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Contents
INTRODUCTION: ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Ammonia............................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.1 History of Ammonia .......................................................................................................... 7
1.1.3 Raw Material Used ............................................................................................................ 8
1.1.4 Anhydrous Ammonia Properties: ...................................................................................... 8
1.1.5 Expansion in the industry................................................................................................... 9
1.1.5.1 Improvement in NH3 Production process: .................................................................... 11
1.1.6 Uses of Ammonia: ........................................................................................................... 14
1.1.6.1 Minor and Emerging Uses: ........................................................................................... 15
1.2 Naphtha ............................................................................................................................... 18
1.2.1 Properties: ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.2.2 Production of Naphtha in Refineries and Uses: ............................................................... 19
1.2.3 Exported Naphtha specification of ARL: ........................................................................ 20
1.3 Ammonia in Pakistan: ......................................................................................................... 21
1.3.1 PakArab fertilizer ltd. (Pfl) Multan .................................................................................. 21
1.3.2 Fauji fertilizer ltd. Goth Macchi ...................................................................................... 22
1.3.2.1 Base Unit-Goth Machhi(Plant-1) .............................................................................. 22
1.3.2.2 Expansion Unit-Goth Machhi(Plant-II) .................................................................... 22
1.3.3 FFC Ltd. Mirpur Mathelo.: .............................................................................................. 22
1.3.4 Agritech Ltd. Daudkhel: .................................................................................................. 22
1.3.5 Engro Chemicals ltd. Dharki: .......................................................................................... 23
1.3.6 Dawood Hercules Chemicals Limited: ............................................................................ 23
1.4 Ammonia Production in Pakistan: ...................................................................................... 23
1.5 Naphtha Exports at Loss: .................................................................................................... 24
1.6 Capacity: ............................................................................................................................. 26
MANUFACTURING PROCESS ................................................................................................. 28
2.1 Haldor Topsoe A/S Process ................................................................................................ 28
2.2 Kellogg Brown and Roots Advanced Ammonia Process (KAAP) ..................................... 28
2.3 Krupp Uhde GmbH ammonia Process ................................................................................ 29
2.4 Haber process: ..................................................................................................................... 29
2.5 Braun Purifier process: ....................................................................................................... 29
2.6 Foster Wheeler Process: ...................................................................................................... 30
2.7 ICI process: ......................................................................................................................... 30
2.8 Selection Criteria of Process: .................................................................................................. 30
2.8.1 Advantages:...................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter we have discussed about Ammonia and Naphtha. The whole
chapter comprises of their history, physical and chemical properties, Raw materials used for
their manufacturing, Expansion in overall industries in Pakistan according to the production
point of view and about the market analysis and survey.
1.1 Ammonia
Ammonia is an intermediate product in the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers. It is also
used for direct application to the soil and in aqua condition with solutions of other
nitrogenous fertilizers like ammonium nitrate and/or urea. Besides these, ammonia finds
applications in the production of nitric acid, soda ash, cleaning agents, leather tanning,
petroleum refining, pulp & paper industry, textiles, refrigeration, rubber & synthetic resin
industries, explosives and food & beverages.
throughout the world designed for the use of a natural gas, heavy oil as feed material. During
last 15 years, Naphtha has become the most popular feed material in the areas where natural
gas is not present. At present almost all of the ammonia plants in USA are based on natural
gas.
Ammonia is produced by the reaction between nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2)
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Source of Nitrogen is atmospheric air and following hydrocarbons are generally used as the
source of hydrogen.
Natural gas
Naphtha
Heavy Oil
Other sources of hydrogen which were used earlier for manufacture of Ammonia are:
1) Semi-water gas made by gasification of coke/ coal with steam.
2) Hydrogen produced by electrolysis of water.
3) By product Hydrogen from chlorine production.
Chemical Properties:
Major expansion of the ammonia industry began in 1963.The demand for nitrogen based
fertilizer throughout the world and the prospects for increased consumption in future years
stimulate fertilizer producers to build many new ammonia plants. During the last 8 years, a
trend has developed towards building large scale train plants with capacities of 600 to 1500
tons per day. During the last quarter century many improvements have been made in plant
equipment, catalysts and instrumentation. These developments have contributed to
substantiate reduction in the capital cost and operation costs of ammonia plants.
In 1960, the world production of ammonia was about 13 million ton. The use of ammonia can
be apprehended by the fact that in 1967, 12 million of ammonia was manufactured in United
States of America raised to 18 million tons the very next year.
Major development of ammonia began in 1963, so that ammonia requirement for the fertilizer
industry can be fulfilled. During the last quarter century many improvements have been made
in plant design technology. Significant improvements have been made in plant equipment
catalyst and instrumentation .These developments have caused a substantiate reduction in
capital cost and operation costs of ammonia plants. Research work is not so ancient .At the
time of Independence, there was no ammonia industry in Pakistan. The trend of ammonia
industry was developed with the use of fertilizer. The start of fertilizer/ammonia industry
was taken up in after 1960’s during the rule of Field Marshal Ayyub Khan. Afterwards many
fertilizer industries were set up in Pakistan in private as well as public sector. Now National
Fertilizer Corporation of Pakistan is making its best efforts for the prosperity.
Since 1954the following sweeping changing in the technology of ammonia manufacture has
taken place.
1 Feed ranging from natural gas to naphtha have been processed by steam hydrocarbon
reforming at pressure up to 500lb/in2 gauge.
2 Electric power consumption has been reduced to practically zero due primarily to the
use of a highly efficient energy cycle which incorporates high pressure steam
generation in conjunction with the maximum use of turbine drives to pumps and
centrifugal compressors.
3 Enormous improvements in the gas purification processes .several low utility
process are available for CO2 removal including promoted MEA, promoted hot
potassium carbonate process, sulfinol, the two stage Tri ethanol amine /Mon
ethanolamine system and others. Moreover, removal of residual CO has been
enormously simplified by the use of the methanation system. Space requirements for
the purification system have been minimized.
4 Improved heat recovery, particularly in the reformer effluent system and the various
catalyst reaction services.
5 Efficient use for steam
6 Use of higher activity catalyst for all the process services. The introduction of low
temperature shift conversion catalyst has simplified the design of the raw gas
generation system and permitted substantial reduction in the quantity of feed
processed in the reformer because of the associated reduction in purge in the
synthesis loop.
7 Plant capacities have been increased from 600 to 1700 tons/day as 100% single train
operations throughout the unit including the ammonia convertor. In addition, there
have been significant improvements in the fabrication of ammonia convertors. Full
closure convertors can be offered in a wide range of capacities and operating
pressures. Moreover, the internal layout of ammonia convertors have been modified
in the direction of low pressure drop which still retaining efficient distribution of gas
through the catalyst beds. The number of catalyst beds for the quench –type
convertor has been optimized. Also, more use has been made of reduced size
synthesis catalyst which has reduced both the volume of catalyst and the convertor
size by 10-25% depending on the size of catalyst used and the available pressure
drop of the loop.
