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Gingers of Manipur: Diversity and potentials as bioresources

Article  in  Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution · June 2011

DOI: 10.1007/s10722-011-9678-5

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Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
DOI 10.1007/s10722-011-9678-5
NOTES ON NEGLECTED AND UNDERUTILIZED CROPS
Gingers of Manipur: diversity and potentials as bioresources
Gurumayum Jitendra Sharma •
Pukhrambam Chirangini • Rajkumar Kishor
Received: 26 June 2010 / Accepted: 28 February 2011 / Published online: 4 April 2011
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract The gingers are well-known for their
medicinal and economic significance and occur
chiefly in the tropical regions of the world mainly
in the Indo-Malaysian area of Asia. From Manipur in
northeast India, 33 species under 9 genera have been
collected from different parts of the State. Collected
specimens were planted in the Experimental Field of
the Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University.
The morphological details of the various species were
worked out. The characteristic features of the spec-
imen, their traditional uses, anti-oxidant compounds
present and biological activities are described. The
identified genera are Alpinia (3 spp.), Amomum (5
spp.), Boesenbergia (1 sp.), Curcuma (10 spp.),
Elettaria (1 sp.), Hedychium (7 spp. and 1 variety),
Kaempferia (2 spp.), Roscoea (1 sp.) and Zingiber (3
spp.). Of these, 26 species have been used variously
as food (15), traditional medicine (21) and orna-
mental plants (9) by the ethnic people in their culture.
Ten species have been identified to possess various
bioactive molecules.
G. J. Sharma  P. Chirangini  R. Kishor (&)
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Imphal, Manipur 795003, India
e-mail: rajkumarkishor@yahoo.com
G. J. Sharma
e-mail: gjs1951@rediffmail.com
Present Address:
P. Chirangini
300 Fords Avenue, Apt. J2, Fords, NJ, USA
Keywords Bioactive molecules  Gingers 
Manipur  Zingiberaceae
Introduction
The gingers (Zingiberaceae) occur chiefly in the
tropical regions of the world with about 53 genera
and 1,200 species. The greatest concentration of
genera and species are in the Indo-Malaysian area of
Asia. The currently accepted classification of the
Zingiberaceae includes four tribes, viz., Hedychieae:
22 genera, Alpinieae: 25 genera, Zingibereae: one
genus, and Globbeae: four genera (Kress et al. 2002).
Some largely represented genera along with the
number of their world-wide reported species are
Alpinia (230), Amomum (150), Boesenbergia (50),
Curcuma (50), Elettaria (7), Etlingera (70), Globba
(100), Hedychium (50), Kaempferia (50), Roscoe (18)
and Zingiber (100–150) (Delin and Kai 2000). India
has rich diversity of ginger flora, representing with
about 22 genera and 170 species. The biological
wealth in the Manipur-Nagaland (NE India) belt,
which happens to be one of the mega-biodiversity hot
spots, also has several wild and domesticated species
of medicinal gingers. This region contributes 19
genera and 88 species (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996b).
Phytogeographically, north-eastern India is the
meeting point of the Indo-Malaysian and East Asian
123
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flora. The mingling of species in this region has
possibly favoured natural hybridization and richness
of biodiversity (Naithani and Bahadur 1983). For
Manipur (Fig. 1) earlier workers have reported the
ginger diversity to be 11 species under 7 genera
(Prakash and Mehrotra 1996b) and 19 species under 7
genera (Sinha 1996).
The gingers are well-known for their medicinal
and economic significances. Many species are used as
sources of indigenous medicines, vegetables, food
flavors, spices, dyes, condiments as well as orna-
mentals. Seeds of Amomum cardamomum and Elet-
taria cardamomum, roots of Alpinia officinarum, and
rhizomes of A. galanga, Curcuma longa and Zingiber
officinale are used as spices, condiments and flavour-
ing agents. Ginger oil, obtained from the rhizome of
Zingiber officinale, is used in perfumery and for
medicinal purposes. Turmeric is also used for
medicinal purposes. Abir, the famous scented pow-
der, is prepared from Hedychium spicatum. The
product ‘Zedoary’, used as a tonic and in perfumery,
is obtained from the tubers of Curcuma zedoaria.
Some of the ornamental genera cultivated in green-
houses and gardens for decorative purposes are
Alpinia, Cautleya, Globba, Hedychium, Kaempferia,
Fig. 1 Map of Manipur showing the different districts from
where the specimens were collected
123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
and Roscoea. Many of the gingers are also known to
possess useful bio-active molecules. Bioprospects of
these biological wealth scattered in the potentially
useful plants in the form of bio-active molecules need
to be collated. These are the important molecules
which would help in designing and manufacturing
various medicinal drugs. Chirangini et al. (2004)
evaluated the antioxidant properties of a number of
medicinal gingers using curcumin as reference.
Though, the gingers have great potential in med-
icine, commodity crops and ornamentals, yet they are
not well understood taxonomically in India because of
several reasons (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996b): (1)
they have not been revised since Baker’s treatise in
Flora of British India (Hooker 1890) which is now
outdated, (2) they have not been well-explored in the
field as their collection was avoided by conventional
workers due to large herbaceous size, having fleshy
underground rhizomes which pose inconvenience in
preparation of herbarium specimens and (3) delimi-
tation of many former taxa has not been adequate as it
lacks study of live plants, protologues and types which
are almost essential to supplement the previous
descriptions and to re-evaluate former taxonomic
judgments. Hence, an attempt has been made to
undertake preliminary investigation regarding the
extent of biodiversity of the gingers found in Manipur
and identification of them as potential bioresources.
