MEASUREMENTS

Numbers and measurements are essential in chemistry and all its applications. Whenever
you use chemical substances – whether you are adding salt to your cooking, choosing a dosage
of medicine for a child or adding sugar to your coffee – quantities of substances must be
measured. A mistake in choosing the quantities could ruin the dinner, leave the disease uncured
or make your coffee tasteless or too sweet
Physical Quantities
A physical quantity is a physical property that is described by both a number and a unit of
definite size. Any physical property can be measured in many different units. For example, a
person’s weight might be measured in grams, kilograms, pound or many other units. To avoid
confusion, scientists from many other countries have agreed on a system of standard units, called
by the French name Systeme’ Internationale d’ Unites’ (International System of Units)
abbreviated as SI.
SI units are now preferred in scientific research but Metric and English units are still used
in some fields. You’ll probably find yourself working with these units.
Physical quantities are obtained by measurements. A measurement is an operation by
which we compare an unknown physical quantity with a known quantity based on standard. A
reference standard is the physical description of a base unit.
Length, mass, temperature and time are classified as base quantities because other
measurements are based or derived from them.
Volume, density and concentration are classified as derived quantities because they are
derived from based quantity. Tabulated below are the different physical quantities with the
different systems of units used.
Common Physical Quantities with Different System of Units
Physical SI Units Metric Unit (symbol) English Unit (symbol)
Quantities (sysmbol)
Mass Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Pound (lb)
Length Meter (m) Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Volume Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L) Gallon per cubic feet
(gal/ft3)
Temperature Kelvin (K) Celsius degree (oC) Fahrenheit degree (oF)
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
Amount of Mole (mol) Mole (mol) Mole (mol)
Substance
Density Kilogram per cubic Gram per liter (g/L) Pound per cubic feet
meter (kg/m3) (lb/ft3)
One problem with any measure is that the sizes of units often turn out to be
inconveniently large or small for the problem at hand. For example, a biologist describing the

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diameter of a red blood cell (0.000006 m) would find the meter to be an inconveniently a large
unit. Similarly an astronomer measuring the average distance from the earth to the sun
(150,000,000,000 m) would find the meter to be inconveniently small. For this reason, metric
and SI units can be modified by prefixes to refer to either smaller or larger quantities. A list of
the common prefixes is given below:
Some Prefixes Used in Metric and SI units
Prefix Symbol Value
giga G 1.000.000.000 = 109
mega M 1,000,000 = 106
kilo k 1.000 = 103
hecto h 100 = 102
deka da 10 = 101
deci d 0.1 = 10-1
centi c 0.01 = 10-2
milli m 0.001 = 10-3
micro µ 0.000001 = 10-6
nano n 0.000000001 = 10-9

EXAMPLE
Kilo means 1000, so a kilogram is equal to 1000 grams
Or: 1kg = 1000 g, can also be written as : 1kg = 103 g
For smaller units with negative exponents, it is possible to write the equivalent in another form:
Example: centi is 10-2 or so a centimeter is 10-2 of a meter
or 1 cm = 10-2 m or 1 cm = m or 10cm = 1 m
1 mg = 10-3g or 1 mg = g or 1000 mg = 1g

PRACTICE EXCERCISES
Supply the missing
Measurement multiplier.
of Physical Quantities
1. 5.0 mLof= Physical
Measurement 5.0 x ________ L
Quantities 6. 3.7 mg= 3.7 x ______g
2. 2.5 kg = 2.5 x _________g 7. 1.8 pm = 1.8 x _____m
Mass3. 3.0 µm = 3.0 x ________m 8. 7.4 dL = 7.4 x ______L
4. 1.2 MW = 1.2 x _______W 9. 8.2 µg = 8.2 x ______g
5. 4.8 cm = 4.8 x ________m 10. 9.3 mL = 9.3 x ______L

Measurement of Physical Quantities

Mass

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 The term “mass” and “weight” are often used interchangeably but they have different
meanings. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. Weight on the hand is a
measure of the gravitational force that the earth, moon, or other large body exerts on the object.
The amount of matter (mass) in an object does not depend on location but the weight of an object
depend on location. Your weight on earth might be 150 lb. but it would only be 23 lb on the
moon because the pull of the gravity there is only about one-sixth as great. However, your
mass on earth is the same as your mass on moon.

At the same location, two objects with identical masses have identical weights; that is
gravity pulls on both equally. That is why mass and weight are used interchangeably.

