Course: General Methods of Teaching: Code: 8601 Assignment No: 01

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Course: General Methods of Teaching

Code: 8601 Level: B.Ed SPRING 2018
Assignment No: 01
Q No: 1 Specify the personal and professional characteristics of good teacher.
Personal and Professional Characteristics of Good Teacher
Teachers must be knowledgeable about the subject they are teaching. They must understand the concepts
thoroughly and be able to explain and articulate them in detail. They must have the knowledge to engage
students and to judge where and how to be of assistance. They also ideally have practical, hands-on
experience with the subject matter.
The best teachers care about their students and are passionate about the material. If a teacher is bored with
the material, then the students will also be bored and less likely to learn. Passion and enthusiasm draw
students in to learning. It excites their minds, creates curiosity and inspires them to raise their energy levels
in class.
Humans have an innate sense of what is just and what is not. Favoritism and unfair treatment can scar
students for a lifetime. The best teachers do everything they can to ensure their classroom is fair and just.
Students can only grow and learn in an environment they feel is safe and honest.
Students quickly disrespect teachers who are unprepared. Being unprepared shows your lack of care about
the students and the material. It makes you appear incompetent. Be prepared for every class in order to win
and maintain your students' respect
Creativity lets teachers think outside the box and work around problems. Creativity helps teachers reach
students in enjoyable, memorable ways. It cures boredom and raises moral and enthusiasm in the classroom.
Students learn best in a positive atmosphere. Humor is the best way to break the ice and dispel awkward or
negative situations. Teachers who are comfortable enough to laugh at their own mistake are strong examples
of confident, witty individuals. Humor is also an effective way to teach students difficult and dry concepts.
In another study, researchers compared the words and phrases students used to describe effective and
ineffective teachers. The top three words used to characterize teachers with the highest ratings were:
interesting, approachable, and clarity. The definition extracted from descriptions of teachers nominated for
teaching awards used these words: approachable, presents material well, makes subject interesting, helpful,
and knowledgeable. In 1988, Kenneth Feldman did a meta-analysis of 31 studies in which teachers and
students identified characteristics they associated with good teaching and effective instruction. He found that
students emphasized the importance of teachers being interesting, having good elocutionary skills, being
available, and helpful. Faculty placed more importance on being intellectually challenging, motivating
students, setting high standards, and encouraging self-initiated learning.
To examine this further, let’s start with two basic questions.
(1) What do these various aspects and characteristics of teaching effectiveness have to do with learning?
(2) Why don’t we just define effective teaching as teaching that results in learning?
Too many intervening variables, the researchers tell us. Say you teach a course students do not want to take
(developmental reading or remedial math might be examples), and you do all these things associated with
effective teaching, your students still may not learn. They may not have the prerequisite background
knowledge, they think them cannot learn the content, or it just may not be the time of their lives to be
learning what you’re teaching. On the other hand, you may be an ineffective teacher but if your students are
motivated to learn the content, they will do so in spite of you. Students are the ultimate “deciders” when it
comes to whether or not they learn.
Classroom learning “empties” into a connected community
In a highly-effective learning environment, learning doesn’t need to be radically repackaged to make sense
in the “real world,” but starts and ends there. As great as it sounds for learners to reflect on Shakespeare to
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better understand their Uncle Eddie and they might depending on that kind of radical transfer to happen
entirely in the minds of the learners by design may not be the best idea. Planning on this kind of transfer
from the beginning of the study.
Learning is personalized by a variety of criteria
Personalized learning is likely the future, but for now the onus for routing students is almost entirely on the
shoulders of the classroom teacher. This makes personalization—and even consistent differentiation—a
challenge. One response is to personalize learning—to whatever extent you plan for— by a variety of
criteria—not just assessment results or reading level, but interest, readiness-for content, and others as well.
Assessment is persistent, authentic, transparent, and never punitive
Assessment is just an (often ham-fisted) attempt to get at what a learner understands. The more infrequent,
clinical, murky, or threatening it is, the more you’re going to separate the “good students” from the “good
thinkers.” And the “clinical” idea has less to do with the format of the test, and more to do with the tone and
emotion of the classroom in general. Why are students being tested? What’s in it for them, and their future
opportunities to improve?
Criteria for success is balanced and transparent
Students should not have to guess what “success” in a highly-effective classroom looks like. It should also
not be entirely weighted on “participation,” assessment results, attitude, or other individual factors, but
rather meaningfully melted into a cohesive framework that makes sense—not to you, your colleagues, or the
expert book on your shelf, but the students themselves.
The University of Minnesota offered some observable characteristics of effective teaching which, while
focused on teacher actions rather than student learning, had some useful tips–not so much how to teach
generally, but specific actions that you can use tomorrow.
In “How A Good Teacher Becomes Great,” we theorized that good teachers “know which assessments are
for “show,” and which are for “go”—that is, which look good from 10 feet, and which provide visibility for
both the student and teacher where the learning needs to go next,” and that they model curiosity, collaborate
with other great teachers, and “measure understanding in diverse ways.
Enjoys Teaching
Teaching is meant to be a very enjoyable and rewarding career field (although demanding and exhausting at
times!). You should only become a teacher if you love children and intend on caring for them with your
heart. You cannot expect the kids to have fun if you are not having fun with them! If you only read the
instructions out of a textbook, it's ineffective. Instead, make your lessons come alive by making it as
interactive and engaging as possible. Let your passion for teaching shine through each and every day. Enjoy
every teaching moment to the fullest.
