
above yields

∫V (∇ ⋅ J )dv = 0
in which V is the volume enclosed by S.
• Since conservation of charge must hold for
any arbitrary volume V, it follows that
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐽𝐽 = 0
This is frequently called the equation of
continuity for steady currents.
 SI Units

• J Amp/ metre2
• D Coulomb/metre2
• H Amps/metre
• B Tesla
Weber/metre2
Volt-Second/metre2
• E Volt/metre
• ε Farad/metre
• µ Henry/metre
• σ Siemen/metre
• K Volts/meter
 Maxwell’s Theory
• Electricity and magnetism were originally thought to
be unrelated
• Maxwell’s theory showed a close relationship between
all electric and magnetic phenomena and proved that
electric and magnetic fields play symmetric roles in
nature
• Maxwell hypothesized that a changing electric field
would produce a magnetic field
• He calculated the speed of light – 3x108 m/s – and
concluded that light and other electromagnetic waves
consist of fluctuating electric and magnetic fields
 Maxwell’s Theory
• Stationary charges produce only electric fields
• Charges in uniform motion (constant velocity)
produce electric and magnetic fields
• Charges that are accelerated produce electric and
magnetic fields and electromagnetic waves
• A changing magnetic field produces an electric
field
• These fields are in phase and, at any point, they
both reach their maximum value at the same
time
 The Equations of Electromagnetism
• Gauss’ Law for Electrostatics q
∫ E ⋅ da = ε
S
0
• Gauss’ Law for Magnetism

• Faraday’s Law of Induction ∫

S
B ⋅ da = 0

d
∫L E ⋅ dS =
− ∫ B ⋅ da
• Ampere’s Law dt S

� 𝐵𝐵 � 𝑑𝑑𝒔𝒔 = 𝜇𝜇𝑰𝑰
 Maxwell’s Equations of
Electromagnetism
• Gauss’ Law for Electrostatics q
∫ E ⋅ da = ε
S
0
• Gauss’ Law for Magnetism
∫ B ⋅ da = 0
S
• Faraday’s Law of Induction d
∫L E ⋅ dS =
−
dt ∫ S
B ⋅ da

• Ampere’s Law ∮ 𝐵𝐵 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

• Equation of Continuity
∫ J ⋅ da = 0
S
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism in
static electric field due to charges at rest and the
static magnetic field due to steady currents may
be summarized as follows
Differential Form
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 = 𝟎𝟎
𝛁𝛁 � 𝑫𝑫 = 𝝆𝝆
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑯𝑯 = 𝑱𝑱
𝛁𝛁 � 𝑩𝑩 = 𝟎𝟎
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐽𝐽 = 0
 Maxwell’s Equations of static Electric
and Steady magnetic field
• Integral Form

∫
S
D ⋅ da = ∫
V
ρdV ∫
S
B ⋅ da = 0

∫ E ⋅ dS =
∫ H ⋅ dS =
0
I L

∫ J ⋅ da = 0
S
 The Equation of Continuity for Time-
Varying Fields.
• The total current flowing out of some volume
must be equal to the rate of decrease of
charge within the volume, assuming that
charge cannot be created or destroyed.
• In mathematical terms, this conservation of
charge concept can be stated as
𝑑𝑑
� 𝐽𝐽 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• If the region of integration is stationary, the
above relation becomes
𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌
� 𝐽𝐽 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• The divergence theorem now may be applied in
order to change the surface integral into a
volume integral:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� 𝛻𝛻 � 𝐽𝐽 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• If the above relation is to hold for any
arbitrary volume, then it must be true that
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐽𝐽 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• This is the time-varying form of the equation
of continuity.
 Inconsistency of Ampere's Law
• Taking the divergence of Ampere's law yields
the equation of continuity for steady currents.
• Thus Ampere's law is not consistent with the
time-varying equation of continuity.
• The correct modification may be found by
substituting Gauss's law (2) into the equation
of continuity
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝛻𝛻 � 𝐽𝐽 = − = − 𝛻𝛻 � 𝐷𝐷
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Interchanging the differentiations with respect to space
and time gives
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷
𝛻𝛻 � + 𝐽𝐽 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
• This may be put into integral form by integrating over a
volume and then applying the divergence theorem:
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷
� + 𝐽𝐽 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷
• The two preceding equations suggest that + 𝐽𝐽 may
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
be regarded as the total current density for time-
varying fields.
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷
• Since D is the displacement density, is known as the
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
displacement current density.
• When applied as shown in Fig. 4-1 to a surface
enclosing one plate of a two-plate capacitor,
• During charge or discharge, the conduction
current in the wire attached to the plate is
equal to the displacement current passing
between the plates.
• Maxwell reasoned that the total current density
should replace J in Ampere's law with the result
that
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷
𝛻𝛻 × 𝐻𝐻 = + 𝐽𝐽
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
• Taking the divergence of above equ gives (9) and
thus the inconsistency has been removed.
• Integration of (11) over a surface and application
of Stokes' theorem leads to the integral form
𝜕𝜕𝐷𝐷
� 𝐻𝐻 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � + 𝐽𝐽 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s Law