The mass of a sample is determined by weighing with the use of weighing scales like
balances. The SI basis unit for mass is the kilogram but the gram and its fractions are more
convenient to use.

Units of Mass
Units Equivalent Units Equivalent
1 kg = 1000 g 1 lb = 16 oz
= 2.205 lb = 454 g
1g = 1000 mg 1 oz = 28.35 g
1 ton = 2000 lb

Length

The length is a physical quantity that describes how far an object extends into space, or it
is the distance between two points. The length of an object can be determined by the use of meter
stick, ruler, tape measure etc.

The meter is the standard unit for length. For shorter length, the centimeters and
millimeters are more convenient to use in laboratory.

Units of Length
Units Equivalent Units Equivalent
1 km = 1000 m 1 mi = 1,609 km
= 0.6214 mi = 1,609 m
= 5,280 ft

1m = 1000 mm 1 yd = 0.9144 m
= 100 cm = 91.44 cm
= 39.37 in = 3 ft
1 cm = 0.01 m 1 ft = 12 in
= 10 mm

Volume

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 The volume of an object is the space it occupies. Volume is an example of a derived
quantity because it can be defined in terms of the base quantity length. The volume of different
regularly shaped containers can be obtained using the following formula: For irregular solid,
water displacement is used.

Volume of a cube = length x width x height; note that a cube has all its sides equal in length
Volume of a rectangle = length x width x height

Volume of a cylinder = πr2 h where r = radius; h = height

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4πrr
Volume of sphere =
3
Units of Volume
Units Equivalent Units Equivalent
1 m3 = 1000 L 1 gal = 3.785 L
1L = 1000 mL = 4 qt
= 1000 cm3 1 qt = 946 mL
1 dL = 100 mL 1 fl oz = 29.57 mL
1 mL = 1cm3
Temperature
Temperature is the base quantity we use to describe the hotness or coldness of an object.
The thermometer is the device used to determine the temperature of a given body or system.
Formula in conversion of temperature:
o
K = C + 273
o
C = K - 273
o
C = (o F - 32) or o
C =
o o o o
F = C + 32 or F = 1.8 C + 32

Significant Figures
Every experimental measurements: no matter how precise, has a degree of uncertainty
because there is always a limit to the number of digits that can be determined. To indicate the
precision of measurement, the value recorded should use all the digits known with certainty, plus
one additional estimated digit that is usually considered uncertain by plus or minus 1 (written as
± 1). The total number of digits used to express such a measurement is called the number of
significant figures.
Rules in Determining the Number of Significant Figures

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 1. All non-zero digits are significant.
Ex. 9,417 g has 4 significant figures
2. Zeros are classified as:
a. Leading zeros
Zeros at the beginning of a non-zero digit are not significant.
Ex. 20,036 m has 5 significant figures
b. Captive Zeros
Zeros in between of non-zero digits are always significant.
Ex. 20,036 m has 5 significant figures

3. Zeros at the end of a number and before an implied decimal point may or may not be
significant. Thus 23,000 kg have two, three, four and five significant figures as shown
below:

23,000 kg = 2.3 x 104 kg 2 significant figures

= 2.30 x 104 kg 3 significant figures

= 2.300 x 104 kg 4 significant figures

= 2.3000 x 104 kg 5 significant figures

4. Exact numbers such as tho0se obtained when counting objects and those that are part
of a definition: by definition there are exactly 100 cm in 1 meter (m): 20 apples, 10
persons. These numbers can have an infinite number of significant figures (zeros)
following the implies decimal point

PRACTICE EXERCISES
How many significant figures does each of the measurement have?
1. 2730.78 m 6. 20.03 cm
2. 0.0076 mL 7. 56,208 g
3. 10.093 L 8. 0.1005 mm
4. 3400.0 m 9. 50.708 kg
5. 0.1400 kg 10. 41010.0 L

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Scientific Notation

It is more convenient to write very small or very large numbers with the use of scientific
notation. In scientific notation, a number is written as the product of two numbers, the first being
a decimal number usually between 1 and 10 followed by a multiplication sign (x) and then the
second number, which is 10 raise to a certain power.

For example, we can rewrite 2150 in scientific notation as follows:

2150 = 2.15 x 1000 = 2.15 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 2.15 x 103

To express a number larger than 1 in scientific notation, we have to move the decimal point to
the left to get a number in acceptable rang 1 to 10. The number of left ward moves is the value of
the positive exponent of 10.