Materials and methods
Field trips in various parts of Manipur (23°500 –25°420
north latitude and 92°580 –94°450 east longitude) were
conducted for collection of different gingers. The
collected specimens were planted in the Experimental
Field of the Department of Life Sciences, Manipur
University. For identification of the specimens,
dissections of the flowers and morphological exam-
inations of the vegetative parts were done and
compared with authentic specimens at the herbaria
of Botanical Survey of India at Calcutta (Kolkota)
and Shillong. Baker’s treatise in Flora of British India
(Hooker 1890), Florae Indicae Enumeratio: Mono-
cotyledonae (Karthikeyan et al. 1989), Zingiberaceae
in India: phytogeography and endemism (Jain and
Prakash 1995), Zingiberaceae in Flora of China
(Delin and Kai 2000), Zingiberaceae and Costaceae
of South India (Sabu 2006) and the Flora of Tripura
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
State (Deb 1983) were referred for correct identifi-
cation of the specimens. After specific and varietal
determination, descriptions were drawn in detail from
fresh specimens. Only relevant and commonly used
synonyms have been given wherever necessary after
their correct names. Local names mainly in Manipuri
language are also given for easy reference. The
descriptions of all the species are primarily based on
the authors’ collections. Their traditional uses, anti-
oxidant compounds present and bioactive molecules
are noted from referred literature.
Results and discussion
Thirtythree species under 9 genera of Zingiberaceae
have been collected and identified from Manipur in NE
India. The reported genera are Alpinia (3 spp.), Amo-
mum (5 spp.), Boesenbergia (1 sp.), Curcuma (10 spp.),
Elettaria (1 sp.), Hedychium (7 spp. and 1 variety),
Kaempferia (2 spp.), Roscoe (1 spp.) and Zingiber (3
spp.). The specimens are listed alphabetically along with
their brief morphological characters, local names,
common names, distribution, collection sites, uses and
identified bioactive molecules. Of the 33 species, 27
have been used variously as food (15), traditional
medicine (21) and ornamental plants (9) by the ethnic
people in their culture. Again, 10 species have been
identified to possess various bioactive molecules which
have been reported by various researchers.
Species description and distribution
1. Alpinia Roxb.
(i) A. nigra (Gaertn.) Burtt.
Syn. A. allughas (Retz.) Rosc.
Rhizome perennial, large and aromatic; leaf sessile;
ligule entire and pubescent; inflorescence terminal on
leafy stem; bract scariose, pubescent; flower shortly
pedicelled; calyx greenish-white, scariose at the mar-
gins; corolla 3-lobed, unequal, posterior lobe hooded,
dirty white; lip cuneate pink distinctly emarginate with
2 small linear-subulate glands at the base, clawed;
stamen arcuate, shorter than the lip (Fig. 2a, b).
A. nigra is distributed in Bhutan, China, India,
Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. In the present
study it was collected from Hiyangthang in Imphal
West District. It is locally known as Pullei.
755
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.1
(ii) A. galanga (Linn.) Willd.
Rhizome cylindrical, branched and aromatic; leaf
oblong-lanceolate, glabrous beneath; inflorescence
compound panicle; flowers shortly pedicelled; cor-
olla-lobes linear-oblong, greenish-white; lip obovate-
clawed emarginate, white veined with lilac; stamin-
odes reduced at the base of lip; stamen arcuate,
shorter than the lip; ovules 1–2 in a cell (Fig. 2c, d).
This species has been found distributed in China,
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand and
Vietnam. It is commonly known as the Greater
Galangal and locally as Kanghoo.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb. 2
(iii) A. zerumbet (Pers.) Burtt. et Sm.
Rhizome fibrous, subterranean; leaves large, lan-
ceolate, glabrous; spike with robust pubescent pedun-
cle; bract tinged with red edges-dried up appearence/
brown, acute and hairy; lip broad, yellow background
with red veins and spots; staminodes reduced to 2
pointed structures at the base of lip; anther bilobed,
connective appendage absent, filament flat, tinged
with red on the back; stigma hairy, funnel shaped,
covered with stiff hairs (Fig. 2e).
This species is commonly known as Shell Ginger
and is found distributed in NE India, Myanmar and
Indo-China. Its local name is Elaichi Achouba.
2. Amomum Roxb.
(i) A. aromaticum Roxb.
Rhizome creeping just below soil surface, some-
times emitting long stolons covered with scale-like
organs, terminating in sterile apex; leaf distichous, leaf
sheaths with free margins (open on the side opposite
the lamina); petiole may or may not be present; ligule
short; inflorescences lateral immediately from a rhi-
zome near base of leafy stem; bracts rather to very
numerous, not connate; corolla-lobes white, nearly as
long as the tube; lip pale-yellow (Fig. 2f, g).
It is distributed in Bhutan, NE India and Nepal
only. Its is known as Kukrubi in Manipur.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.3
(ii) A. blumeanum Val.
Rhizome poorly developed, stoloniferous, termi-
nating into sterile part; leaves lanceolate caudately
acuminate at base, pubescent on the lower surface;
inflorescence developed on lateral edge of rhizome
with short peduncle covered with bracts (Fig. 2h, i).
