WEEKS TOPICS/CONTENTS

1. RECOGNITION OF LIVING THINGS- Biology and Living things,

Biology as Inquiry, Meaning of science, Definition of Biology and
Process or method of science

2. LIVING THINGS AND NON-LIVING THINGS- Characteristics of

living things, Differences between plants and animals and
Microscope

3. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS- Kingdom Monera,

Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

4. ORGANIZATION OF LIFE- Levels of organization of life (Cells,

Tissues, organs and systems), Complexity of organization in
higher organisms (advantages and disadvantages)

5. UNIFIED TEST
WEEKS TOPICS/CONTENTS
6. THE CELL- Cell as a living unit of an organism, definition of cell,
forms in which living cells exist (independent organism, colony,
filament and parts of a living organism), Cell structure and functions
of cell components, Differences and Similarities between plant and
animal cells
Cell Theory

7. MID TERM BREAK

8. THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT- Diffusion (definition, process

and significance), Osmosis (definition, process and significance),
relationship between osmosis and diffusion, Haemolysis, Plasmolysis,
Flaccidity, Turgidity

9. SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL- Nutrition

(Feeding), Micro and macro nutrients, Cellular respiration (definition,
types, mechanism of glycolysis & kreb’s cycle)
WEEKS TOPICS/CONTENTS
10. PLANT NUTRITION- Photosynthesis (Definition, process and
significance), Experiments in photosynthesis and chemosynthesis

11. GROWTH & IRRITABILITY- Basis of growth (mitosis- cell division,

cell enlargement and differentiation), aspects of growth (apical,
auxiliary), regulation of growth by hormones
Irritability/cell reaction to its environment (Definition, types of
responses and environment factors that induce response
Movement (Definition, reasons for movement, cyclosis, organelles for
movement and growth movement regulated by fluid
12. REVISION

13. EXAMINATION

Recommended Textbook- Modern Biology for Senior Secondary

Schools by Sarojini Ramalingam (African Publishers)
Biology is one of the branches of science.
Science is defined as a systematic process of making
enquiry about living things and non-living things.
Biology is coined from two Greek words- Bios meaning
life and Logos meaning to study. Therefore, Biology can
be defined as the study of life.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Biology has two main branches which are;
1. Botany: the study of plants

2. Zoology: the study of animals

There are also other branches of Biology which include

Microbiology, Virology, Cytology, Anatomy,
Parasitology, Taxonomy etc.
The methods of science involve the sequence that is
followed in carrying out a research or enquiry about a
matter.
The scientific methods include;
1. Observation: this is the careful examination of the
object to work on.
2. Hypothesis: this is the useful scientific guesses on
the probable outcome of an experiment
3. Experimental procedure: this is the sequential steps
that will be followed in carrying out an enquiry
4. Results/analysis: this involves the outcome of an
enquiry and its documentation
5. Conclusion: this is to draw an outcome of an
enquiry or experiment
1. Biology helps in the understanding of complex
forms of life involving different organisms
2. It helps in the conservation of some organisms
3. It assists in the formulation of drugs and vaccines
to treat diseases
4. It helps in creating solutions for different
challenges organisms encounter
5. It allows agriculturists to rear unique breeds of
plants and animals
6. It assists in the study of the interactions between
organisms and their environments
Write short notes on any 5
other branches of Biology
Living things can generally be categorized into plants and
animals. Some other organisms can also be placed in other
groups which will be in later topics.
Mnemonic aid- MR NIGER CAD
Characteristics of living things are;
1. Movement
2. Respiration
3. Nutrition/Feeding
4. Irritability/Sensitivity
5. Growth
6. Excretion
7. Reproduction
8. Competition
9. Adaptability
10. Death/Life span
Movement: This is the ability of an organism to
change position or location. Animals can move from
one place to another while plants only move in
response to stimuli.
Respiration: this involves the exchange of gases
between an organism and its environment in order to
break down its food to release energy for its daily
activities.
Nutrition: this is the act of taking in food to build up
the body. Animals take in ready-made food from their
environment (heterotropism) while plants
manufacture their own food from simple inorganic
materials (autotropism).
Irritability: this is the ability of living organisms to
respond to external stimuli. It is also called sensitivity.
Growth: this is the irreversible increase in size and dry
weight of an organism which is usually accompanied with
development.
Excretion: this involves the removal of unwanted and
toxic waste products of metabolism from the body of
living organisms
Reproduction: this is the process by which living
organisms produce new organisms of their kind.
Competition: this is the interaction between organisms or
species for food, water and territory in which the
dominant ones survive.
Adaptability: this is the condition in which an organism
develops structures to enable it to survive in its
environment.
Death: this happens when all the other characteristics
cease to function.
PLANTS ANIMALS
Growth is indefinite Growth is definite
Food is stored mainly as Food is stored mainly as
starch except in fungi glycogen
Response to external Response to external
stimuli is slow stimuli is fast
Most green plants are Animals are heterotrophs
autotrophs
Gaseous exchange is Gaseous exchange is
through the entire body through special organs
Parts Functions
Eyepiece This is where you look through
Nosepiece It holds the objective lenses
Objective lens It is used to focus light into real
image
Mechanical stage It supports the slide being
analysed
Diaphragm It controls light intensity
Arm It supports the microscope
when carried
Coarse adjustment knob It is used to coarse adjust the
focus
Fine adjustment knob It is used to fine adjust the focus
1. Draw a well labelled diagram of a
simple microscope.
2. What do you understand by
Magnification?
 Classification of living organisms is the placing
together in categories or groups of those living
organisms that resemble each other or share common
characteristics together.
BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE
This is a system of naming organisms based on
their generic and specific names. It was introduced by
a Swiss scientist called Carl Von Linne’ (or Carolus
Linnaeus in Latin).
There are seven major stages or groups used in
classifying living organisms. These are:
1. Outline the 10 characteristics of living things
(5marks)
2. Tabulate 4 differences between plants and animals
(4marks)
3. What is taxonomy? (1mark)
4. Highlight the 7 hierarchy(levels) of classification in
the correct order (7marks)
5. Who invented binomial nomenclature? (1mark)
6. Briefly explain any 2 branches of Biology
(2marks)
Kingdom

