Chapter-2 Energy Dissipation Structure

TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... 1
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................................ 1
2 ENERGY DISSIPATION BELOW SPILLWAYS AND INTAKE STRUCTURES........................................... 1
2.1 ENERGY DISSIPATION BELOW SPILLWAYS ................................................................................... 1
2.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
2.1.2 Forms of Energy dissipation on the Spillway .......................................................................... 1
2.1.3 Characteristics of Hydraulic Jump ........................................................................................... 3
2.1.3.1 Location of Hydraulic Jump ............................................................................................ 4
2.1.3.2 Measures Adopted for Dissipation of Energy................................................................. 4
2.1.4 Stilling Basin ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.1.4.1 Stilling Basin Types ......................................................................................................... 5
2.2 DAM INTAKE AND OUTLET STRUCTURES ............................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 8
2.2.2 Dam Intake Structures............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.2.1 Design of waterway ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Component parts of outlet works......................................................................................... 10
2.2.4 Discharge through an outlet ................................................................................................. 10
2.2.5 Location and Required Capacity of an Outlet ....................................................................... 12
2.2.6 Impact type stilling basin for pipe open channel outlets...................................................... 12
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2‐1: Stilling Basin length for Froude Number from 2.5 to 4.5 .............................................. 6
Table 2‐2: Length of basin and baffle block parameters ................................................................ 6
Table 2‐3: Stilling Basin length for Fr greater than 4.5 and velocity greater than 15m/s .............. 7
Table 2‐4: Impact Basin Widths (compiled).................................................................................. 13

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2‐1: Definition sketch for the five phases of energy dissipation ........................................ 1
Figure 2‐2: Hydraulic jump at the stilling basin ............................................................................. 2
Figure 2‐3: Characteristic of Hydraulic Jump Related to the Incoming Flow Froude Number (F1) 3
Figure 2‐4: Hydraulic Jump formation ............................................................................................ 4
Figure 2‐5: Stilling basin characteristics for Fr between 2.5 and 4.5 (Type‐I) ................................ 6
Figure 2‐6: Stilling basin for Fr above 4.5 where incoming velocity, V1 ≤ 15/s (Type‐II) ................ 7
Figure 2‐7: Stilling basin for Fr above 4.5 where incoming velocity, V1>15/s (Type‐III)................. 7
Figure 2‐8: Bell mouth intake and trash rack arrangement ........................................................... 8
Figure 2‐9: Intake arrangements; (a) Tower intake (b) Shaft intake ............................................. 9
Figure 2‐9: USBR Baffled Outlet Impact Basin Figure (Source: USBR).......................................... 13

Hydraulic Structure II, Energy Dissipation below spillway and Intake structures
2 ENERGY DISSIPATION BELOW SPILLWAYS AND INTAKE STRUCTURES
2.1 ENERGY DISSIPATION BELOW SPILLWAYS
2.1.1 Introduction
Water flowing over a spillway has a very high kinetic energy because of the conversion of the entire
potential energy to the kinetic energy. If the water flowing with such a high velocity is discharge directly
into the downstream channel, serious scour may occur if not sound rock. In order to protect the
channel bed from scour, the kinetic energy of the water should be dissipated before it discharged in to
the d/s channel. The energy‐dissipation devices can be broadly classified in to two types:
a) Devices using hydraulic jump for dissipation of energy
b) Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy

The choice of the energy dissipation device is governed by the tail water depth and the characteristics of
the hydraulic jump at the toe. If the tail water depth is not approximately equal to that required for a
perfect hydraulic jump, a bucket‐type energy dissipating device is usually provided.
2.1.2 Forms of Energy dissipation on the Spillway
The passage of water from a reservoir into the downstream reach involves a whole number of hydraulic
phenomena such as the transition into supercritical flow, supercritical non‐aerated and aerated flow on
the spillway, possibly flow through a free‐falling jet, entry into the stilling basin with a transition from
supercritical to sub‐critical flow, and echoes of macro‐turbulence after the transition into the stream
beyond the basin or plunge pool. It is; therefore, best to consider the energy dissipation process in five
separate stages, some of which may be combined or absent.
1. on the spillway surface;
2. in a free‐falling jet;
3. at impact into the downstream pool;
4. in the stilling basin;
5. At the outflow into the river.

