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Indulgence vs Restraint
Addition of culture dimension of the Hofstede tradition is indulgence vs
restraint
Indulgence large proportion of citizens who say that they are very happy,
believe that they are in control of their lives, and place a very high important
on leisure. They have higher birth-rates, less cardio-vaskular disease, higher
importance of friends, more support of casual sex, and more obesity in
developed nations.
This dimension has marketing implications.
Additional dimension for Hofstede may occur.
Intra-national consensus = Level of agreement between individuals in society
about the importance of a particular value dimension.
Note: Hofstede's scores were the average score for all participants in each
country. Therefore, not every particular individual will be a representative of the
mean score. The mistake of applying the national level to individuals is
called ecological fallacy
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
5 dimensions concerned relationship among people:
o Universalism-particularism:
Universalism belief that what is true and good can be discovered
and applied universally.
Particularism belief that unique circumstances determine what is
right or good
o individualism – collectivism this dimension concerns the extent to
which people plan their actions with reference to individual beliefs vs
those of the group.
o neutral – affective
neutral emotion should be held in check, and maintaining an
appearance of self-control is important
affective it is natural to express emotions
o specific – diffuse: this dimension refers to the extent to which
individuals are willing to allow access to their inner selves to others.
Specific people separate the private part of their lives from the
public
Diffuse these aspects of the individual overlap
o achievement – ascription: this dimension is about how status and
power are determined in the society.
Ascription status based on who a person is
Achievement status is based on what a person does
Social Axioms
Provide a complementary way to understand societal cultures.
Social axioms basic truths or premises or generalized expectancies that
relate to a wide range of social behaviours across different context. The
formal definition by Leung and colleagues (2002) Social axioms are
generalized beliefs about oneself, the social and physical environment, or the
spiritual world, and are in the form of an assertion (demand) about the
relationship between two entities or concepts.
Unlike values, social axioms do not have an evaluative or “ought’ component
which is a value statement. Instead, a typical social axioms has the structure
and the relationship can be correlational or causal.
Leung et al (2002) identified many thousands of social axioms. Based on their
fit with the four categories of psychological attributes, orientation toward
the social world, social interaction, and the environment the items were
reduces to 182 axioms.
Bond and colleagues (2004) derived a cultural level structure of social
axioms. At the cultural level, one strong factor was labelled dynamic
externality, because it represented a cluster of beliefs that focuses around
religiosity and a belief that effort would ultimately lead to justice. A second
factor labelled social cynicism was composed almost entirely of items that
reflected a cynical view of people – a negative view of human nature, a
biased view against some groups of people, a mistrust of social institutions,
and a disregard of ethical means of achieving an end.
Dynamic externality was closely related to but not identical with cultural
collectivism. However, social cynicism appears to be a new cultural
dimension in that it correlates only moderately with dimension from previous
studies of cultural variation.
Cultural Distance
This index represents the relative distance of nations from each other based
on a combination of these four cultural dimensions.
Because of conceptual and measurement issues associated with cultural
distance, a refinement ide called cultural friction was introduced.
Cultural friction attempts to capture the relationship between two
different cultures as well as their distance.