8 Improvement in compressor design for all process service. Centrifugal compressors
can be provided for the synthesis gas service for pressure up to 4700lb/in(g) for size
in excess of 1700 tons /day operating over a wide range of speeds and horsepower.
9 Development of improved method for feed desulfurization including hydro
desulphurization of naphtha feeds. Improvements in both cobalt molybdenum
catalyst and zinc oxide sulfur absorbent catalyst have enabled all feeds to be
desulfurized to levels of less than 0.25 ppm sulfur, thus ensuring protection of
reforming catalyst against sulfur poisons with a resultant long catalyst life.
1940 to 1952
Main features:
Capacity : 150T/D
CO2 Removal system : Water wash, 20% MEA
No. of NH3 converter : 3
Process characteristics
1 .Low pressure catalyst reforming of natural gas i.e. (0.6-1.0)kg/cm2
2. Low pressure efficiency High power consumption.
1953
Main features:
Capacity : 160T/D
CO2 Removal system : 20% MEA
No. of NH3 converter : 2
Process characteristics
1.
First increase in reforming i.e. 4.2 kg/cm2
2. Substantial reduction in power consumption
3. Gas holder and associated operation eliminated
1955
Main features:
Capacity : 300T/D
CO2 Removal system : 20% MEA Hot k2co3
No. of NH3 converter : 1
Process characteristics
1. Reduction in Fuel & power consumption
2. First use of centrifugal compression in raw synthesis gas service.
3. Additional feeds processed include refinery gas and naphtha.
4. Use of Hot K2CO3 for CO2 removal.
5.
Further increase in reformer pressure i.e. 8.8 kg/cm2
1960 to 1962
Main features:
Capacity : 360T/D
CO2 Removal system : 20% MEA
No. of NH3 converter : 1
Process characteristics
1. Further increase in reformer pressure i.e. (14.5-18.4)kg/cm2
2. Elimination of copper liquor system.
3. Elimination of compression in raw gas.
4. Use of high air pre-heat for secondary reformer.
5. Internal main folding of reformer catalyst lube to reduce heat losses.
6. Greater recovery of heat of reaction for all catalytic services.
1963
Main features:
Capacity : 320T/D
CO2 Removal system : 20% MEA
No. of NH3 converter : 1
Process characteristics
Further increase in reformer pressure i.e. (21-28.3)kg/cm2
High thermal efficiency, reduced fuel consumption
Introduction of improved low temperature co shift catalyst.
Reduced purge rate in synthesis loop.
1964
Main features:
Capacity : 600T/D
CO2 Removal system : 20% MEA
No. of NH3 converter : 1
Process characteristics
1. First single train 600 ton ammonia plant.
2. First use of centrifugal compressor to compress synthesis gas to 150 atm.
3. Approximately 80% of all compression horsepower (including air + Refrigeration)
based on use of centrifugal machines.
1965 to 1972
Main features:
Process characteristics
1. Further increase in reformer pressure in conjunction with low pressure synthesis
i.e. (31.7-33.5)kg/cm2.
2. Entire synthesis gas compression (including recycling service) handled by a two
stage centrifugal compressor for synthesis pressure up to 220 atm.
Fertilizer
Approximately 83% (as of 2004) of ammonia is used as fertilizers either as its salts or as
solutions. Consuming more than 1% of all man-made power, the production of ammonia is a
significant component of the world energy budget.
Cleaner
Household ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) used as a
general purpose cleaner for many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-
free shine, one of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is
also frequently used for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked-on grime.
Household ammonia ranges in concentration from 5 to 10 weight percent ammonia.
Refrigeration – R717
Because of its favorable vaporization properties, ammonia is an attractive refrigerant. It was
commonly used prior to the popularization of chlorofluorocarbons (Freon’s). Anhydrous
ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of
its high energy and low cost. The Kalina cycle, which is of growing importance to
geothermal power plants, depends on the wide boiling range of the ammonia-water mixture.
Ammonia is used less frequently in commercial applications, such as in grocery store freezer
cases and refrigerated displays due to its toxicity.
As a fuel
Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium, and in engine and solar
energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid ammonia was used as the fuel of the rocket
airplane, the X-15. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable
rocket engine and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer, liquid
oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design.
Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion
engines. The calorific value of ammonia is 22.5 MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb) which is about half
that of diesel. In a normal engine, in which the water vapor is not condensed, the calorific
value of ammonia will be about 21% less than this figure. It can be used in existing engines
with only minor modifications to carburetors/injectors.
To meet these demands, significant capital would be required to increase present production
levels. Although the second most produced chemical, the scale of ammonia production is a
small fraction of world petroleum usage. It could be manufactured from renewable energy
sources, as well as coal or nuclear power. It is however significantly less efficient than
batteries. The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark, Norway produced ammonia via electrolysis
of water for many years from 1913 producing fertilizer for much of Europe. If produced from
coal, the CO2 can be readily sequestrated (the combustion products are nitrogen and water).
In 1981 a Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia
as fuel.
Ammonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been
proposed and occasionally used. The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive,
but with ammonia as the working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia
engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and
in streetcars in New Orleans in the USA.
As a stimulant in sports
Ammonia has found significant use in various sports – particularly the strength sports
of power lifting and Olympic weightlifting as a respiratory stimulant (psychoactive drugs).
Textile
Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, give properties
like Mercerization (It is a treatment for cotton fabric and thread that gives fabric or yarns a
lustrous appearance and strengthens them using alkalies). In particular, it is used for pre-
washing of wool.
Lifting gas
At standard temperature and pressure ammonia is lighter than air, and has approximately 60%
of the lifting power of hydrogen or helium. Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill
weather balloons as a lifting gas. Because of its relatively high boiling point (compared to
helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquefied aboard an
airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce ballast).
Woodworking
Ammonia was historically used to darken quarter sawn white oak in Arts & Crafts and
Mission style furniture. Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause
it to change colors.
1.2 Naphtha
Naphtha is used primarily as feedstock for producing high octanegasoline (via the catalytic
reforming process). It is also used in the bitumen mining industry as a diluents, the
petrochemical industry for producing olefins in steam crackers, and the chemical industry for
solvent (cleaning) applications. Common products made with it include lighter fluid, fuel for
camp stoves, and some cleaning solvents.
1.2.1 Properties:
To obtain the product known as naphtha, a complex soup of chemicals is broken into another
range of chemicals, which are then graded and isolated mainly by their specific gravity and
volatility.
Naphtha is insoluble in water.
They are colorless (with a kerosene odor) or red-brown (with an aromatic odor).
They are incompatible with strong oxidizers. Less dense naphtha’s ("light naphtha’s")
have higher paraffin content. They are therefore also called paraffinic naphtha. The
denser naphtha’s ("heavy naphtha’s") are usually richer in naphthenes and aromatics.
