Reservoir Characterization of the Hollín and Napo

Formations, Westem Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Howard J. White Jose A. Rodas

Robert A. Skopec Onp: Ecuador Eller¿,~{ Companu
Quito, Ecuador
Felix A. Ramirez
Guido Bonilla
Oryx Ellergy Company
DalIas, Texas, U.5.A. Petroecuador
Quito, Ecuador

Abstract
r-rhe Oriente basin of Ecuador has produced a substantial amount of oil over the past 20 years. Nearly
.1 3 billion bbl of oil have been recovered from the principal reservoirs in the Cretaceous Napo and Hollin
formations. Subtle north-south structures, commonly associated with Andean-related faulting, have trapped
much of the recoverable hydrocarbons in the thicker sandstones deposited within the Hollin and Napa reser-
voirs. East to west thinning of these reservoir units also contributes to the formation of stratigraphic traps. Both
the Hollin and Napo formations comprise successíons of eastward-sourced fluvial and deltaíc sedimentary
deposíts that prograded westward into shoreline and marine shelf parasequences. The Albían Hollin reservoir
interval consists of a dominant alluvial plain sandstone sequence (Maín Hollín sandstone) that occupíes much
of the Oriente basin. In the westem Oriente, the uppermost Hollin section grades vertically into open marine
strata with isolated tidal- and storm-influenced sandstone bodies. The overlying Napo stratigraphy also
consists of sand-rich fluvial and deltaic deposits in the eastem Oriente and abruptly changes to marine shales
and limestones and lowstand valley-fill sandstones in the westem part of the basin. Extensíve structural and
stratigraphic trap potential remains within the Napo and Hollín strata in the Oriente basin. High-resolution
geophysical techníques and detailed geologic reservoir characterization facilitate successful exploitation of
these remaining reserves.

Resumen

E n los últimos veinte años la Cuenca Oriente del Ecuador ha producido una cantidad sustancial de
hidrocarburos. Alrededor de tres mil millones de barriles de petroleo han sido recuperados de los reser-
varios principales de las formaciones cretácicas Hollín y Napo. Estructuras sutiles orientadas norte-sur,
comunmente asociadas con fallamiento de edad Andina, han entrampado la mayoría de los hidrocarburos
recuperables dentro de los espesos depósitos arenosos de los reservorios de Napo y Hollin. La formación de
trampas estratigraficas ha estado favorecida por los adelagazamientos este-oeste de dichas unidades reservo-
rios. Las formaciones Napo y Hollín comprenden una sucesión de sedimentos deltaicos y fluviales alimen-
tados desde el este, los cuales progradaron hacia el oeste integrando parasecuencias de zonas de playa y
marino-plataformicas, El reservorio Albense Hollin consiste de una secuencia predomínantemente arenosa de
planicie aluvial (Arenisca Hollín Principal) la cual se encuentra ocupando la mayoría de la Cuenca Oriente. En
el occidente del Oriente, la sección superior de Hollín grada verticalmente a sedimentos marino-abiertos con
cuerpos arenosos influenciados por mareas y tormentas. La sobreyacente estratigrafía de Napo tambíen
consiste, en el este del Oriente, de depósitos deltaicos y fluviales ricos en arena, los cuales cambian abrupta-
mente a calizas y lutitas marinas, y areniscas "lowstand" de relleno de valle en la parte oeste de la cuenca.
Existe enorme potencial en trampas estructurales y estratigraficas dentro de los estratos Napo y Hollín de la
Cuenca Oriente. Las técnicas geofísicas de alta resolución y la caracterización geologica de los reservoríos
facilitaran una explotación exitosa de las reservas remanentes.

Whíte, H. J., R. A. Skopec, F. A. Rarnirez, J. A. Rodas, and G. Bonilla, 1995, Reservoir char- 573
acteristics of the Hollin and Napo formations, westem Oriente basín, Ecuador, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South Arnerica: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 573-596.
574 vV1zite et al.

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INTRODUCTION greater than 80,000 km/. It is contiguo~s with. the

Puntamayo basin oí Colombia and the Maranon ba~m of
The Oriente basin of Ecuador produces a substantiaI Peru. Stratigraphically and structurally, the Onente
amount oí oil and provides attractive expIoration oppor- preserves a complex Phaner?zoic g:,?logic history
tunities. The Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs have beginning with earliest Paleozoic deposition and culmí-
proven to be consistent producers since initiaI produc- nating with Tertiary deposits shed from the And~an foId
tion was first established in August 1972. The Napo and thrust belt. Figure 2 shows the general stratigraphy
sandstone has a cumuIative production (December 1992) of the Oriente basin. The succession is subdivided into
of 1.17 billion bbl, and the Hollin Formation has a cumu- several unconformity-bounded sequences: Paleozoic-
lative production of 1.70 billion bbl. Production estimates Jurassic stratigraphy, the Cretaceous Hollin and ~apo
for the next 20 years are about 2 bi1lionbbl, which will be formations, and Upper Cretaceous-Quatemary sedimen-
derived from the currently producing fieIds with addi- tary sequence. . .
tional reserves from fields in the process of development. The sedimentary fill rests on Precambnan 19neous
This paper presents an integrated geologic study oí and metamorphic basement that has been intersected by
the Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs in the greater several wells in the eastern Oriente adjacent to the
Oriente basin, with emphasis on the western Oriente. Guyana shield. The Silurian-jurassic interval consists of
Figure 1 illustrates the regional setting of the Oriente several thousand meters of carbonates, shaIes, and
foreland basin in front of the Andean foId and thrust subordinate sandstones and conglomerates that have
belt, as well as the distribution of producing fields. been structurally deformed during several episodes ?f
uplift and extension. Examples of the pre-HoIhn
STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC structure are documented by Balkwill et al. (1995). The
uppennost strata of this intervaI belo.ng to th~ Jurassi~
SETTING Chapiza Formation and the assocla~ed Mlsa.hualh
The Oriente basin of eastern Ecuador is part of the volcanics. In parts of the western Oriente ba~ln, the
upper Amazon River drainage basin and covers an area Hollin-Napo interval unconformably overlies the
 Reserooir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 575

eastem margin is masked by basin margin arehes related

to the Guyana shield (Figure 1). Structural arches shown
on the regional map of Dashwood and Abbotts (1990)
Tertiary indicate two east-west trending arches extending
westward from the Guyana shield. Interval isopach
maps confirm the existence of these two intrabasin
highs-the Aguarico arch to the north and the Cononaco
platform or arch to the south. The arches are believed to
have provided sediments as well as localized the Hollín
Cretaceous and Napo fluvial systems. Reservoirs within the Hollín
and Napo formations are structuraIIy less deformed than
the underIying strata. Nevertheless, Hollín and Napo
structures are large enough to form prolific hydrocarbon
traps. A complex of major reverse fauIts mark the
western limit of the present-day basin adjacent to the
Jurassic Napo uplift. Most of the majar oil fields occur east of this
complex in structural traps that parallel the north-south
struetural grain. The source rocks for these reservoirs are
believed to be the organic-rich Napa shales which have
Triassic be en extensively tested for maturity, as reported by
Dashwood and Abbotts (1990).
Permian The overlying Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene sedimen-
tary rocks in the Oriente basin were the first to be influ-
enced by incipient Andean movement. The Tena and
Tiyuyacu formations (Figure 2) are the earliest strata of
Pennsylvanian the post-Napo basin fill and consist of interbedded
shales, sandstones, and minor conglomerates. The basal
Mississippian sandstone of the Tena Formation in the westem Oriente
was probably deríved by erosion and local reworking of
uppermost Napo. Late Tena and Tiyuyacu deposition
Devonian Pumbuiza consisted of episodes of continental redbeds and limited
incursions of marine deposition. Deposition continued
Fm with the Orteguaza and post-Orteguaza formations and
consisted mainly of clay-rich continental strata eroded
from the Andean volcanics. These continental sedimen-
8i1urian tary rocksmark the infill of the Andean foreland basin
and comprise over 1600 m of section in the western
Oriente. The Andean volcanic are eontrolled much of the
Tertiary sedimentation along the western margin of the
Ordovician Oriente basin.

HüLLIN STRATIGRAPHY AND

Cambrian
Precambrian Igneous/metamorphic
Figure 2-Stratigraphic column for the Oriente basin.
Jurassic Chapiza and Misahualli volcanícs, but elsewhere
the Cretaeeous rocks overlie Paleozoie strata and
Precambrian basement.
The Hollin-Napo interval consists of up to sao m of
continental and marine sandstones, shales, and carbon-
ates. The basin deepens toward the southwest, while its
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
Characterization of the Hollin and Napo reservoirs
includes data from seisrnic, well logs, eore descriptions,
and petrophysícal analyses. Over 1100 m of core were
examined. Regional mapping of the Ecuador Oriente
basin focused on depositional environments, paleoshore-
line trends, facies distribution, and reservoir continuity.
The Hollin Formation occurs throughout the Oriente
basin. It thickens from a zero edge along the eastern
margin to nearly 200 m thick, forming a sand-rích
blanket composed of several depositional sequences,
Figure 3 is an isopach map of Hollin strata from its
pinchout in the eastem Oriente to the depocenter in the
southwestem part of the basin.
In the western Oriente basin, the Hollin can be subdi-
vided into the Main Hollin sandstone and the thinner
576 vVhite el al.