Example: 2150 = 2.150 x 103

To express a number smaller than 1 in scientific notation, we have to move the decimal point to
the right to get a number in acceptable range of 1 to 10. The number of right ward moves is the
value of the negative exponent of 10.

Example: 0.00215 = 2.15 x = 2.15 x

=2.15 x = 2.15 x 10-3

To convert a number in scientific notation to standard notation, the process is reversed. For a
number within a positive exponent, the decimal point is moved to the right a number of places
equal to the exponent.

Example: 3.7962 x 104 = 3 7 9 6 2 = 37,962

For a number with a negative exponent, the decimal point is moved to the left a number of places
equal to the exponent.

Example: 1.56 x 10-8 = 00000000156 = 0.0000000156

PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Use scientific notation in expressing the following given standard notation.
a. 58 g f. 25,600 mm
b. 0.0026 g g. 0.0048 mg
c. 0.000101 g h. 2800 km
d. 345.3 kg i. 105 gal
2. Given the scientific notation, rewrite the following using standard notation.
a. 4.885 x 104 mg f. 2.7 x 10-3 m
b. 8.3 x 10-6 m g. 6.8 x 102 km
-2
c. 4.00 x 10 m h. 7.2 x 10-4 L
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d. 4.0 x 10 g i. 5.02 x 101 mi
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e. 8 x 105 mg j. 1.9 x 100 m
3. Rewrite the following numbers in scientific notation as indicated:
a. 600,000 with 3 significant figures f. 2500 with 2 significant figures
b. 1300 with 2 significant figures g. 0.00322 with 1 significant figures
Rounding Off Numbers

It often happens, particularly when doing calculations, the answer obtained appears to have
more figures than are significant. The following rules should be applied to round off values to the
correct number of digits.

1. If calculation has several steps. Round off only after all calculations have been done.

2. If he digit to be rounded off in 4 or less, just drop all digits after the significant figures.

Example: 2.4271 becomes 2.4 when rounded off to two significant figures

3. If the digit to be rounded off is 5 or greater, add 1 to the rightmost significant figures and
drop the rest of the digits.

Example: 4.5892 becomes 4.59 when rounded off to three significant figures

Rules for Significant Figure in Mathematical Operations

1. For multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same number of
significant figures as the term with the fewest significant figures.

Example: = 23.76078376  23.8 (rounded off to 3 sig. fig)

The correct answer should have only three significant figures since 278 contains the
fewest significant figures.

2. For addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same number of
decimal places as that of the term with the fewest decimal places.

EXAMPLE: 3.18 two decimal places

+ 0.01315 five decimal places

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3.19325

3.19 two decimal places( same decimal places as the term with
fewest decimal places)

PRACTICE EXERCISES
Perform the following calculation and report the answer in the proper number of
significant figures

a. 17.75 x 9.25 f. 25.05 x 0.50

b. 16.1 + 0.004 g. 25.05 x 0.50

c. 1.0010 h. 4320
0.0011 0.25

d. 9.31 – 0.00009 i. 64.12 - 35.678

e. 0.00467 – 5.6324 j. 125.0 + 0.053 + 1.56

Conversion of Units : Factor- Label Method

The factor label method begins with a relationship between units, stated as an equation (such as
1kg = 1000g) which can also be exposed in the form of a fraction, called a conversion factor. This method
is commonly used in solving many quantitative chemical problems you will be encountering in the
succeeding chapters.

Ex. 1kg = 1000g is also 1kg/1000g or 1000g/1kg when used as conversion factor

EXAMPLE:

1. Convert 12.0 inches to cm

Quantity desired = Quantity given x Conversion factor

The conversion factor is 1 in = 2.54 cm and can be written

As 1in. / 2.54cm or 2.54cm / 1in

?cm = 12 in x 2.54 cm / 1 in = 30.48 cm = 30.5 cm

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2. Convert 15.0 gallons to L, to mL

?mL = 15.0 gal x 3.785 L / 1 gal = 5.6775 L = 5.68 L

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 ?mL = 15gal x 3.785 L / 1 gal x 10 3 mL / 1 L = 56,775 mL = 5.68 x 10 4

3. Convert 25.0 kg to mg

?mg = 25.0 kg x 10 3 g / 1 kg x 10 3 mg / 1 g = 25, 000, 000 = 2.50 x 10 7 mg

PRACTICE EXERCISE

Convert the following:

a. 32.0 mg to kg f. 540.0 K to C
b. 12.8 mL to gal g. 75.0 L to m 3
c. 56.3 km to mi h. 12.56 kg to lbs
d. 35.0 F to C i. 98 C to F
e. 385.0 K to F j. 245.3 ml to ft 3

Density & Specify Gravity

The density of a substance is defined as the mass of that substance per unit of volume. Density
depends on the temperature because the volume of a substance can change with a change in
temperature. To compare the densities of several substances, the measurement must be taken at
constant temperature.

