The girl crossed the river.

Nouns
Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of

the girl by reading this sentence, though we know the

A noun is a word that names something: either a person, action she takes. River is also a common noun in this

sentence.
place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns can play the role of

Types of Common Nouns

subject, direct object, indirect object, subject

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into

complement, object complement, appositive, or
three subtypes: concrete nouns, abstract nouns, and

adjective. collective nouns. A concrete noun is something that is

perceived by the senses; something that is physical or

real.
Proper Nouns vs. Common Nouns
I heard the doorbell.
One important distinction to be made is whether a noun
My keyboard is sticky.
is a proper noun or a common noun. A proper noun is a

specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.

capitalized.
Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be
Does Tina have much homework to do this evening? perceived by the senses.

Tina is the name of a specific person. We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

I would like to visit Old Faithful. Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen,

heard, or sensed in any other way, but we know it exists.

Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological

phenomenon. A collective noun denotes a group or collection of

people or things.
The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun,

sometimes known as a generic noun. A common noun is That pack of lies is disgraceful.

the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not

capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a

sentence or in a title.
Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective Nouns as Subject and Object Complements

nouns take a singular verb as if they are one entity – in

Another type of noun use is called a subject
this case, the singular verb is.
complement. In this example, the noun teacher is used as
A pride of lions roamed the savanna.
a subject complement.

Pride of lions is also a collective noun. Mary is a teacher.

Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like

Nouns as Subjects
to be, become, or seem. A teacher is what Mary is.

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will

A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.
always be a noun. The subject of a sentence is the
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in

that sentence. Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements

in this sentence. Verbs that denote making, naming, or

Maria is happy.
creating are often followed by object complements.
Maria is the subject of this sentence and the

corresponding verb is a form of to be (is).

Appositive Nouns and Nouns as Modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun which immediately follows

Nouns as Objects
another noun in order to further define or identify it.
Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An
My brother, Michael, is six years old.
object can be either a direct object (a noun that receives

the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the

(a noun that is the recipient of a direct object). subject of the sentence, my brother.

Give the books to her. Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is He is a speed demon.

the indirect object (who the books are being given to).
Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an

adjective to modify demon.

 An I.Q. test measures intelligence.
Plural Nouns
Intelligence is an uncountable noun.
Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural
Students don’t seem to have much homework these
verbs. Many English plural nouns can be formed by days.
adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are
This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable
many exceptions.
amount of homework, so homework is an uncountable
cat—cats
noun.
These two cats are both black.

Note the plural verb are.

Possessive Nouns
tax—taxes

house—houses Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something;

i.e., they have something. You can identify a possessive

noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive

Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns
with an apostrophe and an s.
Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even
The cat’s toy was missing.
if the number might be extraordinarily high (like
The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of
counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns
-’s at the end of cat.
can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

Here is a cat. When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same

format often applies. This is a matter of style, however,

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.
and some style guides suggest leaving off the extra s.
Here are a few cats.
I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.
Here are some cats.
Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her
Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or chair.

quantity which is impossible to count; liquids are

Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form
uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air).
a possessive.
They are always considered to be singular, and can be
My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.
used with some, any, a little, and much.

What Is a Pronoun?
Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The
distinguishing characteristic of pronouns is that they can
be substituted for other nouns. For instance, if you’re
telling a story about your sister Sarah, the story will
begin to sound repetitive if you keep repeating “Sarah”
over and over again.
Sarah has always loved fashion. Sarah announced that
Sarah wants to go to fashion school.
You could try to mix it up by sometimes referring to
Sarah as “my sister,” but then it sounds like you’re
referring to two different people.
Sarah has always loved fashion. My sister announced
that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.
Instead, you can use the pronouns she and her to refer to
Sarah.
Sarah has always loved fashion. She announced that she
wants to go to fashion school.
Personal Pronouns
There are a few different types of pronouns, and some
pronouns belong to more than one
category. She and her are known as personal pronouns.
The other personal pronouns
are I and me, you, he and him, it, we and us,
and they and them. If you learned about pronouns in
school, these are probably the words your teacher
focused on. We’ll get to the other types of pronouns in a
moment.
Antecedents
Pronouns are versatile. The pronoun it can refer to just
about anything: a bike, a tree, a movie, a feeling. That’s
why you need an antecedent. An antecedent is a noun or
noun phrase that you mention at the beginning of a
sentence or story and later replace with a pronoun. In the
examples below, the antecedent is highlighted and the
pronoun that replaces it is bolded.
My family drives me nuts, but I love them. The sign was
too far away for Henry to read it. Sarah said she is
almost finished with the application.
In some cases, the antecedent doesn’t need to be
mentioned explicitly, as long as the context is totally
clear. It’s usually clear who the pronouns I, me,
and you refer to based on who is speaking.
It’s also possible to use a pronoun before you mention
the antecedent, but try to avoid doing it in long or
complex sentences because it can make the sentence
hard to follow.
I love them, but my family drives me nuts.
 Please mail it to me.
Relative Pronouns
Ms. Higgins caught they passing notes.