FORMATlON OEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES

Open Marine (O - 25m)

UPPER
HOLlIN
(O' 35m) Shorezone (O - 15m)
125m
enastal Plain (O - 15m)

100m
Braid Plain (10 140m)

MAIN
HOLLlN stacken, low sinuosity
SANOSTONE 75m ~~~~I braided strearn sandstones
(10 -155m) and interbedded levee
shales

50m

Alluvial valley ti"

(O - 40m)

Figure 3-lsopach map 01 the entire Hollin sequence.
Contour interval is 25 m.
Upper Hollin sandstone. General Hollin stratigraphy is
described elsewhere (Wasson and Sinclair, 1927;
Tschopp, 1953; Campbell, 1970; Canfield et al., 1982;
Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). The
Hollin is Albian in age, although the basal strata oí the
Main Hollin ll1ay date to the late Aptian. Faunal and
flora taxa, although sparse, suggest that the Hollin is time
transgressive and trace the overall sea level rise during
late Hollin and early Napo deposition. The Hollín in the
western Oriente basin consists oí fi ve successive deposi-
tional sequences: three sequences in the Main Hollin
Sandstone and two in the Upper Hollin Formation
(Figure 4).
Main Hollin Sandstone
Valley FilI Deposition
The initial Main Hollin sediments occupied substan-
tial relief that was eroded into the underIying [urassic
strata, Several wells penetrate this valley fíll succession,
including Oso #1 and Entre Ríos Xl. The sedimentary
rocks are interpreted to be paleovalley fluvial deposits of
channel sandstone and flood basin shales; no cores of this
interval have been taken. Figure 5 shows these character-
istics in the Oso #1 well. This interpretation is also
supported by Pungarayacu cores in the Napo uplift and
Om
PRE-HOlLlN Sediments, igneous
Figure 4-Hollin stratigraphic colurnn, western Oriente
basin, showing the five depositional systerns cornprising
the complete Hollin sequence.
by isolated Hollín outcrops near Puyo. Valley fill
thickness varíes up to 40 m, reflecting the original topo-
graphic relief. The resulting depositional surface was a
very low relief, gently tilted surface over which braid-
plain deposition occurred.
Braidplain Deposition
The dominant depositional package in the Main
Hollin consists of stacked cross-bedded sandstone and
subordinate intervals of interbedded mudstone and
sandstone (Figures 4, 5) of Albian age. The upper part of
this interval forms the main oil reservoirs in the westem
Oriente basin.
There are three lithofacies types in the braidplain
sequence. The first and predominant ane consists of
stacked channel sandstones that range in thickness from
3 m to more than 10 m. The sandstones are quartzose in
composition and fine to very coarse grained. Granule
eonglomeratic lag occasionally overlies channel seour
surfaees. Channel units generalIy have a uniform grain
size distribution without any obviaus fining-upward
trend. Internally, the sandstone units are structured by
 Reserooir Chnracterizaiicn, Hollín and Napa Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 577

These sedimentary facies are attributed to deposition

in a braided alluvial plain environrnent. The overall
UPPER OPEN MARINE facies architecture resembles the Platte River and Bijou
HOLLlN Creek models of Miall (1977) and Cant (1982). In this
FORMATION SHOREZONE environrnent, the planar and trough cross bed sets are
COASTAL interpreted as straight and sinuous-crested mid-channel
PLAIN bars. River discharge may have been seasonally variable,
ALlUVIAL but the sand bedload was sufficiently high to account for
_~~~~~~~ .... BRAID PLAIN the stacked braid bars that dominate the Main Hollin. In
addition to sediment suppIy, local topography, precipita-
tion, and vegetation also influenced fluvial deposition.
Facies two, interbedded mudstone and sandstone, are
attributed to channel, overbank levee, and crevasse spIay
deposition. The third facies, dorninantly thick
MAIN mudstones, is inferred to have originated as channel
HOLLlN abandonment intervals and laterally equivalent tlood
SANDSTONE basin deposits.
<
~