Figure 2‐1: Definition sketch for the five phases of energy dissipation

BDU‐Engineering Faculty, School of Civil Eng’g and Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, 2010 1
1. Energy dissipation on the spillway surface /Region – 1/
Some amount of energy is dissipated on the face of the spillway when it passes. The water flowing will
also mixed with air to dissipate some amount of energy. When the spillway is steeped, it creates
additional opportunity to dissipate energy and as the water on the spillway face is mixed with air, it
looks white. Energy loss on spillway surface, e, can be expressed by e = ζα * v 2 / 2 g
Where:
v = supercritical velocity at the end of the spillway,
α = coriolis coefficient,
ξ = head loss coefficient, related to the velocity coefficient φ (the ratio of actual to theoretical velocity)
by 1 / φ 2 = 1 + ζ

The ratio of the energy loss, e, to the total energy E (i.e. the relative energy loss) is
e ⎛ ζV ' 2 ⎞ ⎛ V ' 2 ζV ' 2 ⎞ ζ
=⎜ ⎟⎟ / ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ = = 1−φ 2
E ⎜⎝ 2 g ⎠ ⎝ 2g 2g ⎠ 1 + ζ
For a ratio of the height S of the spillway crest above its toe (or in case of a spillway with a free‐falling jet
as in Fig. 2.1 (S–S’) above the take‐off point) and the overfall head H, with S/H<30, and for smooth
spillways:
φ1 ≈ 1‐ 0.0155 * S/H

The value of ξ could be increased (and Φ decreased) by using a rough spillway or by placing baffles on
the spillway surface (e.g steeped spillway or baffles). Aeration should be provided to prevent cavitaion.

2. Region 2 and 3
In many modern spillways design, increased energy dissipation is achieved by using free falling jet, either
at the end of ski‐jump or d/s of flip bucket. The head loss in the jet is only up to 10 – 12% whether solid
or disintegrated. But, if jets are colliding substantial energy will be dissipated. The main benefit from jet
spillways is in the 3rd phase at the impact in to the down‐stream pool.

3. Energy Dissipation on Stilling Basins /Region – 4/
The stilling basin is the most common energy dissipater converting the supercritical flow from the
spillway in to sub‐critical flow compatible with the down stream river. The straight forward and often
best method of achieving this transition is through simple submerged jump formed in rectangular x‐
section stilling basin.

Figure 2‐2: Hydraulic jump at the stilling basin
2.1.3 Characteristics of Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water which occurs in an open channel when the flow
changes from the supercritical to sub critical state of flow. It is accompanied by considerable dissipation
of energy.
Types of jumps: the type and characteristics of the jump depend mainly upon the Froude Number of the
v12
incoming flow given by: F1 = ; v1 the mean velocity before the jump and y1 pre‐jump height. For
2gy1
the formation of hydraulic jump, the initial Froude Number should be greater than unity. The different
types of hydraulic jumps are summarized on Table below.

1. Undular Jump (Fr=1.0 to 1.7):‐ the water surface shows some undulation and the energy
dissipation is about 5%.
2. Weak Jump (Fr= 1.7 to 2.5):‐ a series of small rollers develops on the surface of the jump, but
the d/s water surface of remains quite smooth. The energy dissipation is about 20%
3. Oscillating Jump (Fr=2.5 to 4.5):‐ there is oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to surface and
back again without any periodicity. The energy dissipation is between 20 to 40%.
4. Steady Jump (Fr=4.5 to 9.0):‐ The jump is quite stable and balanced. It is not much sensitive to
variation in the tail water depth. It has very good performance and most of the hydraulic
structures utilize this type of jump for the dissipation of energy and its dissipation is between 45
to 70%.
5. Strong Jump (Fr>9.0):‐ the jump is quite rough but effective. It causes rough water surface with
strong surface waves downstream. The energy dissipation is between 70 to 85%. Because of
rough action, a strong jump is avoided in spillway, as far as possible.

