LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Logic Gates
INTRODUCTION
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. It
makes “logical decisions” based on the different combinations of
digital signals present on its inputs. Digital logic gates may have
more than one input but generally only have one digital output. Most
logic gates have two inputs and one output.

Knowledge Cloud
A gate is a digital circuit that is designed for performance a
particular logical operation. As it works according to some logical
relationship between input and output voltages, so it is generally
known as “LOGIC GATES”

At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the

two binaryconditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different
voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and generally does,
change often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the
low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is
approximately five volts positive (+5 V).

Individual logic gates can be connected together to form

combinational or sequential circuitsor larger logic gate
functions.Different types of logic gate implements different
Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on one or
more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Depending on
the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has
2 for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to
a non-ideal physical device.

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Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or

transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic
relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules,
or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be
cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed,
allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic,
and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be
described with Boolean logic.

A large number of electronic circuits (in computers, control units,

and so on) are made up of logic gates. These process signals
represent either true or false. The most common symbols used to
represent logic gates are shown below.

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TYPES OF LOGIC GATES:

1. AND gate:
The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that implements logical
conjunction - it behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH
output (1) results only if both the inputs to the AND gate are
HIGH (1). If neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a
LOW output results. In another sense, the function of AND
effectively finds the minimum between two binary digits, just as
the OR function finds the maximum. Therefore, the output is
always 0 except when all the inputs are 1.
We will start with a 2 input AND gate. The symbol for a 2 input
AND gate is as follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input AND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input AND gate is

4
Q  A.B

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2. OR gate:
The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical
disjunction - it behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH
output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate are
HIGH (1). If neither input is high, a LOW output (0) results. In
another sense, the function of OR effectively finds the
maximum between two binary digits, just as the complementary
AND function finds the minimum. We will start with a 2 input
OR gate. The symbol for a 2 input OR gate is as follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input OR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input OR gate is

Q = A+B

3. NOT gate (or inverter):

5 This is the simplest form of logic gate and has only 1 input and
1 output. Simply the purpose of this gate is to invert the input
signal so if a Logic 0 is at the input, the output will be at

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Logic 1 and vice versa. The symbol for a NOT gate is as

follows. (Next page)

A Q

The truth table for a NOT gate is the simplest of all Truth Tables
and is shown below.

Input Output
A Q
0 1
1 0

The Boolean expression for a NOT gate is

QA
4. NAND gate:
In digital electronics, a NAND gate (negative-AND) is a logic
gate which produces an output that is false only if all its inputs
are true; thus its output is complement to that of the AND
gate. A LOW (0) output results only if both the inputs to the
gate are HIGH (1); if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a HIGH
(1) output results. It is made using transistors. By De Morgan's
theorem, AB=A+B, a NAND gate is equivalent to inverters
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followed by an OR gate. The NAND gate is significant because
any Boolean function can be implemented by using a

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combination of NAND gates. This property is called functional

completeness.

We will start with a 2 input NAND gate. The symbol for a 2

input NAND gate is as follows.(Next page)

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input NAND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input NAND gate is

Q  A.B

5. NOR gate:
The NOR gate is a digital logic gatewhich behaves according to
7 the truth table. A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs
to the gate are LOW (0); if one or both input is HIGH (1), a
LOW output (0) results. NOR is the result of the negation of

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the OR operator. It can also be seen as an AND gate with all

the inputs inverted. NOR is a functionally complete operation—
NOR gates can be combined to generate any other logical
function. By contrast, the OR operator is monotonic as it can
only change LOW to HIGH but not vice versa.

We will start with a 2 input NOR gate. The symbol for a 2 input NOR
gate is asfollows.(Next page)

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input NOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input NOR gate is

8 Q = A+B

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Summary of 2-input Logic Gates

The following Truth Table compares the logical functions of the 2-
input logic gates above.

Inputs Truth Table Outputs For Each Gate

A B AND NAND OR NOR

0 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0

The following table gives a list of the common logic functions and
their equivalent Boolean notation.

Logic Function Boolean Notation

AND A.B

OR A+B

NOT A

NAND A .B

NOR A+B

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Universal logic gates

NAND and NOR gates as digital building blocks.