f Coastal Plain Deposition

. ~

The contact between the Main and Upper Hollin

~ • lIMESTONE
~~~=~~~$.~~$
~ ITID GlAUCONITIC
"~ CJ QUARTZARENITE
~ this contact in the westem Oriente basin demonstrates
JO SHAlE
VALLEY
FILL
PRE-HOLLlN
Figure 5-Hollin lithofacies and depositional systems
within the Oso #1 well, Block 7, western Oriente basin. The
depositional systems have been interpreted in more than
100 Oriente wells.
planar tabular and trough cross beds in sets 30-100 cm or
thicker (Figure 6a). Cross bed slip faces commonly
display a grain size segregation typical of avalanche
processes. Sandstone units are separated by erosion
surfaces with carbonaceous shale laminae and mudstone
beds up to 30 cm thick. Macerated plant debris often
occurs as concentrations along cross bed laminae. Día-
genetic kaolinite is dispersed throughout the sandstones.
The resulting gamma ray signature is that of a shaly
sandstone rather than the high-porosity sandstones that
typify the Main Hollín.
The second facies type consists of fining-upward
channel units of finer grained sandstones and
interbedded mudstones generally less than 30 cm thick.
These sandstones are more poorly sorted than the first
sandstone facies and are dominated by trough cross
bedding.
Facies three comprises mudstones and mudstone
interbedded with thin sandstones. The sandstone
interbeds are fine to very fine grained and often ripple
laminated. The mudstones are massive to faintly
laminated and often dolomitic. This facies is up to 13 m
thick (e.g., Oso #1 well, Figure 5).
formations has historically been picked on electric logs at
ss the base of the thicker shales overlying the stacked sand-
stones of the Main Hollin. Detailed core examination of
that, instead of the stacked sandstones at the top of the
Main Hollín, this sequence is frequently a fining-upward
succession of planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones
and thin mudstones. These sandstones are slightly finer
than the braided sandstones, thin upward, and are rhyth-
micallv interbedded with nurnerous, thin, laminated
mudst~nes (Figure éc). Rooted horizons are occasionally
present in the sandstones. The distinctive appearance of
these lithofacies (at least in cored intervals) indícates
coastal plain deposition. The package ranges up to 15 m
in thickness in the western Oriente.
The coastal plain depositional sequence is interpreted
to represent the overall abandonment of the Main Hollin
fluvial system. As such, a lower energy, higher sinuosity
fluvial and estuary depositional system is envisaged for
these capping sediments. The interval's fining upward
character, the occurrence of planar and trough cross
bedding and ripple Iamination, the rhythmic mudstone
interbeds, and the occasional rooting are interpreted to
have originated in a meandering stream system that
likely entered a coastlíne estuary setting.
The features observed in the coastal plain deposition
of the Main Hollín are similar to the meandering fluvial
to estuary profiles recognized by Smith (1987). The
interbedded sandstones and mudstones in the top part of
the estuary profile exemplify features observed in tidally
influenced sediments, although the tidal reworking is
minor (microtidal) in the coastal plain deposits.
Upper Hollín Formation
Shore Zone Deposition
The upper Hollin transgressively overlies the coastal
plain veneer of the Main Hollin sandstone. It has been
generally interpreted as a marine deposit (Dashwood
and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). This transgressive
578 W1zite et al.

Figure 6-Core photographs from the Main and Upper Hollín formations. Photographed slabs are from eonventional1 O-cm
whole-diameter cores. (a) Typieal planar cross bedding within the braided fluvial facies. (b) Cross-bedded sandstones and
thin mudstones of the eoastal plain facies. (e) Interbedded sandstones and shales of the tidally reworked Upper Hollín shore
zone facies. (d) Open marine glaueonitie sandstones beneath the eapping /imestones of the Upper Hollin.
"
 Reserooir Chamcterizanon, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
blanket oecurs throughout the Oriente basin, except in
the extreme northeast. It consists of two distinctive litho-
facies associations. The lower shore zone deposition
comprises a sandstone and shale eomplex that varies up
to 15 m thick in the western Oriente. The upper open
marine sequence eaps the overall abandonment of the
Hollin depositional system.
The shore zone lithofacies eonsist of fine- to medium-
grained planar to trough eross-bedded sandstones, very
fine to fine-grained ripple laminated sandstones, and
burrowed lenticular-bedded mudstones. Above the basal
mudstones, the shore zone locally displays a vertical
profile of staeked cross-bedded and ripple-laminated
sandstone with minor shale interbeds. A few kilometers
away, the profile may be dominantly lenticular
mudstone and isolated, thin sandstones of limited
reservoir quality. The majority of the ripple sandstones
contain abundant c1ay drapes within the lamination. The
coarser sandstones oecasionally exhibit strongly obligue
cross-bedding orientations. Lenticular mudstones are
moderately to weakly burrowed (Chondrites, Putnolites,
and minor Teichichnusi with rare ripple-Iaminated
sandstone lenses.
A variety of shoreline to shallow marine depositional
environments combined to create the shore zone litho-
facies. A eontinued transgression of the tidally influ-
eneed eoastal plain resulted in the formation of sand-
dominated bay head deltas, estuaries, and subtidal
shoals. Muddy tidal flat and shallow marine mud depo-
sition loeally dominate the shore zone lithofacies.
Open Marine Deposition
The open marine suecession completes the trangres-
sive Upper Hollín depositional sequence. It may range
up to 15 m in thiekness. The lithofacies consists of glau-
conitic and quartzose sandstone, limestone, marl, and
shale. Ripple-larninated, very fine to fine-grained
quartzose sandstones are commonly thin bedded and
moderately burrowed and occur at the base oí the open
marine succession. In the upper part of the open marine
sequence, glauconite-rich sandstones (Figure 6d) are
capped by a thin veneer oí micritic and fossiliferous lime-
stones and marls. The sandstones are typically very fine
to fine-grained quartz with fine- to medium-grained
glauconi te which vary up to 1 In in individual bed
thiekness and form sharp-based tabular units. Mudstone
rip-up clasts occasionally overlie scour surfaces. Sedi-
mentary strnctures include trough cross bedding, ripple
Iamínation, and flaser bedding. Bioturbation often oblit-
erates all primary sedimentary structures. This unit
contains an open marine biota, including arnmonites and
both thick- and thin-shelled bivalves. In the glauconitic
sandstones, the glauconite content is loeally in excess oí
50% oí the framework grains. Capping limestones (fossil-
iferous wackestones) and marl beds general1y measure
less than 2 m thick and are welllithified. Vuggy porosity
due to shell dissolution occurs sporatical1y.
The basal quartzitic sandstone and shale oí the open
marine facies are interpreted to be oí subtidal shoal
origino These sandstones are generally thinner than the
overlying glauconitic shoal deposits and are almost
579
always interbedded with marine shelf shales (lenticular-
bedded burrowed mudstone). The guartzitic beds origi-
nated as nearshore, tidallv reworked marine sands. The
glauconite-rieh sands accumulated more seaward of the
shoreline as storm-generated sand waves. These shoals
ineorporated whatever quartz sand reached the middle
shelf position, as well as the glauconite-replaced fecal
material derived on the shelf, and anv reworked inverte-
brate shell debris. It is likelv that fossil abundance
increased awav from the clastic shoreline. The shelf area
beyond the glauconitic shoals provided sites for thin but
widespread carbonate deposition.
The fossiliferous, mieritic lirnesto ne and marls
capping the Upper Hollin record the final phase of
Hollín deposition as the sea transgressed eastward over
the Cretaceous Oriente margino Because of the typical
thickness of the limestones (less than 2 m), seismic
amplitude contrast at the top of the Hollin is generally
minimal. The acoustic contrast does inerease loeallv
where limestone thickness increases. .,
Pungarayacu Area
The Pungarayacu coneession is located on the
basinward margin of the Napo uplift. It is noted for a
large, shallow, heavy oil reservoir that has been
evaluated by Petroecuador (Alrneida et al., 1983). The
Pungarayacú #2 well is representative of the entire Hollin
section in this area west of the Oriente basin. Eight
braided ehannel sandstone packages are present in the
Main Hollín. Significant mudstone intervals separate
several of the upper ehannel sequences. These
mudstones indicate periodic abandonment and aggrada-
tion of the alluvial plain. The Iower channels, above the
Misahualli volcanics, are sand rich and devo id of
interbedded mudstone. Figure 7 shows a north-south
oriented cross section through three of the Pungarayaeu
wells. Rapid facies changes occur within the distal or
westward fluvial components of the Main Hollin. The
abundanee of mudstone suggests that the braidplain
depositional system responsible for the Main Hollín
became a mixed sand and mud system as it prograded
westward. The Upper Hollin is represented by relatively
thin mud-rich beds, subordinate quartzose and glau-
conitie sandstone, and capping limestone,
Hollín stratigraphy is well exposed along the
Hollin-Loreto road in the Pungarayaeu area on the Napo
uplift (see de Souza Cruz, 1989). A composite section of
the Main and Upper Hollin strata exposed in the roadcut
is shown in Figure 8. The Main Hollin consists princi-
pally of the braidplain facies, which unconformably
overlies the Misahualli volcanics. The braidplain succes-
sion is locally saturated with oil. The outcrop shows
well-developed levee and floodplain deposits (Figure 8).
The lower braided channel sandstones in this seetion are
comparable with the Bijou Creek model. The capping
beds of the Main Hollin are correlative with the coastal
plain sandstones observed in cores from the western
Oriente. Shale interbeds in the eoastal plain facies are
both more numerous and thicker than those observed in
the braidplain deposits.
580 White ei al.
HE
PUNGARAYACU-2
Napa Fm
Upper
Hollin
Main
Hollin
Sandstone
Misahualli
Volcanics
1.5km
Figure 7-Hallin sandstone cross section, Pungarayacu concession, eastern Napo uplift.lnferred correlations demonstrate
the more frequent facies changes in the western Oriente. See Figure 1 for location.
The Upper Hollin deposits present in this roadcut are
part of the shore zone deposition. Individual channels
have a lenticular geometry 30-150 m or more wide and
1-3 111 thick. The strata are interpreted to be of tidal flat
and tidal channel origino N o exposures of the open
marine facies of the Upper Hollin were observed here,
such as the glauconitic sandstones or carbonates. De
Souza Cruz (1989) interpreted the Main Hollin as origi-
nating from braided fluvial and eolian paleoenviron-
ments.We see little evidence for eolian deposition. We
agree with de Souza Cruz that the Upper Hollin in this
outcrop is estuarine, although the tidal range need not
have been macrotidal.
NAPO STRATIGRAPHY AND
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
The Napa Formation consists oí organic-rich shales,
bioclastic grainstones and packstones, and terrigenous
sandstones believed to have been deposited in fluvial,
deltaíc, marginal marine, and marine shelf environments
during the Late Cretaceous. The Napa Formation
conformably overlies the Upper Hollin Formation and is
in tum overlain unconformably by the Tena Formation
(Maastrichtian-Paleocene). Total Napo thickness exceeds
275 mover much of the westem Oriente basin. Figure 9
PUNGARAYACU-6 sw
~~_2bJ11000' nm PUNGARAYACU-8
R-16"
R• 64" 2Qoo' nm
.' .
....
0.6km
shows the lithologies and stratigraphic relationships of
the Napa in the westem Oriente basin. The Napo T, D,
and M sandstone units are related to a series of regres-
sive-transgressive cyeles that built the Napo stratigraphy.
There were at least four such cydes in the western
Oriente basin. Only the T and U intervals deposited
sands in the western Oriente basin. To the east in the
central Oriente (e.g., Shushufindi field), these sequences
are indistinguishable because of their stacked, sand-rich
character which resulted in their amalgamation.
Mapping of the Napa transgressive shales (referred to as
the lower, middle, and upper Napa shales) define a
northeast-southwest Napo shoreline trend within the
westem Oriente basin.
Seismic reflection data show that Napa stratigraphy
has substantial acoustic contrasts that can be resolved,
depending on data quality and signal processing. The
most conspicuous acoustic change is at shale-limestone
interfaces. The sandstones generally have gradational
contacts. The least resolvable acoustic contrasts occur
within the U and T sandstones where they thin
westward and are difficult to distinguish seismically.
Geophysical modeling of the U sandstone shows a subtle
amplitude increase where the sandstone is weH
developed. A marked amplitude increase also occurs
where the U sandstone is replaced laterally by limestone.
Seismic models for the T sandstone indicate subtle
amplitude decrease where the sandstone is weH
 Reserooir Characterization, Hollin and Napa Formations, Oru.tnie Basin, Ecuador 581

SHOREZONE
ISOLATEIl LENTICULAR Tena
UPPER SANOS IN SHALE
HOlllN
FORMATlON 75
COASTAL PLAIN ro
TIOAL SHORElINE
COASTAL PLAIN

ABANOONMENT (LEVEE)

BRAIDEO PLAIN UPPER

SHAlE
50

CHANNEL SANOS
MINGR LEVEE
MAIN
HOlUN
SANDSTONE STACKED BRAID CHANNELS
WITH MINOR LEVEES AlM
25

Napo u SS
MIDDLE
CHANNEL w/LEVEES
SH
BlM
Misahualli ALTERED TUFF TSS
Volcanics

LOWER
Figure 8-Roadeut stratigraphy exposed along the Hollin-
Loreto road, eastern Napa uplift. See Figure 1 for loeation. SHALE

developed; however, the overlying B limestone is a Upper

strong reflector that tends to mask the T sandstone. On 15m
this basis, subtle amplitude anomalies in the western Hollín
Oriente basin are attributed to the U sandstone. --'" ._0 '"._ . -.:~ -lo.

Amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis of the U ..........

sandstone indicates that there is no significant offset due
to hydrocarbon-bearing lithologies. Main
..............
...... 1
". o'· "." ..
125m
Napo T and U Sandstones Hollin .. "

'
.....
.. ......
' .. "

Stacked fluvial and deltaic sandstones comprise the

Napo T and U reservoirs of Shushufindi and Libratador
fields in the central Oriente (Canfield et al., 1982). These
intervals quickly thin and become separated by thicker
Chapiza
marine shales in Sacha and Auca fields (Canfield, 1991).
From these fields westward, both the T and U sand-
stones exhibit different lithofacies (and depositional envi- Figure 9-Composite lag of Hollin and Napo formations,
ronments) than in the central Oriente. Quartzose sand- western Oriente basin.
stones occur in each of the westem Oriente Napo cores
582 Vv7zite ei al.
Sea level
Curve Lithology
Rise
70
60
50
40
~~~f30 Storm Shoals
1C:-.oo~:....::;;....c:......=r;...;.-4-4-0
M
Figure 1o-1dealized Napa depasitianal package resulting
frorn sedimentatian fallawing sea level drap en the Napa
marine shelf.
examined. G1auconitic sandstones, lamin ated to
burrowed mudstones, and fossiliferous limestones are
common components of both T and U sequences. The
quartzose sandstones exhibit the following characteris-
tics: O) abrupt basal contacts, (2) bed thicknesses from 30
cm to 1 m, (3) medium to very fine grain size, (4) 1arge
scale planar and trough cross bedding to ripple 1amina-
tion, (5) abundant cIay drapes along laminations, and (6)
occasional disruption due to burrowíng. The glauconitic
sandstones are similar to those of the Upper Hollin and
typically occur in the upper parts of both the T and U
successions. Cross beds commonly occur in oblique
orientations and less often in strongly oblique, or
herringbone, orientation.
Figure 10 shows a typical vertical profile through the
Napo T and U sequences. A varying complex of thin
fossiliferous límestones, burrowed silty mudstones, and
thin quartzose sandstones form an intervalless than 5 m
thick that commonly occurs aboye the laminated shales
below both the T and U. The sandstones abruptly overlie
this complexo Stacked, fine- to medíum-grained, cross-
bedded sandstones dominate the lower half of the Napo
Depositlenal T and U sandstone packages. In the upper half of the
Environment
profi1e, the sandstone beds are thinner, .f~ner grained,
Mid to üuter ripp1e larninated, and gene rally glaucorutic. Mudstone
Shelf interbeds are intermittent within the sandstones.
Capping the T and U intervals are more burrowed
mudstone. minor sandstone (locally thicker and medium
zrained). and 1imestone interbeds. Laminated sha1es
~eparate the sandstone interva1s from thick carbonate
Shallow wackestone and rnudstone (B and A limestones, respec-
Carbonate Shelf tivelv),
Situated between thick intervals of marine limestones
and mudstones, the Napo T and U sandstone packages
show a channe1-like deve1opment, locally exceeding 10
m thick, that is attributab1e to fluvial channe1, shoreline
estuarv, and subtidal shoal origino Channe1s and shoals
within this setting were probably controlled by the range
Shallow marme of tida1 energy, the shoreline configuration (embayrnents
Shelf
and estuaries), and the physiography of the marine shelf
(de Boer et al., 1988; Terwindt, 1988). Westward-flowing
streams de1ivered sediment to these Napo shorelines.
The initial stacked sandstones of these prograding
channe1s is inferred to be of fluvial point bar or deltaic
origino
Tidal Shoals Overlying the channe1 sandstones, the beds exhibit
reworking by tidal currents that progressively controlled
sand distribution seaward of the fluvial-dominated
deposition. As in the Upper Hollin, the variety of tidal
Estuary Channel environrnents recognized includes tidal flat, tidal creek,
and subaqueous tidal shoals. Dimensions of these shoals
can range up to hundreds of meters in width, hundreds
Mid to Outer of meters to several kilometers in 1ength, and more than
Shelf 5 m in thickness. Positioning of these sandstone bodies
was probab1y influenced by paleotopographic highs on
the N apo marine shelf. Glauconitic sandstone shoals are
mixed with quartzose shoa1s in the upper parts of the
Napo T and U sequences. The cycle of progradation
dominated by channe1 and tidal shoal sedimentation was
rep1aced vertically by mud-dominated marine conditions
foIlowed by transgressive bioclastic and micritic
limestone deposition (Figure 11).
CRETACEOUS PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The four principal sandstone packages deposited in
the western part of the Oriente basin during
Aptian-Maastrichtian time were the Main Hollin, Upper
Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U intervals. The Main Hollin
is the thickest and most widespread of these intervals. It
was deposited initialiy on an irregular erosional surface.
The valley fil1 deposits smoothed this relief and created
an alluvial plain that was dominated by braided rivers.
The provenance for the Main Hollín sandstones is
believed to have been the Guyana shield and its
Paleozoic cover. Grain size decreases from east to west.
However, isolated outcrops of Hollin valiey fill deposits
in the uplifts west of Puyo contain gravel- to cobble-sized
clasts of locally derived igneous basement demonstrating
the influence of possible local source areas during early
 Reserooir Characterization, Hollin andNapa Formaiions, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 583