Density = mass / volume

Specific gravity compares the density of a substance to the density of reference substance. It
tells how much denser the substance is compared to reference substance

Specific Gravity of Substance = Density of substance / density of reference substance

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Densities of Some Common Substances at 25 C

Substances Density (g/ml) Substances Density (g/ml)

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Ice 0.917 Human Fat 0.94

Water 0.997 Cork 0.22-0.26

Gold 19.32 Table sugar 1.59

Aluminum 2.70 Mercury 13.5

Diamond 3.513 Iron 7.86

Blood Plasma 1.027 Urine 1.003 – 1.030

Ethyl Alcohol 0.789 Carbon Tetrachloride 1.59

Note: Reference substance for solid and liquid is water (density = 1g/ml)

Reference substance for gases is air (density = 1.29 g/L)

For example, Ethyl Alcohol has a specific gravity of 0.789, which means it is less dense than
water. Carbon tetrachloride has a specific gravity of 1.59 is denser than water.

Example:

What is the density of mercury if 15.0 mL weighs 204.0 g? What is the weight in grams
of 250.0 mL of mercury?

Solution :

Density = 204.0 g = 13.6 g/mL Mass = 13.6 g/mL x 250.0 mL

15.0mL = 3,400 g = 3.40 x 10 3 g

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1. Convert the following:

a) 5.4 m to ft. f) 25 uL to mL
b) 105 g to lb g) 1.25 kg to mg
c) 0.55 lb to g h) 0.437 cg to dg
d) 2.5 gal to mL i) 34.5 L to gal
e) 5km to mi j) 88 mi to m

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 15

MATTER

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of matter: its properties,
composition, structure and the changes it undergoes in a chemical reaction.
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass. Thus, matter is simply
all the materials that composed the universe.

Classification of Matter

A. According to state

All matter can exist in this three states: solid, liquid or gas. The table below gives
the comparison of the properties of each state of matter.

STATE OF SHAPE VOLUME DISTANCE BETWEEN

MATTER PARTICLES

SOLID Definite Definite Very close to each other

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 Not definite, takes
LIQUID the shape of the Definite Moderate. Not so close and not
container so far from each other

Not definite, takes Not definite, can be

GAS the shape of the compressed or Far apart from each other
container expanded

B. According to Composition

Below is a schematic diagram of matter. Accordingly, matter can be classified as pure substance
or mixture. A pure Substance has a definite composition while a mixture has variable composition.

MATTER

PURE SUBSTANCE MIXTURE

-definite composition -variable proportion

ELEMENT COMPOUND HOMOGENEOUS HETERONEOUS

Metals Acids Uniform in phase Components can be
distinguished

Non-metals Bases

Metalloids Salts SOLUTION COLLOID SUSPENSION

10-7cm bet. 10-7 10-5cm
or smaller to 10 -5cm or larger
(Particle size) (Particle size) (Particle size)
Ex . air, seawater butter, gel paint, blood

Element: The following are its common characteristics:

-Is composed of only kind of atom (the smallest unit of an element).

-Is represented in terms of a symbol. The symbols and names for all the elements
(along with other information) are listed in a table called periodic table.

-It cannot be changed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. such as
burning. A radioactive element however, an form another element by nuclear means
such as fusion or fission.

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Group Classification of Elements

Metals Ex. Sodium, Na; Magnesium, Mg

Non-Metals Ex. Sulfur, S; Chlorine, Cl, Argon, Ar; Neon, Ne

Metalloids Ex. Silicon, Si; Arsenic, As

An element may exist individual atoms or as diatomic molecules(made up of only one kind of atom).
Example: Individual atom - Lithium, Li
Potassium, K
Diatomic Molecule - Oxygen, O2
Hydrogen, H2

Compound: The following are its common characteristics:

-is a pure substance that is composed of two or more different elements that are
chemically combined in definite proportion by mass.