Phylum(for animals) or Division (for plants)

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species
 The largest is the kingdom, while the
species is the smallest group- which is
the basic unit of classification of living
organisms. Members of the same species
are capable of interbreeding among
themselves, but a member of a species
cannot interbreed with a member of
another species.
The table below shows the
classification of human and maize:
 Human Maize
Kingdom Animalia Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Chordata Division Tracheophyta
Class Mammalia Class Angiospermae
Order Primates Order Graminales
Family Hominidae Family Graminacae
Genus Homo Genus Zea
Species sapiens Species mays

Living organisms are grouped into five kingdoms.

These kingdoms are:
I. Monera
II. Protista
III. Fungi
IV. Plantae
V. Animalia
The virus does not fit into any of the five kingdoms.
VIRUS
Virus is a borderline between living and non-living
things. Virus is regarded as living thing because it
possesses characteristics which can be transmitted from
one generation to the next, and it can only reproduce
when present in a living host cell.
 Virus is regarded as non-living thing because
when it is outside its host cell, it exists in a
crystalline form, and cannot respire, excrete or
respond to stimuli.
KINGDOM: MONERA
Characteristics
1. They are prokaryotes (i.e. cells without
membrane bound nucleus)
2. There is no sexual reproduction
3. They are unicellular or single-celled
microorganisms
4. Cell structure is simple with no definite nucleus
5 Examples are blue-green algae and bacteria
6 Some are motile, while others are non-motile
Kingdom monera is divided into two phyla:
Schizophyta
Cyanophyta
 KINGDOM: PROTISTA
CHARACTERISTICS
1 They are single-celled or unicellular organisms
2 The cells have definite nucleus with nuclear
membrane (i.e. they are eukaryotes)
3 Some members are motile, while others are non-
motile
4 They are autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms
5 Mode of reproduction is either sexual or asexual
Kingdom Protista is made up of four phyla:
i) Protozoa e.g. Amoeba
ii) Euglenophyta e.g. Euglena
iii) Chrysophyta e.g.Green algae, diatoms
iv) Pyrrophyta e.g. dinoflagellates, planktons
PROTOZOA
Characteristics
1 They are microscopic organisms
2 They move by different organelles e.g. Amoeba uses
pseudopodia, paramecium uses cilia for locomotion
3 Majority are aquatic organisms, while few are
parasitic
4 Reproduction is asexually by binary fission
5 Examples are Trypanosome, Plasmodium,
Paramecium and Amoeba
Diagrams of Amoeba and Paramecium
Euglena viridis
Animal Characteristics of Euglena
1 Possession of contractile vacuole for
osmoregulation or excretion
2 Presence of myonemes which aid movement
3 Possession of flagellum for movement
4 Presence of gullet for passage of food
5 Possession of pellicle which makes its body
flexible
6 Presence of eye spot which is sensitive to light
7 In the absence of sunlight, it carries out holozoic or
heterotrophic mode of nutrition
 Plant Characteristics of Euglena
I. Possession of pyrenoids for storing starch
II. In the presence of sunlight, it carries out holophytic or
autotrophic mode of nutrition
III. It has chloroplast which is used for photosynthesising its
food
IV. Presence of paramylum(starch) granules- forms in which
starch is stored

