5g Mobile - From Research and in - Abdulrahman Yarali

ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH
5G MOBILE
FROM RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONS
TO DEPLOYMENT ASPECTS
ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
RESEARCH
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ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH
5G MOBILE
FROM RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONS
TO DEPLOYMENT ASPECTS
ABDULRAHMAN YARALI
EDITOR
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 5G Mobile: Technologies, Applications, and Ubiquitous
Connectivity 1
Abdulrahman Yarali
Chapter 2 Quality of Service in the 5G Network 13
Valery Tikhvinskiy and Grigory Bochechka
Chapter 3 5G Mobile Networks: Visions and Research Directions 31
Abdulrahman Yarali and Michael Ramage
Chapter 4 Fog Networking for 5G and IoT 45
Stojan Kitanov and Toni Janevski
Chapter 5 5G: The Path Towards Zetabyte and the Internet of Things 71
Abdulrahman Yarali
Chapter 6 5G Spectrum Utilization and Spectrum Management 91
Valery Tikhvinskiy,, Grigory Bochechka and Victor Koval
Chapter 7 MIMO and the Next Generation of Mobile Networks 109
Abdulrahman Yarali and Jacob L. Holloman
Chapter 8 Security, Privacy and Trust in 5G Wireless Mobile Communications 147
A. Yarali, R. Yedla, S. Almalki, K. Covey and M. Almohanna
Chapter 9 The Roadmap to 5G Mobile Communications Systems 163
Tyler Davenport and Abdulrahman Yarali
Chapter 10 Energy Efficiency of 5G Cellular Networks for Base Stations’
Switching Systems 183
Md. Hashem Ali Khan, Poongundran Selvaprabhu,
Sunil Chinnadurai and Moon Ho Lee
Chapter 11 Wi-Fi and LTE Advanced to 5G Network Evolution 201
Daniel Watkins and Abdulrahman Yarali
vi Contents
Chapter 12 5G Mobile: Infrastructures, Internet of Things