Relative pronouns make up another class of pronouns. Ms. Higgins caught them passing notes.
They are used to connect relative clauses to independent
Is this cake for we?
clauses. Often, they introduce additional information
Is this cake for us?
about something mentioned in the sentence. Relative

pronouns include that, what, which, who, and whom. Whom is trickier, though, because it usually

Traditionally, who refers to people, comes before the verb or preposition that modifies it.

and which and that refer to animals or things. Whom did you speak to earlier?

The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message. A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking
All the dogs that got adopted today will be loved. about you.
My car , which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.
Whom should I say is calling?

Whether you need commas with who,

One way to test whether you need who or whom is to try
which, and that depends on whether the clause is
substituting a personal pronoun. Find the place where
restrictive or nonrestrictive.
the personal pronoun would normally go and see

whether the subject or object form makes more sense.

Who vs. Whom—Subject and Object Pronouns Who/whom did you speak to earlier? Did you speak

to he/him earlier?
Now that we’ve talked about relative pronouns, let’s

tackle the one that causes the most A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking

confusion: who vs. whom. Who is a subject pronoun, about you. Have I seen he/himbefore?

like I, he, she, we, and they. Whom is an object pronoun,

Whom should I say is calling? Should I say she/her is
like me, him, her, us and them. When the pronoun is the
calling?
object of a verb or preposition, the object form is the one

you want. Most people don’t have much trouble with the If the object pronoun (him or her) sounds right,

objective case of personal pronouns because they usually use whom. If the subject pronoun (he or she) sounds

come immediately after the verb or preposition that right, use who.

modifies it.

Please mail it to I.
 A house like that would be a nice place to live. Some
Before we move on, there’s one more case where the
new flavors of soda came in last week. Why don’t you
choice between subject and object pronouns can be
try some of those? Those aren’t swans, they’re geese.
confusing. Can you spot the problem in the sentences

below?

Indefinite Pronouns
Henry is meeting Sarah and I this afternoon. There are
no secrets between you and I. It doesn’t matter to him or
I. Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a

person or thing that doesn’t need to be specifically

In each of the sentences above, the pronoun I should
identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one,
be me. If you remove the other name or pronoun from
other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one.
the sentence, it becomes obvious.
Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. It
Henry is meeting I this afternoon. No one keeps secrets
matters more to some than others. Nobody knows the
from I. It doesn’t matter to I.
trouble I’ve seen.

When indefinite pronouns function as subjects of a

Demonstrative Pronouns sentence or clause, they usually take singular verbs.

That, this, these and those are demonstrative pronouns.

They take the place of a noun or noun phrase that has Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

already been mentioned.

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: myself,
This is used for singular items that are nearby. These is
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
used for multiple items that are nearby. The distance can
themselves.
be physical or metaphorical.
Use a reflexive pronoun when both the subject and
Here is a letter with no return address. Who could have
object of a verb refer to the same person or thing.
sent this? What a fantastic idea! This is the best thing
I’ve heard all day. If you think gardenias smell nice, try
Henry cursed himself for his poor eyesight. They booked
smelling these.
themselves a room at the resort. I told myself it was
nothing.
That is used for singular items that are far away. Those is

used for multiple items that are far away. Again, the

distance can be physical or metaphorical.