Diagram of Euglena(8 - 10 lines) Assignment

 KINGDOM: FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
1 They are eukaryotic organisms
2 Reproduction is either asexually by spores formation or sexually
by conjugation
3 Some are unicellular (e.g. Yeast), while others are multicellular
(e.g. Mushroom)
4 They do not have chlorophyll therefore cannot manufacture
their foods
5 They are found mostly in moist environments
6 Their cell walls are made of chitin instead of cellulose
7 They store excess food in form of glycogen
8 They have no true roots, stems or leaves
9 The vegetative body parts are made of fine and thread-like
filaments called hyphae that form the mycelium
10 Examples of fungi are breadmould ( rhizopus), mushroom,
mucor, mildrews, toadstool, puffballs and yeast
 Draw the diagrams of Rhizopus nigricans
(Bread mould) and mushroom
 State five harmful effects of fungi
 The plant kingdom consists of three main divisions. These are:
i. Thallophyta (e.g. Red, brown and green algae)
ii. Brophyta (Liverwort and mosses)
iii. Tracheophyta (Vascular plants)
DIVISION: THALLOPHYTA
CHARACTERISTICS
1 They are filamentous plants with no differentiated cells
2 They are simple, microscopic plants
3 They have cellular cell walls
4 They are aquatic plants
5 Reproduction is either sexual or asexual
6 Possession of chlorophyll for synthesizing their own food
7 They lack true roots, stems or leaves
8 Examples are Chlamydomonas (free-living),
Spirogyra (filamentous), Volvox (in colonies)
Diagrams of Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra
CHARACTERISTICS
1 1. Their cells are differentiated into tissues
2 2. They are complex, multicellular green plants
3 3. They are non-vascular green plants
4 4. Reproduction is either sexual by gametes or asexual
by spores
5 5. They do not have true roots, stems or leaves
6 6. Some are aquatic, while others are terrestrial
7 7. Examples are Liverwort and mosses
Diagram of a moss (Assignment)
 DIVISION: TRACHEOPHYTA
This is the largest group of plants made up of vascular
plants. It consists of two sub-divisions:
Pteridophyta
Spermatophyta
PTERIDOPHYTA
CHARACTERISTICS
1 They do not produce seeds
2 They are multicellular green plants
3 They are non-flowering plants
4 Reproduction is sexual by spores
5 They have true roots, stems and leaves
6 Example is Fern
SPERMATOPHYTA
CHARACTERSITICS
1 They produce seeds
2 They are multicellular, vascular green plants
3 Reproduction is sexual
4 They have true roots, stems and leaves
5 They are mainly terrestrial green plants
Spermatophyta can be divided into two main classes:
(i) Gymnosperm
(ii) Angiosperm
GYMNOSPERMS
CHARACTERISTICS
1 They are non-flowering plants
2 They have true roots, stems and leaves
3 The seeds are borne on cones
4 They have naked seeds
5 They are vascular green plants
6 Examples are gingko, cycads, conifers and pine
ANGIOSPERM
CHARACTERISTICS
1 They are mainly terrestrial plants
2 The seeds are enclosed in the fruit
3 The flowers are well developed and complete
4 They are vascular green plants
5 They are the most complex green flowering plants
Angiosperms are sub-divided into two classes based
on the number of cotyledons. These are:
i) Monocotyledonous plants
ii) Dicotyledonous plants
ASSIGNMENT
Tabulate Six differences between monocotyledons and
dicotyledons
 The two main groups into which animals are grouped into
are:
Invertebrates (animals without backbones)
Vertebrates (animals with backbones)
The invertebrates consist of the following classes:
i. 1. Porifera
ii. 2. Coelenterata
iii. 3. Mollusca
iv. 4. Arthropoda
v. 5. Echinodermata
vi. 6. Platyhelminthes
vii. 7. Nematoda
viii. 8. Annelida Mnemonic- PACMANEP
The vertebrates include five classes of animals namely,
 a. 1. Pisces
b. 2. Aves
c. 3. Reptilia
d. 4. Amphibia
e. 5. Mammalia (PARAM)
THE INVERTEBRATES
1) PORIFERA e.g. Sponges
1 1. They are simple aquatic invertebrates
2 2. They are usually found attached to rocks or shells
3 3. They live in colonies
4 4. They are asymmetrical
5 5. They reproduce asexually and sexually. Most of them are
hermaphrodites.
2) COELENTERATA
1 1. They are multicellular organisms
2 2. They are diploblastic (body made up of two layers)
3 3. Their bodies possess radial symmetry
4 4. They have soft jelly-like bodies
5 5. They reproduce asexually by budding
6 Examples include hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones and corals
3 MOLLUSCA
1 They have tentacles on their heads
2 They have soft, unsegmented bodies
3 They posses muscular foot adapted
for burrowing or crawling
4) Some have calcareous shells
5) Examples are squid, periwinkles, snails, oysters
4 ARTHROPODA:- This is the largest phylum in the animal
kingdom. It is divided into the following classes:
 Crustacea e.g. Crab, crayfish, shrimps, prawns
 Insecta e.g. Cockroach, butterfly
 Myriapoda e.g. Centipedes and millipedes
 Arachnida e.g. Spider, scorpion, mite, ticks (CIAM)
CHARACTERISITICS
1 They have segmented bodies
2 They have hard, rigid exoskeleton made of chitin
3 Some are aquatic, while others are terrestrial
5 ECHINODERMATA
1 Their bodies are radially symmetrical
2 They have spiny skin
3 They are triploblastic animals
4 They move by the use of tube feet
5 Examples are starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumber
6 PLATYHELMINTHES (FLAT WORMS)
1 They are multi-cellular flatworms
2 They do not have body cavity or lumen
3 The body is made up of three layers
4 They are mainly parasitic
5 Examples are tapeworm, planaria, liverfluke
7 NEMATODA (ROUNDWORMS)
1 They have round and cylindrical bodies
2 They lack body cavity
3 They are bilaterally symmetrical
4 They are triploblastic animals
5 Examples are roundworms, hookworms, guinea-worm
8 ANNELIDA
1 The alimentary canal has two openings- the mouth and
anus
2 The body is long and cylindrical
3 They have a true body cavity or coelom
4 Examples are earthworms, leeches,
and tubeworms
1. PISCES (FISHES)
1 They are aquatic animals
2 They have fins which are used for movement
3 They are poikilothermic or cold-blooded animals
4 They have gills for gaseous exchange
5 They have lateral line system for detecting vibration in water
6 They show parental care for their young ones
7 Reproduction is sexual and fertilization is external
2. AVES (BIRDS)
1 They are homoiothermic or warm-blooded animals
2 They have two pairs of limbs
3 They have wings for flight
4 They show parental care for their young ones
5 They have beak for feeding
6 Reproduction is sexual and fertilization is internal
3. AMPHIBIA
1 They are cold-blooded animals
2 They have two pairs of limbs
3 Gaseous exchange is through the use of
lungs, gills, skin and mouth
4 Presence of poisonous glands on their
skin which are used for defence
5 They do not show parental care
4. REPTILIA (REPTILES)
1 They are poikilothermic animals
2 They have dry skin covered with scales in some parts
3 They do not show parental care for their young ones
4 Reproduction is sexual and fertilization is internal
5 They have lungs for gaseous exchange
5. MAMMALIA (MAMMALS)
1 They are homoiothermic or warm-blooded animals
2 They have heterodont dentition i.e. They have
different sets of teeth
3 They have lungs for gaseous exchange
4 They have two pairs of limbs
5 Their bodies are covered with hairs
6 Reproduction is sexual and fertilization is internal
There are four levels of organization of life in organisms. These are
1. Cells
2. Tissues
3. Organs
4. Systems
CELL (FIRST LEVEL): Cell is the structural, functional and smallest
unit of life. Organisms that are made up of a single cell are called
unicellular organisms. e.g. Amoeba, Plasmodium, Paramecium,
Trypanosme, etc. Multicellular organisms are organisms with two
or more cells. e.g. higher plants, man, etc.