and Business Models 223
Abdulrahman Yarali and Parimi Setu Krishna
Chapter 13 5G Infrastructures: Sensors and Internet of Things 251
Abdulrahman Yarali and Abhishek S. Bhagat
About the Editor 271
Index 273
PREFACE
The wireless mobile industry is one of the largest and fastest growing industries and it is
at the beginning of its revolution. Wireless technology has seen exponential growth in the
past decade and still continues to grow evolving to a new generation, 5G, with various
advanced features for flexibility, and reliability providing the platform needed to launch
scalable, safe and reliable end-to-end Internet of Things (IoT) solutions for many benefits to
society. Although current technologies like 4G LTE-A are available to us, but with the
staggering increase number of people moving towards mobile broadband for multiple services
and other value added services, it is becoming a challenge for the service providers to keep up
with all aspects of market’s comprehensive needs of this capital-intensive investment industry
where tensions exist between performance factors vs cost, availability and efficiency. 5G
systems are expected to provide huge leap in the technology world with infrastructure that
will expedite the growth connectivity and smartness of all types of devices with significant
increase in capacity and interoperability while maintaining a high Quality of Services (QoS).
The major difference between this new generation and 4GLTE from a consumer point of view
is not just a higher data rate requirement, but also to provide seamless access and enhanced
personalized services while protecting their privacy and personal information. According to
CISCO, in 2019 the world is expected to hit the two Zetabyte mark with trend much faster
global mobile data traffic than network capacity. This will be attributed to by the increased
number of internet users, more smart phones and devices will be connected ubiquitously to
the internet, better speeds and more video uploads. The number of devices connected to the
internet is expected to rise up by 24.4 billion and the number of users will rise up to 3.9
billion. The pressure that is expected from the many connections will force the adoption of
5G systems since the internet will be overwhelmed at that time. There is no limit on how this
new cognitive and cooperative 5G network could affect and impact our daily activities from
home with internet-connected appliances, to work, health, environment, economy and society
as a whole. The green heterogeneous interference aware of fifth generation of mobile market
will be a consumer driven with promises to deliver at least 10 times faster data rate than its
predecessor 4GLTE-A, enable higher number of simultaneous massive and critical
connectivity and digitized access of information across people, machine and devices, provide
higher data volume per area unit with energy efficient devices and lower battery consumption,
extended coverage footprint, much lower latencies, higher reliability and lower cost network
deployment in a digitized world of Internet of Everything (IoE). Multiple collaborations for
network sharing, radio and spectrum sharing, resource management and billing, technology
viii Abdulrahman Yarali
ratification are in place where research towards 5G technology is being done and many
telecommunication vendors and manufacturing companies such as Nokia, Qualcomm, and SK
telecom etc. are already working on a roadmap towards enabling the future technologies with
new business transition models in order to widening the pool of services, bring sufficient
revenue, and sustained development. The key enabling technologies driving the next
generation of mobile networks being discussed in joined forums of industries, academia and
organizations are areas such as multi-technology carrier-aggregation and multi-access
networking, 3D and massive MIMO, spectrum efficiency and GHZ (mmWave) utilization,
cognitive radio, radio virtualization, content-aware solutions, fog networking, multi-RAT
integration, new modulations and waveforms, and implementation of small cells for a secured
and agile infrastructure.
In this book there are 13 chapters which cover wireless networking evolution and
technologies advancement toward 5G. We are very pleased that the technology, academia,
and industry communities are discussing this important and fast growing industry and we are
certain that the content of this book will shed some important light on this subject. The
chapters presented in this book discuss visions, research, design and implementation of
various aspects of 5G wireless networking and applications. The challenges faced in
providing a new platform, business models, new radio access and billions of devices
connectivity in the near future with unseen applications and services to meet user experiences
ubiquitously and securely are presented.
Chapter 1. The core discussion of this chapter will be centered on the main features and
technological and economic characteristic of 5G mobile systems. The author of the chapter
will present an extensive overview into some of the more likely directions the future of
connectivity will take. It will explore the prospects of future innovations and advances and
also delve into the concerns and potential pitfalls, bringing into play many ancillary
components and realistic projected consequences
Chapter 2. The authors present the view on the trust to 5G networks in the plane of QoS
requirements formation and QoS management. QoS requirements to 5G networks were
determined on the basis of three main business models of services: xMBB, M-MTC and U-
MTC and the need to ensure user trust to networks. Infrastructure requirements for QoS
control and Spectrum management network entities which are based on Network Function
Virtualization (NFV) principles have been formed. Proposals on a Dynamic spectrum
management which uses QoS criteria for supporting of access to current spectrum resources
including additional spectrum bands have described in the Chapter.
Chapter 3. This chapter explores the information on technological advancements that can
be forecasted to take place in the future world through the adaptation of 5G networking
system. Through the discussion of 5G wireless networking system, the study evaluated the
future vision and the research direction towards the wireless world of more advancement and
innovation. The study emphasizes the future scopes, general characteristics and its
requirements in context to the wireless networking world. The functional elements and
appliances that will help to build the undividable network of 5G along with its possible future
challenges contribute largely to the effective completion of the study. The graphical
expressions of 5G networking system and its working procedures provide unified
understanding.
Chapter 4. This chapter evaluates the quality of Fog Computing and Networking service
orchestration meachisms in 5G network and IoT in terms of latency, throughput, product
Preface ix
latency – throughput and energy efficiency. A new paradigm called Fog Computing and
Networking, or briefly Fog has emerged to overcome these limitations. Fog extends the cloud
to the edge of the network and distributes computing, data processing, and networking
services closer to the end users. It is an architecture where distributed edge and user devices
collaborate with each other and with the clouds to carry out computing, control, networking,
and data management tasks. Fog applied in 5G network can significantly improve network
performance in terms of spectral and energy efficiency, enable direct device-to-device
wireless communications, and support the growing trend of network function virtualization
and separation of network control intelligence from radio network hardware.
Chapter 5. This chapter will be addressing the path to Zetabyte under the 5G platform and
