Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Vasco Guerra
February 2017
Foreword
• Constants:
31 19 12
me = 9.1 ⇥ 10 kg; e = 1.6 ⇥ 10 C; ✏0 = 8.854 ⇥ 10 F/m
23
kB = 1.38 ⇥ 10 J/K
• Conversion factors:
27 19
1 u = 1.66 ⇥ 10 kg; 1 eV = 1.6 ⇥ 10 J; 1 atm = 760 Torr
5
1 atm = 1.013 ⇥ 10 Pa
• Mathematical relations:
~ ⇥ (r
r ~ ⇥ A)
~ = r(
~ r~ · A)
~ ~
r2 A
~ ⇥ ( A)
r ~ = (r
~ ⇥ A)
~ + (r~ )⇥A ~
~ ⇥ (r
r ~ A)
~ =0
1
r
⇡
ˆ
exp( Ax2 )dx =
1 A
+1 p
⇡
ˆ
2 2
x exp( Ax )dx =
0 4A3/2
✓ ◆
2 1 d 2d 1 d2
In spherical coordinates and simmetry, r = 2 r = (r )
r dr dr r dr2
6
q
kB T e
Thermal speed vt = me
• Drifts
~ ⇥B
E ~
ExB drift ~vd = 2
B
mv 2 B ~ ⇥ rB
~
?
Grad B drift ~vd =
2qB B2
2 ~
mvk ~ur ⇥ B
Curvature drift ~vd =
qB 2 Rc
✓ ◆ ~
2 1 2 1 ~ur ⇥ B
Fields in vacuum ~vd = mvk + v?
2 qB 2 Rc
m d ~
Polarization drift ~vd = E?
qB 2 dt
~ ⇥B
1 rP ~
Diamagnetic drift ~vd =
qn B 2
1
mv 2
Magnetic moment µ= 2 ?
B
• Waves
– Electrostatic electron waves
⇤ B~ 0 = 0 ou ~k k B
~ 0 : ! 2 = ! 2 +3k 2 v 2 ; v 2 = kT /m (Langmuir
pe t t
waves)
⇤ ~k ? B~ 0 : ! 2 = !pe 2 2
+ !ce = !h2 ; (upper hybrid waves)
– Ion electrostatic waves
⇤ B~ 0 = 0 ou ~k k B
~ 0: ! 2 = k 2 c2s ; c2s = e k B T e + i kB T i
(ion
mi
acoustic waves)
⇣ ⌘
i kB T i e kB T e 1
!2 = k2 mi + mi 1+ e k2 2 (ion
De
plasma waves)
⇤ ~k ? B ~ 0: ! 2 = k 2 c2s + !l2 ; !l2 = !ce !ci (lower hybrid
oscillations)
! 2 = k 2 c2s + !ci
2
(ion cyclotronic waves)
7
⌫ = N h vi ~ = n~v
~ = nµE
~ Drn ~ ~ + ~v ⇥ B
E ~ = ⌘ J~
@~v
⇢m = J~ ⇥ B
~ ~
rP P = Pe + Pi
@t
• Maxwell’s equations
~
~ ·B
r ~ =0; ~ = µ0 J~ + 1 @ E
~ ⇥B
r 2
c @t
~
r ~ = ⇢ ;
~ ·E ~ ⇥E
r ~ = @ B
"0 @t
• Kinetic theory
~ = h~v i = 1
ˆ ˆ
n(~r, t) = f (~r, ~v , t)d3 v ; V ~v f (~r, ~v , t)d3 v
n
@f ~ r f + q (E
~ + ~v ⇥ B)
~ ·r
~ v f = 0 (eq. Vlasov)
+ ~v · r
@t m
8
PROBLEM SHEET # 1
field and calculate the typical shielding length. Calculate the intensity of the
electric field at x = 0.5 cm, assuming that e (x)/kT ⌧ 1.
5. (F. F. Chen ⇠1.10) A spherical conductor of radius R is immersed in a plasma
and charged to a potential 0 . The electrons remain Maxwellian and move
to form a Debye shield, but the ions are stationary during the time frame of
the experiment. Assuming e 0 ⌧ kTe :
(a) derive an expression for the potential as a function of r;
(b) calculate the charge in the sphere;
(c) calculate the sphere capacity for R = 10 cm, Te = 1 keV and n0 = 1014
and 106 cm 3 , and show that for high electron densities the plasma
behaves as a dielectric.
6. (D. R. Nicholson 1.3) In the deduction of the electron plasma frequency,
suppose the ions are not infinitely massive, but have a mass mi and can move.
Modify the discussion to show that the coupled oscillation of the electron and
ion “slabs” is made with the total plasma frequency (!p2 = !pe 2 2
+ !pi ).
7. (Exam 2016/2017) In this problem we want to calculate the plasma oscillation
frequency for a spherical plasma, proceeding in a similar way as it was done
for the slab configuration in the previous exercise.
Consider a spherical plasma of radius R, represented by a uniform positive
ion background of density n0 inside the sphere. Assume the ions are infinitely
massive. Initially, the electron density has the same volume distribution as
that of the ions. The “electron sphere” is then stretched to a radius R+ r and
then released. Assume at all instants that the electron density is distributed
uniformly on the spherical volume it occupies.
(a) Obtain the total number of positive ions and electrons, N , as a function
of R and n0 ; determine the electron density ne ( r ) when the electrons
occupy a sphere of radius R + r , as a function of R, r and n0 .
(b) Assuming r ⌧ R, show that when the electrons occupy a sphere of
radius R + r the electric field inside a sphere of radius r < (R + r ) is
approximately given by E(r) ' n✏00e Rr r .
(c) Write the equation of motion for an electron placed in the radial electric
field at the surface of the plasma sphere and determine the frequency of
plasma oscillations.