Figure 2‐3: Characteristic of Hydraulic Jump Related to the Incoming Flow Froude Number (F1)

2.1.3.1 Location of Hydraulic Jump
Jump Height curve (JHC): ‐ It will occur in a rectangular channel if the following equation between the
initial depth (y1) and the sequent depth (y2) is satisfied.
y2 =
y1
2
[ 1 + 8F − 1], where F =
1
2
1
v1
gy1
=
q
gy13

A 1
H
H1
Hydraulic Jump
P
y v2
y v1
Figure 2‐4: Hydraulic Jump formation

The mean velocity (V1) of the incoming flow for an ogee‐shaped spillway can be determined by applying
the Bernoulli equation at points A and 1, neglecting the loss and velocity of approach:
2
v
P + H = y1 + 1
2g
The mean velocity of (v1) at the toe of the spillway is given by q/y1; therefore:
2
⎛q⎞ 1
P + H = y1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . Hence the value of y1 can be easily determined for the given discharge
⎝ y1 ⎠ 2 g
intensity (q) over the spillway. The corresponding y2 can be easily determined again. For different q, y2
can be computed. A plot between q as abscissa and the corresponding y2 as ordinate can be drawn and
is called jump height curve (JHC) or jump rating curve (JRC).

Tail Water Rating Curve (TWRC):‐ It gives the relation b/n the tail water depth (y2’) (the actual water
depth in the river on the d/s) as ordinate and q as abscissa.

The location of the hydraulic jump will depend upon the relative magnitudes of y2 and y2’, and hence
the JHC and TWRC. There are five cases depending up on the position of JHC and TWRC.
Case‐1: JHC and TWRC concide throughout
Case‐2: TWRC always lower than JHC
Case‐3: TWRC always higher than JHC
Case‐4: TWRC lower than JHC at low discharges, but higher at high discharges
Case‐5: TWRC higher than JHC at low discharges, but lower at high discharges
2.1.3.2 Measures Adopted for Dissipation of Energy
The measures adopted will depend upon the relative positions of the TWRC and JHC as discussed below:
Case‐1: ‐ the TWRC and JHC are concide for all discharges hence; there is no need any special measure
for the formation of hydraulic jump, as a perfect jump will always form at the toe. Depending the
geological formation, horizontal apron may be provided for protection of the river bed and the length of
the jump should be equal to the length of the basin.

Case‐2: ‐ as the TWRC is lower than HJC, the hydraulic jump forms at a certain section downstream of
the toe. For the formation of the jump, the horizontal apron may be depressed by excavating the river
bed downstream of the toe of the spillway to increase the tail water depth. The depth of depression
may be equal to the difference b/n the tail water depth and post jump depth.

Case‐3: ‐ As the TRC is higher than JHC, the hydraulic jump is drowned. The following measures may be
taken;
a. A sloping apron is constructed above the river bed level extending from the spillway surface to
the toe. The sloping apron raises the level of the point where the hydraulic jump is formed.
b. The river be may be excavated to provide a drop in the river bed to lower the tail water depth.
2.1.4 Stilling Basin
A stilling basin is a channel structure of mild slope, placed at the outlet of a spillway, chute or other high
velocity flow channel, whose purpose is to confine all or part of the hydraulic jump or other energy
reducing action and dissipate some of the high kinetic energy of the flow. It is a structure which is
necessary to prevent bed scour and undermining of the structure in situation where high velocity flow is
discharged into the downstream channel.

Usually flow entering a stilling basin is at super critical velocity. The stilling basin on the mild slope
supports only sub critical flow. The transition from super critical to sub critical flow takes place in the
form of a hydraulic jump. The stilling basin is designed to insure that the jump occurs always at such a
location that the flow velocities entering the erodible downstream channel are incapable of causing
harmful scour.