 Sarah is working on her application. Just put me back
Intensive pronouns look the same as reflexive pronouns,
on my bike. The students practiced their presentation
but their purpose is different. Intensive pronouns add
after school.
emphasis.
The absolute possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his,
I built this house myself. Did you yourself see Loretta
hers, ours, and theirs. The absolute forms can be
spill the coffee?
substituted for the thing that belongs to the antecedent.
“I built this house” and “I built this house myself” mean
Are you finished with your application? Sarah already
almost the same thing. But “myself” emphasizes that I
finished hers. The blue bike is mine. I practiced my
personally built the house—I didn’t hire someone else to speech and the students practiced theirs.

do it for me. Likewise, “Did you see Loretta spill the

Some possessive pronouns are easy to mix up
coffee?” and “Did you yourself see Loretta spill the
with similar-looking contractions. Remember,
coffee?” have similar meanings. But “yourself” makes it
possessive personal pronouns don’t include apostrophes.
clear that the person asking wants to know whether you

actually witnessed the incident or whether you only

heard it described by someone else. Interrogative Pronouns

Occasionally, people are tempted to use myself where

Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The
they should use me because it sounds a little fancier.
interrogative pronouns are who, what, which, and whose.
Don’t fall into that trap! If you use a -self form of a
Who wants a bag of jelly beans? What is your name?
pronoun, make sure it matches one of the uses above.
Which movie do you want to watch? Whose jacket is
Please call Sarah or myself if you are going to be late. this?
Loretta, Henry, and myself are pleased to welcome you
to the neighborhood.

What Are Adjectives?

Possessive Pronouns Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states

of being of nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun,

Possessive pronouns come in two flavors: limiting and
fast. They can also describe the quantity of nouns: many,
absolute. My, your, its, his, her, our, their and whose are
few, millions, eleven.
used to show that something belongs to an antecedent.
 Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.
Adjectives Modify Nouns
Three and white are modifying flowers.
Most students learn that adjectives are words that modify
Often, when adjectives are used together, you should
(describe) nouns. Adjectives do not modify verbs or
separate them with a comma or conjunction. See
adverbs or other adjectives.
“Coordinate Adjectives” below for more detail.
Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.
I’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as
Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
a pet.
My cake should have sixteen candles.
My new dog is small and good-tempered.
The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.

In the sentences above, the adjectives are easy to spot

because they come immediately before the nouns they

modify. Degrees of Comparison

But adjectives can do more than just modify nouns. They

can also act as a complement to linking verbs or the Adjectives come in three forms: absolute,
verb to be. A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to
comparative, and superlative. Absolute adjectives
seem, or to taste that describes a state of being or a
sensory experience. describe something in its own right.

That cow sure is happy. A cool guy

It smells gross in the locker room. A messy desk

Driving is faster than walking. A mischievous cat

The technical term for an adjective used this way Garrulous squirrels

is predicate adjective.
Comparative adjectives, unsurprisingly, make a

comparison between two or more things. For most one-

syllable adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding

Uses of Adjectives
the suffix -er (or just -r if the adjective already ends with

Adjectives tell the reader how much—or how many—of an e). For two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, replace -y

something you’re talking about, which thing you want with -ier. For multi-syllable adjectives, add the

passed to you, or which kind of something you want. word more.

A cooler guy
But just the fact that two adjectives appear next to each
A messier desk other doesn’t automatically mean they are coordinate.

A more mischievous cat Sometimes, an adjective and a noun form a single

semantic unit, which is then modified by another

More garrulous squirrels
adjective. In this case, the adjectives are not coordinate
Superlative adjectives indicate that something has the
and should not be separated by a comma.
highest degree of the quality in question. One-syllable
My cat, Goober, loves sleeping on this tattered
adjectives become superlatives by adding the suffix -
woolen sweater.
est (or just -st for adjectives that already end in e). Two-
No one could open the old silver locket.
syllable adjectives ending in -yreplace -y with -iest.