8. An infinite conducting plane is placed inside an homogeneous plasma and
charged to a potential 0 . The electrons move and keep a Boltzmann distri-
bution, with e /kTe ⌧ 1, while the ions can be considered stationary for the
time-scale of the experiment. Consider the xx direction perpendicular to the
plane and x = 0 coinciding with the plane.
2
1. For particles with the same kinetic energy W = mv? /2, compute the ratio
between the Larmor radius of a proton and an electron (mp /me = 1836).
3. (F. F. Chen 2.7) An electron beam with density ne = 1014 m 3 and radius
R = 1 cm crosses a region with a uniform magnetic field B ~ = B0 ~uz , where
B0 = 2 T and the zz axis is aligned with the direction of propagation of the
beam. Determine the direction and magnitude of the E ~ ⇥B ~ drift at r = R
~ is the electrostatic field created by the charge of the beam).
(note that E
4. (F. F. Chen 2.5) Suppose electrons obey the Boltzmann relation in a cylindrical
symmetric plasma column, ne (r) = n0 exp(e /kTe ). The electron density
varies with a scale length , i.e., @ne /@r ' ne / .
~ =
(a) Using E ~ , find the radial electric field for given .
r
(b) For electrons, show that rL = 2 p when the E ~ ⇥B ~ drift velocity, vE , is
equal to the thermal speed, vt = 2kTe /m (this means that the finite
14 Problem sheet # 2. Single particle motion I
~ ⇥B
Larmor radius e↵ects are important if the E ~ drift velocity is of the
order of the thermal speed).
~ drift velocities.
(a) Compute the ion and electron rB
(b) Does an electron drift eastward or westward?
(c) How long does an electron take to encircle the earth?
(d) Compute the current ring density in A/m2 .
..
Note: the curvature drift is non-neglible... but neglect it anyway ^
6. (Exam 2014/2015, Hall thrusters) Hall thrusters are widely used in space
propulsion. A stationary plasma thruster is schematically represented in the
figure.1
The thruster has a cylindrical
shape, with an open chamber de-
fined by inner (Ri ) and outer
(Re ) radii and height L, where
the anode is placed. In the cham-
ber there is a magnetic field,
pointing from Ri to Re . An ax-
ial electric field points outwards
from the anode. The thruster ex-
periences a propelling force if it is
able to eject positive ions along
the direction of the electric field.
Xenon is injected into the cham-
ber, and electrons coming from
the cathode ionize the Xe atoms,
creating new electron/ion pairs.
Our purpose is to study the motion of electrons and ions created by ionisation
of Xe in the thruster. Consider Re = 5 cm, Ri = 3 cm and L = 3 cm. The
fields in the chamber are approximately E = 5kV /m and B = 5 mT, and the
mass of Xe is 131.3 u (1u = 1.66 ⇥ 10 24 g).
(a) Assuming that the electrons are created with a speed perpendicular to
~ ~v? , describe qualitatively their motion and draw schematically their
B,
trajectory (neglect any possible curvature, rB~ and centrifugal force
drifts).
(b) A simple image of the thrust operation can be obtained by calculating
the electron and ion Larmor radii, rL,e and rL,i . Assuming the velocity
of ions and electrons to be, respectively, v?,i = 100 m/s (ions are formed
1 M. Keidar and I. I. Beilis, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 34 (2006) 804
15
~
high-frequency electric field, E = E0 cos(!t)~ux .
1. (F. F. Chen ⇠2.12, Fermi acceleration of cosmic rays). A cosmic ray proton
is trapped between two moving magnetic mirrors with mirror ratio Rm = 5.
Initially its energy is W = 1 keV and v? = vk at the mid-plane. Each mirror
moves toward the mid-plane with a velocity vm = 10 km/s and the initial
distance between the mirrors is L = 1010 km.
(a) Using the invariance of µ, find the energy to which the proton is accel-
erated before it escapes.
(b) How long does it take to reach that energy?
[Suggestions: i) suppose that the B field is approximately uniform in the
space between the mirrors and changes abruptly near the mirrors, i.e.,
treat each mirror as a flat piston and show that the velocity gained at
each bounce is 2vm ; ii) compute the number of bounces necessary; iii)
assume that the distance between the mirrors does not change appre-
ciably during the acceleration process.]
3. (F. F. Chen 2.20) The magnetic field along the axis of a magnetic mirror is
B( z) = B0 (1 + ↵2 z 2 ), where ↵ is a constant. Suppose that at z = 0 an
electron has velocity v 2 = 3vk2 = 32 v?
2
.
Fluid drifts
(a) Show that the E~ ⇥B ~ (~vE ) and electron diamagnetic drifts (~vDe ) ãare
equal in magnitude and have opposite directions.
(b) Show that the plasma rotates as a rigid body.
(c) In the reference frame that rotates with velocity ~vE there are drift waves
that propagate with speed v' = 0.5vDe . What is v' in the labora-
tory frame? Represent on a r ✓ diagram the directions and relative
magnitudes of ~vE , ~vDe and ~v' in the lab frame.
(d) Obtain the diamagnetic current, J~D , as a function of r.
(e) Calculate JD for B = 0.4 T, n0 = 1016 m 3
, kTe = kTi = 0.25 eV and
r = r0 = 1 cm.
3. A cylindrical plasma column of an isothermal plasma of radius R = 8 mm
and equal ion and electron temperatures, kB T = 5 eV, is immersed on on
a magnetic field B = 0, 6 T, aligned with the cylinder axis (coincident with
the zz axis). The density has a profile n(r) = n0 J0 2, 4 Rr , where J0 is
20 Problem sheet # 4. Fluid drifts
the Bessel function of first kind of order zero and n0 = 1012 cm 3 . Assume
e'
you can consider ni = ne = n = n0 exp kT . Note: J00 (x) = J1 (x),
J0 (1, 2) ' 0, 67; J1 (1, 2) ' 0, 49.