its promise to realize IoT. Also, a technical economic analysis of 5G and IoT is presented. 5G
will need to be designed to accommodate the growing demand for diverse applications and
services. To meet this need the 5G architecture will need to be designed to provide an
extremely larger capacity and coverage, faster data rates and higher throughput, and shorter
end to end response times. One of the key upgrades to that architecture will be the seamless
interconnection with other networks such as WLANs creating a heterogeneous network. 5G is
going to increase the number of applications and services that can be provided for large
businesses, households, and individual users. The baseline of all this is to ensure a better user
experience and the fact that they can access or send information ubiquitously faster and easily
for all their needs. In the next few years the internet is expected to surpass the Zetabyte
threshold, IP traffic will also increase and more massive, and critical devices will be
connected.
Chapter 6. This chapter considers new principles of 5G spectrum utilization based on two
regimes of spectrum authorization. These two regimes of spectrum authorization represent the
classic approach: individual spectrum licensing and common spectrum utilization based on
unlicensed spectrum sharing or licensed assisted access (LAA). The authors are now
presenting a new spectrum sharing concept for 5G Networks in the implementation of a
mixed strategy called Licensed Shared Access (LSA). Frequency bands investigation has
proceeded from the requirements of data speed transmitting over 20 Gbps and 5G frequency
bandwidth over 1 GHz. This work was divided into two four year periods, the first for WRC-
15 in the bands below 6 GHz and the second one for WRC-19 in the millimeter bands above
24 GHz. Proposals for 5G Spectrum utilization scenarios which use a licensed shared access
for spectral resources allocation of incumbents are considered in the Chapter.
Chapter 7. This chapter accords with the various mentioned issues, implementation and
impending scenario of the 5G technology in conjunction with its affiliation to the predecessor.
This chapter serves as an introduction to MIMO (Multi-Input-Multi-output) systems for the
future communications networks. This involves providing a basic framework understanding
of the systems, providing a look at the history of MIMO systems, showing the advantages and
disadvantages associated with the use of MIMO, and showing paired technologies which can
be used to further enhance a MIMO enabled system. This document will also cover
extensions on MIMO such as MU-MIMO and massive MIMO. Additionally, this chapter will
discuss subjects such as beamforming, spatial multiplexing, and millimeter waves. The
content in this document is targeted for individuals with a basic to intermediate level of
understanding in telecommunications.
Chapter 8. The main purpose of this chapter is to identify the potential threats that can
occur in 5G mobile communication and the potential techniques that can be implemented to
x Abdulrahman Yarali
avoid the threats. The design of the 5G networks must be scrutinized at the beginning phase
itself. In this cellular world, whatever the transactions, we are extremely making through our
handheld devices and privacy of our data at stake, and to counter such threats cryptographic
techniques are being implemented. The data privacy will be secured through the techniques of
cryptography using stream and block ciphers. The stream ciphers are faster and smaller than
block ciphers; this document can also be applicable to the current generation cellular
networks.
Chapter 9. This chapter will present the transformation of mobile technology networks
through to the future of connectivity known as 5G network. It will detail, in general and in
technical aspects, the older and newer aspects of Wi-Fi, as well as the technology prior to
LTE leading up to 4G LTE, to show the foundation of the enhanced networks to come. A
discussion of how heterogeneous networks function and the future of Heterogeneous network
technology is presented. A review of the upcoming deployment of 5G follows with a
discussion of how it will provide more availability for the Internet of Things (IoT), Machine-
to-Machine enabled capabilities (M2M), Device-to-Device (D2D) technology and how D2D
will free up cell site data demand. Further, the authors will speak about business models,
security risk and obstacles carriers could endure on their journey to meet the year of 2020
deployment goal. It is the authors’ intentions to give the reader a general understanding of the
listed topics and how they are obtained by users.
Chapter 10. The authors in this chapter discuss energy efficiency of 5G multi-tier cellular
networks. Stochastic geometry is used to analyze cooperation models where the positions of
BSs follow a Poisson point process (PPP). The energy efficiency (EE) in cellular networks is
to introduce active/sleep modes in MBS and FBS, i.e. switching off/on system for BSs power
consumption in this chapter. Then the relationship between energy efficiency and the density
of femtocells for the two-tier network is evaluated, the optimal density of femtocells that
maximize energy efficiency under coverage performance constraints for the two-tier network
is obtained. The femto tier BS density is derived by analytically solving the optimization
problem that maximizes the EE and formulate the power consumption minimization for
macro and femto cells BSs. The impact of multi-antenna on the EE of cellular network is also
analyzed and modeled based on two-state Markovian wireless channels.
Chapter 11. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the transitional role of current LTE
Advanced and Wi-Fi technologies into an evolved 5th Generation mobile network. The
discussion area of this chapter will explain how 5G may incorporate important existing
technologies into the next generation of mobile network technology. In order to evolve into a
new generation, the current methods of backhauling, network densification, and signal
propagation must be significantly modified and improved. New network hardware, antennas,
radios, frequency spectrums, and end user devices will be implemented. Increase in overall
network speed is a strong reason for implementing the next generation of mobile, but the step
to 5G is much more than just an increase in bit rate. The 5G evolution is a solution to
unreliable coverage, high latency, limited available access channels, and the overall bit rate
per device in any given area. LTE Advanced and Wi-Fi technologies can provide some of the
needed solutions to build a new standard that will attempt to end limited access issues and
ensure faster, more reliable connections. New technologies discussed here will make this
transition possible by building on these existing technologies and leading the mobile network
into an environment capable of supporting the thousand-fold increase predicted to be needed
for wireless device operation in the year 2020.
Preface xi
Chapter 12. The authors of this chapter discuss the infrastructure, IOT, and business
models of 5G and unforeseen applications and services. 5G is the latest in the generation of
wireless mobile communication technology which provide a platform to launch IoT with its
event-driven architecture and applications. In this chapter 5G technology is conversed with
respect to its architecture, technological requirements, features, and hardware and software
requirements. A discussion of investment in innovations, integration, security and scalability
of IoT implementation is presented. The business plans for 5G and IoT are also analyzed.
Finally, the discussion of the challenges faced by 5G and its future work are discussed.
In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Editor: Abdulrahman Yarali © 2017 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
5G MOBILE: TECHNOLOGIES, APPLICATIONS,