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.4
123
756 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767

Fig. 2 Ginger diversity of Manipur. Alpinia nigra—flower (h), rhizome with dried inflorescence (i); A. dealbatum—flower
(a), rhizome (b); A. galanga—inflorescence (c), rhizome (d); (j), rhizome (k); Boesenbergia rotunda—flower (l), rhizome
A. zerumbet—inflorescence (e); Amomum aromaticum—habi- (m); Curcuma amada—rhizome (n); C. angustifolia—inflo-
tat (f) rhizome with inflorescence (g); A. blumeanum—plant rescence (o); C. aromatica – inflorescence (p), rhizome (q)

123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767 757

(iii) A. dealbatum Roxb. pink; lip half as long as the corolla-segments, oblong-
Rhizome well developed, robust; leafy stem robust, cuneate, sometimes 2.5 cm broad, tinged with red
4–5 m high and 10.5 cm basal girth; leaf oblong- and crisped on the incurved margins (Fig. 2l, m).
lanceolate, pubescent underneath, hairs short, velvety; B. rotunda is distributed throughout South-East
inflorescence globose, epi-terranean arising from rhi- Asia. Its local name is Yai-macha.
zome with short peduncle; floral bud as many as 31; Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.10
bract scariose, imbricate, ovate, hairy; flower pedi-
4. Curcuma Linn.
celled, sparsely hairy; calyx 3-lobed, apices acute, pale
(i) C. amada Roxb.
yellow; corolla-lobes pale yellow, dorsal hooded over
Rhizome pale yellow inside and possess the
the lateral ones; lateral staminodes subulate; lip pale
peculiar smell of fresh mango; leaves oblong-lance-
yellow with a reddish yellow throat, hairy; anther lobes
olate, petiole long; comma bract fused at the base,
2, connective appendage membranous; stigma hairy,
light violet; fertile bract slightly recurved, green;
funnel-shaped; ovary pale yellow coloured (Fig. 2 j, k).
flower longer than the bract, yellow (Fig. 2n).
A. dealbatum is distributed in China, Bangladesh,
It is found only in India. This species is commonly
India, Nepal, Sikkim, Thailand. Its local name is Airi.
known as Mango Ginger deriving from its peculiar
In Manipur it is found only in Moulcham village
mango aroma. It is locally known as Yai-heinounam.
along Indo-Myanmar border.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.11
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.5
(ii) C. angustifolia Roxb.
(iv) A. megalocheilos (Griff.) Baker
Spike peduncle aestival, 15–30 cm, 7.5–15 by
Rhizome well developed; Pseudostems 2–3 m
5 cm diameter; fertile bracts 2.5 cm, green, ovate;
long, robust, glabrous, thick; ligule oblong,
coma bract few or many, pink; corolla tube 1.25 cm,
6–13 mm; leaf oblong-lanceolate, petiole robust,
upper segment ovate, laterals shorter, oblong; stam-
hairy along mid-vein and at margin abaxially; flowers
inode pale yellow; lip bright yellow, the lateral
4–2 opening together, red in colour.
orbicular cuneate, emarginate (Fig. 2o).
This species is distributed in China, NE India,
It is commonly known as Tall Hidden Ginger and
Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.
Yaipan in Manipur.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.8
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.12
(v) A. subulatum Roxb.
(iii) C. aromatica Salisb.
Plant 1–2 m tall; rhizome stoloniferous; leaf
Rhizome tuberous, sessile, grayish-yellow inside
lanceolate, glabrous on both the surfaces; spikes
and aromatic; fertile bracts greenish and coma pink;
subturbinate; scalelike sheaths on peduncle brown;
flower shorter than the bracts; corolla lobes pinkish
bracts pale red, obtuse with horny cusp; corolla lobes
white; staminodes as long as the corolla segments; lip
yellow, central one subulate at apex; lateral stamin-
deflexed, orbicular, yellow (Fig. 2p, q).
odes red, subulate, ca. 2 mm. Labellum with yellow
C. aromatica is distributed in India, China and Sri
mid-vein, oblong, white pubescent, veins conspicu-
Lanka. It is known as Lam Yai in Manipur.
ous, apex involute; capsule globose, red-brown,
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.13
densely echinate.
(iv) C. caesia Roxb.
A. subulatum is found distributed in China,
Rhizome large, sessile tubers bluish grey inside;
Bangladesh, Bhutan, North India, Myanmar, Nepal,
leaves large, oblong with a broad purple-brown cloud
Sikkim.
down the mid-rib; petiole long green, glabrous
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.9
beneath; inflorescence spike appearing before leaves;
3. Boesenbergia (Wall.) Kuntze fertile bract greenish; coma bract tinge with pink;
(i) B. rotunda (Linn.) Mansf. flower pale yellow with bright yellow throat; calyx
Syn. B. pandurata (Roxb.) Schltr. translucent white; corolla red (Fig. 3a, b).
Rhizome subterraneous, aromatic; leaf elliptic- C. caesia is found in Java, India and Myanmar. Its
oblong-broadly lanceolate, glabrous above; flowers common name is Black Zedoary and locally it is
far exert, appearing one after another; corolla-lobes known as Yaimu.
pale-pink, lanceolate; staminodes broadly obovate, Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.14

123
758
(v) C. leucorhiza Roxb.
Rhizome large, ovoid; sessile tubers cylindrical,
nearly white inside; leaves large, oblong, plain green,
glabrous beneath, petiole long, green (Fig. 3c, d). It is
locally known as Yai Angouba.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.15
(vi) C. longa Linn.
Rootstock ovoid, large; sessile tubers thick, cylin-
dric, bright yellow inside, aromatic; petiole as long as
the plain green blade; leaves large oblong narrowed
to the base; inflorescence spike, terminal; fertile
bracts pale green, ovate, those of the coma tinged
with pink; flowers pale yellow (Fig. 3e, f).