Makes a Difference
There is a saying, "With great power, comes great responsibility". As a teacher, you need to be aware and
remember the great responsibility that comes with your profession. One of your goals ought to be: Make a
difference in their lives. How? Make them feel special, safe and secure when they are in your classroom. Be
the positive influence in their lives. Why? You never know what your students went through before entering
your classroom on a particular day or what conditions they are going home to after your class. So, just in
case they are not getting enough support from home, at least you will make a difference and provide that to
them.
Spread Positivity.
Bring positive energy into the classroom every single day. You have a beautiful smile so don't forget to flash
it as much as possible throughout the day. I know that you face battles of your own in your personal life but
once you enter that classroom, you should leave all of it behind before you step foot in the door. Your
students deserve more than for you to take your frustration out on them. No matter how you are feeling, how
much sleep you've gotten or how frustrated you are, never let that show. Even if you are having a bad day,
learn to put on a mask in front of the students and let them think of you as a superhero (it will make your day
too)! Be someone who is always positive, happy and smiling. Always remember that positive energy is
contagious and it is up to you to spread it. Don't let other people's negativity bring you down with them.
Gets Personal
This is the fun part and absolutely important for being an effective teacher! Get to know your students and
their interests so that you can find ways to connect with them. Don't forget to also tell them about yours!
Also, it is important to get to know their learning styles so that you can cater to each of them as an
individual. In addition, make an effort to get to know their parents as well. Speaking to the parents should
not be looked at as an obligation but rather, an honor. In the beginning of the school year, make it known
that they can come to you about anything at anytime of the year. In addition, try to get to know your
colleagues on a personal level as well. You will be much happier if you can find a strong support network in
and outside of school.
Gives 100%
Whether you are delivering a lesson, writing report cards or offering support to a colleague – give 100%. Do
your job for the love of teaching and not because you feel obligated to do it. Do it for self growth. Do it to
inspire others. Do it so that your students will get the most out of what you are teaching them. Give 100%
for yourself, students, parents, school and everyone who believes in you. Never give up and try your best -
that's all that you can do. (That's what I tell the kids anyway!)
Stays Organized
Never fall behind on the marking or filing of students' work. Try your best to be on top of it and not let the
pile grow past your head! It will save you a lot of time in the long run. It is also important to keep an
organized planner and plan ahead! The likelihood of last minute lesson plans being effective are slim.
Lastly, keep a journal handy and jot down your ideas as soon as an inspired idea forms in your mind. Then,
make a plan to put those ideas in action.
Open Minded
As a teacher, there are going to be times where you will be observed formally or informally (that's also why
you should give 100% at all times). You are constantly being evaluated and criticized by your boss, teachers,
parents and even children. Instead of feeling bitter when somebody has something to say about your
teaching, be open-minded when receiving constructive criticism and form a plan of action. Prove that you
are the effective teacher that you want to be. Nobody is perfect and there is always room for improvement.
Sometimes, others see what you fail to see.
Has Standards
Create standards for your students and for yourself. From the beginning, make sure that they know what is
acceptable versus what isn't. For example, remind the students how you would like work to be completed.
Are you the teacher who wants your students to try their best and hand in their best and neatest work? Or are
you the teacher who couldn't care less? Now remember, you can only expect a lot if you give a lot. As the
saying goes, "Practice what you preach".
Finds Inspiration
An effective teacher is one who is creative but that doesn't mean that you have to create everything from
scratch! Find inspiration from as many sources as you can. Whether it comes from books, education, P
interest, YouTube, Face book, blogs, TpT or what have you, keep finding it!
Embraces Change
In life, things don't always go according to plan. This is particularly true when it comes to teaching. Be
flexible and go with the flow when change occurs. An effective teacher does not complain about changes
when a new principal arrives. They do not feel the need to mention how good they had it at their last school
or with their last group of students compared to their current circumstances. Instead of stressing about
change, embrace it with both hands and show that you are capable of hitting every curve ball that comes
your way!
Creates Reflections
An effective teacher reflects on their teaching to evolve as a teacher. Think about what went well and what
you would do differently next time. You need to remember that we all have "failed" lessons from time to
time. Instead of looking at it as a failure, think about it as a lesson and learn from it. As teachers, your
education and learning is ongoing. There is always more to learn and know about in order to strengthen your
teaching skills. Keep reflecting on your work and educating yourself on what you find are your
"weaknesses" as we all have them! The most important part is recognizing them and being able to work on
them to improve your teaching skills.
Below are 20 observable characteristics of effective teaching. Pair this with our characteristics of a highly-
effective learning environment, and you’ll have a nice one-two punch to reflect on your craft. We’ve
highlighted a few of our favorites to get you started.
• Begins class promptly and in a well-organized way.
• Treats students with respect and caring.
• Provides the significance/importance of information to be learned.
• Provides clear explanations. Holds attention and respect of students….practices effective classroom
management.
• Uses active, hands-on student learning.
• Varies his/her instructional techniques.
• Provides clear, specific expectations for assignments.
• Provides frequent and immediate feedback to students on their performance.
• Praises student answers and uses probing questions to clarify/elaborate answers.
• Provides much concrete, real life, practical examples.
• Draws inferences from examples/models….and uses analogies.
• Creates a class environment which is comfortable for students….allows students to speak freely.
• Teaches at an appropriately fast pace, stopping to check student understanding and engagement.
• Communicates at the level of all students in class.
• Has a sense of humor!