AND UBIQUITOUS CONNECTIVITY
Abdulrahman Yarali
Telecommunications Systems Management,
Instituite of Engineering, Murray State University, Murray, US
ABSTRACT
Wireless technology is one industry which has seen exponential growth in data and
capacity in the past decade and it still continues to grow in demand. One of the biggest
challenges the mobile phones and wireless networks will face in the future is to cope with
the required data traffic efficiently for variants of smart devices with diverse applications
and services requirements. More advanced phones will be manufactured and will be
expected to properly function. Already we are seeing 4GLTE implementation and some
developments of the 5G network that is presumed to be faster and more efficient than
their predecessors, but the process of standard and technology ratification is still in its
infancy stage. This chapter focuses on the requirements of 5G network infrastructure and
the user experiences and economic benefits that will come along with this new generation
of mobile communication network. The core discussion of this chapter will be centered
on the main technological and economic characteristics of 5G mobile communications
systems.
Keywords: mobility, connectivity, quality, energy efficiency, IoT, small innovations
INTRODUCTION
Just as other global organization, the recent advancements in technologies have posed a
tremendous advantages and opportunities for the telecommunications sectors. One of the
greatest revolution and response from the telecommunication industry is the implementation
of network sharing strategies that have evolved from the first to the fourth generation.
2 Abdulrahman Yarali
Even though the fourth generation (4G) telecommunication system is undergoing