(a) Obtain the expressions for the ion and electron diamagnetic drift as a
function of r. Justify qualitatively the direction of the drifts.
(b) Calculate the diamagnetic current density at r = R/2 (value and direc-
tion).
PROBLEM SHEET # 5
1. (F. F. Chen 4.6) Compute the e↵ect of collisional damping on the propagation
of Langmuir waves, by adding a term mn⌫~v to the electron equation of
motion and rederiving the dispersion relation for Te = 0 (plasma oscillations).
Show that the wave is damped in time.
(a) What is the plasma density if a phase shift of 1/10 fringe is observed?
Assume a uniform density and note that one fringe corresponds to a
360o phase shift.
(b) Show that if the phase shift is small, then it is proportional to the density.
Note: Anyone can communicate by radio with the ISS astronauts. The de-
tails and the frequencies actually used can be found in NASA’s webpage
(http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/reference/radio/)
22 Problem sheet # 5. Waves in non-magnetized plasmas
4. (F. F. Chen 4.10) Hannes Alfvén (Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970) has sug-
gested that perhaps the primordial universe was symmetrical between matter
and antimatter. Suppose that the universe was at one time a uniform mixture
of protons, antiprotons, electrons and positrons, each species having a density
n0 .
(a) Show that the dispersion relation can be written in the form
!2
! 2 = !pi
2 2
+ !pe 2 2
!2 e vt k
(a) Use the two-fluid equations and the Poisson’s equation to show that the
dielectric constant of the plasma can be written in the form
2 2
!pi !pe
✏(k, !) = 1 .
!2 (! kv0 )2
(b) Verify that the dispersion relation is a polynomial function of fourth
order (so that for each real value of k there are four solutions for !).
!2 !2
Sketch approximately the function f (!) = !pi2 + (! kv pe
0)
2 for a fixed k
and mark on the graph where the four roots are ! [you do not need to
give the exact values, we are only interested in understanding the form
of the function].
(c) In some situations the dispersion relation has only two real roots, which
happens for small enough kv0 (convince yourself this is the case, by
looking at the graph you have just drawn). In that case, one of the
imaginary roots corresponds to an unstable wave, growing exponentially
in time. Show that, if kv0 = !pe !, the instability growth rate is
p ⇣ ⌘1/3
3 1 me
given by 2 21/3 mi !pe s 1 [Suggestion: start by expanding the
last term of ✏(k, !) to the first order in !/!pe ].
(d) From the general relations in a) e b), derive the dispersion relation in the
limit mi ! 1. Then obtain the limit v0 ! 0 (while keeping mi ! 1).
Comment the results.
7. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider a plasma formed by electrons and two species of
positive ions, o light species (a) and a heavy species (b). We want to study
the propagation of low-frequency electrostatic waves in this plasma. As the
plasma is quasi-neutral, the non-perturbed electron and ion densities verify
the relation ne0 = na0 + nb0 .
(a) Justify why you can use the plasma approximation, neglect the electron
inertia and consider isothermal electrons.
(b) Write the relevant fluid equations and linearize them, keeping only the
terms up to first order.
(c) Show that the first order perturbations of the electron and ion-a densities
are related by
r
na1 = !2 ma n ,
Ta e1
k 2 kB T e a Te
1= !2 ma Ta
+ !2 ma ma Tb
k2 kB T e a Te k2 kB T e b mb Te
If both ion species have similar densities, which one determines the
plasma behaviour? Comment the result.
[Historical note: These waves were experimentally observed by Naka-
mura and Saitou, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion (2003) 45 759; the
case Ta , Tb 6= 0 gives two solutions, a fast acoustic wave and a slow
acoustic wave and it is much more complex to analyse.]
(d) Assuming ⌫/! ⌧ 1, show that the skin depth (attenuation distance) is
given by
!1/2
2
2c ! 2 !pe
2
1 .
⌫ !pe !2
[Suggestion: use the dispersion relation and take a real frequency ! and
an imaginary wavenumber k = i↵ + .]
PROBLEM SHEET # 6
1. (F. F. Chen 4.7) For the upper hybrid oscillations, show that the elliptical
orbits are always elongated in the direction of ~k (hint: derive an expression
for vx /vy ).
3. (F. F. Chen 4.21) Show that in a positronium plasma, i.e., a neutral plasma
of electrons and positron, there is no Faraday rotation [suggestion: write the
system of linearized equation in matrix form, Ax = 0, and ask Mathematica
..
for help to calculate det(A) ^].
(a) Write an expression for the cuto↵ density for the X wave.
(b) On a v 2 /c2 vs. ! diagram, show the branch of the X-wave dispersion
relation on which such interferometer would work.
(b) Linearize the equations for the electrons, keeping only the first order
terms. Show that
!ce
vey = i vex ,
!
where (obviously) the speeds vex and vey are the components of the first
order correction to the electron velocity.
(c) Still using only the electron equations from c), show that
k(1 ")n0
ne1 = i eE1 ,
me ⌦2e
kB T e
where ⌦2e = ! 2 2
!ce ek
2 2
cse and c2se = me .
(d) Defining ⌦+ e ⌦ similarly toá ⌦e , what are the expressions for n+1 e
n 1?
(e) Show that, in the plasma approximation, the dispersion relation can be
written in the form
me 2 2 m me m
" ⌦ ⌦ + (1 ")⌦2+ ⌦2 + ⌦2 ⌦2e = 0 .
m+ + e m+ m2+
(f) Obtain the dispersion relation in the limit " = 0 and me ⌧ m+ . Com-
ment the result.