The repeated use of the OR, the AND or the NOT gates alone
cannot give a different gate. But the repeated use of the NAND or
the NOR gates alone can give all basic gates like OR, AND and NOT
gate. Hence the NAND and the NOR gates are also called Universal
Logic Gates. In digital circuits, these gates serve as digital building
blocks.

Knowledge Cloud

Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of 1880–81) showed that NOR

gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to
reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but his
work on it was unpublished until 1933.The first published proof
was by Henry M.Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical
operation is sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is
sometimes called Peirce's arrow.

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Integrated Circuits
INTRODUCTION
An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip,
isa semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny
resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated. An IC can
function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter,
computer memory, or microprocessor.

Integrated Circuits or IC’s as they are more commonly called, can be

grouped together into families according to the number of
transistors or “gates” that they contain. For example, a
simpleAND gate my contain only a few individual transistors, were as
a more complex microprocessor may contain many thousands of
individual transistor gates. A particular IC is categorized as either
linear (analog) or digital, depending on its intended application.

Merits and Demerits

Merits of Integrated Circuits

1. Miniature in size. As fabrication process is used for the

integration of active and passive components on to a silicon
chip, the IC becomes a lot smaller. When compared to
a discrete circuit, it may be at least a thousand times smaller.
2. Due to small size, the weight of the IC also reduces, when
compared to the discrete circuit.
3. To produce hundreds of discrete circuits on a PCB (Printed
11 circuit board) for the same logic takes more time and increase
the cost factor. But for the production of hundreds of ICs the
cost of production will be very low and less time consuming.

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4. The PCB (Printed circuit board) consisting soldered joints will

be less reliable. This problem is omitted in IC’s because of no
soldered joints, with fewer interconnections, and thus highly
reliable.
5. The small size of ICs causes lesser power consumption and
lesser power loss.
6. In a discrete circuitry, if a single transistor becomes faulty,
the whole circuit may fail to work. This transistor has to be
desoldered and replaced. It is difficult to find out which
component has failed. This problem can be omitted in an IC by
replacing an entire IC as it is low in cost.
7. Increased operating speed because of absence of parasitic
capacitance (is an unavoidable and usually
unwanted capacitance that exists between the parts of an
electronic component or circuit simply because of their
proximity to each other) effect.
8. As the IC’s are produced in bulk the temperature coefficients
and other parameters will be closely matching.
9. Improved functional performance as more complex circuits can
be fabricated for achieving better characteristics.
10. All IC’s are tested for operating ranges in very low and
very high temperatures.
11. As all the components are fabricated very close to each other
in an IC, they are highly suitable for small signal operation, as
there won’t be any stray electrical pickup.
12. As all the components are fabricated inside the chip, therewill
not be any external projections.

Demerits of Integrated Circuits

1. The power rating for most of the IC’s does not exceed more
than 10 watts. Thus it is not possible to manufacture high
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power IC’s.

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2. Some components like transformers and inductors cannot be

integrated into an IC. They have to be connected externally to
the semiconductor pins.
3. There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors.
4. The IC will not work properly if wrongly handled or exposed to
excessive heat.
5. It is difficult to achieve low temperature coefficient and
fabricate an IC with low noise.
6. It is not possible to fabricate capacitors that exceed a value
of 30pF. Thus, high value capacitors are to be connected
externally to the IC.
7. There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors
8. Some complex IC’s maybe costly. If such integrated circuits
are used roughly and become faulty, they have to be replaced
by a new one. They cannot be repaired as the individual
components inside the IC are too small.

Result
We had mainly discussed about the design, property and operation
of various logic gates

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be

performed.In theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that
can be arranged together in a single device. But in practice, there is
a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given
physical space.

Arrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs).

As IC technology advances, the required physical volume for each
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individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or

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smaller size become capable of performing ever-more-complicated

operations at ever-increasing speeds.

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Bibliography
I would like to declare the array of references hereby and submit
that I took help from following sources

1. Comprehensive Physics Practical

A textbook for Physics practical’s ISBN 978-81-318-0384-4

2. Wikipedia.com
The Online Encyclopedia indexing world’s best articles with genuine
references

3. TCYonline.com
An online video tutorial and educational Centre

4. Meritnation.com
The leading educational site in India

5. http://projects.icbse.com/forums
Online help for CBSE projects

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