Heavynaphtha
The "heavy" naphtha can also be used in the petrochemical industry, but they are more often
used as feedstock for refinery catalytic reformers where they convert the lower octane
naphtha to a higher octane product called reformate. Alternative names for these types are
"straight run benzene" (SRB) or "heavy virgin naphtha" (HVN).
Additional applications
Naphtha’s are also used in other applications, such as:
It is a large manufacturer of urea fertilizer in Pakistan under the Bubber Sher brand name.
The company was founded in 1971, and its plant is located near Sheikhupura, about 28 Km
from Lahore, in the province of Punjab. The manufacturing facility was established in 1968
as a joint venture with Hercules Chemicals Inc. of the USA. It was the first private sector
venture in Pakistan to receive a loan from the World Bank and was the largest ammonia/urea
plant in country at that time. Initially designed to produce625 MTPD of ammonia but now
upgraded to produce 850 MTPD of ammonia.
Exports of naphtha from Pakistan also dropped in recent months. The data shows that the
cumulative quantity of two different grades of the hydrocarbon mixture exported from the
country in the first eight months of the current fiscal stood at 895,588 tons, compared with
almost 920,000 tons exported in the corresponding period of last year. Overall production of
local refineries has been limited in the past few months.
Naphtha is a by-product of crude oil, obtained through refineries. The substance is used for
making paraxylene, which is in turn used to make polyester fibre utilized by the textile sector.
Our refineries cannot control the proportion of different petroleum products made in the
refining process, so even though there is no capacity to make paraxylene in the country, we
cannot reduce the production of naphtha for other variants.
The analyst explained that naphtha is exported at relatively cheaper rates, only to be imported
in the form of paraxylene which is a lot more costly.
While the quantity of naphtha exports has not registered a significant increase, rising prices
helped shore up the export value. During the July-February period of year 2011 $698.7
million worth of naphtha was exported, compared with exports of $609.8 million during the
same period last year. Asian naphtha prices climbed above $1000 per ton in March for the
first time in 30 months in 2011.different refineries that export naphtha on yearly bases are
listed under.
REFINERYEXPORT (Tons/Annum)
NRL 300,000
PRL 178460
ARL 200,000
BOSICOR 37,000
Dhodak 83,000
PARCO---
Total Country Exports Potential 798460
1.6Capacity:
Pakistan is likely to face shortage of up to 400,000 tons urea in December, 2011 due to
unavailability of natural gas used as a raw material for ammonia that further produces urea.
Even after imports by the Trading Corporation of Pakistan (TCP) of 440,000 tons. There
would be a urea shortage of at least 200,000 tons in December 2011, which is the peak urea
consumption time in Rabi because of wheat sowing. It can go up to 400,000 tons in case of
delay in import. Majority of urea shipments are coming from Russia and China, which might
arrive at Gwadar port in 20 to 25 days.
Industry sources said production losses due to continued curtailment of gas from the Sui
Northern Gas Pipelines Limited (SNGPL) to urea manufacturers are also complicating this
situation. Rabi Season could still be shielded from acute shortage if all fertilizer plants were
operated in November and December to cover December demand of up to 800,000 tons to
850,000 tons of urea. In order to overcome the shortage of natural gas which is a raw material
for ammonia that is used in urea manufacturing. We have decided to build a plant that can
produce 2500 MTPD of ammonia using naphtha as a source instead of natural gas. It may
provide benefit in economics of country. And we may reduce the short fall.
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The synthesis gas for manufacture of Ammonia is produced by steam reformingor partial
oxidation of Hydrocarbon feed. In most industries steam reforming isused normally.The
various processes used commercially in industries for production of Ammonia are
The company’s low energy ammonia process uses the conventional sequence of process steps
which are optimized by the introduction of improved catalysts, new equipment design and
extensive process optimization studies. A pre-reformer containing nickel catalyst has been
also provided upstream of primary reformer for converting all the higher hydrocarbons, so
that only methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and steam are present in the
product gas. Firing in primary reformer is reduced by 15% due to pre-reformer. Highly active
shift catalyst ensures the lowest carbon monoxide (less incomplete combustion) at the exit of
converters and thus highest utilization of feedstock. New temperature resistant iron free
catalyst makes it possible to operate at low steam to carbon ratio at high temperature shift
converter. The company has also developed Heat Exchange Reforming Process. Low energy
CO2 removal processes, such as selexol, MDEA or low heat potassium carbonate, are used.
Topsoe has developed new converters especially for high conversion loops.
KAAP uses a high-pressure heat exchange based steam reforming process integrated with a
low-pressure advanced ammonia synthesis process. Raw synthesis gas is produced by steam
reforming of hydrocarbon in a heat exchange based system under pressure, based on Kellogg
Brown and Root Reforming Exchange System (KRES). KRES also reduces energy
consumption and capital cost besides reduced emission and enhanced reliability.
The Krupp Uhde Gmbh process uses conventional steam reforming for synthesis gas
generation (front end) and a medium-pressure ammonia synthesis loop. The primary
reforming is carried out at pressure 40 bar and temperature range of 800-8500C. The steam
reformer is top fired and tubes are made of centrifugal high alloy steel which enhances
reliability. Process air is added in secondary reformer through nozzles installed in the wall of
vessel. This provides proper mixing of the air and reformer gas. Subsequent high pressure
steam generation & superheating, guarantee maximum heat usage to achieve energy
efficiency. Carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide in HT and LT shift converters.
The MDEA or Benfield system is used for carbon dioxide removal. The ammonia synthesis
loop uses two ammonia converters with three catalyst beds with waste heat boiler located
downstream of each reactor. The converters have small grain iron catalyst. The radial flow
concept minimizes pressure drop and allows maximum ammonia conversion.
In the secondary reformer 1.5 times the stoichiometric quantity of air is used. This increases
the heat load and reduces the radiant duty of the primary reformer to less than two thirds its
usual duty. Excess nitrogen is removed by a cryogenic purification unit after methanation
occurs.
Large air compressors used are driven by gas turbines. Owing to the high purity of synthesis
gases, lower recylce gas flow, lower refrigeration duty and lower purge duty will suffice.
In the secondary reformer excess air is used as in the previous case. Instead of treating the
whole feed in primary reformer, some bypass is fed to the secondary reformer. Partial
reaction in primary reformer will allow for a lower steam to carbon ratio. Excess air used is
much higher than in the case of Braun purifier process. A cryogenic unit removes nitrogen
form the exit gases leaving the methanator. CO2 is removed using physical solvents.
Absorption system provides refrigeration for ammonia recovery.
Hydrocarbon feed is subjected to steam reforming in two stages to form oxides of Carbon,
methane and hydrogen. In the secondary reformer air is mixed with the gases to get a N 2 : H2
ratio of 1:3. Carbon monoxide is removed by shift conversion. Carbon dioxide is removed by
absorption into MEA or Potassium Carbonate solution. Traces of CO and CO2 are removed
by conversion into methane. Synthesis gas is used to produce ammonia.