Q = CV

εo A V = Ed
C=
d

 εo A 
Q =  ( Ed ) =εo AE =εo Ψ
 d 
dQ dΨ
I= = εo Called “displacement current”, Id
dt dt
Modifications to Ampère’s Law
• Ampère’s Law is used to analyze magnetic
fields created by currents
• But this form is valid only if any electric fields
present are constant in time
• Applying Ampère’s law to a circuit with a
changing current results in an ambiguity
• The result depends on which surface is used
to determine the encircled current.
 
∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I
 Modifications to Ampère’s Law
• Maxwell used this ambiguity, along with symmetry
considerations, to conclude that a changing electric
field, in addition to current, should be a source of
magnetic field
• Maxwell modified the equation to include time-
varying electric fields and added another term, called
the displacement current, Id
• This showed that magnetic fields are produced both
by conduction currents and by time-varying electric
fields
  dΦ E
∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I + µ 0 ε 0
dt
Id ≡ ε0
dΦ E
dt
 Maxwell’s Equations of time varying
Electric and magnetic field
• Integral Form

∫S
D ⋅ da = ∫ ρdV
V ∫
S
B ⋅ da = 0

∫ E ⋅ dS =
− ∫ B ⋅ da
∫ H ⋅ dS= ∫ (
L
)
D + J ⋅ da L

∫ J ⋅
S
da = − ∫ dv
ρ
 Maxwell’s Equations of time varying
Electric and magnetic field
• Differential Form
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 = −𝑩𝑩̇
𝛁𝛁 � 𝑫𝑫 = 𝝆𝝆
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑯𝑯 = 𝑫𝑫̇ + 𝑱𝑱
𝛁𝛁 � 𝑩𝑩 = 𝟎𝟎
𝛻𝛻 × 𝐽𝐽 = 𝜌𝜌̇
• The dot superscripts indicating partial derivatives with
respect to time.
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝑫𝑫̇ =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
 Word Statement of the Field
Equations.
• (I) The magnetomotive force around a closed
path is equal to the conduction current plus
the time derivative of the electric
displacement through any surface bounded by
the path
• (II) The electromotive force around a closed
path is equal to the time derivative of the
magnetic displacement through any surface
bounded by the path.
 Word Statement of the Field
Equations.
• (III) The total electric displacement through
the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the
total charge within the volume.
• (IV) The net magnetic flux emerging through
any closed surface is zero.
• The time derivative of electric displacement is
called displacement current.
• The term electric current is then generalized in
meaning to include both conduction currents
and displacement currents.
• Furthermore, if the time derivative of electric
displacement is called an electric current, the
time derivative of magnetic displacement can
be considered as being a magnetic current.
• Finally, electromotive force is called electric
voltage.
• Then magnetomotive force may be called
magnetic voltage.
 Maxwell’s Equations
• In his unified theory of electromagnetism, Maxwell
showed that the fundamental laws are expressed in
these four equations:

    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Gauss’ Law relates an electric field to the charge
distribution that creates it

• The total electric flux through any closed surface equals

the net charge inside that surface divided by εo

    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Gauss’ Law in magnetism: the net magnetic flux through a
closed surface is zero

• The number of magnetic field lines that enter a closed volume

must equal the number that leave that volume

• If this wasn’t true, there would be magnetic monopoles found

in nature
    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Faraday’s Law of Induction describes the creation
of an electric field by a time-varying magnetic
field
• The emf (the line integral of the electric field
around any closed path) equals the rate of
change of the magnetic flux through any surface
bounded by that path
    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Ampère-Maxwell Law describes the creation of a magnetic
field by a changing electric field and by electric current

• The line integral of the magnetic field around any closed

path is the sum of µo times the net current through that
path and εοµo times the rate of change of electric flux
through any surface bounded by that path
    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Once the electric and magnetic fields are known at
some point in space, the force acting on a particle of
charge q can be found
   
F = q E + qv × B
• Maxwell’s equations with the Lorentz Force Law
completely describe all classical electromagnetic
interactions
    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
• In empty space, q = 0 and I = 0

• The equations can be solved with wave-like solutions

(electromagnetic waves), which are traveling at the speed
of light

• This result led Maxwell to predict that light waves were a

form of electromagnetic radiation
    q
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ E ⋅ d A =
ε0
  dΦ E   dΦ B
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ0 I + µ0ε 0 dt ∫ E ⋅ ds = − dt
 Maxwell’s Equations

As you can see we need some vector calculus to use these

equations. That isn’t going to happen in this class, but I
wanted you to see the equations anyway.