w E

Figure 11-Napo regressive-transgressive cycle of sedimentation showing rapid progradation followed by sea level rise
with marine onlap,

Hollin sediInentation. The westward extent of the TIME Ma EUSTATIC CURVE STRATlGRAPHY
shoreline during braidplain deposition is unknown 80 -----------
-------------
because the Andean fold and thrust belt has now Rlsil
completely overprinted this area west of the Napo uplift. CAMPANIAN
The physiography conceptualized for the Main Hollin en
::;)
------------
braidplain is a very low relief, low gradient system. The ew
85
c:.:I
multiple river systems comprising the Hollin alluvial ~ SANTONIAN
w
plain carried a high volume of fine to very coarse sand ce
c:.:I
that was efficiently distributed over the entire alluvial w
1- CONIACIAN -------------
plain. The source of the quartzose sand is further S n
90
envisaged to have been a much higher relief esearpment TURONIAN
------------
of Paleozoic sandstones and igneous basement. Several
examples of such settings inelude the valley sandur . ,T San OI~e ..'
deposits of southern Iceland (Bluck, 1974), the Scott CENOMANIAN
95
outwash deposits of Alaska (Boothroyd, 1972), the
Canterbury plain of New Zealand (Brown and Wilson,
1988), and the Pantanal escarpment and alluvial plain in
Brazil (Short and Blair, 1986). What these alluvial plains
have in cornmon is a high sand supply and a braided 100
en
channel network eapable of distributing the high bed ::;)
e
w AlBIAN
load. Regional to local tectonics and vegetation would c:.:I

also have had an important impact on the resulting ~

ce
c:.:I 105
depositional system. The alluvial plain gradient varies in >-
.-1
these examples from several meters per kilometer to less ce
~
than 0.01 m/km in the Pantanal basin.
The Aptian-Maastrichtian eustatic sea level curve
(Figure 12) reeords significant sea level Iows that are APTlAN
110
eorrelated with the regressive-transgressive para-
sequences of the Upper Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U JURASSIC Chapiza/Mlsahualll
(Maeel1ari, 1988). The Main Hollin eoastal plain and
Upper Hollin shore zone depositional systems are Figure 12-Correlation of Napo stratigraphy with global
believed to have been deposited during the late Albian sea level change for the Early-Late Cretaceous. The T and
U sandstone packages correspond to the significant sea
sea level rise that inundated the Main Hollín braidplain. levellows during the Cenomanian and Turonian, respec-
There is no evidence in the Oriente cores for a significant tively.
sea level fall at this time. Deposition of the Upper Hollín
Fonnation reflects gradual eastward encroachment of the
sea and progressive destruction of the delta plain to form formation of the early Andean orogenic belt. A passive
neritic tidal shoals. Figure 12 shows a more substantial margin shelf apparently received the Hollín and Napa
sea level drop in the Late Turonian at the start of Napo U sedirnentation. Limited exposures of phosphatic shales
sedimentation, suggesting a marked westward shift of and cherts in the northwestem Napa uplift suggest the
the shoreline. It is envisaged that Upper Hollin and existence of a shelf slope break and Late Cretaceous
Napo deposition took place on a broad, relatively stable upwelling prior to its destruction during Andean defor-
continental shelf west of the Guyana craton and prior to mation.
584 vVhite et al.

Upper Hollín Paleogeography

Late Albian

(C) Shorezone (O) Dpen Marine

Main Hollln Paleogeography

Early Albian

(A) Braid Plain (8) coastat Plain

Figure 13-Hollin paleogeography in Albian time. (A) Braided alluvial plain. (8) Initial transgression during Main Hollin
coastal plain deposition. (C) Upper Hollín shore zone deposition in tidally influenced nearshore environments. (O) Open
marine sedimentation ending Hollin sedimentation.