Advantages of this process are
1. Intensive heat recovery
2. Generation of steam which can be imported.
3. Less dependancy on electricity
4. Capital cost is least.
For the production of ammonia we have decided to select the Haldor topsoe because of its
energy efficient nature. Ammonia production usually requires the formation of molecular
hydrogen followed by contacting the hydrogen with molecular nitrogen over a catalyst for
ammonia synthesis.Topsoe's low energy ammonia process scheme can be optimized for a
wide range of operating conditions by selecting proper process technology and by adjusting
the process parameters. Topsoe's ammonia plant designs are characterised by being highly
energy efficient.
In comparison, Haldor Topsoe process operates at the pressures lower than Claude process
and against the disadvantage of using heat exchanger for heat recovery and less compactness
in converter design. Recovery of 20% of unconverted gas and recycling it to increase the
efficiency and conversion of complete process and the large and massive compressors which
are used in Claude process are required to maintaining 900 atm which cost millions
of Dollars are avoided in Haldor Topsoe and is thus more economic and good especially for
large capacity process. Also the life of the converter is very long and ammonia is removed by
water-cooling and by knockout drum.Through this method we can achieve 15.8 mol% of
ammonia per pass.
2.8.1 Advantages:
1. Greater compactness, simplicity in case of converter design since under high pressure
gases have smaller volume.
2. Elimination of expensive heat exchanger required in processes operated at low pressure.
3. Removal of ammonia with water cooling alone.
4. Energy Efficient Process.
5. Most economical Process.
2.8.2 Disadvantages:
2.9.2 Desulfurizer
As the virgin naphtha had high sulphur content, the Hydrofining or Desulphurization process
is used to bring down the sulphur content to 2 ppm by a suitable process in which the
preheated mixture of vaporized naphtha and hydrogen rich washed purge gas is superheated
and routed to the reactor where it flows over Cobalt Molybdenum catalyst at a temperature of
about 673 K or 399 oC.
H2 + S H2S
H2S + ZnO H2 O +ZnS
The sulfur content is reduced to less than 5ppm. The mixture is sent to Final Desulphurizer
where the last traces of organic sulphur is converted to H2S by reaction over COMoX catalyst
and H2S is removed by an Absorbing Column containing ZnO. Subsequently Naphtha vapors
are mixed with steam and sent to reforming section.
Pre-Reforming
Adiabatic prereforming can be used for steam reforming of feed stock ranging from natural
gas to heavy naphtha. In this all higher hydrocarbons are converted into a mixture of carbon
oxides, hydrogen and methane. When it is installed, the primary reformer has to reform
methane only, and at the same time at sulphur free conditions, because prereforming catalyst
will pick up sulphur components quantitatively. This is one of the reasons for allowing much
higher heat flux in the high flux reformer.
The prereformer feed can be reheated to 650 oC before
entering the primary reformer. This will result in reduced firing in the primary reformer, and
thereby reduced fuel consumption. When the hot flue gas is used to reheat the reformer feed,
the amount of heat available for HP steam production is reduced. This would result in a
reduced HP steam production in the ammonia plant.
Primary Reformer
In the first stage desulfurized naphtha is mixed with steam in a tubular reforming furnace.
The reformation reactions occur at a temperature of about 673K. Steam to carbon ration must
be maintained between 3.5 and 4.5 to ensure that Carbon deposition does not occur.
CnHm + nH2O nCO + (n+m/2) H2
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
The overall reaction is highly exothermic and the outlet temperature is about1093 K. The
primary reforming process is characterized by a low pressure.
Secondary Reformer
The gases from the primary reformer are mixed with air and steam at the outlet temperature
of the primary reformer. The remaining hydrocarbon like methane is further subjected to
reformation and the overall yield of hydrogen is increased. Air is mixed to form a mixture of
H2 and N2 for the synthesis process.
CH4 + H2O CO +3 H2
2.9.4.1 HTSC
2.9.4.2 LTSC
The reaction occurs at a temperature of about 523 K. Concentration of CO in the exit gas is
reduced to about 0.3 % by volume. The gas leaving the HT converter is then cooled and sent
to LT converter where the gas passes over Copper catalyst. The remaining CO is converted to
CO2 in shift convertor.
2.9.6 Methanation
Even trace quantities of Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide will act as catalyst poisons in
the synthesis loop. Hence they must be removed by conversion into methane. Methane
though not an inert gas is nevertheless inert in the ammonia synthesis process. The reaction in
the methanator occurs at a temperature of about 573 to 673 K. The exit gases contain steam
are condensed and cooled before being stored for the synthesis loop.
Synthesis gas is compressed to about 50 MPa and heated t about 673 K before passing
through the catalyst beds. The reaction being a reversible one high pressure favors the
forward phase. As the concentration of ammonia in the exit gas is low, recycling of gas is
necessary. The converter used is a vertical type of converter. Catalyst activity increases with
increase in temperature; hence ideal temperature profile is one in which rate of ammonia
production is a maximum at all parts of the bed. In the upper part of the converter the
concentration of ammonia being low the temperature is high ensuring high reaction rates. In
the lower parts temperature must be low due to increasing influence of equilibrium
concentration.
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL BALANCE
MATERIAL BALANCE
3.1 Primary Reformer:
Primary Reformer
Conversion =90%
C8H18 = 680,000 tons/yr C8H18 = 7762.56 kg/hr
C8H18 = 77625.57 kg/hr H2 = x
CO = y
CO2 = z
Reactions:
C8H18 + 8 H2 O 8 CO + 17 H2
CO + H2 O CO2 + H2
Basis:
Degree Of Freedom:
Unknown Equations
X C
Y H
Z O
Steam Balance:
Carbon Balance:
Hydrogen Balance:
Oxygen Balance:
INPUT OUTPUT
C8H18 = 77625.57 kg/hr C8H18 = 7762.56 kg/hr
Steam = 110310 kg/hr H2 = 24513.34 kg/hr
CO = 133446 kg/hr
CO2 = 8179.68 kg/hr
Secondary Reformer
Conversion = 99%
Basis:
Naphtha = 7762.56 kg/hr
Reaction:
C8H18 + 12.5 O2 + N2 8 CO2 + H2 O + N2
Degree of Freedom:
Unknown Equations
X C
Y H
Z O
Air Balance:
Carbon Balance:
Hydrogen Balance:
Oxygen Balance:
N2 Balance:
INPUT OUTPUT
C8H18 = 7762.56 kg/hr C8H18 = 77.62 kg/hr
Air = 27246.55 kg/hr CO2 = 23792.4 kg/hr
H2O (v) = 10931.6 kg/hr
O2 = 9942.98 kg/hr
N2 = 91216.7 kg/hr
HTSC
Conversion = 70%
CO = 133446 kg/hr CO = 40034 kg/hr
CO2 = x
H2 = y
H2 O (v) = z
Basis:
Carbon Monoxide = 133446 kg/hr
Reaction:
CO + H2O (v) CO2 + H2
Degree of Freedom:
Unknown Equations
X C
Y H
Z O
Steam Balance:
Carbon Balance:
Hydrogen Balance:
Oxygen Balance:
INPUT OUTPUT
CO = 133446 kg/hr CO = 40034 kg/hr
Steam = 85786.7 kg/hr CO2 = 147182.76 kg/hr
H2 = 6774.6 kg/hr
LTSC
Conversion = 99%
CO = 40034 kg/hr CO = 40034 kg/hr
CO2 = x
H2 = y
H2 O (v) = z
Basis:
Carbon monoxide = 40034 kg/hr
Reaction:
CO + H2 O (v) CO2 + H2
Degree of Freedom:
Unknown Equations
X C
Y H
Z O
Steam Balance:
Carbon Balance:
Hydrogen Balance:
Oxygen Balance:
Z = 122.35 kg/hr
INPUT OUTPUT
CO = 40034 kg/hr CO = 400.34 kg/hr
Steam = 25736.14 kg/hr CO2 = 62448 kg/hr
H2 = 2846.1 kg/hr
H2O(v) = 122.35 kg/hr
Total Components:
CO2 = (8179.68 + 23792.4 + 147182.76 + 62448) kg/hr
CO2 = 241602.84 kg/hr
CO =400.34 kg/hr
H2 = (24513.34 + 6774.6 + 2846.1) kg/hr
H2 = 34134.04 kg/hr
N2 = 91216.7 kg/hr
3.5 Absorber:
The absorber is used to absorb Carbon Dioxide from mixture of gases. Here we
are using Benfield solution for the absorption of CO2.