Multi-syllable adjectives add the word most. When you In some cases, it’s pretty hard to decide whether two

use an article with a superlative adjective, it will almost adjectives are coordinate or not. But there are a couple of

always be the definite article (the) rather than a or an. ways you can test them. Try inserting the

Using a superlative inherently indicates that you are word andbetween the adjectives to see if the phrase still

talking about a specific item or items. seems natural. In the first sentence, “this tattered and

woolen sweater” doesn’t sound right because you really

The coolest guy
aren’t talking about a sweater that is both tattered and
The messiest desk
woolen. It’s a woolen sweater that is tattered. Woolen
The most mischievous cat
sweater forms a unit of meaning that is modified
The most garrulous squirrels by tattered.

Another way to test for coordinate adjectives is to try

Coordinate Adjectives switching the order of the adjectives and seeing if the

phrase still works. In the second sentence, you wouldn’t

Coordinate adjectives should be separated by a comma say “No one could open the silver old locket.” You can’t
or the word and. Adjectives are said to be coordinate if reverse the order of the adjectives because silver
they modify the same noun in a sentence. locket is a unit that is modified by old.

This is going to be a long, cold winter.

Isobel’s dedicated and tireless efforts made all the

difference.
Adjectives vs. Adverbs When Nouns Become Adjectives and Adjectives

Become Nouns
As mentioned above, many of us learned in school that

adjectives modify nouns and that adverbs modify verbs.

One more thing you should know about adjectives is
But as we’ve seen, adjectives can also act as
that, sometimes, a word that is normally used as a noun
complements for linking verbs. This leads to a common
can function as an adjective, depending on its placement.
type of error: incorrectly substituting an adverb in place
For example:
of a predicate adjective. An example you’ve probably
Never try to pet someone’s guide dog without asking
heard before is:
permission first.

I feel badly about what happened.

Guide is a noun. But in this sentence, it modifies dog. It

Because “feel” is a verb, it seems to call for an adverb works the other way, too. Some words that are normally

rather than an adjective. But “feel” isn’t just any verb; adjectives can function as nouns:

it’s a linking verb. An adverb would describe how you

Candice is working on a fundraiser to help the homeless.
perform the action of feeling—an adjective
In the context of this sentence, homeless is functioning
describes what you feel. “I feel badly” means that you
as a noun. It can be hard to wrap your head around this if
are bad at feeling things. If you’re trying to read Braille
you think of adjectives and nouns only as particular
through thick leather gloves, then it might make sense
classes of words. But the terms “adjective” and “noun”
for you to say “I feel badly.” But if you’re trying to say
aren’t just about a word’s form—they’re also about its
that you are experiencing negative emotions, “I feel bad”
function.
is the phrase you want.

It’s easier to see this distinction with a different linking

verb. Consider the difference between these two What Do Adverbs Modify?

sentences:
An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (he
Goober smells badly.
sings loudly), an adjective (very tall), another adverb
Goober smells bad.
(ended too quickly), or even a whole sentence

“Goober smells badly” means that Goober, the poor (Fortunately, I had brought an umbrella). Adverbs often

thing, has a weak sense of smell. “Goober smells bad” end in -ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly the same

means Goober stinks—poor us. as their adjective counterparts.

Tom Longboat did not run badly.
perform the action of feeling—an adjective
Tom is very tall. describes what you feel. “I feel badly” means that you
The race finished too quickly. are bad at feeling things. If you’re trying to read Braille
Fortunately, Lucy recorded Tom’s win. through thick leather gloves, then it might make sense

It’s easy to identify adverbs in these sentences. for you to say “I feel badly.” But if you’re trying to say

that you are experiencing negative emotions, “I feel bad”

is the phrase you want.

Adverbs and Verbs

One of the things adverbs do is modify verbs. This

Adverbs and Adjectives
means that they describe the way an action is happening.
Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs.
Phillip sings loudly in the shower.
Often, the purpose of the adverb is to add a degree of
My cat waits impatiently for his food.
intensity to the adjective.
I will seriously consider your suggestion.
The woman is quite pretty.
The adverbs in each of the sentences above answer the
This book is more interesting than the last one.
question in what manner?How does Phillip sing?
The weather report is almost always right.
Loudly. How does my cat wait? Impatiently. How will I

consider your suggestion? Seriously. Adverbs can The adverb almost is modifying the adverb always, and

answer other types of questions about how an action was they’re both modifying right.

performed. They can also tell you when (We “Is my singing too loud?” asked Phillip.

arrived early) and where(Turn here).

