1.

MTI Radar principle and MTI radar with power amplifier and power
oscillator.
MTI RADAR:
If the Radar is used for detecting the movable target, then the Radar should
receive only the echo signal due to that movable target. This echo signal is
the desired one. However, in practical applications, Radar receives the echo
signals due to stationary objects in addition to the echo signal due to that
movable target.

The echo signals due to stationary objects (places) such as land and sea are
called clutters because these are unwanted signals. Therefore, we have to
choose the Radar in such a way that it considers only the echo signal due to
movable target but not the clutters.
For this purpose, Radar uses the principle of Doppler Effect for
distinguishing the non-stationary targets from stationary objects. This type of
Radar is called Moving Target Indicator Radar or simply, MTI Radar.

PRINCIPLE:
According to Doppler effect, the frequency of the received signal will
increase if the target is moving towards the direction of Radar. Similarly, the
frequency of the received signal will decrease if the target is moving away
from the Radar.

Types of MTI Radars

We can classify the MTI Radars into the following two types based on the type of
transmitter that has been used.

➢ MTI Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter

➢ MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter

MTI Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter:

MTI Radar uses single Antenna for both transmission and reception of signals
with the help of Duplexer. The block diagram of MTI Radar with power amplifier
transmitter is shown in the following figure.
The function of each block of MTI Radar with power amplifier transmitter is
mentioned below.
• Pulse Modulator − It produces a pulse modulated signal and it is applied
to Power Amplifier.
• Power Amplifier − It amplifies the power levels of the pulse modulated
signal.
• Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having stable frequency fl.Hence, it
is also called stable Local Oscillator. The output of Local Oscillator is
applied to both Mixer-I and Mixer-II.
• Coherent Oscillator − It produces a signal having an Intermediate
Frequency, fc. This signal is used as the reference signal. The output of
Coherent Oscillator is applied to both Mixer-I and Phase Detector.
• Mixer-I − Mixer can produce either sum or difference of the frequencies
that are applied to it. The signals having frequencies of fl and fc are
applied to Mixer-I. Here, the Mixer-I is used for producing the output,
which is having the frequency fl+fc.
• Duplexer − It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna to either
the transmitter section or the receiver section based on the requirement.
Antenna transmits the signal having frequency fl+fc when the duplexer
connects the Antenna to power amplifier. Similarly, Antenna receives the
signal having frequency of fl+fc±fd when the duplexer connects the
Antenna to Mixer-II.
• Mixer-II − Mixer can produce either sum or difference of the frequencies
that are applied to it. The signals having frequencies fl+fc±fd and fl are
applied to Mixer-II. Here, the Mixer-II is used for producing the output,
which is having the frequency fc±fd.
 • IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF)
signal. The IF amplifier shown in the figure amplifies the signal having
frequency fc+fd. This amplified signal is applied as an input to Phase
detector.
• Phase Detector − It is used to produce the output signal having frequency
fd from the applied two input signals, which are having the frequencies of
fc+fd and fc. The output of phase detector can be connected to Delay line
canceller.
MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter:
The block diagram of MTI Radar with power oscillator transmitter looks similar
to the block diagram of MTI Radar with power amplifier transmitter. The blocks
corresponding to the receiver section will be same in both the block diagrams.
Where as, the blocks corresponding to the transmitter section may differ in both
the block diagrams

The block diagram of MTI Radar with power oscillator transmitter is shown in the
following figure.

As shown in the figure, MTI Radar uses the single Antenna for both transmission
and reception of signals with the help of Duplexer. The operation of MTI Radar
with power oscillator transmitter is mentioned below.

• The output of Magnetron Oscillator and the output of Local Oscillator are
applied to Mixer-I. This will further produce an IF signal, the phase of
which is directly related to the phase of the transmitted signal.
• The output of Mixer-I is applied to the Coherent Oscillator. Therefore, the
phase of Coherent Oscillator output will be locked to the phase of IF signal.
 This means, the phase of Coherent Oscillator output will also directly relate
to the phase of the transmitted signal.
• So, the output of Coherent Oscillator can be used as reference signal for
comparing the received echo signal with the corresponding transmitted
signal using phase detector.

The above tasks will be repeated for every newly transmitted signal.

2. Compare Pulse Doppler Radar and MTI Radar.

PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

1. In this the radar sends the pulse train to detect the position of target.
2. Pulse radar doesn’t continuously transmit the pulse. After transmitting, it waits for receiving, in
this time it doesn't transmit any pulse.
3. This radar uses high PRF (Pulse repetition Frequency).
4. Pulse Doppler checks the changes which happen to the transmitted wave (DOPPLER SHIFT).
Either it will be compressed if the target moving toward the radar (received frequency may
change from 6000MHz to 6010MHZ), or may stretch if the target are going away from the radar
(received frequency may change from 6000MHz to 5990MHz)
5. PD radar does not require transmitted frequency anymore after it has been transmitted.