Historical note: these waves were predicted theoretically by N. D’Angelo,
IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 20 (1992) 658 and detected experimentally by
T. An, R. L. Merlino e N. D’angelo, Phys. Fluids 5 (1993) 1917.
6. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider an electromagnetic mode with E1 ? B0 and
k k B0 .
(a) Write the system of linearised (vectorial) equations that leads to the
dispersion relation for these waves, neglecting ion motion (mi ! 1),
electron thermal motion (Te ! 0) and collisions.
(b) It can be shown that the system you just wrote leads to
Ex (! 2 c2 k 2 ↵) + Ey i↵!ce /! =0
2 2 2
Ey (! c k ↵) Ex i↵!ce /! =0
where
!p2
↵= 2 !2
.
1 !ce
Continue from here to obtain the dispersion relation for this wave (in
the form given in the formulae for the exam).
(c) Show (briefly) that the modes are right and left hand circularly polarized,
and identify which is which.
(d) Define and obtain the cuto↵ frequencies. Comment the results.
PROBLEM SHEET # 7
4.50E+01
4.00E+01
3.50E+01
3.00E+01
2.50E+01
2.00E+01
1.50E+01
1.00E+01
5.00E+00
0.00E+00
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Real Linear Approxima8on
2. (F. F. Chen, 5.1) The electron-neutral collision cross section for 2 eV electrons
in He is about 6⇡a20 , where a0 = 0.53 ⇥ 10 8 cm is the radius of the first
28 Problem sheet # 7. Di↵usion and transport in weakly ionized plasmas
Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom. A positive column with no magnetic field
has p = 1 Torr of He (at room temperature), and kTe = 2 eV.
with j = 1, 2, ↵1 + ↵2 = 1 e v = |~v |.
f (~v )d3 v =
´´´
(a) Verify that the distribution function is correctly normalized, i.e.,
n.
(b) Show that the average value q
of the absolute value of the velocity of each
B j 8k T
of the maxwellians is hvj i = ⇡m and calculate the average value of
the absolute value of the velocity of the distribution.
(c) The cross section for electron-neutral momentum transfer can be approx-
imated by m (u) = m u, where m is constant and u is the electron
energy. Show that the mean collision frequency for momentum transfer
associated to each Maxwellian is ⌫m = 2N m kB Tj hvj i and calculate
the average value of the momentum collision frequency of the distribu-
tion.
(d) The ionization cross section of the same gas can be approximated by
i (u) = 0, if u < ui , and i (u) = i , if u ui , where ui is the
ionization threshold. Show that the
⇣ ionization
⌘ frequency
⇣ ⌘associated with
ui ui
each Maxwellian is ⌫i = N i hvj i kTj + 1 exp kTj and calculate
the mean ionization frequency of the distribution.
(e) Calculate the values in items c. and d. for kB T1 = 1 eV, kB T2 = 16 eV,
↵1 = 0.99, ↵2 = 0.01, m = 10 20 m2 /eV, i = 10 20 m2 , ui = 15
eV and N = 1023 m 3 . Comment the results.
(f) (to answer in the las problem sheet) Suppose that an electronic wave is
excited on a plasma with an initial distribution with a shape similar to
the one used in this problem. Is there a region of wavelengths where,
at least in principle, these waves are unstable. If yes, can you define an
interval of phase speeds where to search for these waves?
Useful integrals:
p
ˆ 1 ⇣ ⌘ ⇡ ˆ 1 ⇣ ⌘ 1
2 2 3 2
x exp Ax dx = x exp Ax dx =
0 4A3/2 0 2A2
ˆ 1
2 2 ˆ 1
3
⇣
2
⌘ (Ax2
i + 1) exp( Ax2
i)
x exp ( Ax) dx = x exp Ax dx =
0 A3 xi 2A2
29
(a) Write the expressions for the r and ✓ components of the two fluid force
equations.
(b) Solve the previous equations for vr and v✓ and verify that:
i. for the r component,
1 @n
ver = µer E Der
n @r
where
µe De
µer = 2
!ce
, Der = 2
!ce
1+ ⌫e2 1+ ⌫e2
and
e k B Te
µe = , De = ;
me ⌫e me ⌫e
ii. for the ✓ component
vE + vD
ve✓ = ⌫e2
1+ 2
!ce
where
E kB Te 1 @n
vE = , vD = .
B eB n @r
(c) Find the expression of E that ensures ambipolarity along the radial di-
rection.
(d) Obtain the expression of Der for very intense B-fields (!ce ⌫e ) and
verify which is the length scale of the associated “random walk” motion.
Comment the result.
~ ~ ~
~ = D1 rn1 + D2 rn2 De rne ,
E
µ 1 n1 + µ 2 n2 + µ e ne
where the indexes 1 and 2 represent each the two positive ions and e
the electrons.
(d) Further assuming the proportionality hypothesis,
~ 1
rn ~ 2
rn ~ e
rn
' ' ,
n1 n2 ne
show that ~ s = Das rn ~ s for all species, where the ambipolar di↵usion
coefficients for the positive ions (s = 1, 2) are
D 1 n1 + D 2 n2 D e ne
Das = Ds µs .
µ 1 n 1 + µ 2 n2 + µ e n e
1. (F. F. Chen 5.9) Suppose the plasma in a fusion reactor is in the shape of
a cylinder 1.2 m in diameter and 100 m long. The 5 T magnetic field is
uniform, except for short mirror regions at the ends, which we may neglect.
Other parameters are kTi = 20 keV, kTe = 10 keV and n(r = 0) = 1021 m 3 .
The density profile is found experimentally to be approximately as sketched
in the figure.