Figures 13 and 14 show a series of block diagrams that
summarize the paleogeography during Hollín and Napo
time. The Albian braided alluvial plain was built on the
edge of the Guyana shield and eovered the Oriente basin
farther west than the Napo uplift. The position of the
Albian shoreline has been obliterated by Andean defor-
mation. Inundation by a late Albian sea level rise estab-
lished fluvial, deltaic, estuary, and tidal shoal environ-
ments (Figures 13b, e, d). The delta and estuarine sand
aecumulations now forro exeellent hydroearbon reser-
voirs in addition to the Main Hollin. Sand sedimentation
rates are inferred to have been very rapid within the
Hollin depositional systems. Wells suggest that the
shoreline was close to the Guyana shield at the end of
Hollin deposition. The late Albian maximum flooding
event (Lower Napo Shale) essentiaily closed Hollin sedi-
mentation.
The Napo Formation eonsists of severa! transgressive-
regressive paekages related to Late Cretaeeous eustatie
sea level fluctuations (Figure 12) (Haq et al., 1988),
including the Napo T and U (Figure 14). The sueeessive
parasequenees in the Upper Hollín and Napo formations
were deposited in a basin with a ramp margin (see Van
Wagoner et al., 1988). This model implies that relative sea
 Reservoir Characterízation, Hollin and Napo Formaiions, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 585

Middle Turonian Late Turonian

(e) Middle Napo

(A) Lower Napa

Figure 14-Napo paleogeography during Cenomanian-Turonian time. (A) Early Cenomanian marine shelf deposition dornl-
nating much of the Oriente. (8) Napo T sandstone deposition in the western Oriente. (e) Transgressive marine mud deposi-
tion (Middle Napo Shale). (O)Turonian marine shelf sedimentation prior to sea levellowering and deposition of the Napo U
sandstone cycle.

level did not fall below the shelf break, which precludes
lowstand sediments within lowstand fan or prograding
wedge settings. The Hollin and Napo shore zone to shelf
facies tract transgressed and regressed several times. The
quartzose sandstones of the Upper Hollin, T, U, and M
sequences were deposited after maximum sea level fall
and within depocenters (eroded valleys) created during
falling sea level. Eventually both the T and U were
inundated and covered with limestone shoals and shelf
muds during the subsequent sea level rise. The ramp
margin model permits major shifts of the shoreline, espe-
cially where the rate of sedimentation exceeded the rate
oí subsidence.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
Reservoir-Scale Heterogeneity of the Hollin
Lithofacies
The Coca-Payarnino and Gacela fields in the north-
western Oriente basin have sufficient well density to
allow detailed stratigraphic correlation. Well spacings
range up to 3 km in the Gacela field and average about
1 km along the Coca-Payamino structure. The NNW-SSE
orientation of the Coca-Payamino is nearly orthogonal to
the east-west depositional pattern interpreted for the
Hollin strata. Figure 15 is a simplified cross section
586 W1zite et al.
N S
Coca Payamino Payamino Payamino Payamino
6 4
M
50
75
100
o_ _ _1 Km
_
limestone/Marls fiIIII Glauconitic Sandstone
Figure 15-Stratigraphie eross section of the Hollin lithofacies in the Coca-Payamino .fi~ld, western Oriente bas!n. litho~a­
cíes have been determinad from eored intervals in the fleld, The top 01the Upper Hollín IS commonly a succession of thín,
fossiliferous limestones. See Figure 1 for Joeation.
through Coca-Paya mino field and illustrates the local
variation of depositional facies interpreted for each well
along the structure. Overall, the Coca #4 well contains
the thickest development of the coastal and shelf
sequences mainly because of thicker shore zone sand-
stones. A relatively thin veneer of coastal deposits is
present in each well, except in Coca #7, where the equiv-
alent interval is dominated bv a braided channel. The
Main Hollín remains consistent throughout the structure.
Figure 16 shows the overalllithofacies variations
between two wells in the Gacela area immediately south
of the Coca-Payamino field. In the Gacela #1 well, both
the glauconitic sandstones of the shelf and the tidal sand-
stones of shore zone origin are thicker than their counter-
parts in the Gacela #2 welL The shelf sandstones in the
Gacela #2 are not as glauconite rich as those in Gacela #1
and have retained significant reservoir porosity. Finally,
the coastal plain deposits in Gacela #1 appear to be
absent in Gacela #2. The coastal plain facies is believed to
interfinger with braided channellithologies.
These two field examples suggest that the Main Hollin
braided stream sandstones are remarkably consistent in
character across each field. The coastal plain, shore zone,
and open marine units, by comparison, show significant
compartmentalization that is largely a function oí deposi-
tional environment, Optimum field development must
account for this lateral and vertical heterogeneity.
Sandstone Petrography
A representative suite of sandstone samples frorn
Hollin and Napa facies was examined using standard
petrographic techniques. From this analysis, it is
concluded that similar sandstone framework and diage-
netic characteristics occur in each of the reservoir
2 1 5mmDm~rrmm~
Maih
Romn
-_.
------..-.;...................> .'.
-'-'"
[J Quartzarenite F:":-:-:j Shale
intervals. Two sandstone types are present: quartzose
sandstones occur in each facies, while glauconitic sand-
stones occur only in Upper Hollin and Napo intervals.
Figure 17 shows the framework and diagenetic charac-
teristics of the Hollin and Napo sandstones.
Quartzose sandstones (Figure 17a) volumetrically
dominate the arenaceous deposits. Grain size varies
substantial1y within a single cored intervalo The coarsest
detritus in cores or outcrops occurs in the braidplain
depositional system of the Main Hollin succession. In the
Tiguino #3 core, for example, the braided stream sand-
stones contain beds dominated by coarse to very coarse
quartz grains, as well as local quartz granule conglom-
erate lag. The average grain size of the Main Hollin is
medium grained. Bímodal grain size segregation in slip-
face laminae is typical of much of the cross bedding. The
westem Oriente Pungarayacu area has the finest grained
Hollin channel sandstones encountered in the Oriente
area. Excellent porosity and hydrocarbon staining occur
throughout the Oriente in the fine-grained to granule
textured lithologies. Sandstones in the Upper Hollin and
Napo suceessions also vary signifieantly in grain size, but
generally within the very fine to medium-grained size
range; they have locally excel1ent porosity and perme-
ability (Figure 17b).
Glaueonitic sandstones of the Upper Hollin shelf
facies tract and each of the Napo intervals consist oí a
framework of glaueonite and quartz grains (Figure 17c).
Glauconite content varíes from trace to dominant,
Typically, the glauconite grains are about 200 um larger
than associated quartz grains. Whereas the quartz in the
shelf sand shoal facies was reworked from deltaie and
shore zone deltas, the glauconite was locally derived by
diagenetie replaeement of biogenie material. Glauconite
grains are easily compacted under moderate overburden
 Reserooir Characterizatum, Hollin andNapa Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 587

w GA¡i lAE
OEPOSITIONAl
(GR) SYSTEM

o UPPER HOLLlN
M SHElF

SHOAlS

SHElF

SHELFjBAY
TIDAl
SHOREZONE

~:::::::===:::::::==~-=ti=:i MAIN HOlUN

COASTAL
PlAIN

BRAIOED
CHANNEl
.' " " o,'. '.'

" ...... ,' • O" ••••••• ','::' •

LEVEE
. " ..
: : '
. BRAIOEO
.:
.' ",' ,,'. "

. . " "
CHANNEl
',',.:.
~.

. : ..... : ., . . '. . ... :.... . . . ',. ... . '.

- -
.' .
40 '" ,'..
" ••••• ,' ••••• ''0,'',,'

. o,,· " '

"

•.
•
"
o', "
o" .- " "

'- .....
. . ......
. ',.
. . ..... ..... . :: ... ',
.
.:

. BRAIOED
, .. : ' .: ',' '. .. ,: ',,: :, :':,. . :'
" ' ,',' " .. ..
'

: ,': .:"
'. '
'. '.'

, ' , " "

'

"
. . '.
'" ••• '
.
•••
"
,'
" .'
0,_
'.'
•• CHANNEl

ti mestone/Marls [ll]] Glauconitic

Sandstone D Mudstone o Quartzarenite

Figure 16-Stratigraphic correlation in Gacela field 5 km southwest of Coca-Payamino. Thickness and Iithofacies variations
are especially noticeable in the coastal plain and open marine facies.

pressure and may form a pseudomatrix that occludes the The burial diagenetic history of the Cretaceous
original primary porosity. Where the percentage of glau- reservoir sandstones reflects several processes that
conite is less than about 20% of the sandstone occurred in the following order:
framework, the quartz-dominated framework retains
much of the original porosity, resulting in significant • Limited mechanical compaction of framework
reservoir potential. In contrast, the dark green laterally f grains
equivalent glauconitic sandstones are tight due to • Early calcite and pyrite precipitation
framework grain compaction. • Dissolution of unstable framework grains
Quartz dominates the detrital framework in al1 sand- (feldspars)
stones except the glauconite-rich shelf facies. The quartz • Precipitation of silica overgrowths
is generally monocrystalline and less cornrnonly poly- • Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals
crystalline; it has a strong undulose extinction. Feldspars
and micas are subordinate to rare, but more abundant in Calcite precipitation occludes the initial porosity in
the Napo T and U sandstones. Feldspar composition thin sandstone beds, especially adjacent to shale
varíes from sodic plagiodase to potassic feldspar. Unless interbeds where it forms small, spherulitic concretions.
encased in early calcite cementation, most surviving These calcite-cemented sandstones show no evidence of
feldspar grains exhibit moderate to extensive secondary mechanical compactíon, suggesting that protective
leaching. Secondary leaching during burial diagenesis cementation occurred at an ear1y stage. Pyrite precipita-
helped reduce the feldspar contento The provenance is tion in the forro of concretionary cements or framboids
believed to be the feldspar-rích granitic Guyana are characteristically associated with the organic debris
basement to the east. However, the possibility of a trapped within the sandstones and shales. Early mechan-
quartzose Paleozoic sandstone source overlying the ical compaction is again limited to isolated grain ínter-
basement is also possible. Other components of the penetrations. Organic debris and pyrite crystals are
sandstone include heavy rninerals such as zircon and concentrated along stylolite-like surfaces.
coalified plant debris. Silica overgrowths are ubiquitous throughout the
588 ~VJ¡ite et al.