My cat is incredibly happy to have his dinner.

We will be slightly late to the meeting.

However, there is one type of verb that doesn’t mix well
This bridesmaid dress is a very unflattering shade of
with adverbs. Linking verbs, such as feel, smell, sound,
puce.
seem, and appear, typically need adjectives, not adverbs.

A very common example of this type of mixup is

I feel badly about what happened. Adverbs and Other Adverbs

Because “feel” is a verb, it seems to call for an adverb

You can use an adverb to describe another adverb. In
rather than an adjective. But “feel” isn’t just any verb;
fact, if you wanted to, you could use several.
it’s a linking verb. An adverb would describe how you
Phillip sings rather enormously too loudly.
look exactly the same as their adjective counterparts),

The problem is that it often produces weak and clunky the comparative and superlative forms look the same as

sentences like the one above, so be careful not to overdo the adjective comparative and superlative forms. It’s

it. usually better to use stronger adverbs (or stronger

adjectives and verbs) rather than relying on comparative

and superlative adverbs.

Adverbs and Sentences

An absolute adverb describes something in its own right:

Some adverbs can modify entire sentences—

unsurprisingly, these are called sentence adverbs. He smiled warmly A hastily written note

Common ones include generally, fortunately,

To make the comparative form of an adverb that ends in
interestingly, and accordingly. Sentence adverbs don’t
-ly, add the word more:
describe one particular thing in the sentence—instead,
He smiled more warmly than the others. The more
they describe a general feeling about all of the
hastily written note contained the clue.
information in the sentence.
To make the superlative form of an adverb that ends in -
Fortunately, we got there in time.
ly, add the word most:
Interestingly, no one at the auction seemed interested in
He smiled most warmly of them all. The most
bidding on the antique spoon collection.
hastily written note on the desk was overlooked.
At one time, the use of the word hopefully as a sentence

adverb (e.g., Hopefully, I’ll get this job) was condemned.

People continued to use it though, and many style guides Placement of Adverbs

and dictionaries now accept it. There are still plenty of

Place adverbs as close as possible to the words they are
readers out there who hate it though, so it’s a good idea
supposed to modify. Putting the adverb in the wrong
to avoid using it in formal writing.
spot can produce an awkward sentence at best and

completely change the meaning at worst. Be especially

Degrees of Comparison careful about the word only, which is one of the most

often misplaced modifiers. Consider the difference

Like adjectives, adverbs can show degrees of
between these two sentences:
comparison, although it’s slightly less common to use
Phillip only fed the cat. Phillip fed only the cat.
them this way. With certain “flat adverbs” (adverbs that
The first sentence means that all Phillip did was feed the Verbs are at the heart of sentences and clauses; they are

cat. He didn’t pet the cat or pick it up or anything else. indispensable to the formation of a complete thought. A

The second sentence means that Phillip fed the cat, but verb can express a thought by itself (with the subject

he didn’t feed the dog, the bird, or anyone else who implied) and be understood.

might have been around.

Run!

When an adverb is modifying a verb phrase, the most Believe!

natural place for the adverb is usually the middle of the

phrase.
Action vs. Nonaction Verbs
We are quickly approaching the deadline.

Phillip has always loved singing. Action verbs simply indicate an action or occurrence.

I will happily assist you.

Gloria walked across the room.

The shark swam menacingly close to the shore.

When to Avoid Adverbs Even when used figuratively rather than literally, some

verbs can still be considered action verbs.