The design of a particular stilling basin will depend on the magnitude and other characteristics of the
flow to be handled, and particularly the Froude number of the approaching flow. Consider the simplest
and most common stilling basin, a horizontal rectangular channel as shown in Figure 2‐4.
y1
Hydraulic jump equation: y 2 = ( 8 F12 + 1 − 1)
2
y
( 2 − 1) 3
ΔE j y1 ( 8F12 + 1 − 3) 3
Jump head loss equation: = =
y1 4 y 2 / y1 16( 8F12 + 1 − 1
ΔE j ΔE j / y1 ( 8F12 + 1 − 3) 3
Energy dissipation efficiency: = =
E1 E1 / y1 8( 8 F12 + 1 − 1)(2 + F12
y 2 − y1 1 3
Jump height: = 8F12 + 1 −
y1 2 2
2.1.4.1 Stilling Basin Types
1. Basins for Froude Numbers Less Than 1.7:‐ No special stilling basin is needed to still flows
where the Froude number of the incoming flow is less than 1.7, except that the channel lengths
beyond the point where the depth starts to change should be not less than about 4y2.

2. Basins for Froude Numbers between 1.7 and 2.5:‐ Flow phenomena for these basins will be in
the form designated as the pre‐ump stage. Because such flows are not attended by active
turbulence, baffles or sills are not required. The basin should be long enough to contain the flow
prism while it is undergoing retardation.

3. Basins for Froude Numbers Between 2.5 and 4.5 (Type‐I):‐ Flows for these basins are
considered to be in the transition flow stage because a true hydraulic ump does not fully
develop. Stilling basins that accommodate these flows are the least effective in providing
satisfactory dissipation because the attendant wave action ordinarily cannot be controlled by
the usual basin devices. Waves generated by the flow phenomena will persist beyond the end of
the basin and must often be dampened by means apart from the basin. Where a stilling device
must be provided to dissipate flows for this range of Froude number, the basin shown on figure
below, which is designated a Type‐I basin, has proved relatively effective for dissipating the bulk
of the energy of flow. The basin is provided with chute blocks of size, spacing and location as
shown on the figure. The length of the stilling basin can be determined on the table below:

Table 2‐1: Stilling Basin length for Froude Number from 2.5 to 4.5
Fr1 2 3 4 5
L/y2 4.3 5.3 5.8 6.0

Figure 2‐5: Stilling basin characteristics for Fr between 2.5 and 4.5 (Type‐I)

4. Basins for Froude Numbers greater than 4.5 and velocity less than 15m/s (Type‐II):‐ For this
condition, type‐II basin should be provided. The basin is provided with chute blocks, baffle
blocks and end sills. The length of the stilling basin, the height h3 of the baffle block and the
height h4 of end sill are obtained from Table below:

Table 2‐2: Length of basin and baffle block parameters
Fr1 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
L/y2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8
h3/y1 1.5 1.7 2 2.3 2.7 3 3.3
h4/y1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Figure 2‐6: Stilling basin for Fr above 4.5 where incoming velocity, V1 ≤ 15/s (Type‐II)

5. Basins for Froude Numbers greater than 4.5 and velocity greater than 15m/s (Type‐II): In this
case the baffle blocks are not provided because of the following reasons:
a. The blocks would be subjected to very high impact forces due to high velocity V1 of
incoming flow; and
b. There is a possibility of cavitation on the d/s face of the blocks.

The stilling basin therefore consists of only chute blocks and a dentated sill. As the dissipation of
energy occurs mainly by hydraulic jump, the length of the basin is greater than Type‐II basin.

Table 2‐3: Stilling Basin length for Fr greater than 4.5 and velocity greater than 15m/s
Fr1 5 6 8 10 12 14
L/y2 3.85 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3

Figure 2‐7: Stilling basin for Fr above 4.5 where incoming velocity, V1>15/s (Type‐III)

Exercise: Energy on downstream of the spillway can also dissipated by using buckets in additional to
the conventional hydraulic jump stilling basin. Write the working principle (how energy is dissipated
by using buckets), river foundation requirement at the downstream of the spillway, TWRC condition,
radius of buckets required and other hydraulic parameters needed for the design of buckets.