TISSUE ( SECOND LEVEL): A tissue is a group of similar cells

forming a layer in an organism which performs a particular
function. Examples of tissues in higher plants are mesophyll
layer in leaves, epidermal tissue, sclerenchyma tissue. Examples
of tissues in higher animals are bone, blood ( a liquid tissue).
Examples of organisms that exist at the tissue level of
organization are hydra, fungi, algae and sponges.
ORGAN ( THIRD LEVEL): An organ is a group of
similar tissues forming a layer in an organism
which performs a specific function. Examples of
organs in plants are leaves, stems, flowers, roots,
seeds, etc. Examples of organs in animals are skin,
eye, stomach, etc.
SYSTEM (FOURTH LEVEL): A system is a group of
similar organs which work together to perform
specific functions. Examples of systems in plants
are the shoot system and root system. Examples of
systems in animals are digestive system, nervous
system, circulatory system, etc.
 Multicellular organisms are complex compared
to unicellular organisms. As a result of this, higher
organisms have advantages and some
disadvantages in complexity over the unicellular
organisms.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPLEXITY IN HIGHER
ORGANISMS
1 It leads to cellular differentiation

2 It increases adaptation to environment

3 Mutual interdependence between component cells

4 It leads to increase in size

5 It leads to internal structural specialization

6 It leads to efficiency
 DISADVANTAGES OF COMPLEXITY IN HIGHER
ORGANISMS
1. Difficulties in acquiring food materials and
oxygen
2. Difficulties in reproduction in higher
organisms
3. Slower rate of diffusion
4. Slower rate of expulsion of waste products
from cells
5. Inability of individual cells to exist on their
own
6. Decrease in ability to regenerate
 MID TERM ASSIGNMENT
1. In a tabular form, list out ten(10)
cell organelles present in both
plant and animal cells with their
functions
2. Write extensively on the history
of cell
 The cell is the structural and functional unit of a living
organism.
Cells can be classified based on their sources. Thus, we
have plant cell and animal cell. Living organisms can
be classified based on the number of cells they possess.
These groups are:
i Unicellular organisms
Ii Multicellular organisms
HISTORY OF CELL
This refers to how a cell was discovered and the
scientists that had worked on the development of cell
theory. They include:
1 Robert Hooke: He discovered small spaces separated by
walls inside a cork tissue and named the small spaces
cells. He also discovered the cell structure of
honeycomb.
2 Johannes Purkinje: He named the complex
fluids in animals cells protoplasm.
3 Robert Brown: He discovered the nucleus in
plant cells.
4 Matthias Schleiden: He discovered that all plant
tissues are composed of cells. He declared that
the cell is the basic unit of all plants and
animals.
5 Theodor Schwann: He discovered that animal
tissue is composed of cells.
6 Rudolf Virchow: He declared that cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
 THE CELL THEORY
The cell theory was eventually formulated in 1838.
This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and
Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like
Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.
The cell theory states that:
1 All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells
2 The cell is the structural and functional unit of life
3 All cells arise from pre-existing, living cells by
biogenesis
4 Information present in the nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) of
a cell are passed down to offspring cells
 FORMS IN WHICH CELLS EXIST
a) Single and Free-living ( Individual/ Independent
Organisms): Cells can exist in a singular form as
individual organisms called unicellular organisms. e.g.
Chlamydomonas, Amoeba, Euglena, etc.