3. (F. F. Chen 5.18) If a cylindrical plasma column di↵uses at the Bohm rate,
calculate the steady-state radial density profile, n(r), ignoring the fact that it
32 Problem sheet # 8. Di↵usion and transport in fully ionized plasmas
may unstable. Assume the density is zero at r = 1 and has the value n0 at
r = r0 .
4. (F. F. Chen 5.15) Consider an axisymmetric cylindrical plasma with E ~ =
~ = B~uz and rP
Ee ~ur , B ~ i = rP~ e = @P/@r~ur . Neglect the convective term
and consider the stationary case.
(a) Write the two-fluid equations.
(b) From the ✓ components of these equations, show that vir = ver .
(c) From the r components, show that vs✓ = vE + vDs (s = i, e).
(d) Find an expression for vir and show it does not depend on Er .
5. (Exam 2014/2015)
(a) Use the MHD equations to derive the expression
@~v ~ ⇥ B)
~ + ~ ⇥B
~ ~ ,
⇢m = 0 (E 0 (~
v ⇥ B) rP
@t
where 0 is the plasma conductivity ( 0 = 1/⌘).
~ in
(b) Solve the equation for the velocity components perpendicular to B
~
the case E = 0 and P = const., to show that the characteristic time
for di↵usion across the magnetic field is
⇢m
⌧= 2
,
0B
(a) Consider Ohm’s law in its common form (i.e., where the r.h.s contains
only the resistivity term) and assume that ⌘ is spatially uniform. Fur-
ther assume the displacement current can be neglected in Ampère’s law.
Derive the following closed equation for the magnetic field,
~
@B ~ ⇥ (~v ⇥ B)
=r ~ + r2 B
~ ,
@t
where = ⌘/µ0 is the magnetic di↵usivity.
(b) The previous equation does not explain the origin of magnetic fields in
~ the
a medium initially non-magnetised [as the equation is linear in B,
~ = 0) = 0 implies B(t
initial condition B(t ~ > 0) = 0].
Repeat the previous question keeping as well the electron pressure gra-
dient term in Ohm’s law, to show that the equation for the temporal
evolution of the magnetic field has now a source term creating a mag-
netic field in the direction perpendicular to the gradients of density and
electron temperature.
[Historical note: this source term is known as the Biermann battery and
can be conveniently expressed in terms of the field E~ b = kB Te rn.
~ The
en
Biermann battery provides the first seeds of the magnetic field, which are
~
then efficiently amplified by the dynamo associated with the r⇥(~ ~
v ⇥ B)
term. The historical reference is L. Biermann, Z. Naturforsch. 5a (1950)
65.]
(c) Knowing that in Earth’s core ' 2 m2 s 1 and that the Earth’s core
radius is R ' 3.5⇥106 m, make a rough order of magnitude estimation of
the decay time of Earth’s magnetic field due only to magnetic di↵usion.
34 Problem sheet # 8. Di↵usion and transport in fully ionized plasmas
PROBLEM SHEET # 9
Kinetic theory I
1. Derive the continuity equation from the Vlasov’s equation (integrate in d3 v).
2. Derive the force equation from Vlasov’s equation (multiply by ~v and inte-
grate in d3 v). The most laborious term is the one involving the gradient in
configuration space, which makes appear the average value of the tensor ~v~v .
Calculate the explicitly this term when:
f0 (v)d3 v =
´
(a) Show that the distribution f0 is properly normalised, i.e.,
n0 .
(b) Use Vlasov’s equation to show that çã
~
r s (~
r) ~ (~r)
qs r
=
s (~
r) k B Ts
36 Problem sheet # 9. Kinetic theory I
(a) Show that for a homogeneous plasma in the absence of external fields
the di↵erence between f and f0 decays exponentially with time.
(b) Consider now electrons in an unmagnetized, homogeneous, time-independent
plasma in a weak constant electric field, E~1 . Linearise the distribution
function, f (~r, ~v , t) ⌘ f (~v ) = f0 (~v ) + f1 (~v ) , where f0 is the (uniform
and stationary) unperturbed distribution, assumed to be a Maxwellian,
and f1 is a first order perturbation.
i. Show that ˆ ⇣ ⌘
e2
J~ = ~ ·r
E ~ v f0 ~v d3 v .
⌫c m
ii. Show that the electrical conductivity is given by
ne e 2
c = .
m⌫c
[Note: This is one of many examples of deriving familiar macroscopic
results from underlying kinetic equations.]
PROBLEM SHEET # 10
Kinetic theory II
(a) Justify that if g is Maxwellian and the wave phase speed is much larger
than the electron thermal speed we can, on a first approximation ac-
counting only for the contribution of the electrons of the body of the
distribution, neglect the pole on the integral. Obtain the dispersion
relation in this case
´ +1
[Suggestion: recall that for a Maxwellian and u ⌧ v' , 1 g(u)/(u
v' )2 du ' 1/v'2 + 3vt2 /v'4 ]
(b) In fact ! can be complex. There are unstable modes if the imaginary
part of the frequency is positive. We want to show Gardner’s theorem,
establishing that a single-humped velocity distribution is always stable.
2 +1 @g
!pe
ˆ
@u
✏i (k, !) = =0
k2 k !r 2 2
1 u k + k
ii. Show that
2 +1 @g
!pe @u (v0 u)
ˆ
1+ =0,
k2 !r 2 2
1 u k + k
1 eE1 @f0
f1 = ,
i(kv ! i⌫c ) m @v
where v ⌘ vx .
(b) Show that the dispersion relation can be written in the form
+1
k2 dg 1
ˆ
2
dv = 0 ,
!pe 1 dv v !/k i⌫c /k
1
´
where g(vx ) = n0 dvy dvz f0 (vx , vy , vz ).