Figure 17-Petrography 01 Hollin and Napo reservoir sandstones as seen in thin section photomicrographs and scanning
electron micrographs. (a) Plane Iight view 01 Main Hollin braidplain sandstone. (b) Quartzose sandstone 01 Napo U interval.
(c) Glauconitic sandstone of the Upper Hollin open marine facies. (e) Diagenetic kaolinite occupying isolated pores in thin
section. (1) Scanning electron micrograph 01 secondary silica overgrowths and kaolinite clay mineral.
 Reserooir Characterizaiion, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
quartz arenites of the Hollin and Napo sequence and
provide the framework support that has preserved
porosity to reservoir depths in the Oriente basin.
Although the overgrowths (Figure 17d) make up only a
small percentage of the sandstones, they strengthen the
highly porous sandstones while only slightly reducing
overall primary porosity. Mechanical testing of these
sandstones documents the high compressive strength
required to break the strong silica-cemented framework.
The amount of porosity attributable to framework-grain
dissolution is not significant compared to the primary
intergranular porosity preserved by silica overgrowth.
Precipitation of kaolinite day minerals followed over-
growth formation. The kaolinite typical1y fil1s smal1
c1usters of pores, but does not seriously affect sandstone
permeability (Figure 17e). Kaolinite diagenesis
succeeded silica overgrowth formation (Figure 17f), but
preceded oil emplacement. Such relationships are
common and invariably associated with the oil-water
contact where differentially stained sandstones may
occur below the base of the oil-saturated sandstones.
Petrophysical Characteristics
Electric Log Response
The stratigraphic and sedimentologic characterization
of the Napo and Hollin reservoirs has been facilitated by
using core studies combined with electrical log evalúa-
tions. Many of the mineralogic characteristics observed
in cores have a petrophysicallog response. Carbona-
ceous debris on cross bed slip faces induces a stronger
shaly gamma ray response than would be expected from
core examination. A clean gamma ray deflection is
typical of a clean sandstone, but a higher gamma
response may indicate relatively c1ean sandstones conta-
minated with carbonaceous laminae, shaly sandstone, or
carbonaceous limestone or marl. Glauconite and pyrite
reduce the resistivity. The glauconite-rich sandstones
result in sorne of the lowest resistivity responses on
observed logs. Pyrite is locally abundant as a dissemi-
nated replacement fabric or as concretions in all litholo-
gies. Dolomitic shales tend to have higher resistivity than
nondolomitic shales due to carbonate cementation of
pore space. These shales are the most resistive clastic
lithofacies in the Oriente basin.
Fluid chemistry is also reflected in log response, and
its effects limit the usefulness of resistivity or SP curves
for facies correlation. Low salinities within the Main
Hollin succession limit the reliability of the SP curve and
also moderately affect the resistivity curve. The presence
of oil is noticeable regardless of lithology.
Porosity-Permeability Relationships, Pore
Geometry, and Capillarity
Multiple rock types occur in the Hollin formation
because of variations in deposítional environment. The
most important factors affecting porosity preservation
are lithology, compaction, and diagenesis. Porosity and
permeability generally correlate in the Upper Hollín
despite sígnificant mineralogic differences throughout
589
this interval. In the quartz-dominated Main Hollín,
sediment texture is the primary factor controlling pore
geometry and connectivity.
Figure 18a shows the porosity-permeability data for
the entire Upper Hollín in a single Coca-Payamino well.
Permeability ranges over SLX orders of magnitude, and
no distinct trends are discernible in the overall data set.
The poorest permeabilities are associated with glau-
conitic sandstones and clay-rich interbeds. Figures 18b
and 18c ilIustrate the wide range of measured porosity
and permeability in this highly heterogeneous
Iorrnation. Quartz-rich zones are of high reservoir
quality and comparable to those found in the Main
Hollin. Median values for porosity and permeability are
8.6% and 1.67 md, respectively. A histogram of grain
density (Figure 18d) further demonstrates the diversity
of minerals present in this interval,
Mercury injection extended range capilIary pressure
data were generated to examine reservoir rock quality,
determine size and sorting of pore throats, and evaluate
seal capacity. Shales within the Upper Hollín (Figure 19)
are microporous and considered to be effective seals.
Because of inhíbiting diagenetic effects, glauconitic sand-
stones have bimodal pore throat size distributions and
complex pore geometries (Figure 20). Further reduction
in reservoir quality can result from extensive diagenetic
pyrite and the abundance of detrital cIay drapes and
coalified plant debris.
Figure 21a shows the porosity-permeability data for
the Main Hollín Formation in a single Coca-Payamino
well. A clear cluster of data in the 15-20% porosity range
and greater than 100 rnd permeability demonstrates
excellent reservoir quality. The Main Hollin is a "clean"
uniform sandstone, although thin, impermeable c1ay-rich
interbeds are not uncommon. Figures 21b, e, and d illus-
trate the guartz-dominated nature of the Main Hollin.
Medían values for porosity and permeability are 18.6%
and 1013 md, respectively. Mercury injection data
(Figure 22) show unimodal well-sorted and well-
connected pores, further substantíating hígh reservoir
guality. Most pore throat radii are larger than 1 um, with
most pores greater than 10 um in width.
Anisotropy within the Maín Hollin causing direc-
tional preferences in permeability is mínimal. Horizontal
and vertical permeabilities were rneasured on full-
diameter core to determine the potential for reservoír
fluid coning. In the quartz-rich zones of the Main Hollin,
horizontal and vertical permeabilities are almost egual
(Figure 23). This indicates that cross bedding and other
sedimentologíc features do not create anisotropy in this
sand body.
Rock Mechanics
Uniaxial and triaxial compression testing was
performed on four lithologiesfrom the Hollin formation:
shale, limestone, glauconític sandstone, and quartzose
sandstone. These data were critical in the assessment of
borehole stability and other engineering evaluations
useful for horizontal drilling parameters (Ramirez and
Rodas, 1992). Mohr-Coulomb failure criterla were estab-
lished under triaxial load on four samples for ea eh
590 W1zíte et al.

Permeability Histogram
I
_ .Median Value (1.67)
I
90 90
-----·Geom. Avurage (1.93) I
I
-Cumulativu Fraquency
so I SO ~
_ - - Cumulativu Capacity los! I
I 70 l-
70 44Samples I 'O
'é I
~
Q
~ 60 I 60
Q I ~
Q. Gl
I
~ SO I
50 Q.
c:
al I -;
i 40
I
I
40 .3
::
u: 30
I
I 30 ~
I fi
20 I 20 O
I

10 10

.02 .71 23. 724.

Horizontal Permeability (22S0 psi): md
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Poroslty (2250 psi): %

(e) Porosity Histogram (d) Grain Density Histogram

1001__-----....,.----------~
100 100 1
1

I¡
1

90 90 90 90

80 80iñ SO so i
o u
¡
_ 70 70 !:o 70 70
Q.
i ... 'éal
~
~ 60 60 c:
Gl ~ 60 60
e
U CIl
Q. Gl
o.. Qi
~ so 500. ~ SO 50 6-
Ql
s=-'40 - .Median Valua (8.6) -ti e
CIl - .Madian Valua (2.66) u:
•• -- ·Aritb. Avurage (8.8)
4(1.3 6-al 40 •••• ··Arith. Avuraga (2.67) 40 ~
! 30 --Cumulalivu Fl'8quency u
>-
:t:
It 30 -Cumulativu Fraquancy
30 :¡
¡
LL. 30 III
- - - Cumulalivu Capacity lO$! o. 44Samples E
III :1
20 44Samples 20 O 20 20 O

10 10 10 10

O O O
.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 2.90
Poroslty (22S0 psi): 0/0 Graln Density: gmlcc

Figure 18-Porosity-permeability relationships 01 the Upper Hollin Forrnation. (a) Porosity versus perrneability (to nitrogen
at an estirnated net ef1ective reservoir pressure 012250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram 01 alllitholaeies 01 the Upper Hollin.
(e) Porosity histogram 01 alllithologies. (d) Grain density histogram for the Upper Hollin.

lithology. Compressive strengths were measured at based on "fresh state" water-oil relative permeability
9520-25)70 psi for shale, 16,700-28,040 psi for limestone, measurements. Wettability índices in the Upper Hollin
8370-27,550 psi for low-percentage glauconitic support the theory of intermediate to slightly oil-wet
sandstone, and 5100-16,870 psi for clean sandstone conditions. Asphaltinic oils (up to 15.2% asphaltene by
(Figure 24). Tensile strengths ranged from 1760 psi for weight) are cornmon near the oil-water contacto Hollin
shale to 660 psi for c1eansandstone. wetting tendencies could have significant impact on
production (fluid flow characteristics) and reservoir
Wettability development scenarios, such as water flood potential.
Both the Upper and Main Hollin demonstrate inter-
mediate to oil-wetting tendencies based on qualitative
and quantitative índicators, Localized development of CONCLUSIONS
mixed wettability or preferentially oil-wet characteristics
can be mineralogy specific, that is, glauconite-rich rocks Core descriptions have shown that four depositional
tend to show stronger oil-wet conditions. Complex pore systems comprise Hollin stratigraphy: braidplain and
geometries formed by small, irregular pore throats lead coastal deposits of the Main Hollin Sandstone, and shore
to high immobile saturation of the wetting phase. Irre- zone and open marine shelf facies in the Upper Hollin
ducible water saturation tends to be low, with an average Formation. This reconstruction enlarges on previous
of 15%, and residual oil saturation ranges from 25 to 40% interpretations of marine-influenced Hollin fluvial depo-
 Reserooir Characteriauion. Hollin andNapo Formaiions, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 591