This species is found in India but cultivated
throughout the tropics worldwide. It is locally known
as Yaingang.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.16
(vii) C. zanthorrhiza Roxb.
Syn. C. zedoaria Rosc.
Rhizome yellow or straw colored; spikes appearing
before leaves, lateral to the leafy shoot; fertile bracts
large, often tinged with red; bracts of coma many,
spreading, bright red; flowers pale yellow rather
shorter than the bract; corolla-lobes translucent
white, lateral oblong, dorsal rather longer with a
subulate tip; lip orbicular, sulfur-yellow with a bright
yellow throat; lateral staminodes obovate, sulfur
yellow (Fig. 3g, h).
This species is distributed in India and SE Asia. It
is commonly known as Zedoary and Yaipan in
Manipuri language.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.17
(viii) C. sp.
Rhizome bright yellow inside; leaves oblong-
lanceolate, petiole tinged with purple, glabrous on
both the surfaces; inflorescence arising from the
centre of the shoot tuft, head 23 cm, peduncle hairy,
cylindrical, white, 1.3 cm diameter; fertile bract
white with greenish tinge, ovate, 4–5 flowers; coma
bract oblong, acute, slightly hooded, tinged with pink;
corolla-lobes translucent white with pink tinge at the
apex; staminodes sulfur yellow; lip turmeric yellow,
orbicular; anther 2-celled, spurred at the base,
filament flattened, sulfur yellow; style very slender,
white; stigma lobed structure; ovary hairy, (Fig. 3i, j).
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.18
(ix) C. sp.
Leaves tinge with purple along the midrib on both
the surfaces, oblong-lanceolate; inflorescence arising
123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
from the lateral side of the rhizome, 14 cm long,
peduncle covered with sheaths; fertile bract red, basal
green, ovate; coma deep pink, pubescent on both the
surfaces; corolla-lobes pink; staminodes 2, sulfur
yellow; lip sulfur yellow with bright yellow throat,
orbicular; anther spurred at the base; style slender,
white; stigma lobed; ovary pubescent (Fig. 3k).
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.19
(x) C. sp.
Rhizome pale yellow, tuberous, bitter; leaves
oblong-lanceolate, mid-rib dark red or purple
beneath, petiole red; inflorescence spike, appearing
before shoot, peduncle red, pubescent, covered with
sheaths; fertile bract red pubescent, ovate, 4–5
flowered; coma bract pink, spreading, pubescent,
obovate; flower shorter than the bract, largest flower
observed among the Curcuma genus; corolla 3-lobed,
unequal, translucent pink, posterior one hooded;
staminodes 2, sulfur yellow; lip bright yellow,
bifurcating in the middle at the apex (Fig. 3l).
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.20
5. Elettaria Maton.
(i) E. cardamomum (Linn.) Maton
Rhizome stoloniferous; leafy stem tall; leaves
oblong-lanceolate, pubescent beneath; inflorescence
directly from rhizome; Lip trilobed, white with violet
stripes, lateral staminoides inconspicuous; capsule
subglobose or oblong, marked with many fine vertical
ribs, aromatic (Fig. 3m).
This species is distributed in India and Sri Lanka.
It is commonly known as the Lesser Cardamom and
Elaichi in India.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.21
6. Hedychium Konig
(i) H. aurantiacum Wall.
Rhizome well developed, robust; leaves lanceolate,
narrowed gradually to the base, glabrous beneath;
spike 15–30 cm; flower peach-coloured; seed red in
colour, aril fibrous (Fig. 3n, o).
Fig. 3 Ginger diversity of Manipur. Curcuma caesia—inflo- c
rescence (a), rhizome (b); C. leucorhiza—plant (c), rhizome
(d); C. longa—inflorescence (e), rhizome (f); C. zanthorrh-
iza—inflorescence (g), rhizome (h); Inflorescences and rhi-
zome of three different unidentified Curcuma spp. (i–l);
Elettaria cardamomum—fruits (m); Hedychium aurantiacum
(angustifolium)—inflorescence (n), rhizome (o); H. coronari-
um—flowers (p)
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767 759

123
760
This species is found only in Meghalaya and
Manipur in India. In Manipur it is known as Ingellei.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.22
(ii) H. coccineum Ham. ex Sm.
Leaves lanceolate, base rather rounded, narrowed
gradually from the middle to the point; spike long,
moderately dense flowered; bracts oblong; flowers
red; calyx not longer than the bract; corolla segments
linear, reflexing; staminode bright red; lip orbicular,
distinctly clawed, deeply bifid; stamen longer than
lip.
H. coccineum, commonly known as Scarlet Ginger
Lily, is distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka and Thailand. In
Manipur it is known as Ingalei.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.23
(iii) H. coronarium Konig
Leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate; spike dense-
flowered; bracts large oblong imbricate 3–4 flowered;
flowers white or tinged with yellow patch in the
centre; staminodes oblong or oblong-lanceolate, lip
broad shallowly bifid distinctly clawed; stamen as
long as or rather longer than the lip; filament orange
colored or white; capsule oblong, glabrous (Fig. 3p).
This species is distributed in Bhutan, China, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; Australia. It is commonly
known as Butterfly Ginger Lily.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.24
(iv) H. flavescens Carey ex Rosc.
Leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate, usually
pubescent beneath; spike dense-flowered; bracts large
oblong imbricate 3–4 flowered; flowers fragrant,
sulfur yellow; calyx green, cylindric, shorter than
the bract; corolla segments linear, reflexing, half as
long as the tube; staminodes oblong or oblong-
lanceolate; lip broad shallowly bifid distinctly
clawed; stamen as long as or rather longer than the
lip, filament white; capsule oblong, glabrous (Fig. 4a,
b).
It is reported from China, India, Nepal and Sri
Lanka.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.25
(v) H. gracillimum Rao et Verma
Rhizome cylindrical upright; leaves oblong-lance-
olate, glabrous on both the surfaces, ligule reddish,
pubescent; inflorescence spike, peduncle curved a bit
upward, terminal, pubescent, green; bract green,
123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
Fig. 4 Ginger diversity of Manipur. Hedychium flavescens— c
inflorescence (a), rhizome (b); H. gracillimum—inflorescence
(c), rhizome (d); H. maximum—inflorescence (e), rhizome (f);
Unidentified Hedychium sp.1.—inflorescence (g), rhizome (h);
Unidentified Hedychium sp.1var.—inflorescence (i), rhizome
(j); Kaempferia galanga—flower (k), rhizome (l); K.
rotunda—flowers (m); Roscoea alpina (n), Zingiber monta-
num—inflorescence (o), rhizome (p); Z. officinale—inflores-
cence (q), rhizome (r); Z. zerumbet—inflorescence (s), rhizome
(t)
glabrous on both the surfaces, single flowered; flower
small, mildly scented, cream-yellow; calyx 3-lobed,
cream-yellow; corolla-lobes 3, linear, margins roll-
up, cream-yellow; staminodes differentiated into
distinct claw and limb; lip of the same length and
color as that of the staminodes, very shallowly bifid;
filament cream-yellow, getting darker towards the
apex, longer than the corolla lobes; anther orange-
colored, connective appendage absent (Fig. 4c, d).
In India it is found in Arunachal Pradesh, Megha-
laya and Manipur.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.26
(vi) H. maximum Rosc.
Leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate; spike dense-
flowered; bracts large oblong imbricate 3–4 flowered;
flowers pure white, larger; staminodes broad, oblong
or oblong-lanceolate, lip broad shallowly bifid dis-
tinctly clawed; stamen as long as or rather longer than
the lip; filament white; capsule oblong, glabrous
(Fig. 4e, f).
It is commonly known as Giant Butterfly Ginger
Lily and locally as Loklei.
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.27
(vii) H. sp. 1
Corolla-tube white; segments 3, linear, margins
roll-up, green but becoming white towards the base;
staminodes white, linear; lip white with a greenish
throat; anther bilobed, white; filament white; white
(Fig. 4g, h).
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.28
(vii a) H. sp. 1 var.
Corolla-tube pale sulfur yellow becoming white
towards base; segments 3, linear, margins roll-up,
pale yellow; staminodes pale sulfur yellow, linear; lip
pale sulfur yellow with a yellowish throat; anther
bilobed, pale sulfur yellow; filament pale sulfur
yellow (Fig. 4i, j).
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767 761

123
762 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767

Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.29 Syn. Z. cassumunar Roxb.

Rhizomes with bright yellow (inside), highly
7. Kaempferia Linn.
aromatic; leaves oblong-lanceolate, pubescent; ligule
(i) K. galanga Linn.
very reduced, inflorescence lateral spike with long
Rhizome highly branched, tuberous, aromatic;
peduncle; bract broadly ovate, purplish brown;
tubers white within with yellowish brown margin;
flowers cream and labellum with a deeply bifid
leaves usually 2, rarely 1 or 3, flatly expanded, more
midlobe (Fig. 4o, p).
or less strongly appressed against the soil, broadly
Z. montanum is distributed in India, Malaysia and
elliptic, glabrous above, with undulate red-brown
Sri Lanka. In Manipur it is known as Tekhaoyaikhu.
margin, petiole short; flowers sweet scented, opening
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.32
successively; bracts lanceolate; corolla-lobes lance-
(ii) Z. officinale Rosc.
olate; staminodes obovate-cuneate; lip white with a
Rhizome biennial, bearing many sessile tubers;
violet throat, deeply bifid, lobes obtuse; anther-crest
leaves lanceolate, glabrous beneath, tapering gradu-
small with two shallow obtuse lobes (Fig. 4k, l).
ally to the point; spike oblong—cylindric; bracts
K. galanga is distributed in India, China, Java,
greenish suborbicular cuspidate; corolla- segments
Malaysia and Sri Lanka. It is known as Ya-
greenish, lanceolate, subequal; lip small dark purple,
ithamnamanbi in Manipur.
mid-lobe orbicular, laterals ovate; stamen dark pur-
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.30
ple, as long as the lip (Fig. 4q, r).
(ii) K. rotunda Linn.