Absorber
Absorption = 99.9%
Reaction:
INPUT OUTPUT
CO2 = 241602 kg/hr CO2 = 241.60 kg/hr
K2CO3. H2O = 296512.58 kg/hr
3.6 Methanator:
H2 = 34134.04 kg/hr
Reactions:
Degree of Freedom:
Unknown Equations
X C
Y H
Z O
Carbon Balance:
Hydrogen Balance:
Oxygen Balance:
INPUT OUTPUT
CO2 = 241.60 kg/hr CH4 = 313.45 kg/hr
CO = 400.34 kg/hr H2O (v) = 455.03 kg/hr
H2 = 34134.04 kg/hr H2 = 34005.54 kg/hr
CO = 4 kg/hr
CO2 = 2.42 kg/hr
3.7 Concertor:
N2 = 91216.7kg/hr
Convertor
Conversion = 98%
NH3 = x
Reaction:
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
Hydrogen Calculations:
Nitrogen Balance:
INPUT OUTPUT
N2 = 91216.7kg/hr NH3 = 110834.4kg/hr
H2 = 19546.44kg/hr N2 = 1824.33kg/hr
H2 = 390.93kg/hr
Total Ammonia:
Ammonia = 110834.4(kg/hr) x (24 hr /1day) x (1 MT /1000 kg)
Ammonia = 2660 MTPD
This is quite near to our decided capacity that is 2500 MTPD.
CHAPTER 4
ENERGY BALANCE
ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Primary Reformer
TREF = 300 oC
C8H18 = 68092.60 mole/hr
C8H18 = 680926.05 mole/hr H2 = 12256670 mole/hr
CO = 4765928.6 mole/hr
T2 = 300 oC CO2 = 185901.8 mole/hr
ΔH + ΔEk + ΔEp = Q – W
As, no moving parts and equipment is not at height and external work is not going to taking
place so kinetic and potential energy terms can also be neglected.
Q = ΔH
Q = HOUT - HIN
Q = {68092.60 [Hf C8H18 + HC8H18]} - {680926.05 [Hf C8H18 + HC8H18]} + {6128333.3 [H f H2O
+ HH2O]} – {12256670 [H f H2 + HH2]} – {4765928.6[H f CO + HCO]} – {185901.8[ H f CO2 +
HCO2]}
Heat of Formation:
Hf C8H18(g) = -208.4 KJ/mole
Hf H2O(g) = -241.83 KJ/mole
Hf H2 =0
Hf CO(g) = -110.52 KJ/mole
Hf CO2(g) = -393.5 KJ/mole
Molar Enthalpy
Using Table B.2 Felder Rousseau 3rd Edition in order to calculate molar enthalpy
H = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
As,
O2 = 851970.33 mole/hr
N2 = 3277739.2 mole/hr
Q = ΔH
Q = {680.9 [Hf C8H18 + HC8H18]} - {680926.05 [Hf C8H18 + HC8H18]} + {607311.1 [H f H2O +
HH2O]} + {3257739.2 [H f N2 + HN2]} + {310718.1[H f O2 + HO2]} - {3277739.2 [H f N2 + HN2]}
– {851970.33[H f O2 + HO2]} + {540736.4 [H f CO2 + HCO2]}
Molar Enthalpy
Using Table B.2Felder Rousseau 3rd Edition in order to calculate molar enthalpy
H = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
H2 O = 0.03197 KJ/mole
TREF = 300 oC
CO = 1.429x106 mole/hr
CO = 4.765x106 mole/hr H2O = 1.392x106
mole/hr
H2 = 3.387x106 mole/hr
T2 = 300 oC CO2 = 3.345x106 mole/hr
Q = ΔH
Putting all values from Table B.1 and B.2 Felder Rousseau 3rd Edition. We get,
LTSC
T3 = 240 oC T1 = 217 oC
TREF = 230 oC
CO = 1.429x104 kmole/hr
CO = 1.429x106 kmole/hr
CO2 = 1.42x106
kmole/hr
T2 = 230 oC H2 = 1.423x106 kmole/hr
H2O = 6797.22 kmole/hr
Q= ΔH
Putting all the values from table B.1 and B.2 Felder Rousseau 3rd Edition. We get,
4.5 Methanator
T3 = 347 oC
T1 = 316 oC METHANATOR
TREF = 316 oC
CO2 = 241.60 Kg/hr
CO = 400.34 Kg/hr
CH4= 313.45 Kg/hr
H2O= 455.03 Kg/hr
T2 = 318 oCH2= 34005.54 Kg/hr
CO= 4 Kg/hr
CO2= 2.42 Kg/hr
Q = {313.45 [Hf CH4 + HCH4]} - {239.18 [H f CO2 + HCO2]} - {396.34[H f CO + HCO]} - {128.5
[H f H2 + HH2]}
- {455.03 [H f H2O + HH2O]}
Putting all values, using Table B.1 and B.2 Felder Rousseau 3rd Edition. We get,
4.6 Convertor
T1 = 250 oC CONVERTOR
TREF = 250 oC
H2 = 19546.44 Kg/hr
N2= 1824.33Kg/hr
NH3= 110834.4 Kg/hr
H2= 390.93 Kg/hr
Putting all values, using Table B.1 and B.2 Felder Rousseau 3rd Edition. We get,
Q = - 300867521 KJ/hr
CHAPTER 5
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
This chapter consists of designing of equipment and their specification used in ammonia
process industry involving Reactor, Heat exchanger, Separators, let down valve, absorber and
Compressor.