b) Colony: This is a situation in which many independent

similar cells come enmass together to function as a unit.
e.g. Volvox, Pandorina, Sponges, etc.

c) As a filament: This is a situation in which similar cells are

joined together in strands or unbranched filament. e.g.
Spirogyra, Zygnema, Oscillateria, Oedogonium.

d) As part of a multicellular organisms: In multicellular

organisms, groups of similar cells come together to form
tissues and they perform similar functions. The tissues
form the organ; the organs form the system. This
relationship can be found in higher animals including
man.
 THE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
CELL ORGANELLE FUNCTION
CELL WALL It is found only in plant cell and gives protection and shape to the
cell

CELL MEMBRANE It is semi-permeable i.e. it helps in selective exchange of materials

in cells

NUCLEUS It controls all the activities of the cell

It contains chromosomes which contain DNA that help in
transmitting hereditary materials

CHROMOSOME It contains the DNA which stores genetic traits

MITOCHONDRION It is known as the power-house of the cell because cellular
respiration and release of energy take place here

VACUOLE It contains cell sap which help in osmo-regulation and making the
cell turgid in plant
It helps in removing excretory waste products in animal cells
ENDOPLASMIC RECTICULUM It aids the transport of
materials within the
cytoplasm
GOLGI BODY It functions in the synthesis,
packaging and distribution of
materials
RIBOSOME Site for protein synthesis
LYSOSOME Site for respiratory enzymes
CHLOROPLAST It contains chlorophyll that aid
photosynthesis in green
plants
NUCLEOLUS It is found inside the nucleus
and produce the ribosomes
ASSIGNMENT 1
1 Draw well-labelled diagrams of a plant cell and
animal cell as seen under an electron microscope
2 State the differences between plant cell and
animal cell
THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
The environment of a cell is referred to what
surrounds a cell. The cell environment of a unicellular
organism include the air, water, soil or a part of a living
organism ( incase of a parasite).
In multicellular organisms, the cell environment
include other cells and some tissue fluid.
The exchange of materials between the cell and its
environment is carried out by processes such as osmosis
and diffusion.
 DIFFUSION
Diffusion is defined as the process by which
molecules or ions of a substance (i.e solid, liquid
and gaseous particles) move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.
 FACTORS AFFECTING OR CONTROLLING DIFFUSION
1 State of matter: Diffusion of gases is faster than that of
a liquid because gaseous molecules are very free to
move.
2 Temperature: molecules of a substance tend to diffuse
faster if the temperature is high, and vice versa.
3 Molecular size: the rate of diffusion is affected by the
nature or size of the molecule. The smaller the
molecule, the faster the rate of diffusion, and vice
versa.
4 Differences in concentration: if two substances are
having the same concentration, diffusion becomes
impossible. The greater the differences in the
concentration of the molecule, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE DIFFUSION IN LIQUID
A pipette is used to deliver small quantity of
potassium permanganate solution (KMnO4) at the
bottom of the beaker filled with distilled water and
allowed to stand for few minutes. The purple colour
of the solution will spread evenly throughout the
water medium.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE DIFFUSION IN GASES
A bottle of perfume is opened at a corner of a
room, soon the odour will be perceived at every
corner of the room.
 IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION TO LIVING ORGANISMS
1 Plants use the process in the movement of carbon
iv oxide through the stomata of a leaf
2 Helps in the intake of oxygen or nutrients from
mother to foetus (embryo) through the placenta
3 Gaseous exchange in the lungs of mammals during
respiration
4 In plants, food particles from phloem and water
from xylem are transferred through diffusion
5 In plants, it helps in removal of excess water by
transpiration
 OSMOSIS
Osmosis is defined as a process which involves
the movement of water molecules from a region of
weaker solution to a region of stronger solution
through a semi-permeable membrane.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR OSMOSIS
1 Presence of a selectively permeable membrane
2 Presence of a weaker solution e.g. distilled water
3 Presence of a stronger solution e.g. salt or sugar
solution
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE OSMOSIS IN LIVING TISSUES