The centre of origin of Z. officinale is not known
Rhizome branched, aromatic; roots stout, fleshy;
however, it has been in cultivation throughout the
leaves 3–5 erect, oblong-lanceolate, with acute base
world since time immemorial. In Thailand it is known
and gradually acuminate apex, thickly herbaceous,
as Khing and in Manipur it is known as Shing.
green above, often flamed, dark purpled beneath;
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.33
petiole broad; ligule present; flowers appear before
(iii) Z. zerumbet (Linn.) Rosc. ex Sm.
leaf development, inflorescence 4–16 flowered; usu-
Rhizome tuberous, biennial, pale yellow inside;
ally 1–2 flowers open at the same time; peduncle
leaves oblong-lanceolate, glabrous beneath; spike
well-developed; calyx with 3- dentate apex, glabrous,
cone-shaped, very dense, liquid substance present;
greenish or white; corolla white, interruptedly stripe-
peduncle very much longer than its spike, erect,
punctate, fragrant; lobes linear, acute; staminodes
pubescent, scales on peduncle red; bracts closely
obliquely erect, elliptic to linear, white or lilac,
appressed, apical parts in all bracts or at least in the
veined, mucronate; labellum obcordate, deeper
higher bracts of the spike incurved, green–red with
incised; lobes oval, with radiating thick midrib,
dark red margins; corolla-lobes whitish; lip sulfur
labellum otherwise purple (Fig. 4m).
yellow, unspotted, midlobe orbicular, basal lobes
It is distributed in India, Malaysia, Myanmar,
small; stamen pale yellow, as long as the lip (Fig. 4s, t).
Thailand and Sri Lanka. It is known as Leipaklei in
Z. zerumbet is distributed in Cambodia, China,
Manipur.
India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.31
and Vietnam. It is commonly known as Shampoo
8. Roscoea Sm. Ginger.
(i) R. alpina Royle Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.34
Syn: R. intermedia
Plant short; storage roots fusiform; leaves nar- Uses
rowly lanceolate, Inflorescence with peduncle
enclosed by leaf sheaths; flowers purple or lilac, Almost all the plants belonging to the family
labellum not reflexed, cuneate-obovate (Fig. 4n). Zingiberaceae are utilized as ornamentals, medicines
R. alpina is distributed in Bhutan, India, Myanmar, or food (vegetables or spices). Uses of some of the
and Nepal. gingers of Manipur are discussed. Young rhizome of
Herbarium voucher No. MU/LSD/Herb.35 Alpinia nigra is used as vegetable locally and has
9. Zingiber Mill. medicinal properties too. Inflorescence of A. galanga
(i) Z. montanum Konig is consumed raw and rhizome is used as medicine.

123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
Root extract is abortifacient; fresh rhizome paste is
applied to ringworms and skin diseases; rhizomes are
stimulant, carminative; used in rheumatism and
bronchial catarrh; herb is anti-tubercular; seeds are
used for colic, diarrhoea and vomiting (Sinha 1996).
The capsule of A. zerumbet is used as spice and the
rhizome as medicine. It is also grown as ornamental
plant.
The stem of Amomum aromaticum is consumed as
vegetable. Rhizome and root extracts have hypogly-
caemic and anthelmintic properties (Prakash and
Mehrotra 1996a). Young inflorescence of A. dealb-
atum is used as vegetable. A. gracile is used as
vegetable in Manipur while its dried fruits are used as
medicine in Java. Inflorescence of A. megalocheilos
is used as vegetable by the tribes of South Bongjoi,
Chandel District, Manipur.
Oil extracted from seed of A. subulatum is applied
to inflamed eyelids (Sinha 1996). Seed powder is
used in cough, vomiting, enlarged spleen and diseases
of rectum; decoction given in abdominal pain and as
a tonic to the heart and liver and also as a gargle in
infection of teeth and gums (Prakash and Mehrotra
1996a). Seeds are cheaper substitute of true carda-
mom. Rhizome and root extracts have hypoglycaemic
properties (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996a). The rhi-
zome of B. rotunda is used in tonsilitis and gastric
troubles and also as substitute of C. longa in medical
applications. Either the juice of roots or its powder is
used in dysentery (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996a).
The rhizome of Curcuma amada is used as
stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, carminative and
stomachic; rhizome paste is used as plaster in sprains
and bone fractures (Sinha 1996). Rhizome paste
mixed with hot water applied in inflammation (due to
injuries), itching and skin diseases; decoction given
in bronchitis, asthma, constipation and gastric trou-
bles (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996a). Rootstock is
consumed by locals of Midnapore, West Bengal
(Maji and Sikdar 1982). The rhizome is also used in
commercial pickles. The inflorescence of C. angust-
ifolia is used in the preparation of an indigenous
curry Iromba by Manipuris. Rhizome paste is applied
in leprosy, leucoderma, burning sensations; decoction
is given in asthma, jaundice, dyspepsia, kidney
stones, anaemia (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996a). Khasi
and Garo tribes of Meghalaya make the rhizome of C.
aromatica into a paste and take with water to kill
intestinal worms (Rao 1981). In India, this plant is
763
used as an antidote to snake-bite, astringent and on
bruises, corms and sprains (Jain et al. 1991). Rhizome
paste/powder is used externally in leukoderma,
scabies and small pox; considered useful in blood
diseases; juice is given orally as a strong remedy
against rheumatism and also (mixed with juices of
other gingers) administered for smooth delivery in N.
E. India (Prakash and Mehrotra 1996a). To treat
abscess rhizome extract of A. dealbatum is applied to
the affected areas (Rahman et al. 2007). Fresh
rhizome pieces of C. caesia are ground and made
into paste with honey and made into small globules
for tonsil remedy by the Meiteis. Rhizome is used
externally for sprains and bruises, leukoderma, piles;
decoction is given in asthma, epilepsy, tuberculous
gland of the neck and with other ingredients given in
weakness after child birth; juice is rubbed on the
body in jaundice; boiled and eaten in N. E. India. The
rhizomes of C. leucorhiza are used in Singbhum,
Bihar for treatment of enlarged liver and spleen, and
ulcer in stomach (Pal and Srivastava 1976). Rhi-
zomes yield a form of arrowroot. Curcuma longa is
commonly used as spice or colouring material. The
paste made of the rhizome and leaves of Azadiracta
indica is rubbed on the body before bath as antidote
for small-pox and for skin care. Extract is given in
eye diseases and its vapour for treatment of asthma.