deployment worldwide, individuals are eyeing the development of the 5G telecommunication
system, which will lead to greater opportunities from the increased efficiency and
effectiveness in network access perspective. From a clear comparison of the changes in
evolution between the 1G technology and the recent 4G technology, it is clear that the
changes have highly improved in speed, and reliability. The 1G technology provided access at
100 Kilobytes per second (Kbps), the 2G technology improved the speed to 270 Kbps, and
the 3G came into play with an access speed of 389 Kbps, whereas the recently most used 4G
network increased access to 250 Mbps [1, 2]. With this trend, the 5G network technology is
expected to provide a great revolution in the telecommunication network access with an
access speed of approximately 10 Gbps (Gigabytes per second). This increased speed is based
on the recent advancement in telecommunication technology and the urge for businesses to
improve their services through enhances communication and telecommunication services [3].
Explosive growth of technology influences consumer behavior. It is estimated that by
2020, almost 80% of the global population will be utilizing mobile technology and over 60%
will be using smartphones or tablets. Predictions are that there will be over 50 billion devices
on the global network, out of which, mobile devices being the primarily access point for
internet connection. With arrival of new 5G system, internet access will be fast and readily
accessible; customers will have connections always available to them. Currently, there are
over 2.7 million smart phones on the various networks, and this number will increase greatly
by the time 5G will go live [4].
Businesses will have to be able to transition from existing offered products and available
distribution models to a better way in order to deliver goods and services that customers want.
Simpler products are always preferred – it lets consumers make informed choices. It is vital
for businesses to recognize the importance of the customer relations, starting with the initial
sale and continuing over the lifetime of the contract. It is vital to get customer insights and
tailor the services to the individual customer rather than a group of customers.
Even with the recent efficiency status of the 4G technology, businesses have continued to
look for alternatives in regards to reliable and efficient telecommunication networks. Latest
developments in technology have increased the amount of consumers that are globally
connected with networks; they are acutely aware of latest technological trends and attuned to
changes. Brands that will respond best to what these customers require now are most will be
most likely to succeed; these demands will have to be met in the real time. When businesses
will have an understanding of customer needs and wants, it will help with profit margin
growth across the organizations.
If current systems make tracking of individual customers difficult, 5G systems will make
it much easier. By creating custom tailored services and products based on the individual
customer, the operators will increase their revenues from customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Businesses will be able to pinpoint their customers uniquely and will reward their loyalty.
One of the ways to provide loyal customers with a unique option is a personalized pricing.
Offered price and the discount will be based on the past history. By utilizing social media
(such as Twitter, Facebook, etc.,), businesses will be able to understand what kind of persons
their customers are. 5G will be able to analyze customers in real time and businesses will be
able to anticipate their customers’ future buying plan. Keeping existing customer base is one
of the main goals for any service provider; a 2% customer retention increase is equivalent to
reducing the cost by 10% [5, 6]. By retaining an existing customer instead of acquiring new
5G Mobile: Technologies, Applications and Ubiquitous Connectivity 3
one businesses can have a larger profit growth – by making an existing customer spend just
10% more on goods and services will produce more profit than to get a 10% growth in new
customers. Businesses will be able to deliver solutions that will fulfill the needs of the
customer better and offer personalized customer service. Instead of sending bulk/spam
messages and emails with general information, more customized messages will be sent to the
customers and that will allow better conversion rates and sales increase. Businesses should be
able to respond promptly and efficiently to changing market, new customer requests and new
regulations.
5G will allow a fully connected network society with unlimited access to information and
data sharing anytime to anywhere to anyone. With various environments available,
communication will increase exponentially. Businesses should create new services and new
experiences based on all the different ways of interaction and connectivity available on the
systems. 5G technology will allow brands to hop across customers’ different environments
using device-to-device discovery. World will become a connected place, the boundaries
between developed and developing nations will dissipate.
MOTIVATIONS AND KEY DRIVERS OF 5G