• Uses nonverbal behavior, such as gestures, walking around, and eye contact to reinforce his/her
comments.
• Presents him/herself in class as “real people.”
• Focuses on the class objective and does not let class get sidetracked.
• Uses feedback from students (and others) to assess and improve teaching.
• Reflects on own teaching to improve it.
Q No: 2 Define effective teaching. Discuss the factors contribution towards effective teaching.
Effective Teaching
Effective teachers appear again and again to display certain characteristics, while ineffective teachers tend
to make the same mistakes repeatedly. Below is a look at some of the things more effective teachers tend
to do right and less effective teachers tend to do wrong.
Organization and Clarity
• explains clearly
• is well prepared (see Preparing for the First Day)
• makes difficult topics easy to understand
• uses examples, details, analogies, metaphors, and variety in modes of explanation to make material
not only understandable but memorable
• makes the objectives of the course and each class clear (see Course Design, Course Goals and
Learning Outcomes)
• establishes a context for material
Analytic/Synthetic Approach
• has a thorough command of the field
• contrasts the implications of various theories

• gives the student a sense of the field, its past, present, and future directions, the origins of ideas
and concepts (see Consider Your Audience)
• presents facts and concepts from related fields
• discusses viewpoints other than his/her own
Dynamism and Enthusiasm
• is an energetic, dynamic person
• seems to enjoy teaching
• conveys a love of the field
• has an aura of self-confidence
Instructor-Group Interaction
• can stimulate, direct, and pace interaction with the class (see How to Lead a Discussion)
• encourages independent thought and accepts criticism
• uses wit and humor effectively
• is a good public speaker (see Speaking at the Hume Center for Writing and Speaking)
• knows whether or not the class is following the material and is sensitive to students’ motivation
• is concerned about the quality of his/her teaching
Instructor-Individual Student Interaction
• is perceived as fair, especially in his/her methods of evaluation (see How to Evaluate Students)
• is seen by students as approachable and a valuable source of advice even on matters not directly
related to the course (see Interacting with Students)
Respect others to gain respect in return. Teachers who respect their students are respected themselves.
Teachers who respect their students' privacy, who speak to students’ individually after class and who are
sensitive to their students' needs and feelings tend to be the most respected.
Being in a position of authority, teachers must know how to take the lead. There is no room for shyness and
timidity. Leaders must have a vision, a goal toward which they are directing the students. They must inspire
and encourage students to implement action. The best leaders are the best listeners.
What less effective teachers do wrong?
Doing the right things with your teaching is of course critical but so is avoiding the wrong things. Richard
M. Felder, North Carolina State University and Rebecca Brent, Education Designs, Inc., have come up
with a list to the ten worst mistakes teachers make. They are summarized here in increasing order of
badness. Further details and additional material can be found at Richard Felder’s Home Page.
Mistake #1. Disrespect students. If you give students a sense that you don't respect them, the class will
probably be a bad experience for everyone no matter what else you do, while if you clearly convey respect
and caring, it will cover a multitude of pedagogical sins you might commit.
Mistake #2. Teach without clear learning objectives. A key to making courses coherent and tests fair is
to write learning objectives-explicit statements of what students should be able to do if they have learned
what the instructor wants them to learn-and to use the objectives as the basis for designing lessons,
assignments, and exams.
Mistake #3: Get stuck in a rut. Things are always happening that provide incentives and opportunities
for improving courses. This is not to say that you have to make major revisions in your course every time
you give it-you probably don't have time to do that, and there's no reason to. Rather, just keep your eyes
open for possible improvements you might make in the time available to you.
Mistake #4. Give tests that are too long. If you want to evaluate your students' potential to be successful
professionals, test their mastery of the knowledge and skills you are teaching, not their problem-solving
speed.
Mistake #5: Fail to establish relevance. To provide better motivation, begin the course by describing
how the content relates to important technological and social problems and to whatever you know of the
students' experience, interests, and career goals, and do the same thing when you introduce each new
topic.
Mistake #6: Have students work in groups with no individual accountability. The way to make group
work is cooperative learning, an exhaustively researched instructional method that effectively promotes
development of both cognitive and interpersonal skills
Mistake #7: Fail to provide variety in instruction. Effective instruction mixes things up: board work,
multimedia, storytelling, discussion, activities, individual assignments, and group work (being careful to
avoid Mistake #6). The more variety you build in, the more effective the class is likely to be.
Mistake #8: Turn classes into PowerPoint shows. Droning through lecture notes put into PowerPoint
slides is generally a waste of time for everyone.
Mistake #9: Call on student’s cold. If you frequently call on students without giving them time to think
("cold-calling"), the ones who are intimidated by it won't be following your lecture as much as praying
that you don't land on them. Even worse, as soon as you call on someone, the others breathe a sigh of
relief and stop thinking.
Mistake #10: When you ask a question in class, immediately call for volunteers. When you do this
most students will avoid eye contact, and either you get a response from one of the two or three who
always volunteer or you answer your own question
Q No: 3 Highlight the steps of planning “development of instruction”.
An instructional goal broadly states what the learner will be able to do upon completion of the instruction.
We previously noted “calculate burden of disease measures” as too broad for a competency statement, but it
broadly states an instructional activity that, with other related activities, would allow a trainee to perform the
activity in the competency statement. Instructional goals should not be so narrow as to be the final statement
of instruction. It typically constitutes a group of even more narrow statements called learning objectives that
describe in detail what a learner will be able to do during a course of instruction. While we note that
“calculate burden of disease measures” is an instructional goal, the definition and calculation of each of the
specific measures used to calculate the burden of disease would be too detailed – for example, “calculate
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)” and “calculate years of life lost (YLL).”