Rhizome is tonic, aromatic, stimulant, carminative,
blood purifier, antiperiodic and externally applied to
sprains and wounds. Decoction of rhizome is used for
treating conjunctivitis and its fresh juice as anti-
parasitic remedy for skin infections (Sinha 1996).
The inflorescence of C. zanthorrhiza is consumed as
vegetable by the Manipuri and also applied to bruises
and sprains. Fresh root checks leucorrhoeal and
gonorrheal discharges and purifies blood (Sabu
2006).
Seeds of E. cardamomum is used as spice. Seeds
are used in the treatment of asthma and diseases of
throat, liver, heart and kidney; they are well known
for use as a masticatory, spice and condiment
(Prakash and Mehrotra 1996a). Seed extracts are
carminative, aromatic stimulant and diuretic.
H. aurantiacum is an ornamental plant. Roots of
H. coccineum are used for headache in Meghalaya in
North-east India (Kumar et al. 1980). Flower is
ornamental and also offered in religious ceremo-
nies by the Meiteis. The decoction of leaves of
H. coronarium is used as gargle in throat infection;
123
764
starch obtained from rhizome is used as a febrifuge,
tonic and is locally applied on rheumatic swelling.
Rhizomes along with young shoots are used as
vegetable. H. flavescens has aesthetic value. Young
rhizome of H. maximum is used as vegetable. H. sp. 1
is used as ornamental.
Tuber and rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga are
used as a remedy for toothache or a wash for dandruff
or scabs on the head; it is stimulant, stomachic, and
carminative; the rhizome is externally used to treat
abdominal pain, swelling and muscular rheumatism
(Sirirugsa 1998). The essential oils of K. galanga root
and rhizome showed antibacterial activity against
Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (Ara-
mbewela et al. 1999). This plant has psychoactive
property (Jain et al. 1994). It also shows anti-tumor
promoter activity (Vimala et al. 1999).
The rhizome of Zingiber montanum is given in
diarrhoea, colic and used as a stimulant, carminative;
used for flavoring food preparation and substituted
for true ginger; also given as antidote to snakebite
(Saxena et al. 1981). Plant is used in anaemia, ascites,
asthma, bronchitis, dropsy and fever among the
Santals (Jain and Tarafder 1970). Rhizome is used
to treat fevers and intestinal disorder; various lotions
and decoctions applied to swellings, rheumatism,
bruise, numb feet, and painful parts (Sirirugsa 1998).
Traditional medical practitioner uses rhizomes in the
treatment of piles and cough in Manipur. Rhizome of
Z. officinale is used as abortifacient and the plant for
amenorrhoea, asthma, bronchitis, cholera, constipa-
tion, diarrhoea, indigestion, phthisis, puerperal fever,
rheumatism, scabies, scorpion sting, and snake-bite
among Santals (Jain and Tarafder 1970). It is used for
cough, insect stings in Meghalaya (Kharkongor and
Joseph 1981). The rhizome is used for throatache and
tuberculosis in Nagaland in eastern India (Rao and
Jamir 1982). Rhizome (fresh or dried) is well-known
for use in cold, cough, bronchitis, asthma, abdominal
troubles, piles, elephantiasis, scorpion sting, snake
bite; considered as appetiser, stomachic, aphrodisiac
and carminative; variety of other uses as a spice,
condiments and preservative (Prakash and Mehrotra
1996a). Rhizome extract has antioxidant and cyto-
toxic properties (Sharma et al. 2007). The rhizome of
Z. zerumbet has a slight aromatic odour and possesses
similar properties to those of officinal ginger, but in a
minor degree. It is used in the treatment of cough,
asthma, worms, leprosy and other skin diseases.
123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
Rhizomes are used as spice and condiment. Shampoo
ginger is used as medicine for sprains, indigestion
and other ailments. To ease a stomach ache, the
ground root material is mixed with water and drink.
Young rhizome with pseudostem is used as
vegetable.
Known bioactive compounds
Many members belonging to the family Zingiberaceae
are well known for their uses in traditional medicine for
curing various ailments since times immemorial. The
rhizomes of some medicinal gingers have been widely
studied for the bioactive compounds present in them.
Known bioactive compounds from A. galanga includes
quercetin, kaempferol, quercetin-3-methyl ether,
isorhamnetin, kaempferide, galangin and its 3-methyl
ether, eugenol, p-hydroxycinnamaldehyde (Rastogi
and Mehrotra 1991, 1993, 1995). 10 -acetoxychavicol
acetate (I) and 10 -acetoxyeugenol acetate (II) have
been isolated from seeds along with caryophyllene
oxide, caryophyllenol II, pentadecane, 7-heptadecene
(Ogiso and Shinasaku 1974). Di-(p-hydroxy-cis-sty-
ryl)methane isolated from the chloroform extract of
rhizomes (Barik et al. 1987). Polyphenols are reported
to possess either primary antioxidant (Morel et al.
1994) or secondary antioxidant properties (Das 1994).
Cardamonin, alpinetin and an aurone glycoside—
subulin have been isolated from the seeds A. subulatum
(Rastogi and Mehrotra 1991). It has antioxidant
property (Morel et al. 1994).