5.1 Reactor
5.1.1 Introduction
Chemical reactors are classified into two ways, according to type of operation, according to
design feature
1) Batch reactor
2) Continuous reactor
3) Packed reactor
4) Fluidized and catalytic reactor
We selected the catalytic reactor for our process in which iron catalyst used and having beds.
5.1.2 Justification
1) Large scale application
2) Reduce operating cost
3) Control of product quality
4) Better temperature control
5.1.3 Function
The function of a reactor is to convert synthesis gas into ammonia in the presence of iron
catalyst. The synthesis gas involves nitrogen and hydrogen.
N2 = 91216 Kg / hr
Vr= (π / 4) x d2 L
73.8 = (π / 4) x d2 (3.5d)
73.8 = (π / 4) x (3.5d3)
d = 2.994 ft = 0,912 m
= (12.65/10) N / mm2
= (1.265) N / mm2
At the average temperature the design stress for low alloy steel
f = 190 N / mm2
W = (1.26x2133.6)/(2x(190-1.26))
W = 7.098 mm
Corrosion allowance = 3%
W = (7.098 + 3) = 10.098 ≈ 11 mm
Specifications of Reactor
Introduction
Heat exchanger are the device which is use to exchange the heat between two fluids from hot
to cold body called source and receiver respectively. There are many types of heat exchanger
for large area heat transfer we selected shell and tube heat exchanger. It may be one pass or
more depend on our requirement.
A Heat Exchanger is a heat transfer device that is used for transfer of internal thermal energy
between two or more fluids available at different temperatures. In most of the exchangers the
fluids are separated by a heat transfer surface and ideally don’t mix with each other.
In process industries, shell and tube exchangers are used in great numbers, far more than any
other type of exchanger. More than 90-95% of heat exchangers used in industry are of the
shell and tube type. The shell and tube heat exchangers are the “work horses” of industrial
process heat transfer. They are the first choice because of well-established procedures for
design and manufacture from a wide variety of materials, many years of satisfactory service,
and availability of codes and standards for design and fabrication. They are produced in the
widest variety of sizes and styles. There is virtually no limit on the operating temperature and
pressure.
Function
It acts as the first pre-heater for the feed going to the reactor and simultaneously lowers the
temperature of the compressed gas from 115oF to 15oF
The selection process for an effective heat exchanger includes a number of factors, depending
upon heat transfer application and desired requirement.
There are two major standards for designing shell and tube heat exchangers:
TEMA standards
ASME Standards
The Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) describe these
various components of shell and tube heat exchanger in detail. An STHE is divided into three
parts: the front head, the shell, and the rear head. For example; a BFL exchanger has a bonnet
cover, a two-pass shell with a longitudinal baffle, and a fixed tube sheet rear head.
The criteria for fluid allocation in shell and tube heat exchangers are:
Specific pressure drop.
The most corrosive to be tube side
The higher pressure fluid to be tube side.
Shell side boiling or condensation is usually preferred.
Severe fouling fluids are allocated on the tube side.
Less viscous fluids on the shell side.
More flow rate is proffered in the tube side.
More viscous on the tube side.
Design Calculations
t1 = 10 oF = 260.92 K , t2 = 75 oF = 297.03 K
LMTD
Hot Cold
T1 = 115 oF
75oF = t2 15oF = T2
t1 = 10oF
θm = 40 – 5 / ln(40/5)
= 16.83 oF = 264.72 K
As the log mean temperature is very low, therefore, we shall use average temperature.
Design Calculations
As Q = UDAθm
Q
A =
UDθm
20x106
=
160x16.83
BWG = 18
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
No. of tubes =
Surface/linft∗tube length
7427
=
0.1963x35
= 1080
Pitch = 1”-triangular
Passes = 1
Let Rd = 0.003
Mass Velocity
Gt = G / at
Gt = 488030.4 / 2.49
GeGt
Ret =
µ
Cp = 0.50 Btu / lb oF
jH = 980
Now,
hi = jH x k / D (Pr. No.)1/3
= 980 x 0.29 / 0.0546 x (0.354)1/3
As Re = 4.18x105
F = 0.001 ft2/in2
We know that,
fG1 Ln
ΔPt =
5.22 x 1010Ds s ф1
0.001x(221832)2x 35 x 1
ΔPt =
5.22 x 1010x0.0546x0.93x0.50
As,
Now,
Shall Side:
𝐼.𝐷𝑥𝐶 ′ 𝐵
Flow Area, as = = (37x0.345x29) / (0.902x144)
144 𝑃𝑡
= 0.26474 m2
= Gs = 336993 / 2.85
Equivalent Diameter:
d0 = 0.75”
Pt = 0.902”
De = 0.438
Now,
Res = De Gs / µ
As,
Pr. No. = Cp µ / k
At Tavg = 65oF,
Now,
h0 = jH K / De (Cp µ / k)1/3фs
Here,
Ds = 3.08 ft . s = 0.50
5.3 Compressor
Introduction
During compression large energy is generated in our plant we use centrifugal compressor and
compression is carried in stages of compressor that’s why we use two centrifugal
compressors.
Function
The function of the compressor in our ammonia section is to compress the synthetic gas in
order to the reactor.
Design Calculations
ℓ G = (mol. Wt. / std. vol.) x (std. temp. / given temp.) x (given pressure / std. pressure)
hp = 49.8
hp = 83
5.4 Absorber
Function
In our process function of absorber is to absorb Carbon Dioxide using Benfield solution. It
normally takes place at low temperature and high pressure.