Ernest Hemingway is often held up as an example of a
The singer broke with tradition by shaking hands with
great writer who detested adverbs and advised other
his fans.
writers to avoid them. In reality, it’s impossible to avoid
In this example, the singer didn’t really break anything,
adverbs altogether. Sometimes we need them, and all
but the verb is still an action verb.
writers (even Hemingway) use them occasionally. The

trick is to avoid unnecessary adverbs. When your verb or

Conversely, nonaction verbs can indicate a state of
adjective doesn’t seem powerful or precise enough,
being, sense, emotion, desire, possession, or opinion.
instead of reaching for an adverb to add more color, try
The most common nonaction verb is to be.
reaching for a stronger verb or adjective instead. Most of
I am a good person.
the time, you’ll come up with a better word and your
The baby felt cold without her blanket.
writing will be stronger for it.
My mother loves me.
Verbs tell you what the subject of a sentence or clause is
I have four tickets to the show.
doing (or being). Verbs are conjugated according to

person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, or voice.

Verb Tenses Verb Moods

Verbs change in form, or tense, to indicate whether the Among a verb’s many properties is mood. A verb’s

actions or states are occurring in the present (or are mood, sometimes referred to as a mode, can be either

happening continuously), occurred in the past, or will indicative, imperative, or subjunctive. The most

occur in the future. common of these is the indicative mood. Indicative

mood is used for statements of fact or opinion and to

I take the bus.
pose questions.
I am taking the bus.
Every rose has its thorn.
I took the bus.
A cat has nine lives.
I will take the bus.
Is the moon made of cheese?
These examples indicate the simple present, present

continuous, simple past, and simple future tenses The imperative mood is used to express commands.

respectively. Further possible tenses include present Subjects are often implied rather than expressed in

perfect (I have taken the bus), present perfect continuous sentences with imperative verbs. In the following

(I have been taking the bus), past continuous (I was examples, the subject you is implied:

taking the bus), past perfect (I had taken the bus), past Put that down!
perfect continuous (I had been taking the bus), future
Please exit the building in single file.
continuous (I will be taking the bus), future perfect (I
The subjunctive mood is used to express a verb with an
will have taken the bus), and future perfect continuous (I
action or state that is doubtful, imagined, conditional,
will have been taking the bus). All the latter uses would
desired, or hypothetical.
require additional grammatical elements to form

complete thoughts. To ensure good writing, it is I wish you were here.

important for verbs to be used consistently and in a

It is implied by this sentence that you are not actually
logical sequence so that the time period being written
here, but I wish that were not so. Were is in the
about is properly understood. Verbs can also have up to
subjunctive mood. Conditional verbs (which often
five different forms: root, third-person singular, present
appear with if/when statements) also receive a
participle, past, and past participle.
subjunctive treatment.

If I were a younger man, I would run three miles a day.

 I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch. We needed a place to
Were and would run indicate the subjunctive mood.
concentrate, so we packed up our things and went to the
library. Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.
Of course, it is also important to follow the grammatical

rules for conjugating verbs, including all those pesky Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating
English irregular verbs. conjunction is joining two independent clauses.

What Are Conjunctions? Correlative Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that
clauses together. work together. Some examples are either/or,

I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes neither/nor, and not only/but also.
afterward. Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on
Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also
dancing till dawn.
finished writing my history essay. I am finished with
both my English essay and my history essay.
Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant

sentences and avoid the choppiness of multiple short

sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by

Subordinating Conjunctions
conjunctions are parallel (share the same structure).

I work quickly and am careful. Subordinating conjunctions join independent and

I work quickly and carefully. dependent clauses. A subordinating conjunction can

signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or

some other kind of relationship between the clauses.

Coordinating Conjunctions Common subordinating conjunctions are because, since,

as, although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an

Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words,
adverb, such as until, after, or before can function as a
phrases, and clauses of equal grammatical rank in a
conjunction.
sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions
I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.
are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can

remember them by using the mnemonic device Here, the adverb until functions as a coordinating

FANBOYS. conjunction to connect two ideas: I can stay out (the

independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the
List of Conjunctions
dependent clause). The independent clause could stand

alone as a sentence; the dependent clause depends on the

Coordinating Conjunctions
independent clause to make sense.

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the

middle of the sentence. It has to be part of the dependent

Correlative Conjunctions
clause, but the dependent clause can come before the

independent clause.
both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or

Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.