• Background The hallmark of individualized instruction is that many of the instruction events
typically carried out by the instructor with a group of students are now presented to the individual
student through instructional materials. The authors recommend that you produce self-instructional
materials in your first attempt at instructional design, that is, the materials should permit the student
to learn the new information and skills without any intervention from an instructor or fellow
students.
• Develop instructional material based on a given instructional strategy.υ Given an instructional
strategy, describe the procedures for developing instructional materials. υ Name appropriate rough
draft materials for various final media. υ Describe the designer’s role in materials development and
instructional delivery. υ List four categories of criteria for judging the appropriateness of existing
instructional materials. υ Name and describe the components of an instructional package. υ Describe
factors that may cause revisions in media selections and delivery systems for given instruction.
υObjectives
• Amount of instructor facilitation o the first steps in adoption of a new technology are usually
attempts to replicate the features of the old technology classroom. o When discussion and feedback
are provided by the instructor, initial materials development costs are lower however, per-student
costs are high and the course cannot be scaled up in size without hiring additional instructors.υ
Production and implementation constraints o Media formats and delivery systems that look
expensive are expensive. υAvailability of existing instructional materials. o Existing materials could
be substituted for planned materials on a scale ranging from a single motivational sequence in one
lesson, to an entire course or curriculum. υThe Delivery System and Media Selections
• All instructional material should be accompanied by objective tests or by product or performance

assessments. These may include a pretest and/or a posttest.υAssessments
• Used by the instructor or course manager.υ Special attention should be paid to the ease with which
course management information can be υ a variety of communication and messaging mechanisms υ
grade book υ project monitoring υ online testing υ student tracking υ automated class listing υ
student guidance templates υ tests and other information considered important for implementing the
course. υ Following υ manual, this provides the instructor with an overview of the materials. It
might include the υ There is often a general description of the total package, typically called the
instructor’s υCourse Management Information
• The materials may also include information that the learners will use to guide their progress through
the instruction.υ Instructional materials refer to any preexisting materials that are being incorporated,
as well as to those that will be specifically developed for the objectives. υ They contain the content –
written, mediated or facilitated by an instructor (the content includes materials for the major
objectives, the terminal objective, and any materials for enhancing memory and transfer).
υInstructional Materials
• Goal-centered o congruence between the content in the materials and your terminal and performance
objectives. o adequacy of content coverage and completeness o authority o accuracy o currency o
objectivityυSelecting Existing Instructional Materials
• Context centered Appropriateness of the materials for the instructional and performance contextυ
instructional strategies υ Learning-centered appropriateness of the materials in terms of υLearner-
centered appropriateness of if the existing materials for the target group o Vocabulary and language
o developmental, motivation, and interest levels o backgrounds and experiences o special language
or needs υSelecting Existing Instructional Materials Continued
• Designer should conduct the on-site learner and context analyses themselvesυ The best way is to
meet with and learn from the developer υ Designer the instructor υ Heavily dependent on instructor
υ Instructors select and adapt materials to suit their instructional strategy more increased role in
delivering instruction υ As a facilitator is very active υ Individualized instruction Their role in
instructional delivery is passive, but their role υ The designer the materials developer the instructor
υThe Designer’s Role in Material Development and Instructional Delivery
• Material development tools and resourcesυ Rapid prototypes o Go light on the early analysis steps of
an instructional design model o Develop prototype instructional materials rapidly o Use quick
interactive cycles of formative evaluation o Revise to shape the final form of the materials. o
Simultaneous design and development υ Rough draft materials υDeveloping Instructional Materials
for Formative Evaluation
• There is no substitute for hands-on experience in this area, and we encourage you to take advantage
of course projects, internships, and other opportunities to obtain some of that firsthand knowledge. In
the meantime, here are some brief descriptionυ Media production tends to be highly specialized for
each different media delivery system. Seldom will you, as an instructional designer, be responsible
for actual media production, with the possible exception of small, in-house projects. At the same
time, you will be working with media production specialists, and it's a good idea to have a working
knowledge of what it is they do, to facilitate communication and understand their problems and
capabilities. υBeginning the Development Process Videoυ Print υ Multimedia.
• Prototyping and rapid prototyping have become embedded in the development process over the
years. These processes allow the production crew to try out and verify the validity of ideas before
committing time and funds to ideas that may require costly changes later.υAlthough instructional
designers may not be directly involved in development, familiarity with the steps facilitates
communication with the people who have the specific skills required during production.