Materials: Potatoes, salt and water, two bowls of

water
Method: Salt is dissolved in one of the bowls, while
the other will not contain salt. The potatoes are
sliced down the middle. Some parts are soaked in
the salt water, while the remaining parts are soaked
in the water lacking salt. The experiment is left
overnight.
Observation: After 24hours, the potatoes soaked in
the salt water would have been decolourized due to
osmosis, while the other potato will still appear
fresh.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION
OSMOSIS DIFFUSION

Movement of water molecules Movement of solid, liquid and gases

It requires a selectively permeable Selectively permeable membrane not
membrane required
Occurs naturally in living organisms Occurs In living and non-living organisms
It is dependent on the molecules and the It is purely dependent on the free energy
membrane of the diffusing substance
Turgor or hydrostatic pressure operates in Turgor or hydrostatic pressure does not
osmosis operate in diffusion
It is influenced by solute potential It is not influenced by solute potential

It is not dependent on the presence of It is dependent on the presence of other

other substances substances
TYPES OF SOLUTION IN OSMOSIS
1 HYPOTONIC SOLUTION: this is a solution that has a
lower concentration than its environment
2 HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: a solution that has a higher
concentration than its environment
3 ISOTONIC SOLUTION: a solution that has the same
concentration with that of its environment

PLASMOLYSIS
This is the outward movement of water from a living
cell when placed in a hypertonic solution, until the cell
shrinks and become dehydrated.
CRENATION
This is the process resulting from osmosis in which red
blood cells in a hypertonic solution, shrink and acquire
an abnormal notched surface.
HAEMOLYSIS
This is the rupturing of red blood cell resulting from an
excessive intake of water when placed in a hypotonic
solution.

TURGIDITY
This is the state in which the cell has absorbed large
quantity of water and becomes fully stretched. The
cell is said to be turgid due to the influence of turgor
pressure.
FLACCIDITY
This is the state in which a cell loses water to
its environment, and becomes weak and soft.
This signifies the lack of pressure by the cell
membrane. A more extreme state of this is
termed plasmolysis as explained earlier.
This is the type of transport that does not involve a
concentration gradient. It is a method by which
particles can cross membranes even against a
concentration gradient using energy. e.g. Na+ - K+
transport, movement of protein molecules across
cell membrane.
 PLANT NUTRITION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is coined from 2 words- photo meaning light and
synthesis meaning building up.
Therefore, photosynthesis is defined as the process by which green
plants manufacture their food (glucose) from carbon iv oxide and
water, in the presence of chlorophyll, using solar energy.
The chemical equation for photosynthesis is:
6CO2 + 6H2O sunlight C6H12O 6 +6O2
(carbon iv oxide) (water) chlorophyll (glucose) oxygen
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction and it consists of
a series of complex reactions. These reactions are grouped into
two stages called:
1 Light reaction stage
11 Dark reaction stage
LIGHT REACTION STAGE: This stage occurs during the day in the
presence of sunlight. The light energy is captured by the
chlorophyll and electrons are excited. The energy so trapped is
used to split water into hydrogen ions (H +) and hydroxyl ion
(OH-).
The process is termed photolysis of water, and is represented
by the equation:

4H2O light 4H ++ 4OH –

chlorophyll
 DARK REACTION STAGE
This stage occurs at night or in the absence of light. Together with
energy provided by Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the reduced
compounds Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
(NADP) then leads to the assimilation of carbon iv oxide through
a series of steps and sugar is formed. The formation can be
represented by a chemical equation as follows:
4H+ + CO2 enzyme CH2O + H2O
MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
I. Carbon iv oxide
II. Water
III. Optimum temperature
IV. Enzyme
V. Chlorophyll
VI. Sunlight
 EVIDENCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The main product of photosynthesis is simple sugar or
glucose. The glucose is partly used by the plants and excess of
it is converted and stored as starch.
The stored starch is transported from the leaves to all
parts of the plant through the phloem vessels by a process
called translocation. The best way to show the evidence of
photosynthesis in plants is to test the plant for starch.
EXPERIMENT I
AIM: To test for the presence of starch in the leaf
MATERIALS: A leaf plucked before sunrise, fresh green leaf
from outdoor plant, beaker, burner, boiling tubes, dropping
tube, white tile, and iodine solution.
METHOD:
1 Boil the leaf for 4-6 minutes to kill the cells, burst the starch
grains and inactivate the enzymes
2 Dip the leaf in hot 70% alcohol to decolourize the leaf
3 Dip the decolourized leaf in hot water to soften it
4 The leaf is placed on a tile and few drops of iodine
solution is added to it
OBSERVATION:
The leaf that was plucked before sunrise (control
experiment) remained colourless, while the other leaf
turned blue-black
CONCLUSION:
Starch is formed in the leaf that turned blue-black