If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before Some Subordinating Conjunctions

the independent clause.

after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon
I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty. Because I as, as though, because, before, by the time, even if, even
was thirsty, I drank a glass of water.
though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, lest ,

now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so,

supposing, that, than, though, till, unless, until, when,

Starting a Sentence with a Conjunction
whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not,

Many of us were taught in school that it is an error to while

begin a sentence with a conjunction, but that rule is a

myth. As mentioned above, a subordinating conjunction Prepositions

can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes

before the independent clause. It’s also correct to begin a  Prepositions indicate relationships between other words

sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Often, it’s a in a sentence.

good way to add emphasis. Beginning too many

 Many prepositions tell you where something is or when
sentences with conjunctions will cause the device to lose
something happened.
its force, however, so use this technique sparingly.

 Most prepositions have several definitions, so the

Have a safe trip. And don’t forget to call when you get
home. Gertie flung open the door. But there was no one meaning changes quite a bit in different contexts.
on the other side.
 Ending a sentence with a preposition is not a Direction: Look to the left and you’ll see our

grammatical error. destination.

Time: We’ve been working since this morning.

What Is a Preposition?
Location: We saw a movie at the theater.

“Vampires! Zombies! Werewolves!” “Where?!” Space: The dog hid under the table.

“Behind you!”

Thank goodness for prepositions. Imagine not knowing

Preposition Examples
where the danger lay….

Unfortunately, there’s no reliable formula for

Prepositions tell us where or when something is in
determining which preposition to use with a particular
relation to something else. When monsters are
combination of words. The best way to learn which
approaching, it’s good to have these special words to tell
prepositions go with which words is to read as much
us where those monsters are. Are they behind us or in
high-quality writing as you can and pay attention to
front of us? Will they be arriving in three seconds
which combinations sound right. Here are a few
or at midnight?
examples of the most common prepositions used in

Prepositions often tell us where one noun is in relation to sentences.

another (e.g., The coffee ison the table beside you). But
I should rewrite the introduction of my essay.
they can also indicate more abstract ideas, such as
Sam left his jacket in the car.
purpose or contrast (e.g., We went for a walk despite the
Did you send that letter to your mother?
rain).
We’re cooking for ten guests tonight.

Dan ate lunch with his boss.

Types of Prepositions
You can also use tools like Google Ngrams to see which

Prepositions indicate direction, time, location, and prepositions most commonly occur with particular

spatial relationships, as well as other abstract types of words—but remember, this tool can’t explain the

relationships. difference in meaning between different prepositional

phrases like “pay for” (to purchase) and “pay off” (to
bribe). For that, you may want to refer to a list of
Unnecessary Prepositions
prepositions that includes the meanings of common

combinations. One of the most common preposition mistakes is adding

an unnecessary at to the end of a question.

Where is your brother at ?

Ending a Sentence With a Preposition
Although this is common in some English dialects, it’s
The old claim that it’s wrong to end a sentence with a considered an error in writing. You can fix the problem
preposition has been utterly debunked. It’s not true and it by simply deleting the at.
never was true. Writers who always insist that a
Where is your brother?
preposition can’t end a sentence often end up with stilted

and unnatural sentences: On the bright side, if you’re not sure which preposition

to use, sometimes you can just get rid of it altogether. In

There’s no one else to hide behind . (Grammatically
correct and natural) fact, you should always get rid of unnecessary

prepositional phrases. Too many prepositions can be a

There’s no one else behind whom to hide.
(Grammatically correct, but unnatural) sign of flabby writing. Look at how many prepositions

appear in the sentence below:

Where did you come from ? (Grammatically correct and
natural)
For many people, the reality of an entry into a new
From where did you come? (Grammatically correct, but area of employment is cause for a host of anxieties.
unnatural)
Getting rid of the prepositions forces you to tighten up
That said, it is sometimes more elegant to move a the sentence. The result is shorter, more direct, and
preposition to an earlier spot in a sentence, especially in easier to understand:
very serious and formal writing. But if you do move the
Changing careers makes many people anxious.
preposition, remember to delete it from the end.
Here’s another example:
This is something we must meditate on .
Alex hit the baseball up over the fence.
This is something on which we must meditate.