(c) Determine the damping rate of the wave for small collision frequencies.
Comment the results, referring the conditions where Landau damping
can be observed, if any.
[Suggestion: Recall that without collisions you have the same dispersion
relation as in 5b, with ⌫c = 0 and where ! is complex, ! = !r + i!i ; in
3
⇡!pe dg !r
that case the result is !i ' 2k2 du (u = k ).]
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 1
Substituting,
The di↵erent values obtained are summarized in the table below and repre-
sented in figure 1.1
D (m) ⇤
a) 7.4 ⇥ 10 5 4.1 ⇥ 106
b) 7.4 4.1 ⇥ 109
c) 2.4 ⇥ 10 3 1.3 ⇥ 104
d) 2.4 ⇥ 10 8 1.3 ⇥ 103
e) 7.4 ⇥ 10 5 4.1 ⇥ 103
f) 24 1.3 ⇥ 109
g) 2.4 ⇥ 10 4 1.3 ⇥ 103
42 Solutions to chapter 1. Debye shielding and fundamental e↵ects
ne [cm-3]
20
10
Laser fusion
16
10
12
10 Tokamak
Gaseous electronics
8 Flame
10
Ionosphere
4
10
Solar wind
0 Interstellar medium
10
⇢
Therefore, from Poisson’s equation, r2 = ✏0 and using spherical
1 d2
coordinates, r2 (r) = r dr 2 (r ),
✓ ◆
1 d2 qT r
r2 = exp
r dr2 4⇡✏0 D
1
= 2 (r) .
D
⇢ = e(ni ne )
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
e e
= n0 e exp exp +
k B Ti k B Ti
✓ ◆
e e
' n0 e 1 1
k B Ti k B Te
✓ ◆
n0 e 2 1 1 1
= + ⌘ 2 ✏0 ,
kB Ti Te D
⇣ ⌘
r
Integrating by parts, with u = r, du = dr, v = exp and dv =
⇣ ⌘ D
1 r
D
exp D
,
( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ )
R R
qT r r
ˆ
Q(r R) = r exp exp dr
D D 0 0 D
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
R R R
=qT exp + exp 1
D D D
Substituting values,
This example shows that the Debye length is a characteristic length and
not the distance for a perfect shielding.
Alternative solution:1
1 Thanks due to my former student to Ricardo Barrué
44 Solutions to chapter 1. Debye shielding and fundamental e↵ects
where rij is the distance between charges i and j. We may then consider
that the interaction energy between charge i and all the other charges is
1 1 X qj
Wi = qi ,
2 4⇡✏0 rij
j6=i
P
so that the total interaction energy is W = i Wi (think on a system
of only two point charges).
Note: in this view the interaction energy of a system of two equal point
charges is distributed equally among both charges [see, e.g., B. Jayaram
and A. Das, J. Mol. Struct. 543 P (2001) 123]. Di↵erent definitions
can be used, such as W = 12 i Wi , and the interaction energy of
charge i with all others is twice that defined above; this di↵erence in the
definitions makes a di↵erence of a factor of two in the resolution of the
exercise and is completely irrelevant for the point being made.
With the definition above, the interaction energy between the test charge
qT and the remaining charges is
1 1 ⇢(r)
˚
Wq = qT dV
2 4⇡✏0 r
ˆ +1 ✓ ◆
1 2 1 qT r 1
= qT 4⇡r 2 4⇡r exp dr
8⇡✏0 0 D D r
qT2
= .
8⇡✏0 D
The mean kinetic energy of the test charge is 32 kT , so that its total
energy is
3 qT2
Etot = kT .
2 8⇡✏0 D
45
plasma
E
x=0
⇢
Inside the plasma (x > 0), Poisson’s equation r2 = ✏0 reads
d2 (x) e
2
= [ni (x) ne (x)] .
dx ✏0
Since Te = Ti = T , the ion and electron densities can be written as
e (x) e (x)
ni (x) = n0 exp ' n0 1
kB T kB T
e (x) e (x)
ne (x) = n0 exp + ' n0 1 + ,
kB T kB T
46 Solutions to chapter 1. Debye shielding and fundamental e↵ects
and
d2 (x) 1
2
= 2 (x) ,
dx D
⇣ ⌘1/2
with the Debye length defined as D = ✏2n
0 kB T
0 e 2 .
The solution is
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x x
(x) = 0 exp + 1 exp + ,
D D
whose solution is
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
r r
'(r) = C1 exp + C2 exp + ,
D D
lim '(r) = 0 ) C2 = 0 ,
r!+1
✓ ◆
'(R) R
(r = R) = = 0 ) C1 = R 0 exp .
R D
E(r = R+ ) E(r = R ) = ,
✏0
where is the charge density on the surface of the conducting sphere
( = Q/4⇡R2 ) and E(r=R ) is the electric field inside the conductor
and hence it is zero.
~ = r
In the plasma (r > R), E ~ = d ~ur ,
dr
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
d R R r
E(r) = 0 exp exp
dr r D D
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
R 1 1 r R
= 0 + exp .
r r D D
Substituting,
✓ ◆
+ 1 1
E(r = R ) = 0 +
R D
✓ ◆
1 1
= ✏0 0 +
R D
✓ ◆
R
Q = 4⇡✏0 0 R 1 + .
D
48 Solutions to chapter 1. Debye shielding and fundamental e↵ects
¨ = ẍe ẍi
2 2
¨= !pe (xe xi ) !pi (xe xi )
2 2
¨= (!pe + !pi )
¨= !p2
The electron field inside the plasma can be obtained from Gauss’s law, applied
to a spherical surface of radius r < (R + r ),
~ · ~n dS = Qint ,
‹
E
✏0
where
4
Qint =e(n0 ne ) ⇡r3
3
R3 4 3
=en0 1 ⇡r .