The 5G network targets various uses including real time gaming, manufacturing or
medicine and even extend to wearable technologies. For instance, in the field of medicine
operations could be performed by robots which are monitored from a remote access area by a
surgeon that he or she is specialized in carrying out similar type of operations.
When Will the Next Higher Generation (5G) of Wireless Network

Be Deployed?
Considering the statistics presented by the telecommunication network regarding the time
period between the deployment of one generation to the other, it is clear that the period
presents a sequential matrix whereby a period of five to six years lies between a given
network generation deployment and the other. However, the 5G wireless network is expected
to break the sequence and take a longer period due to the increased requirements for
efficiency. Although the deployment of the 4G network is still on its final stages, operators,
leading research teams, and handset developers have launched R&D initiative to develop the
5G network and to ensure that it is fully functional for commercialization by the year 2020.
The ongoing status of the 5G network for the mobile systems are on the very early stages
as they underlie the changes and user response in regards to the efficiency and effectiveness
of the 4G network. Most of the technological changes to be considered in the formation of the
5G network will be derived from the utilization of the 4G network, which will then be
transformed to the 5G network in order to formulate a more concrete system that will be
defined by increased efficiency and a positive impact to the operators and mobile industry [8].
The only issue that will lead to delayed deployment is its demanding requirements and intense
check over to ensure that it meets all the user demands and transforms the globe to a
technological standpoint. With this, the 5G network will not only transform the world by
2020 to a high efficient network connected globe, but also to a community that communicates
and shares ideas in an efficient and effective manner.
Proposed Solutions to Key Technologies to Be Considered
As indicated earlier, the development of the 5G technology will mainly lie on the changes
and alterations considered after the development of the 4G network. Solutions will mainly
rely on end user response and their perception of the efficiency and reliability of the 4G
network. Additionally, the changes in technological advancement and consumer demands will
highly influence the formation of the 5G network. A clear analysis of the recent development
statistics produced by the United Nations indicate that the world will have transformed
completely to a technological globe by the year 2020 whereby all nations will be united
through a suitable communication network. With this, one of the main proposed solutions
would be to enhance reliability and efficiency in order to foster the development of a suitable
communication network. Most organization perceives communication as the greatest
managerial communication tool towards enhanced performance and productivity. The greatest
urge for businesspersons is to have access to a reliable network that fosters appropriate
management from appropriate communication.
Additionally, unlike the recent prototype of the 4G network, which does not enhance
coverage, increased connectivity, and call frequency thus leading to underperformance, the
5G network will be expected to provide a permanent solution to these problems [9]. The
deployment of the 5G network should coincide with the organizational system and become a
part of the productivity enhancement strategies for any given organization. With this, the
high-speed 5G technology will be expected to present a paradigm movement in the overall
design of the mobile industry in order to revolutionize the entire system to encourage
enhanced latency, flow, and the scalability requirements, which will be suitable to meet the
overarching demands such as the trillion device connection and the augmented reality. With
appropriate provision and permanent solution to these problems, the 5G technology will have
taken over the business world and transformed it fully to a community defined by enhance
performance and productivity.
Is 5G Wireless Mobile Network an Evolution or a Revolution?
Through the considerations put forth as well as the expectation by the year 2020 when the
5G network will be deployed, it is clear that the invention will completely change the world
to a single entity characterized by increased efficiency and reliability. With this, the
worldwide transformation will define the 5G network as a revolution rather than a mere
evolution. The development of the 5G network technology is expected to provide appropriate
benefits that will surpass the expectation of the previous generation of network technology.
Telecommunication industries are already doing away with the term World Wide Web
(WWW) and coining into the term World Wide Wireless Web (WWWW), which will define
the increased utilization as well as reliability in the efficiency of the 5G wireless network [1].
From an earlier analysis, it is clear that the 5G wireless network will transform the
functioning of the entire globe to include the increased use of wireless network. The 5G
network will easily carry over 1000 times of mobile data compared to the recent 4G
prototype. This therefore indicates an increased reliance and a massive capability for
increased communication, which will cater for all individual’s need to access and transfer
data in a quasi-instantaneous, and sensationalize in their own choice. Then 5G network will
also have a direct impact on security deployment, formation of electric transportation
systems, ambient policing, and worldwide access to information. With this, the 5G network
will change the entire world to a community of both similarity and togetherness, which will
give the invention a revolutionary status.
Business Opportunities from the Deployment of the 5G Network
The deployment of the 5G network will present great business opportunities for both the
service providers and the virtual mobile network operators. With the increased agility and
reliance on high-speed network, the world will have fully transformed to a technological
world with great need for internet connection and network availability. Most organizations
will require the installation of network for office use and downloading of business materials.
Additionally, online businesses such as transaction and selling of video games and movies
will present a great opportunity to the service providers and virtual mobile network operators.
Additionally, security systems, tracking devices, ambient policing, internet cars, healthcare
monitors, and appliances will need to transform from manual operationalization to a digital
platform, which will be highly dependent on high speed network for increased efficiency and
accuracy. With this, the service providers will have an increased business opportunity, as they
will need to install mobile networks to the respective field. Additionally, most individuals
will require high-speed network on their mobile phones in order have access to emails,
games, and online transactions. This will provide an opportunity for the virtual mobile
network operator to install 5G network to the respective individuals [10]. With the increased
access to communication and online interactions, consumers will have a direct access to the
service providers and virtual mobile network operators. As communication is a great
managerial tool, the consumers will easily voice their concern for further actions, which will
increase performance and productivity of the respective network provider. With this, the
deployment of the 5G network will pose a great opportunity for increased business
functionality and operation efficiency.
The recent technological advancements call for major consideration in the
telecommunication industry in order to enhance efficiency and reliability in the general
network and communication provision. Deployment of the 5G network will be considered
after the complete deployment of the 4G network, as it will be a result of enhancement based
on changes required and consumer reaction to the development of the 4G network. From an
analysis of the changes that will be presented by the 5G network, it is clear that the invention
will be a complete revolution, as it will totally transform the world to a network dependent
globe. Additionally, deployment of the 5G network will unionize the world to a single entity
defined by similarity and togetherness. With the increased dependence, the 5G network will
also present great business opportunities, as it will lead to increased utilization in major fields
such as office management, ambient policing, security, formation of technological transport
systems, and healthcare monitoring. With a clear consideration of communication efficiency
and reliability, it is clear that the 5G network will provide a great platform for increased
performance and productivity for the service providers and the virtual mobile network
providers.
MOTIVATIONS AND KEY DRIVERS OF 5G