2.2 Dam Intake and Outlet Structures
2.2.1 Introduction
Dam outlets are provided in the body of the dam or its abutment below the crest level of the spillway so
that the water can be withdrawn from the reservoir. It is required to release the impounded water as
and when needed for various purposes such as hydropower, irrigation, municipal water supply and
pollution control on the downstream. An outlet work may also act as a flood control regulator for
releasing water stored temporarily in the space reserved for flood control or to evacuate storage space
in anticipation of high floods. Outlets are provided with gates and valves for controlling the outflow.
These gates and valves are used for regulating the outflow or for completely closing the outflow,
depending upon their location and design.

The entrance to the outlet is an integral part of the dam. When the entrance is not an integral part of
the dam, an intake is required at the entrance through which water is withdrawn from a reservoir or a
river. An intake is an independent structure built away from the dam.
2.2.2 Dam Intake Structures
The primary function of an intake structure is to permit withdrawal of water from the reservoir or river
over a predetermined range of reservoir levels. It also protects the conduit inlet from damage or
clogging as a result of trash, ice and others.

The intake structure (or head regulator) is a hydraulic device constructed at the head of an irrigation or
power canal, or a tunnel conduit through which the flow is diverted from the original source such as a
reservoir or a river. The main purposes of the intake structure are:
(a) To control the flow of water in to the conveyance system. The control is achieved by gates or
valves.
(b) To provide smooth flow, so as to avoid eddy and vortex formation which otherwise do maximize
the head loss.
(c) To prevent the entrance of coarse river born materials such as boulders, ice and logs of wood

In high‐head structures the intake can be either an integral part of a dam (as shown on Figure 2‐6);or
separate (as shown on Figure 2‐7); for example, in the form of a tower with entry ports at various levels
which may aid flow regulation when there is a wide range of fluctuations of reservoir water level. Such a
provision of multilevel entry also permits the withdrawal of water of a desired quality.

Figure 2‐8: Bell mouth intake and trash rack arrangement
(a) (b)
Figure 2‐9: Intake arrangements; (a) Tower intake (b) Shaft intake

An Intake Structures also supports necessary auxiliary appurtenances (such as trash racks, fish screens,
and bypass devices), and it may include temporary diversion openings and provisions for installation of
bulkhead or stop log closure devices.

Intake structures may appear in many forms. The type of intake structure selected should be based on
several factors:
9 the functions it must serve,
9 the range in reservoir head under which it must operate,
9 the discharge it must handle,
9 the frequency of reservoir drawdown,
9 the trash conditions in the reservoir (which will determine the need for or the frequency of
cleaning of the trash racks),
9 Reservoir ice conditions or wave action that could affect the stability

Depending on its function, an intake structure may be either submerged or extended in the form of a
tower above the maximum reservoir water surface. A tower must be provided if the controls are placed
at the intake, or if an operating platform is needed for trash removal, maintaining and cleaning fish
screens, or installing stop logs. Where the structure serves only as an entrance to the outlet conduit and
where trash cleaning is ordinarily not required, a submerged structure may be adopted. The conduit
entrance may be placed vertically, inclined, or horizontally, depending on intake requirements. Where a
sill level higher than the conduit level is desired, the intake can be a drop inlet similar to the entrance of
a drop inlet spillway. In most cases, conduit entrances should be rounded or bell‐mouthed to reduce
hydraulic entrance losses.

The necessity for trash‐racks on an outlet works, type and size of the openings depends on:
9 The size of the sluice or conduit,
9 The type of control device used the nature of the trash burden in the reservoir,
9 The use of the water, the need for excluding small trash from the outflow
Where an outlet consists of a small conduit with valve controls, closely spaced trash bars are needed to
exclude small trash. Where an outlet involves a large conduit with large slide‐gate controls, the racks
can be more widely spaced. If there is no danger of clogging or damage from small trash, a trash‐rack
may consist simply of struts and beams placed to exclude only larger trees and similarly sized floating
debris.