Design Calculations
CO = 400.34 kg /hr
H2 = 34134.04 kg / hr
N2 = 91216.7 kg / hr
Lbmole of CO = 31.49
Lbmole of H2 = 37592.5
Lbmole of N2 = 7175.64
Y1 = 0.269
X2 = 0 (fresh solvent)
Y2 = x X2 = 0
Absorber
Y1 = 0.269 X1 = z
= 99.89%
Y2 = 0.269(1 – 0.9989)
Y2 = 0.00029
X1 = 0.268
Lm = 44918.32 lbmole / hr
= 54 kg/kmole
Usually on practical scale semi-lean solution entering in absorber is 8 times more than the
lean
solution
Lm = (1.18x106) x 8 kg/hr
Lm = 9.4x106 kg/hr
= 1.06x107 kg/hr
Gp = 0.881 lb / ft2
Area of Absorber
Area = MG / Gp
Area of absorber = (367490.89 kg/hr) x (1 / 0.881 ft2 sec / lbm) x (2.2046 lbm / kg)x (1 hr /
3600 sec)
A = π / 4 D2
Operating Temperature = 76 oC
LM = 1501.89 lbmole/ft2.hr
m = 1.7 (slope)
m GM / LM = 0.121
Substituting, (m GM / LM = A = 0.121)
As,
Y1 = 0.269
Y2 = 0.00029
NOG = 7.63
HOG = 10.632 m
So,
Z = HOGx NOG
Z = 10.632 x 7.63
Z = 81.122 m
5.5 Separator
Function
Design Calculation
= 725740 – 304051.597
= 100671.1 kmol / hr
= 17.41 m3
V = 741407.1 ft3
Thickness of Vessel
𝑃𝑟𝑖
Thickness of vessel = (t) = + 𝐶𝑐
𝑆𝐸𝑗−0.6𝑃
2200𝑥2.5𝑥12
= + 1/16
13700𝑥0.85−0.6𝑥2200
= 6.39 + 0.0265
= 6.45”
= 8.093”
Function
To reduce the pressure of liquid ammonia in order to facilitate the storage at atmospheric
pressure
Design Calculations
Temperature = 100F
= L + L’
= 141.1 + 5263.3
= 5404.4 lbmole / hr
Thickness of vessel
𝑃𝑟𝑖
Thickness of vessel = (t) = + 𝐶𝑐
𝑆𝐸𝑗−0.6𝑃
1500𝑋2𝑥12
= + 1/16
13750𝑥0.85−0.6𝑥1500
= 3.752 + 0.0625
t = 3.8145˝
CHAPTER 6
COST ESTIMATION
COST ESTIMATION
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income minus all expenses,
it is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of costs
involved in the manufacturing processes.
A capital investment is required for any industrial process and determination of the necessary
investment is an important of a plant design project. The total capital investment for any
processes consist of fixed capital investment for physical equipment and facilities in the plant
plus working capital, which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw materials and
products on hand.
Pre–design cost estimates (1 3) requires less detail than firm estimates such as the definitive
or detailed estimate. However, the pre–design estimates are extremely important for
determining if a proposed project should be given further consideration and to compare
alternative designs.
Primary reformer
Stripper
Absorber
No of Heat Exchanger = 6
Cost of one Heat Exchanger = 116082.96 $
Cost of 6 Heat Exchanger = 6(116082.96)
= 696497.76 $
Cost of absorber in 2013 = (696497.76)x(1545/914)
= 11.77x105 $
Compressors
No of Compressors = 2
Cost of one Compressor = 24466000 $
Cost of two Compressors = 4.89 x107 $
Now,
Cost of compressor in 2013 = (4.89 x107)x(1545/914)
= 8.26 x 107 $
Pumps
No of Pumps = 7
Cost of Pump = 199137 $
Cost of 7 pumps = 1393959 $
Cost of compressor in 2013 = (1393959)x(1545/914)
= 2.35 x 106 $
Working Capital
(V−Vs)
Depreciation = D = ----------- (1)
N
N = No. of years = 20
General Expenses = Admin cost + Distribution and selling cost + Research & Development
Cost + Financing
Taxes = 0.45(2364.30x106) $
Taxes = 1063.93x106 $
Depreciable FCI
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
Avg profit per yr. + Avg. Depriciation per yr.
CHAPTER 7
Process may be controlled more precisely to give more uniform and higher quality products
by the application of automatic control, often leading to higher profits. Additionally, process
which respond too rapidly to be controlled by human operators can be controlled
automatically. Automatic control is also beneficial in certain remote, hazardous, or routine
operations. After a period of experimentation, computers are being used to operate and
automatically control processing systems. It may too large and too complex for effective
direct human controls.
Since process profit is the most important benefit to be obtained by applying automatic
control, the quality of control and its cost should be compared with the economic return and
the process technical objectives. The economic return includes reduced operating cost,
maintenance and off-specification product along with improved process operate ability and
increased throughout.
Elastic element pressure measuring devices are those in which the measured pressure deforms
some elastic material within its elastic limits. Those devices may be classified into three
types;
1. Bourdon Tube Element.
2. Bellows Elements.
3. Diaphragm Elements.
Electrical Methods:
1. Strain Gauges.
2. Piezoresistive transducer.
3. Piezoelectric Transducer.
1- Visual Devices
The category includes such devices as dipsticks tape and plump bob, open manometer,
and gauge glass.
2- Float-Actuated Device
In these types of gauges, the floating is connected to the indicating mechanism by means
of flexible change or tape. These gauges are commonly used in large atmospheric storage
tanks.
4- Lever and Shaft Mechanism
In pressurized vessels, float-actuated lever and shaft mechanisms are frequently used for
level measurement. This type of mechanism consists of hollow met at float and level
attached to a rotary shaft which transmits the float motion to the outside of the vessel
through a rotary seal.
A variety of float-actuated level devices which transmits the float motion by means of
magnetic coupling have been develop. This class of devices are magnetically operated
level switches and magnetic-bond float gauges.
6- Displacer devices
Actuate industrial controller may employ any of these action singly, or combined. In this
report the combination of the proportional and integral modes in which case the later is called
automatic reset is recommended. The selection of the controller mode depends upon the
sensitivity of the system.
Types of Controllers
There are four types of controller given as
1- Proportional controller (P)
2- Proportional integral controller (PI)
3- Proportional derivative controller (PD)
4- Proportional integral derivative controller (PID)
Kc = Gain
τD = Derivative time (min)
τi = Integral time (min)
P’(s) = constant
CHAPTER 8
SITE SELECTION
The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing the selection of a
plant site .This is particularly true if large number of raw materials source permits
considerable reduction in transport and storage charges. Attention should be given to the
purchased price of the raw materials, distance from the source of the supply, freight or
transportation expenses, availability and reliability of supply ,purity of the raw materials, and
storage requirements.
Power and steam requirements are high in most of the chemical plants, and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities .Power and fuel can be combined as one major factor in the
choice of a plant site. If the plant requires large quantities of coal or oil, location near a
source of fuel supply may be essential for economic operation. The local cost of power can
help determine whether power should be purchased or self-generated.
If the plant is located in a cold climate, costs may be increased by the necessity for
construction of protective shelters around the process equipment, and special cooling towers
or air-conditioning equipment may be required if the prevailing temperatures are high.
Excessive humidity or extremes of hot or cold weather can have serious effect on the
economic operation of the plant, and these factors should be examined when selecting a site.
The location of markets or distribution centers affects the cost of product distribution and the
time required for shipping .Proximity to the major markets is an important consideration in
the selection of a plant site, because the buyer usually finds it advantageous to purchase from
nearby sources. It should be noted that markets are needed for by products as well as for
major final products.
Water, railroads, and highways are common means of transportation used by major industrial
concerns. The kind and quantity of products and raw materials determine the most suitable
type of transportation facilities. Careful attention should be given to local freight rates and
existing railroad lines. The proximity to railroad centers and the possibility of canal, river,
lake or ocean transport must be considered. Motor trucking facilities are widely used and can
serve as a useful supplement to rail and water facilities. If possible, the plant site should have
access to all three types of transportation and, certainly, at least two types should be
available. There is usually a need for convenient air and rail transportation facilities between
the plant and the company head quarters, and effective transportation facilities for the plant
personnel are necessary.