υPreproduction activities are implemented before materials are created, and often include
identification and scheduling the tasks, specifying the treatment, establishing story boards, and
writing scripts. υIf creating new materials is deemed necessary, a variety of tools can be used to help
plan and carry out the development process. υCreating instructional materials is time consuming and,
likely, costly. It's much more effective to find existing materials that may be able to be adopted or
amended to meet your needs. υSteps in the development of Instruction
• Developing or modifying instructional materials for the interpersonal domain, the instructor should
ask these questions: 1. what is my instructional strategy? This would include learner analysis,
identification of goalsυ flexibility and encourages the development of materials that are focused on
learner needs. When υ Develop the materials so that the instructor is not built into the process. This
permits the greatest υ addition, motivation and decision making should be built in to the materials
being developed. υ Knowledge. Learners bring experience that is unique to their cultural and ethnic
backgrounds. In υ that permit for multiple and varied perspectives. Contextualizing also helps link
ideas to prior υ When developing content, provide contextualizing elements (collaboration, role play,
case studies) υstrategies for developing content & objectives, sequencing of events, delivery modes
(i.e., self-paced, instructor-led, etc.) and assessment tools. 2. What budget do I have available? This
would include not only the cost of developing or adapting existing materials, but the cost of
maintaining the instructional materials over
• course: • peer-sharing • group activities • interpersonal interactions • team games • questionnaires,
surveys, and activities which require gathering input from others • cooperative learning • leadership
activities • peer activities such as counseling and tutoringυ activities should draw upon the following
elements, depending upon the goals and objectives of the υ look for materials that engage the learner
in interpersonal activities. Instructional and assessment υ instruction. Since you are developing
instructional materials for the interpersonal domain, you should υ Once you have a general plan in
mind, you can begin developing and gathering the materials for your υInstructional Elements
• Going to look at some strategies for media selection.υ Now that you have learned some strategies for
developing the content, we are υ goals and objectives: • listening skills • person-to-person
communication • giving and receiving feedback • leadership • teamwork and cooperation • conflict
resolution υ the material should be designed to develop these skills, depending upon the υ developed
by using the instructional materials that you have created or selected. υ When developing the content
you should assess the skills that are likely to be υIdentifying Skills to Develop
• Strategies for Selecting Media When developing your instructional materials you will need to
consider your media options. This section will provide you with some strategies to help you make
the right choice for your needs. TYPES BENEFITS CONSIDERATIO NS EXAMPLES Simulation
s Permits independence in learning process, contextualizes context, develop critical thinking Can be
expensive, feedback important to success File:Diffusiom-sum-game. ping Visit (Diffusion
Simulation Game) Training Games Highly motivational, encourages teamwork, uses problem
solving skills, develops communication skills May require extensive preparation, flexibility
important File: Cash-game.png, Visit (Triage’s Training Games) Role Playing Introduces real world
situations, promotes understanding of other positions, emphasizes working together, provides
opportunities to receive and give feedback Difficult with large groups, can require extensive
guidance to be effective File: Role-play.png Visit (Effective & Ineffective Interpersonal
Communication Role Play) Interactive Highly motivational, engages Best with individuals
• Strategies for Selecting Media Continued TYPES BENEFITS CONSIDERATION S EXAMPLES
VIDEO Great for large groups provides for safe observation can include real life situations can
develop critical thinking Technology requirements, difficult to adapt Need discussion & practice
opportunities File:Interpersonal-lecture- sample.png Visit (Power on Non Verbal Communication)
WEB SITES Many available resources multiple perspectives represented, can provide for silent
reflection Technology requirements quality varies greatly, requires self-motivation, need to provide
interaction opportunities File: Seven – challenges.png Visit (The Seven Challenges Workbook) JOB
AIDS Provides for rapid instruction, inexpensive, can use with any group, provides opportunities for
self-assessment Good as a support tool, need practice opportunities to ensure transfer File:
Communication-job- aid.png Visit (Speak for Yourself)
Q No: 4 a) Describe difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

b) Define the term inquiry approach and enlist the method that comes under the umbrella of
this approach.
(Part A)
Describe difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Teachers can often readily identify students who demonstrate high or low motivation in a certain task.
Motivated students engage in the task with intensity and feeling, whereas unmotivated students procrastinate
and indicate in other ways that they would rather do something else. These differences exemplify the
quantitative dimension of motivation, ranging from high to low. Teachers can often also identify highly
motivated students who engage in tasks in different ways. Some may attempt to finish the task quickly,
while others may seek more information. Some may persist, while others may begin enthusiastically but
give-up when they encounter difficulty. These differences reflect the qualitative dimension of motivation.
The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has been one of the important theoretical
conceptualizations of qualitative differences in engagement.
Intrinsic motivation refers to engagement in an activity with no reason other than the enjoyment and
satisfaction of engagement itself. By comparison, extrinsic motivation refers to engagement that provides
means to ends that go beyond the engagement itself. The goals of extrinsically motivated engagement might
be the attainment of tangible rewards such as money, prizes, or other benefits; intangible rewards such as
social approval, a sense of worthiness, or even a sense of conscientiousness; or the avoidance of tangible and
intangible punishments such as time-out, scolding, rejection or sense of low self-worth.
Motivational theorists of the early 20th century searched for general principles of behavior. Theories of the
period focused primarily on the motivations triggered by organism physiological drives or needs such as
food, sleep, procreation, and security. Organisms were perceived to be motivated to behave in ways that
replenish biological deficits and secure survival. Because behavior that aims to satisfy a physiological deficit
is done in order to achieve a goal and not for its own sake, it represents a type of extrinsic motivation.
Taking a different approach to motivation, behaviorist psychologists argued that behavior can be explained
by the organisms' motivation to approach pleasant and desirable outcomes and to avoid unpleasant and
undesirable outcomes. Pleasant outcomes constitute a reward, and enhance the chance that a behavior will
recur, whereas unpleasant outcomes constitute a punishment and reduce the chance that a behavior will
recur. Behaviorist psychologists argued that human (and animal) behavior can be explained by the various
rewards and punishments in the environment. Thus, from a behaviorist perspective, all motivation is
extrinsic.