-it can be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means such as
heating

Group Classification of Compounds

Acids Ex. Hydrochloric acid, HCI

Bases Ex. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

Salts Ex. Potassium chloride, KCI, Calcium oxide, CaO

Laws Governing Matter

Law of Definite Composition

states that a chemical compound always composed of specific elements in the same
proportion by mass. Fr example, if we were to analyze of water (H2O) obtained from different sources,
we would find in each sample the same ration by mass of hydrogen to oxygen.

Law of Multiple Proportion by Mass

states that whenever two elements from more than one compound, the different masses of one
that combine with the same mass of the other are in the ration of small whole numbers.

For example, hydrogen forms two compounds with oxygen namely, water (H 2O) and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). Thus, the ratio of oxygen in water to oxygen in hydrogen peroxide is 1:2.

Law of Conservation of Mass

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 states that in a chemical reaction, matter can be neither created nor destroyed. Since matter is
made up of atoms that are unchanged in a chemical reaction, it follows that the mass of the reactant/s is
equal to the mass of the product/s.

Mixture: The following are its common characteristics:

is a kind of matter that is composed of two or more pure substances that are physically
combined in variable proportion. The properties of the components of mixture are still retained. For
example, your favourite coffee solution is a mixture of sugar, coffee and water; the proportion of sugar
to coffee in your cup depends on how you like your coffee. Place more sugar if you like it sweeter or little
sugar for less sweet coffee.

the components of mixture can be separated by physical means such as: filtration, evaporation,
magnetic separation, distillation etc.

Classification of Mixture

Homogeneous mixture - is a mixture having similar (single phase) physical properties all
throughout - taste, colour, texture and odor and its components cannot be
distinguished. A solution is a type if homogeneous mixture.

Heterogeneous mixture - a mixture that is not uniform in phase and appearance, and its components
can be distinguished from each other. A suspension is a type of heterogeneous mixture.
Particles in this mixture settle on time after prolong standing.

Colloid - is a type mixture that is between the region of homogeneity and heterogeneity.
Particles in a colloid do not settle in time rather they remain suspended in the mixture.
In a colloid, the particles exhibit Tyndall effect - a phenomenon whereby light is scattered

Properties of Matter

Physical Properties are properties that are observed without changing the composition of the
substance. These properties include color, odor, taste, texture, conductivity, malleability, ductility, and
brittleness. Other physical properties that can be measured are solubility, density, boiling point, melting
point, specific heat, mass and volume.

Chemical Properties are properties that are observed when a substance reacts with another
substance. These properties include combustibility(does the substance burn?), relative activity(is the
substance more active or less active than other members of its chemical family?), and stability(does the
substance decompose easily or with difficulty?)

Intensive(Intrinsic) and Extensive(Extrinsic) Properties of Matter

Another way of classifying properties of matter is by relating the given amount of matter.

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Properties that do not depend on the amount or size of matter are referred to as intensive properties.
Examples are color, odor, boiling point, density etc.
Properties that are dependent on the amount of matter are referred to as extensive properties.
Examples are mass, volume and size.

Changes in Matter

Physical Change is a change in which a substance changes in form but not its chemical composition.
There are substances that change in phase but not in composition. Examples are boiling of water and
meting of ice. Water(H2O)changes in state but not in composition. Some solid metals when heated melt
and become gas at higher temperatures.

Processes Involving Physical Changes:

Evaporation - process of converting liquid to gas.

Ex. Boiling water : H2O(1) H2O(g)

Condensation - process of converting gas to liquid.

Ex. Water vapor from clouds becomes rain(liquid water)
H2O(g) H2O(1)

Freezing - process of converting liquid to solid.

Ex. Water placed in the freezer of the refrigeration becomes ice
H2O(1) H2O(s)

Melting - process of converting solid to liquid.

Ex. Ice from refrigerator becomes liquid water
H2O(1) H2O(s)

Sublimation - process of converting solid to gas without passing through a liquid state.
Ex. Naphthalene balls gone in the cabinet
C10H8(s) C10H8(g)

Decomposition - process of converting gas to solid.

Ex. Production of dry ice; CO2(g) CO2(s)

Chemical Change is a change in which a substance changes in form as well as in chemical composition
that result in the formation of one or more new substances. Examples are burning of
wood and decaying of plants and animals

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.

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