The development of 5G technology will be helpful for executing long projects within no
time and it will increase the reliability of the global networks because everyone will be
connected with high speed internet. Following are the main key points which can be
concluded from the research work:
1. It will be helpful in browsing, downloading and uploading data files from any place
to anywhere.
2. Network energy usage will be reduced which will in turn increase the battery life of
the device.
3. It will increase the users’ density over the unit area many times which will help the
users to use high bandwidth for a longer period of time.
4. 5G Technology will also be helpful and beneficial for the Internet to things, Machine
to Machine Communication and Device to Device Communication. It will increase
the object oriented works and data management.
5. Through the deployment of 5G technology, the users will develop frameworks to
utilize machine-machine system of communication.
6. RF-EHN is a promising way for future 5G wireless networks.
In a nutshell, 5G technology should be developed as early as possible because of

increasing technological usage of the servers and machines.
Vision
Any innovation is a product of a vision. The innovation of the 5G Technology is driven

by three different visions [11]:
1. High efficiency: The efficiency of the 5G Technology is taken as a main parameter

and the innovation and design are taken forward with focus on areas like demand
based networks, data rate management, etc.
2. High Speed: The innovation with focus on speeds concentrates on areas like
coverage, clustering of data cells, wide area mobility, dynamic spectrum, etc.
3. Converged networks: The use of a joint wireless and fiber operated networks enables
the new 5G Technology to be able to employ millimeter wave bands. This would
facilitate the support of very high bandwidths. This path of vision makes the
emerging 5G Technology to be characterized as more of a Wi-Fi service than a
mobile service.
Goals
The main goals of the innovation of 5G technologies can be broadly classified in to

Flexibility and Reliability [12].
1. Flexibility: 5G technology should be employable in diverse applications and

services. All the needs and services required should be embedded into a single
operation point. 5G service owned by a person should facilitate all the services and
needs required. 5G should not be entitled as “Services” but as a “Service” which is
an embodiment of all the services in one entity of service.
2. Reliability: 5G is, hopefully, going to be providing the most reliable set of services
the world has ever seen. Security has been taken as a prominent factor in the design
of 5G services. Increase of reliability will eventually be a factor in the increase of
efficiency, but an unlikely increase in prices too. The specific goals that are indicated
in the deployment of the 5G technology services are:
 High data rates owing to faster modulation and some new innovation
technologies
 Fast response times by node reduction and more intelligent components
 Whole new and diverse services using automation, cloud and tactile internet
Inference to the Customers
With reference to the customers, the meaning of 5G in layman’s words can be indicated
as the ability to download a full length HD movie to a phone in just a few seconds or the
services that facilitate video chats in such a way that it may feel like the person on the other
side can be touched. This is not an exaggeration, but the factual vision of the network sector.
The simple goals that need to be attained by the 5G technology, according to the customers
are [13]:
1. Faster speeds for data