Trash bars usually consist of thin, flat steel bars that are placed on edge from 7.5 to 15 cm apart and
assembled in a grid pattern. The area of the trash‐rack required is fixed by a limiting velocity through the
rack which, in turn, depends on the nature of the trash to be excluded. Where the trash‐racks are
inaccessible for cleaning, the velocity through the racks ordinarily should not exceed 0.6m/s. A velocity
of up to approximately 1.5m/s may be tolerated for racks that are accessible for cleaning.
2.2.2.1 Design of waterway
An ideal outlet conduit should have the following characteristics:
1. It should have a perfect shaped entrance
2. It should have a straight alignment
3. The surface of the waterway should be smooth with no offsets, gate slots or irregularities
4. The outlet should be free from cavitation problem
5. The hydraulic losses should be negligible so that the discharge coefficient is approximately unity.

In an actual outlet, it is difficult to attain above ideal conditions. However, care should be taken to
minimize the undesirable effects due to various factors to achieve the ideal condition.

1. Bell‐mouth Entrance: In square edge, separation may occur and to reduce the loss at entry, bell‐
mouth is usually provided.
2. Waterway surfaces: the waterway surface should be within the acceptable limit of smoothness,
waviness and alignment in a high‐velocity conduit. Special care should be taken to avoid abrupt
offsets in the waterway alignment at flanged or other joints.
3. Cavitation: it may occur if it is not properly designed. Cavitation may also occur due to flow past
a gate or a valve as all types of gates or valves are prone to cavitation to a certain limit.
Cavitation can cause considerable damage. As far as possible, attempts should be done to avoid
cavitation.
To ascertain whether cavitation will occur or not, the value of non‐dimensional parameter σ is found:
hb − hv
σ= , where, hu is the maximum pressure upstream of the valve; hb is the back pressure on the
hu − hb
downstream face of the valve; and hv is the vapor pressure. If σ less than the critical value of σc,
cavitation may be anticipated. The value of the σc depends upon the size, type and opening of the valve
and also upon the total head causing flow. For gate valves the value of σc is b/n 1.50 to 2.00 and for
butterfly valves, b/n 2.00 and 2.50.

The standard method to control cavitation is to supply air on the d/s of the valve through an air vent
pipe connected to the atmosphere. The air vent pipe delivers a continuous supply of air to the d/s of a
discharging gate or valve. The area of the air inlet pipe is usually kept b/n 0.5 to 1 percent of the area of
the waterway.
2.2.3 Component parts of outlet works
Outlet works usually consists of the following component parts:
1. Entrance Channel:
2. Intake structure: it is required when the entrance to the conduit is not an integral part of the dam.
3. Water way 4. Control device
5. Terminal structure 6. Exit channel
2.2.4 Discharge through an outlet
The outlet should be designed to have the required discharge capacity. The discharge through the outlet
can be determined as explained below:

The discharge through the pipe conduit outlet, in which there is pipe flow, is determined from the
relation:
Q = C d A 2 gh , Where Cd is the discharge coefficient, A is the cross sectional area and h is the head
causing flow.

If the outlet is submerged at the exit, h is equal to the difference between u/s and d/s levels. When the
outlet discharges free, h is equal to the difference between the u/s water level and the center of the
outlet exit. The value of Cd depends on a number of factors as the design and shape of the conduit, type
of gate (valves), various losses, etc.