MTI RADAR

1. MTI (moving target indicator) detects the position of target which is moving.
2. This radar continuously transmits the pulse.
3. It uses Low PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency).
4. MTI radar determines moving targets by detecting the phase and amplitude of the received
wave and compare it with saved replica of the original transmitted wave but at opposite phase.
So if the target is not moving then the phase and amplitude of the 2 signals will match but at
different value which will result in cancelling of each other, but if the 2 signals are not matched
they will give positive or negative value and that is indication of moving target.
5. MTI radar sets frequency filters around the expected frequency so that if the target is moving,
the filters receive the power and that is the indication of the target.
3. Explain about FMCW RADAR
Modulated continuous-wave
Frequency-modulated continuous-wave radar (FM-CW) – also called continuous-wave frequency-
modulated (CWFM) radar[5] – is a short-range measuring radar set capable of determining distance.
This increases reliability by providing distance measurement along with speed measurement, which
is essential when there is more than one source of reflection arriving at the radar antenna. This kind
of radar is often used as "radar altimeter" to measure the exact height during the landing procedure
of aircraft.[6] It is also used as early-warning radar, wave radar, and proximity sensors. Doppler shift
is not always required for detection when FM is used. While early implementations, such as the
APN-1 Radar Altimeter of the 1940s, were designed for short ranges, Over The Horizon Radars
(OTHR) such as the Jindalee Operational Radar Network (JORN) are designed to survey
intercontinental distances of some thousands of kilometres.
In this system the transmitted signal of a known stable frequency continuous wave varies up and
down in frequency over a fixed period of time by a modulating signal. Frequency difference between
the receive signal and the transmit signal increases with delay, and hence with distance. This
smears out, or blurs, the Doppler signal. Echoes from a target are then mixed with the transmitted
signal to produce a beat signal which will give the distance of the target after demodulation.

A variety of modulations is possible, the transmitter frequency can slew up and down as follows :

• Sine wave, like air raid siren

• Sawtooth wave, like the chirp from a bird
• Triangle wave, like police siren in the United States
• Square wave, like police siren in the United Kingdom
Range demodulation is limited to 1/4 wavelength of the transmit modulation. Instrumented range for
100 Hz FM would be 500 km. That limit depends upon the type of modulation and demodulation.
The following generally applies.

The radar will report incorrect distance for reflections from distances beyond the instrumented
range, such as from the moon. FMCW range measurements are only reliable to about 60% of the
instrumented range, or about 300 km for 100 Hz FM.

Types:-
• Sawtooth Frequency Modulation
• Sinusoidal Frequency Modulation

Sawtooth frequency modulation:-

Sawtooth modulation is the most used in FM-CW radars where range is desired for objects that lack
rotating parts. Range information is mixed with the Doppler velocity using this technique.
Modulation can be turned off on alternate scans to identify velocity using unmodulated carrier
frequency shift. This allows range and velocity to be found with one radar set. Triangle wave
modulation can be used to achieve the same goal.
As shown in the figure the received waveform (green) is simply a delayed replica of the transmitted
waveform (red). The transmitted frequency is used to down-convert the receive signal to baseband,
and the amount of frequency shift between the transmit signal and the reflected signal increases
with time delay (distance). The time delay is thus a measure of the range; a small frequency spread
is produced by nearby reflections, a larger frequency spread corresponds with more time delay and
a longer range.
With the advent of modern electronics, digital signal processing is used for most detection
processing. The beat signals are passed through an analog-to-digital converter, and digital
processing is performed on the result.]

Sinusoidal frequency modulation:-

Sinusoidal FM is used when both range and velocity are required simultaneously for complex
objects with multiple moving parts like turbine fan blades, helicopter blades, or propellers. This
processing reduces the effect of complex spectra modulation produced by rotating parts that
introduce errors into range measurement process.
This technique also has the advantage that the receiver never needs to stop processing incoming
signals because the modulation waveform is continuous with no impulse modulation.
Sinusoidal FM is eliminated completely by the receiver for close in reflections because the transmit
frequency will be the same as the frequency being reflected back into the receiver. The spectrum
for more distant objects will contain more modulation. The amount of spectrum spreading caused
by modulation riding on the receive signal is proportional to the distance to the reflecting object.
4. Explain CW Radar and CW Radar with non-zero IF-Receiver.
Continuous-wave radar is a type of radar system where a known stable
frequency continuous wave ratio energy is transmitted and then received from
any reflecting objects. Continuous-wave (CW) radar uses Doppler, which
renders the radar immune to interference from large stationary objects and slow
moving clutter
CW radar systems are used at both ends of the range spectrum.

• Inexpensive radio-altimeters, proximity sensors and sport accessories

that operate from a few dozen feet to several kilometers
• Costly early-warning CW angle track (CWAT) radar operating beyond
100 km for use with surface-to-air missile systems

CONTINUOUS WAVE DOPPLER RADAR :

C.W.RADAR WITH NON-ZERO IF:
5.Explain about delay line cancellers, blind speeds, double cancellers and
moving target detectors.