(R + r )3 3
Hence,
2 en0 1 4 3
4⇡r E(r) = 1 3
⇡r ,
✏0 (1 + r /R) 3
en0 1 1
E(r) = r 1 .
✏0 3 (1 + r /R)3
1
Expanding in Taylor series f (x) = (1+x)3 for small x, f (x) ' 1 3x,
✓ ◆
en0 1 r en0 r
E(r) ' r 1 1+3 = r .
✏0 3 R ✏0 R
The equation of motion for an electron placed at the surface of the plasma
sphere reads
d2
me 2 (R + r ) = eE(r=R+ r ) ,
dr
leading to
✓ ◆
d2 r e 2 n0 R+ r
me 2 = r
dr ✏0 R
2
e n0
' r
✏0
Finally,
d2 r 2
= !pe r ,
dr2
q
e2 n 0
where !pe = me ✏0 is the usual plasma frequency. The latter equation
corresponds to an harmonic oscillator of angular frequency !pe , proving the
result.
The regions x > 0 and x < 0 have to be solved separately. For x > 0,
the first boundary condition is
lim (x) = 0 ,
x!+1
lim (x) = 0
x!0+
lim E(x) = .
x!0+ 2✏0
ϕ/ϕ0
0,5
-5 -2,5 0 2,5 5
x/λD
E
σ/2ε0
-5 -2,5 0 2,5 5
x/λD
-σ/2ε0
The total charge in the plasma, facing a section of area A of the plane
and in the positive-x region, is given by
˚ ˆ +1
Q+ = ⇢(x) dV = A ⇢(x) dx
0
ˆ +1 ✓ ◆
x
= A exp dx
0 2 D D
✓ ◆ x=+1
x
= A D exp = A .
2 D D x=0 2
Q+
= .
A 2
Q
Similarly, the charge in the plasma in the negative-x region is A = 2.
Therefore,
Q+ + Q
= .
A
Multiplying by r2 ,
d2 d r2
r2 +r 2 =0.
dr2 dr D
d2 1 d
⇠2 D 2
+⇠ ⇠2 = 0 ,
d⇠ D d⇠
2
d d
⇠2 2 + ⇠ ⇠2 = 0 ,
d⇠ d⇠
which is the modified Bessel equation of order zero.
The solution is
where
Evac. (r) =
2⇡✏0 r
is the electrostatic field created by an infinite wire with linear charge
density in vacuum.
The electric field is
✓ ◆
d d r dK0 (⇠) d⇠
E(r) = = B K0 = B
dr dr D d⇠ dr
✓ ◆
1 r 1
= B[ K1 (⇠)] = BK1 .
D D D
⇣ ⌘
Since for small ⇠, K1 (⇠) ' 1⇠ , i.e., K1 r
D
' r
D
, for small r
B
E(r) ' .
r
The boundary condition as r ! 0 leads to B = 2⇡✏0 , so that
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
r r
E(r) = K1 ; (r) = K0 .
2⇡✏0 D D 2⇡✏0 D
55
⇢ 1
(b) From r2 = ✏0 = 2 ,
D
✓ ◆
r
⇢(r) = 2 K0 .
2⇡ D D
As
Q
= ,
l
the plasma perfectly shields the charge in the wire.
Since the Bessel functions K0 (⇠) and Ki (⇠) decay with a characteristic
decay length of the order of 1 (see the figures in the formulation of the
problem), the potential and the electric field are shielded efficiently for
distances r D , as expected. The shielding is complete only when
r ! 1, but is already nearly perfect for distances of a few Debye lengths.
Like in the previous exercise, it is possible to verify the importance and
efficiency of the Debye shielding of the plasma and the meaning of quasi-
neutrality in the very definition of plasma. As an example, when the
problem is solved in vacuum the potential decreases very slowly and it
is not even possible to impose the condition (r ! 1) = 0, contrary
to what happens in the present case.
10. (a) As the electrons are lighter and more mobile than the ions, they tend
to arrive first at the dust particles, which get negatively charged. The
mechanism is somewhat analogous to the negative charging of the walls
of a reactor, at the origin of the phenomenon of ambipolar di↵usion (cf.
chapter 7). Typically, Zd ⇠ 100.
(b) The electron, ion and dust particle densities are given, respectively, by
✓ ✓ ◆ ◆
e e
ne =ne0 exp ' ne0 1 +
k B Te k B Te
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
e e
ni =ni0 exp ' ni0 1
k B Ti k B Ti
nd =nd0 .
56 Solutions to chapter 1. Debye shielding and fundamental e↵ects
1
(c) The usual expression r2 = 2 , where D has dimensions of length,
D
is obtained defining
✓ ◆1/2
✏ 0 k B Te 1 1
D = ⇣ ⌘1/2 = De ⇣ ⌘1/2 ,
ne0 e2 ni0 Te ni0 Te
1+ ne0 Ti 1+ ne0 Ti
1. From rLs = v?s /!cs and !cs = eB/ms , where s = {e, i} denotes electrons
and protons, respectively,
rLi v?i mi
= .
rLe v?e me
p
Furthermore, the condition on the kinetic energy corresponds to mi v?i =
p
me v?e . Hence,
r
rLi mi p
= ' 1837 ' 43 .
rLe me
2. (a) The particle is initially accelerated by the electric field on the positive
y-direction. Its orbit is turned by the magnetic field, so that the resulting
motion is a combination of cyclotron motion with an E ~ ⇥B ~ drift in the
~ ~
positive x-direction. The E ⇥ B drift is the outcome of the increase
of the Larmor radius with v? (the velocity in the plane perpendicular
~ in this case v? is the velocity in the x y plane), which takes
to B;
place while vy > 0. From energy conservation it is clear that when the
particle returns to y=0 it has zero velocity. Moreover, since ~v (t=0)=0,
vk = vz is always zero, as there are no forces in the z-direction. The
orbit is schematically sketched in figure 2.1.