(a) Injection Preesure vs. Mercury seturetton

100,000-r~"!!'l'!!"!!'~"'l"!!":!"~!!"!"!"!!"!".!I'!!"!"'!"!!"!!"!"!"'!!"!"!!"'!"!!"!!"~ -_

, ,
10,000 :: :: : : ::: :: = : :
- - - - -1- - • - -
~ :: :: : :: : ~
'"" - • - .. -
_:::;:::::::::
- - - _1_ - - - -
~ :: :: :
... - - -
:: ::
- _ 1- -
~ : : : :: ~:: :: :
- _ - .... _ - -
: ::
- -
!::: : ::: ~ ::::
.. _ - - - _ .... - __
- - - - -1- - - - -., - - r r - - - - 4- - - - -,. - - - - - r ~ - - - ...,,- - - - - T - - - _._,. - - ,--
- - - - -,- - ~ - - ... - - - lo-' - __ - _1_ - - - - .. - _ '. - _ 1- _ - _ - -lo- - - _ + _ - - - ...... - _ '. _
_ _ _ _ _: .J ~ : ~ ~ -; ~ .• ~ _

:
- - - - -,- - - - - - - - - ... - - - - -'1- - - - - i' - - - - - ... - - - - ..... - - - - ,. - - - _ .• ,.. - -.+ -
I 1 1 1 1 • I

-~ ~ . - - -; - - - - - - - - - -:- .- -- -:- - -- ; .;

"
1 1 I
, I 1

- ~ - - ::~ ~ .: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~:: ~ ~ ~:~ ~: ~ ~ ..-----,..----

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ .: ~ ~::: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-.
- --I-----~-----""-----,-----
__ 1 '~ _ .. ----- ..--- ..
".. 1 ~ _ .1. ..... ~ _ ,¡.
- p . - ..
t- --
_

- - -:- - ~ - - { - ..- - - :-- - - - -;- ...... - ; - - - ..-:- - - - -:- ..- - - ¡ '..- - - - :-- - -
_ ~ -1- - ~ _ -'~ - - ¡,.. - .... _ -4_ - _ _ -.1. ~ -tI ..... ... - __

I 1 I I I , 1 I 1

.; - l- - - } - -- - - 7- - - - "¡. - - ~ - " j "" ,- • - 1- :.

I 1 I 1 1 l 1 I
1 1 I I 1 ~ I I
1 I I I , 1 ~ , 1

100
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~j~ ~ ~ ~ ~
= =: ~ ~ = == === = =:= == = = ~ = =: = =t=====:= = === ~ === == t =- == =:= =- - -
= =
--- - - - - - -:- - - - - - - - - - - - - -:- - -
~ - - -- '. - -:- - - - ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - -
1 I 1 I I I I I •
- - - - -1- - - - - "1 - - - _ .. ,. .. - - - -1- - - - - 'f - - .. - - r- - - - - -,- .. - - - 'f - - - - - 1"' _.- - -
I 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 1
I 1 1 I I 1 1 I I
1 I I I I 1 I I I

10 ::: :::: s: : : : : ~ :::: : :::~ ::::: : ~: ::: ::: ;:: ::::: :~ :::: : ~: ::: : : ~ : : : : ::: :::: :
- - - - 00( _ - - - ... _ - - - -,.. - .. _ ...... - - - .. - .... - - - - .... - - - - ... - - - - - t" .. - - - -1- - - _ -
- ~ - - ., - - • - - -y - - - - -,. - - - - .., .. ~ .. - - 1'" - - .. - - r - - .... .., - - - - - r - - - - - \- - - - -
~ ~
- -
___ , ..J __
- - 00( - -
~
-
_
-
~
•
1
- - - - - ....
L
- - - - ... -
J - - - - .. -
1
- - - - ..
•. L.
-
~
- - -
J - - - - - ...
J. - - - .. _.,-
'- -_ ~• -_ ._
-

I 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 I

:- -- -: - --: --- ,.:

~. - - - ..,- - - • - 't - - - - - t- - - - -..,~ - - - - r - - - - -r'" - - - - -1- - - - - r - - - - -1- ~.-

- - - - -: - - - - - - - ---
I

1
: 1

I
I

•
-
I

I
--
I

1
-
I

1
1

- - - - -: - - - - - - - -- - :- _. ,-
I
:1

1
I

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mercury Saturation, percent pore spaee

(b) Pore Size Distribution

Mercury Injection Data
Injectlon Pressure: 0-50000 psi

Classification
90
Sub-nano
Permeability to Alr, mD: 0.0013
80 Porosity, pereent: 2.7
nano
70
sub-mier
60
le o
50
meso
40
maero
30

20
super-macro
10

o 0.0025 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100 -----Ine.

Pore Radius, microns (1/4 deeadelbar)

Figure 19-Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollín shales. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size
distribution of reservoir seals in the Upper Hollin.
592 ~Vhite et al.

(a) Injection Pressure vs. Mercury Saturation

100,000
- 1111~11~~~I~I~~~~I~~IIIIil~I~I~II~III~~~~~~;~
- - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - -;- - - - -: - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - 1 -

____ -'1 _+__ I-_~ _ _ ",. I I_ --4-

I I I 1 I I I
1 I I I J

: ~--;!¡~-_!'~¡~!_'~~!~_~1~~~¡~~~"¡;~1~1~~~-1¡
10,000

1 1 1 I 1 1 I I
-+ ... .. ~ .. _ _ _ _ __ -1- - - - -1- - - - -4 - - - --i-
1 1 I 1 I 1
1 I I I I I

, "-'¡~~'~¡'~'~¡~§'~¡':'¡~1"l¡~¡~I~~~'l"'¡¡~
1,000

_ _ l' ~ _ - __ ~ _ - - - - - _1_ - - - -.- - - - -1- - - - -4 - - - - -'l-

I l 1 l ' I I I
_ _ .J ~ l. ,_ _ _ _ \-. 1 1 __ - -~ -1 _ - _ - -f_

1 1 I I I 1 I 1
I 1 I I I I 1 1 1
1 1 1 J I ' , I ,

100 : : :: : ¡ :: :: :::: r:: :::: C: _: e::: : ~:: ::: ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ =::::~ ~ -: : ::~ ~

~ ~~~:~:~~~~~~~:~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
- r - - - -,- - o-o - -¡- - - - -.- - - - , - - - -, - - - - ..,-
__ l,. L _ ~ __ 1 -1 .J ..1 -J -

1 I I I I I I
__ l. l 1 1 1 ~ _, J __ ~ - ..1 _
1 , 1 1 1 1 , I
l I I 1 I I 1 1 1
I J 1 1 I I I I I

10 : : : : 1 : : =: r : : : : e: : : : e : =: :t::: =: : :1: : : :. :J = =: : J : : : : ~:

_- ~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~§~~~~~~~~~j~~~~~~
- - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - -:- - - -:- - --~-1 1- ~ ~ ._~: ~ ~ ~~ ~
_ _ .. .. _ - _ - r - - - - t- - - - -1_ - - - -1- - - - ""1 - - - - .. - - - - "1 -
1 1 1 1 1 I I I ,
_ _ 4 ~ "" '- _ . 1 1 - -t __ - _ ... - - - - >4-
, l ' 1 I 1 1 1
1 l ' ~ I I I I

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 100
Mercury satureuon, percent poro 6PBGO

(b) Pore Size Dlstrlbutlon

Mercury Injection Data
Injectlon Pressure: 0-5‫סס‬oo psi

Classificalion
90
Sub-nano
Permeability to Air, mD: 33.3
80 Porosity, percent: 18.5
8ca nano
o.
In 70
...O
4)
ub-micr
o. 60
o~
c- ic o
O 50
::::
ca

-e
lo.
:::J
ca
(J)
40
meso

macro
:::J
olo. 30
4)
.:E 20
super-macro
10

O
O 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 3 10 SO 100 ........... tne,
Pore Radius, microns (1/4 decade/bar)

Figure 2o-Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin glauconitic sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection
pressure. (b) Pare size distribution.
 Reserooir Chamcterizaiion, Hotlin ami Napo Fonnations. Oriente Basin, Ecuador 593

(b) Permeability Histogram

100 100
Median Valua (1013) f
90 f 90
- - - - - Gecm. Average (840.) I
I
SO - - Cumulaliva Fl8qllllncy
- - - Cumulativa Capacity Los! I
I
8O~
.. 70 I
79 Samplas 70 1-
c: I 'O
CIl I
l: 60
Ql I 60 'E
(ll
o. I ~
ID
~ 50