EXPERIMENT 2
AIM: To show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis
MATERIALS; A potted-plant, strip of black paper, clip,
cupboard
METHOD:
1 The potted-plant is kept in a dark cupboard for 24-48 hours
to ensure that the starch is removed
2 A leaf (still attached to the plant) is covered with a strip of
black at the middle, and the whole plant is exposed to
sunrise for 1-3 hours
3 The paper strip is removed from the leaf and tested for
starch
OBSERVATION:
The leaf will turn blue-black except the middle that was
covered with the strip of black paper
CONCLUSION:
The experiment shows that sunlight is necessary for
photosynthesis
EXPERIMENT 3
AIM: To show that carbon iv oxide is necessary for photosynthesis to
take place
MATERIALS: A potted-plant, vaseline, conical flask, split cork,
retort stand and caustic soda (NaOH) solution
METHOD:
1 The leaf is enclosed in the flask containing NaOH solution
(which absorbs the carbon iv oxide inside the flask)
2 The flask mouth is corked and smeared with vaseline at the
neck to make it air-tight
3 The whole experiment is exposed to sunlight for several hours
4 A leaf from inside the conical flask and the other outside the
flask are plucked and tested for starch
OBSERVATION:
The leaf inside the conical flask did not turn blue-black because
starch was not formed a s a result of absence of carbon iv oxide,
while the other leaf outside the flask turns blue-black
CONCLUSION:
Carbon iv oxide is necessary for photosynthesis to take place
EXPERIMENT 4:
AIM: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
MATERIAL: A variegated plant
METHOD:
1 Expose the plant to sunlight for few hours
2 Draw a diagram to map out the green part of the leaf
3 Test the leaf for starch
OBSERVATION:
Only the green parts of the leaf will be stained blue-black
CONCLUSION:
Chlorophyll is important for photosynthesis to take place

EXPERIMENT 5
AIM: To show that oxygen is given out as a by-product during
photosynthesis
MATERIALS: A water plant, glass funnel, beaker, test tube, splinter
METHOD:
1 A water plant is placed at the bottom of a beaker filled with
water
2 A test tube filled with water is inverted over the stem of the
funnel
3 The whole set-up is then placed in the sunlight for several hours
4 Tiny bubbles will gradually appear on the surface of the leaf and
spread to the top of the test tube
5 The gas is tested with a glowing splinter
OBSERVATION:
The gas formed at the top of the test tube rekindles a glowing
splinter indicating the presence of oxygen
CONCLUSION:
This experiment shows that oxygen is given off as a by-product
during photosynthesis
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1 Provision of food to plants and animals
2 It serves as the building blocks ( or carbon skeleton) on which
other food substances such as fats, proteins, etc are built
3 Purification of the atmosphere by the removal of carbon iv oxide
from the atmosphere by plants for use during photosynthesis
CLASS ACTIVITY
Determination of BMI (Body Mass Index) of
students.
BMI = mass (kg)
height2 (m2)
Underweight: below 18.5kg/m2
Normal weight: 18.5 to 25 kg/m2
Overweight: 25 to 30 kg/m2
Obese: above 30k
HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT
Write extensively on the mineral requirements of
 MINERAL REQUIREMENT OF PLANTS
This refers to the mineral nutrients or elements needed by
plants for normal growth and healthy development of the
plant. The elements are grouped into two:
1 MACRO-NUTRIENTS OR MAJOR ELEMENTS: these are
elements needed in large quantity by plants for healthy
growth. E.g. Potassium, Calcium, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Sulphur, Magnesium, Iron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus.

2 MICRO-NUTRIENTS OR TRACE ELEMENTS: these are

elements needed in little quantity by plants for healthy
growth. E.g. Copper, Zinc, Manganese, Cobalt, Chlorine,
Molybdenum, Boron.
When a plant lack any of these elements, it shows certain
signs known as deficiency symptoms.
ELEMENT FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
SYMPTOMS
NITROGEN -Formation of nucleic acid and chlorophyll -Stunted growth
-Component of all enzymes and -Yellow leaves
protoplasm
PHOSPHORUS -It helps in root development -Poor root development
-Formation of co-enzyme -Reddish-brown leaves and
-Fruit formation and maturity stems
SULPHUR Protein synthesis Yellowing of leaves
(chlorosis)
MANGANESE -Activation of some enzymes Death of the bark of shoot
MAGNESIUM Chlorophyll formation -Yellowing of leaves
-Poor growth
COPPER Component of respiratory enzymes -Pale green colour of leaf
-Poor growth
ZINC Activation of enzymes Poor leaf formation
SILICON Cell wall formation Poor growth
 CULTURE SOLUTION
Culture solution is a solution containing all the major
elements needed by plants for their natural growth and
development. Examples of culture solution are:
-Knops’ culture solution
-Sach’s culture solution
ASSGNMENT
State five precautions to be taken when preparing culture
solution
 GROWTH
Growth is an irreversible increase in size and mass of an
organism resulting from the increase, enlargement and
differentiation of cells as a result of synthesis of new body
material.
GROWTH ASPECT
I. Cell enlargement
II. Cell differentiation
III. Increase in size of organism
IV. Increase in number of cells
V. Increase in dry weight of organism
VI. Production of new body material
BASIS OF GROWTH
The basis of growth is cell division.
This is a plot which shows the
change in growth of an organism
with time. Growth is usually slow
in early childhood but becomes
very rapid in middle life and slow
again in the old age until it stops.
 A graphical representation of growth curve
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
A B C D E