Delay line cancellers:

As the name suggests, delay line introduces a certain amount of delay known as pulse
repetition time. Delay line canceller is a filter, which eliminates the DC components of
echo signals received from stationary targets. This means, it allows the AC components
of echo signals received from non-stationary targets, i.e. moving targets.

Types of delay line cancellers:

a. Single delay line canceller:

The combination of a delay line and a subtractor is known as Delay line canceller.
It is also called single Delay line canceller. The block diagram of MTI receiver
with single Delay line canceller is shown in the figure below.

The output of subtractor is applied as input to Full Wave Rectifier. Therefore, the
output of Full Wave Rectifier looks like as shown in the following figure. It is
nothing but the frequency response of the single delay line canceller.
b. Double delay line canceller:
We know that a single delay line canceller consists of a delay line and a subtractor. If
two such delay line cancellers are cascaded together, then that combination is called
Double delay line canceller. The block diagram of Double delay line canceller is shown
in the following figure.

The advantage of double delay line canceller is that it rejects the clutter broadly. The
output of two delay line cancellers, which are cascaded, will be equal to the square of
the output of single delay line canceller. The frequency response characteristics of both
double delay line canceller and the cascaded combination of two delay line cancellers
are the same. The advantage of time domain delay line canceller is that it can be
operated for all frequency ranges.
Blind speeds:
Radar Blind Speed is speed at which the target cannot be measured by the radar. This
occurs because of the relationship between the transmitted pulse repetition time (PRT)
and the received pulse-repetition rate. The Doppler pulse repetition rate is the difference
between the transmitted and received pulse repetition rates. For Example, the PRT for a
stationary object is the same as PRT transmitted by the radar which results in a net zero
signal for the radial component of velocity.

So, the blind speed is the case in which the PRT of the transmitted and received signals
is the same or a multiple of the transmitted PRT (Since a sine wave repeats itself - one
for each multiple of the transmitted pulse repetition rate). This causes a zero signal to be
obtained at the radar. So, any object travelling at this blind speed will not be detected by
the radar.

Moving target detector:

MTI is an abbreviation for moving target indicator, a broad class of radar systems which
indicate moving targets. Canceler-type MTI systems have had many recognized
shortcomings since the earliest days. Among them have been sub clutter visibility
limitations, blind phase effects, blind velocity effects, tangential effects, weather effects,
anomalous propagation; excessive target data from birds, and insects; and antenna
scan-motion residue. There are more. Solutions to these problems were envisioned long
ago; but they were not practical, because of hardware technology limitations. As device
speeds increased, and storage media became more compact and practical, MTD
became possible. Several MTD systems have now been built, but the largest production
effort was the FAA ASR-9, manufactured by the Westinghouse Corporation.

6.Explain about pulse doppler radar.

A pulse-Doppler radar is a radar system that determines the range to a target using
pulse-timing techniques, and uses the Doppler effect of the returned signal to determine
the target object's velocity. It combines the features of pulse radars and continuous-
wave radars, which were formerly separate due to the complexity of the electronics.

Pulse-Doppler systems measure the range to objects by measuring the elapsed time
between sending a pulse of radio energy and receiving a reflection of the object. Radio
waves travel at the speed of light, so the distance to the object is the elapsed time
multiplied by the speed of light, divided by two - there and back. Radial velocity is
essential for pulse-Doppler radar operation. As the reflector moves between each
transmit pulse, the returned signal has a phase difference, or phase shift, from pulse to
pulse. This causes the reflector to produce Doppler modulation on the reflected signal.
Rejection speed is selectable on pulse-Doppler aircraft-detection systems so nothing
below that speed will be detected. A one degree antenna beam illuminates millions of
square feet of terrain at 10 miles (16 km) range, and this produces thousands of
detections at or below the horizon if Doppler is not used. Surface reflections appear in
almost all radar. Ground clutter generally appears in a circular region within a radius of
about 25 miles (40 km) near ground-based radar. This distance extends much further in
airborne and space radar. Clutter results from radio energy being reflected from the
earth surface, buildings, and vegetation. Clutter includes weather in radar intended to
detect and report aircraft and spacecraft. Clutter creates a vulnerability region in pulse-
amplitude time-domain radar. Non-Doppler radar systems cannot be pointed directly at
the ground due to excessive false alarms, which overwhelm computers and operators.
Sensitivity must be reduced near clutter to avoid overload. This vulnerability begins in
the low-elevation region several beam widths above the horizon, and extends
downward. Pulse-Doppler radar corrects this as follows.

• Allows the radar antenna to be pointed directly at the ground without overwhelming
the computer and without reducing sensitivity.
• Fills in the vulnerability region associated with pulse-amplitude time-domain radar for
small object detection near terrain and weather.
• Increases detection range by 300% or more in comparison to moving target
indication (MTI) by improving sub-clutter visibility.

**please note that, equations are to be noted from

web as they differ for each website**