The process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, washing, steam generation,
and as a raw material in process. Hence, the plant must be located where a dependable supply
of water is available. A large river or lake is preferable, although deep wells or artesian wells
may be satisfactory if the amount of water required is not too great. The level of the existing
water table can be checked by consulting the state geological survey ,and information on the
constancy of the water table and the year round capacity of local rivers or lakes should be
obtained .If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it may be desirable to construct a
reservoir or to drill several standby wells. The temperature, mineral content, silt or sand
content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification must also be considered
when choosing the water supply.
In recent years, many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods for disposing of
waste materials from the process industries. The site selected for a plant should have
adequate capacity and facilities for correct waste disposal. In choosing a plant site, the
permissible tolerance levels for various methods of waste disposal should be considered
carefully, and attention should be given to potential requirements for additional waste-
treatment facilities.
The type and supply of labor available in the vicinity of a proposed plant site must be
examined .Consideration should be given to prevailing pay scales ,restrictions on number of
hours worked per week, competing industries that can cause dissatisfaction or high turnover
rates among the workers, and variations in the skill and productivity of the workers.
State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance and similar items vary
from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance
aspects, and transportation facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of a plant
site. In fact, zoning difficulties and obtaining the many required permits can often be much
more important in terms of cost and time delays than many of the factors discussed in the
preceding sections.
The characteristics of the land at a proposed plant site should be examined carefully. The
topography of land and the soil structure must be considered, since either or both may have a
pronounced effect on construction costs. The cost of the land is important, as well as local
building costs and living conditions. Future changes may make it desirable or necessary to
expand the plant facilities. Therefore, even though no immediate expansion is planned, a new
plant should be constructed at a location where additional space is available.
Many industrial plants are located along rivers or near large bodies of water, and there are
risks of flood or hurricane damage. Before selecting a plant site, the regional history of
natural events of this type should be examined and the consequences of such occurrences
considered. Protection from losses by fire is another important factor for selecting a plant
location. In case of a major fire, assistance from the fire departments should be available. Fire
hazards in the surrounding area of plant site must not be overlooked.
The nature and facilities of a community can have an effect on the location of the plant. If
minimum number of facilities for satisfactory living of plant personnel does not exist, it
becomes a burden for the plant to subsidize such facilities. Cultural facilities of the
community are important to sound growth. Facilities such as religious centers, libraries,
schools, civic theatres, concert associations, and other similar groups do much to make a
community progressive. The efficiency, character, and history of both state and local
governments should be evaluated. The existence of low taxes is not in itself a favorable
situation unless the community is already well developed and relatively free of debt.
8.1.13 Others:
For the installation of our plant we have decided Karachi as a place. Because the basic raw
material for our production is naphtha which is a product of oil refineries situated there like
NRL, PRL, Coastal, and New Bosicor. This site selection would become key way to success
and better economy for our homeland.
CHAPTER 9
The safety for this plant include the following sections, which should consider during the
performing the safety procedures.
1. OSHA hazard communication standard
2. Hydrogen sulphide poising
3. Precaution for entering any contaminated or inert atmosphere
4. Preparations for vessel entry
The OSHA is the U.S. Federal regulation requiring chemicals manufacturers, importers and
distributers to evaluate the hazards of their chemical products and convey hazards
information through labels and material safety data sheets to its employees and customers.
OSHA provides the information to its employee about the hazardous chemicals to which they
could be exposed by mean of
a. Material and data sheets
b. Labels and other forms of warning
c. A written hazard communication program
d. Training and information program
The MSDS requirements fall primarily on chemical manufacturer, importers and distributers.
The OSHA standard requires them to develop and provide a MSDS for each hazardous
chemical they produce or handle.
The MSDS should include the following things
Chemical and Common name
Ingredient information
Physical and chemical characteristics
Physical hazards – Potential reactivity, fire and explosion
Health Hazards
Symptoms of exposure
Primary route of likely entry into the body on exposure
OSHA permissible exposure levels
Precaution for use
Waste disposal
Protective measures and equipment including maintenance
Emergency and first- aid procedures
Date of MSDS preparation and last revision
Emergency contact of manufacturer or distributor
The OSHA standard states that all portable containers of hazardous chemical must have a
large, readable tag on it, which has
a. The name and address of the manufacturer
b. The name of the chemical
c. A numerical hazard warning or other appropriate warnings supplied by the
manufacturer
d. Labels could also be color coded as
Orange: Carcinogen Hazards (i.e. Benzene)
Red: Chemical Burn Hazards (i.e. Acid, Bases)
Yellow : Toxic Vapor Hazard (i.e..H2S)
White : All other
The OSHA standard requires that employers make available to their employees the
company’s written Hazard Communication Program. This document is intended to describe
how the company will implement the OSHA standard. The program explains the company’s
labeling system, material safety data sheets and employ information and training.
Hazard is the study of true picture or proper structured and systematic analysis of operational
plant or current process or running plant operation in order to locate and identify the potential
hazards and evaluate operability problem. It is made ensure competency of plant equipments
in order to design purpose. It is systematic process technique which is used to identify the
possible deviation of the plant from normal routine conditions. It is also made ensure that
suitable safeguards for operational plant. HAZOP analysis is also helpful to prevent disaster,
accident or horrible situation. It’s adjective to combine with process condition through
systematic channel and detect all possible deviation from normal condition.
9.2.2 Characteristics
A systematic, more organized judgment relying on HAZOP guide words and team
hardworking to create a complex review and ensure that suitable safeguards against
accidents are in place
Applicable to any system or process
Mostly used as a system-level risk judgment technique
Generates primarily qualitative results
It is used primarily for locating safety hazards and operability problems of continuous
process systems, especially fluid and thermal systems.
It is also used to review procedures and sequential operations.
Node
Node is some particular sections of the system in which (the deviations of) the
design/process purpose are evaluated. A node can be a subsystem, a function group, a
function or a sub function.
Guideword:
It is a short word to create the imagination of a deviation of the design/process intent. The
most commonly used set of guide-words is: no, more, less, as well as, part of, other than,
and reverse. In addition, guidewords like too early, too late, instead of, are used; the latter
mainly for batch-like processes. The guidewords are applied, in turn, to all the
parameters, in order to identify unexpected and yet credible deviations from the
design/process intent.
Divide the system into sections and develop credible deviations and define node.
Determine the cause of the deviation and evaluate the consequences/problems.
Find the safeguard which help to reduce the occurrence frequency of the deviation or
to mitigate its consequences actions required compensating the consequences.
Actions allocated toward the department or person which performs the required
action.
REFERENCES
3- “Plant design and Economics for Chemical Engineers” by Max S. Peters and
Klaus D. Timmerhaus