Height Time
MITOSIS (CELL DIVISION)
Mitosis is the division of a somatic cell (body cells that are not
involved in the production of gametes) into two daughter cells which
take place during growth and development of an organism. It involves
the division of the cytoplasm and nucleus.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
i. Prophase
ii. Metaphase
iii. Anaphase
iv. Telophase
v. Interphase
vi. Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic division)
The total number of chromosomes in the nucleus of a human somatic
cell is 46 which appears in pairs of 23 each.
PROPHASE
1 Chromosome become prominent in the nucleus as thin
threads
2 The chromosomes separate along the centrioles of the
opposite poles of the cell
3 Spindle fibres are formed radiating from the centrioles
4 The nuclear membrane breaks down
5 Spindle formation is completed
METAPHASE
1 Chromosomes come to lie along the middle of the cell each
attached by a spindle fibre
2 The spindle fibres break at the equator
ANAPHASE
1 The two chromatids in each chromosome separate
2 The chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell, each in
V-shaped form
 TELOPHASE
1 The chromatids arrive at opposite pole of the cell
2 The chromatids gradually become indistinctive
3 A new nuclear membrane is formed around each group of
chromatids
4 The centrioles gradually disappear
INTERPHASE
This is the period between two consecutive cell divisions. It
is also known as the resting stage. In this period, the
chromatid becomes a chromosome.
CYTOKINESIS
The cytoplasm becomes narrowed around the middle of the
cell.
Factors affecting growth
1. Availability of food
2. Space
3. Light for green plants
4. Oxygen for aerobic organisms
5. Suitable temperature
6. Factors like salinity, pH in water
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH
I. Light (for photosynthetic organisms)
II. Oxygen (for aerobic organisms)
III. Availability of food and water
IV. Space (especially for plants)
V. Suitable temperature
REGULATION OF GROWTH BY HORMONES
Hormone is a chemical substance which is secreted in
some parts of an organism (by endocrine gland in
animals), which is transported to other parts of an
organism where it has an effect on a particular tissue or
organ.
Examples of plant growth hormones are: Abscisic acid,
Ethene, Auxin, Gibberellins, Cytokinin.
Examples of animal growth hormones are: Thyroxine and
Pituitrin (Somatropin).
 Regulation of growth by
hormones
Growth hormones are present in both
plants and animals. Plant growth
hormones include auxin, gibberellin,
cytokinin, ethylene,
abscisic acid while animal growth
hormones include thyroxine and
pituitrin. They help in regulating their
growth.
 State the effects of the following plant and animal
hormones:
i. Abscisic acid
ii. Ethene
iii. Auxin
iv. Gibberellins
v. Cytokinin
vi. Pituitrin (Somatropin)
vii. Thyroxine
 IRRITABILITY
A stimulus is a change in the environment which brings
about a response by an organism. The ability to respond to
stimulus is termed irritability.
TYPES OF RESPONSES IN LIVING ORGANISMS
Responses by organisms to stimuli include:
i. Taxism
ii. Tropism
iii. Nastism
TAXISM:
This is the movement of an entire organism in response
to a stimulus. If the response is towards the source of the
stimulus, it is said to be a positive taxism, but if it is away
from the source of the stimulus, it is said to be negative
taxism. e.g. Euglena exhibits positive response to light.
NASTISM:
This is a type of movement in plants which is not
connected with the direction of the stimulus e.g. the sleep
movement in plants.
TROPISM:
This is the bending movement of parts of a plant in
response to stimulus. The plant part moves in response to that
stimulus and maintains the posture e.g. the shoot of a growing
cowpea seedling moving in the direction of light.
TYPES OF TROPISM
1 PHOTOTROPISM:
This is the response to light e.g. plant shoots are positively
phototropic, while roots are negatively phototropic.
2 GEOTROPISM:
This is the response to gravity e.g. shoots of plants are
negatively geotropic, while roots are positively geotropic.
3 HYDROTROPISM:
This is the response to water e.g. roots are
positively hydrotropic.
4 CHEMOTROPISM:
This is the response to chemicals e.g. pollen
tube is positively chemotropic.
5 THIGMOTROPISM:
This is the response to touch e.g. some plants
respond to touch by folding their leaves e.g.
Mimosa, Biophylum.
 MOVEMENT
CYCLOSIS
This is the cytoplasmic streaming or movement of the
cytoplasm within a cell as a result of some internal or
external influences e.g. the movement of food vacuole in
paramecium, the movement of amoeba using
pseudopodia.
LOCOMOTORY ORGANELLES IN SOME UNICELLUAR
ORGANISMS
1 Amoeba uses pseudopodia
2 Euglena uses flagellum
3 Paramecium uses cilia
4 Chlamydomonas uses flagella