However, during the middle of the 20th century, several theorists challenged the mechanistic models of the
drive and behaviorist perspectives. These theorists relied on observations indicating that sometimes people
(and animals) engage in behavior without an apparent reward. This engagement was seen to manifest
universally early in life in children's exploration and play. But it also appears among older people who
engage in games and hobbies. These observations seemed to suggest that such engagement is inherently
enjoyable and satisfying. This type of motivation was contrasted with behavior propelled by “extrinsic”
forces, and was labeled “intrinsic” motivation.
Researchers of the period proposed a variety of theoretical explanations for intrinsic motivation, including
characteristics of activities such as novelty and fantasy and biological mechanisms such as play instincts,
curiosity, and need for stimulation. In a seminal paper, White (1959) reviewed several of these theoretical
explanations and argued for their integration in a motive that developed along evolution, which he termed
“reflectance” motivation, or need for competence. White argued that this motive propels children to explore
their surroundings, manipulate objects, and interact with others in ways that promote mastery of the
environment. Unlike physiological needs, which operate on a homeostatic principle—that is, they are
aroused when the organism is deficient in a resource, and operate to guide action towards reducing the
deficiency— reflectance motivation is aroused particularly when no deficiency exists. Engagement out of
reflectance motivation does not have a clear end-goal; rather, it is the engagement in the activity itself that
elicits positive feelings of efficacy, which constitute an “intrinsic” reward.
Whereas organism needs energize intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, the concept of need in itself is too
general to explain engagement in specific behaviors and too vague to be a guide for empirical research.
Therefore, during the second half of the 20th century, researchers developed models that described how
motivation triggered by needs manifests in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in specific domains and
activities. These models also explained how factors in the environment may shape and affect the type of
motivation that people manifest in different domains.
Researchers have used multiple methods to assess intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, either as a motivational
“state”— the motivation a person has in a particular task—or as a motivational “trait”—the type of
motivation a person has a tendency to display across domains and activities (Harter & Jackson, 1992). One
common indicator of “state” intrinsic motivation is “free choice”—the amount of time spent on a task when
alternative activities are available and no reward is offered. While an important measure in the literature,
“free choice” is also somewhat problematic because there may be reasons other than intrinsic motivation for
choosing a certain activity over others (e.g., wanting to prove worthiness.
(Part B)
Define the term inquiry approach and enlist the method that comes under the umbrella of this
approach.
In general, the traditional approach to learning is focused on mastery of content, with less emphasis on the
development of skills and the nurturing of inquiring attitudes. The current system of education is teacher
centered, with the teacher focused on giving out information about "what is known." Students are the
receivers of information, and the teacher is the dispenser. Much of the assessment of the learner is focused
on the importance of "one right answer." Traditional education is more concerned with preparation for the
next grade level and in-school success than with helping a student learn to learn throughout life.
Traditional classrooms tend to be closed systems where information is filtered through layers to students. In
general, the use of resources is limited to what is available in the classroom or within the school. Use of
technology is focused on learning about the technology rather than its application to enhanced learning.
Lesson plans are used to organize the various steps in the learning process for the whole-class approach. On-
target questions that would tend to cause deviations from the plan are met with, "We will get to that later.
The inquiry approach is more focused on using and learning content as a means to develop information-
processing and problem-solving skills. The system is more students centered, with the teacher as a facilitator
of learning. There is more emphasis on "how we come to know" and less on "what we know." Students are
more involved in the construction of knowledge through active involvement. The more interested and
engaged students are by a subject or project, the easier it will be for them to construct in-depth knowledge of
it. Learning becomes almost effortless when something fascinates students and reflects their interests and
goals.
Assessment is focused on determining the progress of skills development in addition to content
understanding. Inquiry learning is concerned with in-school success, but it is equally concerned with
preparation for life-long learning.
Inquiry classrooms are open systems where students are encouraged to search and make use of resources
beyond the classroom and the school. Teachers who use inquiry can use technology to connect students
appropriately with local and world communities which are rich sources of learning and learning materials.
They replace lesson plans with facilitated learning plans that account for slight deviations while still keeping
an important learning outcome in focus. They meet on-target questions with, "How do you suggest we
investigate that question?"
Misconception
Another issue regarding inquiry-based learning has to do with a misconception about when to do inquiry.
Inquiry is not only done in laboratory or group work -- it can also be done in lectures that provoke students
to think and question.
Teachers often discount the fact that when they are giving talks or lectures to students, the students, if
engaged, are applying listening and observing skills -- using their senses. If teachers focus more on "how we
come to know" by presenting evidence and information and encouraging student questioning, then talks can
even become powerful inquiry models for students. Collaborative meaning-making can take place through
discourse.
For example, when discussing the internal structure of the earth, a teacher will often give the students
information about just the names and sizes of these earth layers, or the "what we know." But what really is
important and intriguing for the student is the "how do we know?" about these structures. No one has been
down there, and physical probes have only scratched the surface. To enhance inquiry learning, the teacher
should explain that indirect scientific evidence, mainly the transmission and reflection of different kinds of
earthquake waves, provides much of our understanding about the internal structure of the earth. This
approach provides the student with the opportunity not only to learn the names and sizes of the structures
but, more importantly, to ponder and question the nature of indirect scientific evidence as well. Thus, an
inquiry approach can help students connect science with the scientific method. Students learn to apply the
method to various fields of study while coming to understand their content.