The following hydraulic losses are considered and evaluated:
a. Trash rack loss (h1): the head loss occurs when the flow takes place through the trash rack. The
head loss depends upon the design of the trash rack and the velocity through it. The trash rack
losses may be taken as 0.03, 0.09 and 0.15m for velocities of 0.3, 0.45 and 0.06m/s respectively.
b. Entrance loss (h2): the head loss at the entrance to the conduit depends upon the size and
shape of the entrance and the velocity. Depending up on the shape of the entrance, the
following values for the entrance may be assumed:
i. Circular entrance, h2= 0.05(v^2/2g)
ii. Rectangular entrance, h2= 0.10(v^2/2g), where v is the velocity in the conduit just d/s
of entrance.
c. Friction Loss (h3): it depends upon the surface of the conduit, its size and length, and the
velocity of flow (v). Darcy‐Weisbach equation may be used after selecting a proper value of the
friction factor, f.
L v2
h3 = f
D 2g
d. Transition loss (h4): it occurs when there is a change in the cross‐section. These losses are
⎛ v12 v 22 ⎞
usually expressed as: h4 = k ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ , where K is the coefficient, V1 and V2 are the velocities
⎝ 2 g 2 g ⎠
before and after the transition. K is 0.1 for gradual contraction, 0.2 for gradual expansion, 0.5 for
abrupt change and 1.0 for sudden enlargement.
e. Bend Loss (h5): depends on the bend radius, conduit diameter and the angle of the bend. It is
usually expressed as: h5 = k (v 2 / 2 g ) where, value of k varies from 0.20 to 0.10.
f. Gate and Valve Loss (h6): depends on their design, shape and size and expressed as:
⎛ 1 ⎞ v2
h6 = ⎜⎜ 2 − 1⎟⎟
⎝ D
C ⎠ 2 g
CD s free‐discharge coefficient of the gate and its value is given below on table.
No. Type of gate or valve CD
1 Slide gate 0.95 to 0.97
2 Ring follower gate About 1.0
3 Cylinder gate 0.80 to 0.90
4 Needle gate 0.45 to 0.60
5 Tube gate 0.50 to 0.55
6 Howell‐Burger gate 0.85
7 Butterfly valve 0.60 to 0.85
8 Sphere valve About 1.0

g. Exit Loss (h7): it is usually taken as, h7 = (ve / 2 g ) ; where Ve is the exit velocity.

2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to a point on the reservoir and at the exit of the outlet:
H= hL+ Ve^2/2g, where hL = h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + h5 + h6 = total loss in the system
⎛ v2 ⎞
H = k L ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⇒ ve = 2 gH ; Where kL is the composite coefficient of all the losses.
kL
⎝ 2g ⎠
Then the discharge, Q = A.ve = A.
2 gH
kL
2.2.5 Location and Required Capacity of an Outlet
An outlet is a closed conduit formed in the body of the dam. It may also be in the form of a pipe or
tunnel that passes through the hill side at one end of the dam. If the outlet passes trough the body of
the dam, it is called sluiceways.

Outlet Works Position in Relation to Reservoir Storage Levels.‐The establishment of the intake level
and the elevations of the outlet controls and the conveyance passageway, as they relate to the reservoir
storage levels, are influenced by many factors. Primarily, to attain the required discharge capacity, the
outlet must be placed sufficiently below the minimum reservoir operating level to provide the head
required for outlet works flows. Outlet works for small detention dams are generally constructed near
riverbed level because permanent storage space, except for silt retention, is ordinarily not provided.
(These outlet works may be un‐gated to retard the outflow while the reservoir temporarily stores the
bulk of the flood runoff, or they may be gated to regulate the releases of the temporarily stored waters.)
If the purpose of the dam is only to raise the reservoir and divert incoming flows at low heads, the main
outlet works generally should be a head works or regulating structure at a high level. A sluiceway or
small bypass outlet should also be provided to furnish water to the river downstream or to drain the
water from behind the dam during off‐season periods. Dams that impound water for irrigation, for
domestic use, or for other conservation purposes, must have outlet works low enough to draw the
reservoir down to the bottom of the allocated storage space; however, the outlet works may be placed
above the riverbed, depending on the established minimum reservoir storage level.
The required capacity of an outlet is determined by the downstream water needs, flood control
regulation, storage considerations and legal requirements.