Boesenbergin A and B, 20 ,60 -dihydroxy-40 -methoxy-
chalcone, 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone, 5,7-dimeth-
oxyflavanone, 5-hydroxy-7,40 -dimethoxyflavone,
5,7-dimethoxyflavone, 5,7,40 -trimethoxyflavon,
0
5-hydroxy-3,7,4 -trimethoxyflavone, 3,5,7-trimethoxyf-
lavone and 5-hydroxy-3,7,30 ,40 -tetramethoxyflavone,
3,5,7,30 ,40 -pentamethoxyflavone, 3,5,7,40 -tetrameth-
oxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-7,4 0 -dimethoxyflavanone,
20 -hydroxy-40 ,60 -dimethoxychalcone and 20 -hydroxy-
4,6,40 -trimethoxychalcone (Rastogi and Mehrotra
1993, 1995) are some of the compounds reported from
B. rotunda.
Sesquiterpenes—isozedoarondiol, methylzedoa-
rondiol and neocurdione have been isolated (Rastogi
and Mehrotra 1995); zederone and germacrone, along
with b-sitosterol have been isolated from C. arom-
atica (Pant et al. 2001). Rhizome has cardio-vascular
system, CNS and spasmolytic properties (Prakash and
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2011) 58:753–767
Mehrotra 1996a). Zederone shows moderate antifee-
dant activity against 4th instar larva of Spilarctia
obliqua (Pant et al. 2001). Turmerin (Srinivas et al.
1992), turmeric antioxidant protein (TAP) (Selvam
et al. 1995), curcuminoids, viz., demethoxycurcumin
and bisdemethoxycurcumin (Tonnesen et al. 1993),
1,5-bis(4-hydroxy -3-methoxyphenyl)-penta-(1E,4E)-
1,4-dien-3-one, 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-
5-(-4-hydroxyphenyl)-penta-(1E,4E)-1,4-dien-3-one,
50 -methoxycurcumin (Masuda et al. 1993) are some
antioxidant compounds isolated from Curcuma
longa. Dihydrocurcumin has also been isolated from
the rhizome (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1993).
Some known anti-oxidant compounds isolated
from H. coronarium are diterpenes like coronarin
A, B, C, D, E and F (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1995).
Labda-8(17), 11, 13-trien-15(16)-olide, 7b-hydrox-
ycoronarin B, an ester of labda-8(17), 11,13-trien-15-
al-16-oic acid and isocoronarin D have also been
isolated from the rhizomes (Nakatani et al. 1994).
p-methoxycinnamic acid and its methyl and ethyl
esters, ethyl p-methoxy-trans-cinnamate, monoter-
pene ketone-car-3-en-5-one (Rastogi and Mehrotra
1993, 1995) have been isolated from K. galanga.
8-(30 ,40 -dimethoxyphenyl)-2-methoxynaphtho-1,4-
quinone, cassumunaquinones (I) and (II), alflabene
and cassumunene have been isolated from rhizomes
of Z. montanum (Dinter et al. 1980). Two novel
glucosides of 6-gingerdiol-1-(4-O-b-D-glucopyrano-
syl-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-dihydroxy-decane and
5-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl-3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxyphenyl)decane are antioxidant compounds
(Sekiwa et al. 2000) isolated from this species.
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, zingiberene has been
extracted from rhizome of Z. officinale (Jocelyn
1998). Labda-8(17), 12-diene-15,16-dial (a labdane
diterpene) (Hasnah et al. 1994) has been isolated
from Z. zerumbet. The rhizome possesses inhibitory
activity towards Epstein-Barr Virus activation
induced by TPA (12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-
acetate) (Vimala et al. 1999).
Conclusion
The resurgence of interest in herbs and the potential
lucrative anticipated revenues from the herbal
765
industry have spurred renewed interest in exploiting
traditional knowledge and practices into scientific
realities. Current research priorities offer promising
development of natural resources into neutraceuti-
cals, cosmeceuticals and biopharmaceuticals. Again,
such an effort will help in ensuring food security of
the growing population by encouraging cultivation of
underutilized crops. Manipur with its varied agrocli-
matic conditions, ranging from sub-tropics to sub-
alpine, supports a rich diversity of ginger flora.
However, detailed systematic studies related to their
diversity and inventorization, as potential biore-
sources remain very meager. In the present study,
33 species under 9 genera of gingers have been
collected from Manipur. Curcuma with 10 species
has the richest diversity, however, identification of
some of the species still remained difficult. This study
shows that many new species may still exist in the
virgin forests of Manipur. Again, there are 29
scheduled tribe in the State and every tribe has
unique ethonobotanical uses of different gingers.
Documentation of such traditional knowledge in
terms of food, medicine and other utilities will
certainly be necessary. Many of the species also have
not been studied for their bioactivity and medicinal
properties despite having ethonobotanical values. The
present investigation represents an embodiment of a
work of limited magnitude but is of considerable
importance towards understanding the diversity of
ginger flora within the Indo-Burmese megabiodiver-
sity hotspot. These rich bioresources in terms of their
significant active principles or bio-active molecules
need to be explored for sustainable utilization and the
socio-economic upliftment of the people in the
region. While doing this, efforts to mass propagate
these resources using tissue culture techniques and
introduce eco-restoration measures must be adopted.
At the same time, initiative to protect the rich natural
habitats, particularly wetlands of the region where
they thrive must be given in due priority so that a
fuller mission can be accomplished in its entirety or
wholesomeness.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the Indian
Council of Medical Research, Government of India for the
financial assistance (Grant No. 4/2-1/2003/CAR/BMS/TRM).
The authors also thank the unknown reviewers for their critical
evaluation of the research result as well as the manuscript.
123
766
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