Perhaps a good way to summarize the important difference between traditional learning and inquiry learning
is: Traditional learning focuses more on LEARNING ABOUT THINGS, while inquiry learning focuses
more on LEARNING THINGS! Another useful way to contrast the two might be: Thinking WHAT as
opposed to thinking HOW.
Most of our schools focus on teaching a set of basic skills that does not serve the needs of modern society.
Traditionally, schools stressed the accumulation of information, and did not emphasize skill development or
nurturing inquiry-based habits of mind. This approach to education was adequate when the United States
was a largely rural society, depending on unskilled labor. Our modern society is faster paced, globally
networked, technologically oriented, and requires workers who can problem solve and think critically.
Today, much learning, if not most, occurs after formal schooling. Our schools must change their approach to
education to produce students who can thrive in the modern world.
Traditional focus of education
The traditional focus of education is no longer appropriate. The world has changed: local apprenticeships are
rare, and young people must master new ways of acting and thinking. Illustration our society is becoming
increasingly larger and more complexly diverse. Young people must develop an understanding for the
complexities of modern life and be able to grapple with new ethical and practical issues. We must educate
our young so they can participate as responsible members in contemporary society. They also need to be
given the chance to grow and develop fulfilling personal identities in settings that are relatively free of risk.
Inquiry learning can turn information into useful knowledge. It stresses skill development and nurtures the
development of good habits of mind. Information, lacking a useful context, often has limited applications
beyond passing a test. Learning plans and teaching materials need to include a relevant context for new
information to lead to broader understandings. It is often hard for students to understand the connections
between activities within a particular subject. This confusion is heightened when students struggle to
understand the connections between different subjects within traditional schools.
Many traditional schools lack a coherent and simplified process for interrelating subject material between
grades. There is little emphasis on planning across subjects. And not enough effort is spent defining the
ultimate goals of education -- the skills and abilities students should have when they complete high school.
While many subjects share information-processing skills, much more can be done to enhance the
connections among them.
"Habits of mind" should be an important goal, or outcome, in education. These habits can produce a world
view that incorporates different disciplines or subjects. They can be thought of as the "ground rules" for a
particular discipline, and include, but are not limited to, verification and respect for data in science, the
importance of beauty and desirability in art, and the role of belief and faith in religion.
Inference questions
These questions ask students to go beyond immediately available information. For example, a high-school
photography teacher held up a black-and-white portrait of a machinist taken by Paul Strand and asked,
"What do you know by looking at this photograph?" Through careful questioning and discussion, his
students realized the image contained hints that implied a whole network of information: clues to content
(where and when the photograph was taken), technique (where the photographer stood, where the light
sources were located), and meaning or attitude (what Strand felt about industry and workers). To push
beyond the factual in this way is to ask students to find clues, examine them, and discuss what inferences are
justified.
Interpretation questions
If inference questions demand that students fill in missing information, then interpretive questions propose
that they understand the consequences of information or ideas. One day, when her English class was
struggling to make sense of Frost's poem "The Silken Tent," a teacher asked, "Imagine if Frost compared the
woman to an ordinary canvas tent instead of a silk one. What would change?" Faced with the stolid image of
a stiff canvas tent, students suddenly realized the fabric of connotations set in motion by the idea of silk -- its
sibilant, rustling sounds; its associations with elegance, wealth, and femininity; its fluid motions. In a similar
spirit, during a life-drawing class, a teacher showed his students a reproduction of Mamet’s "Olympia" and
asked them, "How would the picture be different if the model weren't wearing that black tie around her
neck?" A student laid her hand over the tie, studied the image and commented, "Without the ribbon, she
doesn't look so naked. She looks like a classical model. With the ribbon, she looks undressed, bolder."
Transfer questions
If inference and interpretation questions as a student to go deeper, transfer questions provoke a kind of
breadth of thinking, asking students to take their knowledge to new places. For example, the final exam for a
high-school film course contained this question: "This semester we studied three directors: Fellini,
Hitchcock, and Kurosawa. Imagine that you are a film critic and write a review of "Little Red Riding Hood"
as directed by one of these individuals."
Questions about hypotheses
Typically, questions based on what can be predicted and tested are thought of as belonging to sciences and
other "hard" pursuits. But, in fact, predictive thinking matters in all domains. When we read a novel, we
gather evidence about the world of the story, the trustworthiness of the narrator, the style of the author, all of
which we use to predict what we can expect in the next chapter. Far from letting their students simply soak
in the content of dances, plays, or fiction, skilled teachers probe for predictions as a way of making students
actively aware of their expectations.
One of the important missing pieces in many modern schools is a coherent and simplified process for
increasing knowledge of a subject from lower grades to upper grades. Students often have difficulty
understanding how various activities within a particular subject relate to each other. Much more confusion
results when the learner tries to inter relate the various subjects taught at school.
Transcript
Lisa Nyberg, a third- and fourth-grade teacher at Brattain Elementary School in Springfield, Oregon, says
exposure to a concept from different angles cements kids' understanding in a way a single kind of exposure
does not. Too little effort is devoted to defining important outcomes at the end of high school and planning
backwards and across subjects. Inquiry-based learning can help make these connections.
Specific content such as photosynthesis has much more relevance for the learner if set in a larger context of
understanding the interrelationship of the sun, green plants, and the role of carbon dioxide and water. Social
studies content, such as industrial development, set in the context of interrelating changes in the human-
designed world can add new perspectives to this important natural process. Students can still learn content of
both science and social studies, but through a series of well-planned experiences, they will grasp the larger
conceptual context and gain greater understanding.