This is something on which we must meditate on . Get rid of the up. You don’t need it:

Alex hit the baseball over the fence.

The interjection is a part of speech which is more

commonly used in informal language than in formal
writing or speech. Basically, the function of interjections
is to express emotions or sudden bursts of feelings. They
can express a wide variety of emotions such as:
excitement, joy, surprise, or disgust.
What are the Structures and Importance of
Interjections?
Interjections can come in the form of a single word, a
phrase, or even a short clause. Aside from that, they are
usually (but not always) placed at the beginning of a
sentence. The importance of interjections lies in the fact
that they can convey feelings that may sometimes be
neglected in the sentence.
Take for example, the sentence “That book is about
vampires.”
One person can write it as:
1. That book is about vampires.
Or
2. That book is about vampires.
But then again, another person might use an interjection
to show the same feeling of disgust (as in sentence
number 2):
3. Eww! That book is about vampires.
So you see from the sentence above that the word “eww”
conveys the emotional response to what is said in the
sentence. It can act as a replacement for emoticons and
are more appropriate to use in writing, especially in
character dialogues.
What are the Different Kinds of Interjections?
Below are the different kinds of interjections:
 Adjectives that are used as interjections.
Examples:
 Nice! You got a Monster Kill in your first game!
 Sweet! I got a PS4 for my birthday!
 Good! Now we can move on to the next lesson.
The italicized words in the sample sentences above are
just some of the adjectives that can be used as
interjections.
 Nouns or noun phrases that are used as
interjections.
Examples:
 Congratulations, you won the match.
 Hello! How are you?
 Holy cow! I forgot my keys!
The italicized parts of the sentences above are just some
of the nouns that can be used as interjections.
 Short clauses that are used as interjections.
Example:
 Shawie is our chemistry teacher. Oh, the horror!
The short clause that is italicized in the example above
functions as an interjection.
 Some interjections are sounds.
Examples:
 Ugh! I’m never doing that again!
 Whew! That was really close!
 Uh-oh! Dude, I think we’re in serious trouble.
How do You Punctuate Interjections?
Since interjections convey different kinds of emotions,
there are also different ways to punctuate them.
 Exclamation point
The exclamation point is the most commonly used
punctuation mark for interjections. Obviously, it is used
to communicate strong emotions such as surprise,
excitement, or anger.
Examples:
 I just replaced your sugar with salt. Bazinga!
 Hooray! I got the job!
 Hey! Stop messing with me!
 Ouch! That must’ve hurt really bad!
 Oh! They’re here!
 Boo-yah! This is the bomb!
 Are you still going to eat that? Yuck!
 Yahoo! I got my Christmas bonus!
 Eek! There’s a flying cockroach!
 Period or comma
For weaker emotions, a period or a comma will suffice.
Examples:
 What’s the answer to number 24?
 Meh, who cares?
 Ah, that feels great!
 Oh well, what’s done is done.
 Well, what did your mom say?
 Um… I don’t think so.
 Hmm, your house always smells like freshly
brewed coffee.
 Question mark
If you intend to use interjections to express uncertainty
or disbelief, it is more appropriate to use a question
mark.

Examples:

 Huh? What did you just say?

 What? You still haven’t submitted your project?
 Oh, really? I never thought he’s that kind of guy.
What are Other Examples of Interjections?
 Duh
 Oh
 Oops
 Ha
 Yikes
 Whoa
 Geez
 Yum
 Oy
 Eh
 Wow
 Yo
 Yippee
 Alas
 Dear
 Oh
 Uh-huh
 Phew
 Indeed
 Cool
 Wicked

Final Thoughts
Although interjections may seem trivial, the reality is
that this part of speech is very important because it can
sometimes be difficult to express emotions in written
language. Emoticons may not be appropriate or possible
under certain circumstances, so using interjections
proves to be a more viable option. Just remember all the
substantial information provided in this article,
especially when it comes to using the proper punctuation
marks to convey intensity, and you will surely be able to
use this part of speech effectively in your own written
text.