(b) In cartesian coordinates, with B ~ = B0 ~uz and E ~ = E0 ~uy , the compo-
nents of the Lorentz force F~ = q(E ~ + ~v ⇥ B)
~ are
8
< max = qvy B0
may = qvx B0 + qE0 .
:
maz = 0
The last equation implies vz = cte. Using the initial condition vz (t=0)=0,
it comes vz (t) = 0.
58 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I
y
Larger rL
vy=0
Smaller rL
x
t=0; vy=0
vd
!c 2 ⇣¨ = ⇣
| {z }
v̈x
⇣¨ = !c2 ⇣ .
59
where
E0 E0
~vc = cos(!c t) ~ux + sin(!c t) ~uy
B0 B0
E0
~vd = ~ux
B0
~ ⇥B
to a constant drift (E ~ drift).
Taking the time average over several gyroperiods, h~v i = ~vd = cte.,
since the time average of the sinusoidal functions is zero (hcos(· · · )i =
hsin(· · · )i = 0). Therefore, h~ai = 0 and there is no average acceleration.
The average force q~vd ⇥ B ~ cancels the electric force q E.
~
(d) The drift velocity ~vd is independent of the charge and the mass. Hence,
all the particles drift with the same velocity and there is no net current
in a neutral plasma. The particle’s trajectory for q < 0 is depicted in
figure 2.2
vd
(e) In this case the drift velocity could be obtained simply by replacing
E = F/q in the previous result for ~vd , and would be
F mg
~vd = ~ux = ~ux ,
qB qB
which does depend on the charge. Accordingly, the drift velocity would
be di↵erent for particles of di↵erent mass and would have opposite direc-
tions for particles of di↵erent charge, resulting in a net electrical current.
3. The electrostatic field created by the electron beam is readily obtained from
Gauss’ law. Considering a cylinder of radius r > R and length l, as shown in
61
figure 2.3,
~ · ~n dS = Qint
‹
E
✏0
ene ⇡R2 l
E(r)2⇡rl =
✏0
2
~ en eR
E(r) = ~ur
2r✏0
~ = R) = ene R ~ur
E(r
2✏0
R
Bz uθ v
~ ⇥B
The E ~ drift velocity is
~ ⇥B
E ~ E(R)B0 ene R
~vd = 2
= 2 ~u✓ = ~u✓ .
B B0 2✏0 B0
2 2kB Te
hv? i= ⌘ vt2 .
m
Hence, the average Larmor radius is
mhv? i mvt
hrL i = = ,
eB eB
or, equivalently,
eBhrL i
vt = .
m
On the other hand,
E k B Te
vE = =
B e B
2kB Te m m
= = vt2
m 2e B 2e B
hrL ieB m vt
= vt = hrL i .
m } 2e B
| {z 2
vt
5
with B0 = 3 ⇥ 10 T and where RT ' 6370 km is the radius of the
Earth.
uz
Earth N B
uθ
~ ?= @B B0 3 3
(rB) ~ur = 3 R ~ur = B(r)~ur .
@r r4 T r
~ ⇥ rB/B
Accordingly, |B ~ 2
| = 3/r and
2
1 mv? 3
vd = .
|q| 2B r
K 2 K 50
vd = = ,
e B(r = 5RT )5RT e B 0 RT
1
it comes, vde ' 7.85 ⇥ 103 m/s for the electrons and vdi = ved 30⇥10 3 '
ExB drift
Cyclotron motion
L
B
E
Re E B
2Ri Ri
Re
E
B Re
Cyclotron motion
ExB drift
ExB drift
(b) The electron and ion Larmor radii are given by, respectively,
v?e me 5
RLe = ' 1.14 ⇥ 10 m
eB
v?i mi 2
RLi = ' 2.72 ⇥ 10 m
eB
B≃0
B≠0
E
2rL
(c) This exercise is very similar to problem 2, so that just an outline is given
here. Taking the x axis along E ~ and defining the y axis along B ~ (cf.
figure 2.6), the Lorentz force equation reads
8 8 eE evz B
< mv̇x = eE + evz B < v̇x = m + m
mv̇y = 0 ! v̇y = 0 .
: : eB
mv̇z = evx B v̈z = m xv̇
~
estimated in that simple analysis, due to the ion acceleration on the E
field.
8 8 dvx qE0
< mẍ = qE0 cos(!t) < dt = m cos(!t)
ÿ = 0 ; vy (t) = vy (t = 0) = 0 .
: :
z̈ = 0 vz (t) = vz (t = 0) = 0
Hence
t
qE0 qE0
ˆ
vx (t) = cos(!⌧ ) d⌧ = sin(!t) ,
0 m m!
ˆ t
qE0 qE0 qE0 qE0
x(t) = xi + sin(!⌧ ) d⌧ = 2 2
cos(!t) + 2
,
0 m! m!
| {z } m! m!
xi
qE0
x(t) = cos(!t) .
m! 2
qE0/mω2
-qE0/mω2
x = x0 + x1
dE0
E0 (x) ' E0 (x0 ) + x1 (x0 )
dx
dE0
E(x, t) ' E0 (x0 ) + x1 (x0 ) cos(!t) .
dx
qE0
x1 (t) = cos(!t) .
m! 2
68 Solutions to chapter 2. Single particle motion I
q2 d
Fp = mẍ0 = E2 ,
4m! 2 dx 0
which acts in the direction of decreasing E-field, as described
qualitatively in the beginning of the exercise.