-
I
500.
e I
CIl I III

1
u,
40

30 I
I
I 40.3
3013
l:'
I ClI
o.
ClI
20 200

10 10

O O
S.9E-4 .02 .71 23. 724. 23170
0.001 .....- - - - - - - ......J Horizontal Permeability (2250 psi): md
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Porosity (2250 psi): %

(e) Porosity Histogram (d) Grain Density Histogram

1OOT"';:=:::====~---;¡r_:(""T 100
·Median Valua (18.6)
100
,..-------r.....,.---------rl00
90 90 90 90
- - - - - .Arith.Average (17.4)

80 --Cumulative Fl8quency
- - - Cumulative Capacity Lost
SO ~ 80 80 e
(ll
_ 70 u
c:
79 Samplas 70 ::
o
.. 70 70 ¡
(ll
e o-
CIl
l: SO
(ll
60 'E
Ql ~ so 60 ~
Ql
o. l:Ql o. i
~ 50 500. ~ 50 50 5-GI
c: ; e
(ll
:::l 40 40.9
CIl
g. 40 - Median Valua (2.65) u:
40GI
~ ~
----- Arith.Averaga (2.65) >
u. 30 30 'ti u: 30 - Cumulative Frequency i
ClI 30 '3
Q, 798amples
ClI E
:::l
20 20 o 20 20 o

10 10 10 10

O"'~;:¡¡¡~:;:p~~~ o o 1Ih-I-~"l"!"!"'I""l"'I"If"!"'I"I'~~"f"I"'I"I"!"'I"'I'.J- O
.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 2.90 3.00
Porosity (2250 psi): % Graln Density: gmlcc

Figure 21-Porosity-permeability relationships 01 the Main Hollin quartzose sandstones. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to
nitrogen at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram 01 quartzose sandstone. (e)
Porosity histogram tor sandstones. (d) Grain density histogram tor the principal reservoir sandstones.

sition. Sandstones in overlying Napo strata in the depositional system of the Upper Hollín succession has
western Oriente basin are al so divided into two variable sandstone distribution, with local good quality
sequences (T and U intervals). reservoir development. The capping open marinesand-
The Hollin braidplain depositional system is a stones are moderately prospective, especial1y where
sandstone-dominated unit that comprises most of the glauconite content is low. Stratigraphic trapping
Hollin succession. It is also themost prolific reservoir potential is implied by the heterogeneity of these litho-
zone in the western part of the basin. The braided fluvial facies.
sandstone units have excellent continuity and connec- Fluviodeltaic Napo sandstones are prolific producers
tivity, as shown by analysis of closely spaced wells. of oil from fields in the central part of the Oriente basin.
However, shale interbeds and thicker channel abandon- These stacked channel and shore zone sandstones have
ment mudstones adversely influence local perrneability. reservoir characteristics similar to the underlying Hollín
It is believed that the braidplain deposits are most fluvial sandstone reservoirs, albeit with local hetero-
productive in structural traps where there is limited geneities. Toward the west, the Napo sandstones occupy
stratigraphic trapping potential. valley-like, topographic lows; these sandstones have
The coastal plain depositional system consists of locally significant reservoir potential.
braided and meandering river sediments, overbank A better understanding of the Hollin and Napo
floodplain strata, and deltaic-estuarine deposits. Even stratigraphy and distribution of reservoir quality sand-
between closely spaced wells, sandstone-shale ratios stones will help to optimize wellbore placement during
may be variable. Similarly, the overlying shore zone field development. This understanding has been further
594 Wllite ei al.

(a) lnjection Pressure vs. Mercury Saturation

100,000

~Tm¡-mm~mmmm~~-mmmr~~
:~~j!-~_~j'-~~~'~'I-~-~I~~"!~~_¡I~~-~!:~~~
10,000

I I I 1 • 1 ~ ,
_ _ _ _ .... _ ~ ._ ~I __ .- .__ 1 __ - _ -t - - - - -t - - - - .. - - R - .. - - - - r - - -
I I I I 1 I , I
I 1 I I 1 1 , I

-:'~!-~'~'~~~l~'~:I~:1'1:¡:~111~~I'~~~I'j~
1,000

____ ~ • 1 ... _ _ - _ .. - - - - .. - - - - ... - - - - t- - - -

1 l l i t t j ,
_ _ __ 1- ~ 1__ .• __ 1 __ .__ .... ..l .L. L L- - -
1 1 1 I I I I I
I 1 I I I 1 I I
1 I 1 I I I I I

100
~~~ ~~~~~~¡~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -
____ 1
,
,
1
..J
I
.J
I
1
1
L
1
L
1
L
1
=:= ===
_ -'- - - -
,

-:-- --;- --:~-~-~----f----~----~----:- ---:----

1 , 1 I I I I I

~ ¡¡~j¡ ¡'~~' H: j1 ~: 1J,,' ~!'~ ¡~!: 11 ¡¡ ¡;: ~~ ¡~'~:~~~~

_ _ _ _ ,_ _ _ _ _ _ ... .. __ - _ .. - _ - - ~ - - - -t- - - - -1- - --

t 1 I I I I 1 1
__ -1- 1 .... .¡ .. - _ - - ~ - - - - h - - - -1- .- - -
I I I I J I 1 I
j I I , , I 1 I

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mercury Saturation, percent pore space

(b) Pare Size Distribution

Mercury Injection Data
Injsetlon Pressure: 0-50000 psi

Classifleatlon
90
Sub-nano
Permeability to Air, mO: 5220
80 Porosity, pereent: 20.8
nano
70
ub-mie
60
le o
50
meso
40
macro
30

20

10 ~-_.---_ . . -.-- .. ---- -------- -- -------- -------- -

o 0.0025 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100 -+-Inc.

Pore Radius, microns (114 decadelbar)

Figure 22-Petrophysical relationships of the Main Hollin sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b)
Pare size distributian trom mercury injeetion data.
 Reserooir Characterization, Hollín ami Napo Formations, Oriente Basin. Ecuador
10000. , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . .
E1000.0
)(
CI:I
~ braided outwash fan, northeast Culf of Alaska: Coastal
~ 100.0
:oCI:I
IV
E Quatemary deposits of the northern Canterbury plains,
~
c. 10.0
(lj
'Eo
.!:!
~ 1.0
*
Log (Y) :::0.8765 x - 0.5446
=
Correlation Coef. 0.992
0.1
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.
Vertical Permeability (Air): md
Figure 23-Full diameter core permeability measurements
(horizontal and vertical) for the Main Hollin sandstones.
enhanced by detailed petrophysical analysis of the
reservoir sandstones, which has provided the appro-
priate data for accurate reservoir simulation. The Oriente
basin of Ecuador is a proven oil province tha t has
tremendous potential for future production.
Aeknowledgments The authors ioould like to thank ihe
Direccion Nacional de Hidrocarburos (DNH) and Peiroe-
cuador for permission to publish this paper and for iheir
inualuable assistance in making Hollin and Napo eores
available. The core examinaiion in Ecuador (Quito and Lago
Agrio) was undertaken by the principal author, Ed Robbs and
Felix Ramirez (Oryx Energy, Dalias), and Mariana Lascano
(Petroecuador). Acknowledgment is given for their assistanee
in collecting the iniiial eore data for the projeet. Harold Illich
(OnJx Energy, Dalias) contriouted substantially to the Hollin
outcrop study and our understanding of the Oriente basin
burial history. Furiher acknowledgment is given to Tim
Martín (Oryx Energy, Daüae), Clíff Thomson (Oryx
Ecuador), Oryx Energy (Dallas), and our partners for permis-
sion to publish this paper, and to the Oryx Graphie group for
preparation of theillustrations.
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Terwindt, J. H. J., 1988, Palaeo-tidal reconstructions on
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596 vVlzite ei al.

(a) (b)
Linear Coheaion = 4750 psi
Linear Cohnion '" 2460 psi
Angle o, Intemal Friction = 40.4 degrees Angle o, Intemal Friction = 32.9 degrees

25000 25000 .
'-~~----r~---

.
---..,--~--

éñ en
Q..
20000 Q. 20000
0fJ) cñ
en

en -
QJ
lo..

lo..
ces
15000
CV
~
en
lo..

m10000
15000

s: 10000
(1,)
J:
en en
5000 5000

O o-4-&..f.""l¡,..;..--.;.--...¡-......--¡._..........¡....l...........
O 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Normal Stress, PSI Normal Stress, PSI
(e) (d)
30000

25000 16000
zs
Q..
Cñ
Q.
20000
en ~ 12000

-......
en
cv
15000 ...
CD

en éii
ca
ca 8000 -- ----- -
cv 10000 CD
.r:::.
.r:::.
en (J)
4000
5000

o O I I I I
O 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 O 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
Normal Stress, PSI Principal Stress, PSI
Figure 24-Mohr-Coulomb failure eriteria for the Main and Upper Hollin lithologies. (a) Upper Hollin shale. (b) Upper Hollin
Iimestone. (e) Glaueonitie sandstone (high quartz content, Upper Hollin). (d) Main Hollin reservoir sandstone.

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p. 1253-1281. Quito
Ecuador
Authors' Mailing Addresses
Howard J. White
Felix A. Ramirez Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
13155 Noel Road J. Lean M y Av. Orellana
Dalias, Texas 75240-5067 Quito
U.5.A. Ecuador