Dam outlet capacities are determined from reservoir operation studies. It is based on a consideration of
a critical period of low runoff when reservoir storages are low and daily demands are at their peak. The
most critical draft from the reservoir, considering such demands (commensurate with remaining
reservoir storage) together with prior rights and other needed releases, generally determines the
minimum irrigation outlet capacity. These requirements are stated in terms of discharge at either a
given reservoir content or a given water surface elevation.
2.2.6 Impact type stilling basin for pipe open channel outlets
A baffled outlet is a box like structure having a vertical hanging baffle and an end sill. Excess energy of
the incoming water jet is dissipated primarily by striking the baffle and to a lesser degree by eddies that
are formed after the jet strikes the baffle. A tail‐water depth is not required for satisfactory hydraulic
performance as is the case for a hydraulic jump basin; although a smoother outlet water surface will
sometimes result if there is tail‐water. For the best operation, the tail‐water should be about (b/2 + f)
above the invert of the baffled outlet; where b is the baffle height [b = (3/8) W]; f is the basin depression
[f = (1/6) W]; and W is the inside width of the structure. The height of tail‐water above the baffled outlet
invert should never exceed (b + f) because then some of the flow will not strike the baffle.
The baffled outlet, if properly designed, can be as an effective energy dissipator as the hydraulic jump
stilling basin. The table after the following figure can be used to select the structure width, and along
with the figure, the structure dimensions can be determined. If a flap gate is added to the downstream
end of the conduit, the distance to the impact baffle (designated as “a” in the previous figure) may have
to be increased to accommodate the pivoting of the flap gate to the fully open position

Figure 2‐10: USBR Baffled Outlet Impact Basin Figure (Source: USBR)

The basin width (W) recommended for the impact basin is a function of the discharge, and may be
selected from the following table or calculated from: W = 1.9Q0.4. The full pipe velocity of incoming
flow will be approximately 3 to 4 m/sec.

Table 2‐4: Impact Basin Widths (compiled)
Flow: Q Impact Basin Width: W (m) Approximate Pipe Diameter (m)
(m3/sec) Minimum Maximum
0.25 1.0 1.5 0.3
0.5 1.5 2.0 0.4
1.0 2.0 2.5 0.6
2.0 2.5 3.0 0.8
3.0 3.0 3.5 1.0

The previous figure shows the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) impact basin. As originally
developed, this design was not intended for use as a canal structure, but rather for discharge into
channels where the natural tail‐water would be insufficient to force a hydraulic jump. Turbulent mixing
in the area upstream from the baffle will reduce the energy content to a certain upper limit, regardless
of the energy level of the incoming flow and regardless of the absence of any tail‐water. However, to
insure that the supercritical flow under the baffle does not pass through the structure unimpeded, a
high end sill is required. With the top of the sill level even with the bottom of the baffle, sufficient tail‐
water is produced in the basin to submerge the jet. Despite a significant energy reduction in the impact
basin, flow conditions over the end sill are far from ideal. In the absence of any natural tail‐water
outflow will occur at critical depth, with a large boil over the sill and a plunging jet downstream.
Accordingly, significant erosion protection (e.g. – loose stone riprap over bedding gravel) is required for
the discharge channel.
For use as an outlet structure into a canal where definite tail‐water levels exist, the outflow conditions
can be greatly improved by a few minor modifications to the impact basin, as indicated in the following
figure. The high end sill is replaced by a low one, and the floor is lengthened to accommodate a row of
floor blocks. The floor is placed 0.36W below tail‐water at design discharge. There is no point in
retaining the high end sill when adequate submergence can be obtained by natural tail‐water.
Elimination of the sill results in improved velocity distribution and greatly reduced average velocity at
the exit. One of the problems with this structure is the extra forming required for the floor blocks, and
because of their small size they may not be practical for the lower flow range of typical small scale
irrigation project dam outlet works.


Chapter-2 Energy Dissipation Structure

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g. Exit Loss (h7): it is usually taken as, h7 = (ve / 2 g ) ; where Ve is the exit velocity.

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