Within a conceptual framework, inquiry learning and active learner involvement can lead to important
outcomes in the classroom. Students who actively make observations, collect, analyze, and synthesize
information, and draw conclusions are developing useful problem-solving skills. These skills can be applied
to future "need to know" situations that students will encounter both at school and at work.
Another benefit that inquiry-based learning offers is the development of habits of mind that can last a
lifetime and guide learning and creative thinking.
Q no: 5 What is an activity? Discuss the importance of activity method. Name different types of
activities you would use in English.
Activity method is a technique adopted by a teacher to emphasize his or her method of teaching through
activity in which the students participate rigorously and bring about efficient learning experiences. It is a
child-centered approach. It is a method in which the child is actively involved in participating mentally and
physically. Learning by doing is the main focus in this method. Learning by doing is imperative in
successful learning since it is well proved that more the senses are stimulated, more a person learns and
longer he/she retains. Pine G (1989) mentions that in an activity based teaching, learners willingly with
enthusiasm internalize and implement concepts relevant to their needs. So our understanding on the activity
method by now should mean any learning that is carried out with a purpose in a social environment,
involving physical and mental action, stimulating for creative action or expression.
Activity Method in Teaching English
Immersion activities: How can children access stories, poems and other texts if their minds and
imaginations not fully engaged? We have found that immersing children in a range of creative activities
before reading the text means that they are fully prepared, and excited, about the reading journey ahead of
them. Through painting, music composition, a film project, in role drama or sculpture, the kids have had a
chance to share vocabulary, ideas and concepts which gives their reading fresh meaning and purpose.
Clear Purpose: What's the point of reading and writing anything if you don't know why you're doing it? We
aim to provide children with a clear purpose to all reading, and especially writing tasks. Whether it's an
invitation to the head teacher to attend a class assembly, an email to an author or an article for a school
newspaper, our children know why the quality of their writing matters: because there will be a real audience
for their published work.
Professional Publishing: One effective way of valuing children's work as well as providing a real incentive,
is to plan for a range of ways to publish their writing. Recent examples include a whole school bookmaking
project. Following a whole school Inset on bookbinding techniques, every class published their own shared
book; one example being an anthology of short spooky stories composed by year 6. Their stories were
mounted on handmade paper, accompanied with each child's art work (lino cut style prints on metallic
paper) with a dramatic paper cut out front cover. The effort the children put into their work was immense,
and the results were stunning as a result. The anthology has been enjoyed by parents and other pupils and the
children's pride in their work is clear to see.
Meaningful Planning: Where possible, learning in English is linked with subjects within the creative
curriculum we follow: the international primary curriculum (IPC). Well in advance of teaching, teachers
collaborate and share their ideas for planning through a mind mapping process. Meaningful, creative
activities are planned for, ensuring that all staff members know exactly what the children will be learning
and why.
Focused on Strategies: The teaching of reading is not easy as children's fluency in reading increases, it's
hard to know what reading skills need to be taught, and when. We ensure that specific reading strategies are
modeled explicitly to the class; this provides children with a holistic bank of skills to draw upon. This could
include scanning a text, making an inference, predicting or creating a mental image. Our teachers use 'think
aloud' statements to model to the children how these skills are used, and how they can help them become
better readers. These strategies are then shared as a class, and then assessed in follow up guided reading
activities.
Inspirational Learning Environment: Take a trip to our school and you'll find classroom environments
that inspire adults and children alike. Not only is the children's work displayed creatively, but there is a
range of learning prompts to inspire and support all pupils. We want to encourage our children to discover
new texts, genres and authors, so our reading areas are inviting, well resourced and highly organized. Pupils
can choose from an exciting array of reading material: newspapers, classic texts, reference books as well as
the children's own published stories are just some examples of what book corners might offer.
Drama to Engage and Inspire: The use of drama is such a powerful tool. Taking the lead from our drama
specialist, all teaching staff uses a range of techniques to promote the exploration of characters, situations
and historical events. This process expands the pupils' imaginations, and provides them with the ideas they
need to give their writing that extra spark and flair.
Rigorous Teaching of Spelling and Phonics: In the infants, phonics is streamed, so all children can benefit
from tailored teaching, making maximum progress as a result. All phonics and spelling activities are fun,
multi sensory and as physical possible, the aim being to meet all learning styles in the class. In the juniors,
we try to make homework lists as personalized to the child as possible to ensure that the spelling patterns
stick in a meaningful way.
Grammar Concepts Taught Creatively: Grammar cannot be taught as a standalone activity. What's the
point of that? Children begin to understand grammar concepts, and start to apply them in their own writing,
when they start to read with a writer's mind. Punctuation rules and techniques are drawn from shared texts;
texts which the children have already been immersed in and have a good understanding of. Exploring these
and embedding them creatively is how the learning takes place.
Peer and Self Assessment: What child doesn't love marking somebody else's work? With a clear marking
key, success criteria and purpose in mind, children set about assessing either their own, or a partner's piece
of writing. Modeled through the teacher's own formative marking, pupils know what the expectations are.
They are well trained in searching for successful examples of the learning intention, articulating their
responses to the work, checking the writing matches any targets and giving constructive feedback. Seeing
the children learn from each other in this way is hugely positive; you know you've done your job well.

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Course: General Methods of Teaching

• contrasts the implications of various theories

• All instructional material should be accompanied by objective tests or by product or performance

Q No: 4 a) Describe difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Activity Method in Teaching English

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