2. Ultra-low latency which refers to the time it takes to send a packet of data between
two devices
3. Connected devices (cars, home appliances, accessories, etc.) making everything
flexible
4. Backward compatibility with the devices that are already owned
5. Reasonable costs for the 5G services
Services
One of the main aspects that is needed a great deal of look up is the requirements for the
5G network, which can affect many other parameters like cost, compatibility, feasibility,
standardization, etc. These requirements are subject to the forecasted services that are
expected to be fulfilled by the 5G network. Some of the services that 5G technology is needed
to provide are [11]:
1. Pervasive Video and high quality content

2. Tactile Internet and Broad cast Services
3. E – Health Services and 50 + MBPS data rate everywhere
4. Internet of things and Real time data analytics
5. Mobile Broad band and Smart Societies
6. Smart Grids and Freight tracking
7. Public safety
Characteristics Forecast
The 5G network will be characterized by its increased power, strength, efficient, and
speed, which are promising features that will take the mobile industry to the next level. With
the presence of the 5G network, the mobile industry will be considered as the main key to the
Internet of Things. This name is given to the act whereby every activity will be tied to the
internet and mobile network. The mobile industry will lead to development of billions of
sensors, door locks, smartwatches, and health monitors. Additionally, the mobile industry will
be characterized with an increased scalability, flow, and latency in order to meet all its
overarching demands. A consideration of these factors gives a clear look at the opportunity
and efficiency that will be presented to the mobile industry by the development of the 5G
network in the year 2020 and beyond. From a look at the recent occurrence after the
deployment of the 3G and 4G network, It is clear that by the year 2020, the 5G network will
present the with new realities, increased speed, gratification, efficiency, and lightning-fast
response. The following s is some of the expected characteristics of 5G networks.
1. Ultra-high capacity and Massive MIMO

2. Multi hop transmission and New spectrum
3. Wide area coverage and Full duplex
4. Ultra-dense networks and NFV SDN
5. Security and New Waveforms
6. Energy Efficient
7. Real time inter Machine communication
8. Application Awareness and Zero Latency
9. Strategy based traffic management
10. The following graphical representations depict the implementation of a single 5G
wireless antenna to facilitate diverse applications and services.
Need
Demand on 5G is far more complicated and comprehensive than the previous generations
of mobile communication. There is a conflict and tension between factors such as high
performance requirement and availability, cost, and efficiency when it comes to only one
technology for 5g systems deployment. In order to provide services with variety of

requirements there need to be more than one technology implementation for 5G to meet user
experiences in terms of availability, speed, reliability and cost. Some of the predominant
needs for a new generation technology in spite of already existing 4G and LTE are;
1. Growing data demand – It is estimated that the data needs are intended to increase to
12 times per month compared to the data used now.
2. Development of Device technologies – The upgrades and developments in
technologies of the devices (Android, IOS) lead to an increased need of coverage,
data rates, low latency, etc.
3. Increased use of networks – Unlike the olden days, the use of the network services
has been increasing exponentially from more than a decade. This was the main
reason that leads to such a heavy innovation in the devices and network industry,
which is a main point of motivation for the 5G technology.
4. With respect to the 4G technology, the backlogs that provided a motivation for 5G
innovation are
 Limited connectivity to specific carriers and geographic regions
 Limited backward compatibility
 Limited network coverage
 Use of multiple transmitters and antenna leading to poor battery life
Technology
The radio access for the 5G Technology will be energized from the already existing
technologies like the LTE, HSPA, Wi-Fi and GSM as well as the new radio access
technologies which are called as RAT. A successful 5g deployment requires a comprehensive
designing, simulating, emulating, calibrating and validating for a new solution.
The employment of millimeter waves (Carrier, BW, MU-MIMO) is going to be the prime
supporting aspect for increased speeds, wide area coverage, and reliability. Millimeter waves
also support very flexible long distant communication. This will also result in use of very less
radio base stations. Millimeter waves are expected to revolutionize the latency times. It is
needed that the 5G Technology provide less than 1ms latency from one end to the other. The
power requirements, bandwidth standardizations and the commercialization of the millimeter
waves are expected to be before the year 2020[14]. Use of bandwidths that are very unlikely
to be used by other broadcast technologies (3 MHz – 300 MHZ) resulting in higher speeds
and capacity.
The multiplexing used for the 5G transmission is under speculation. The evaluation of the
5G networks using CDMA, OFDM with respect to data rate and latency is being studied.
OFDM has always been the most preferred modulation technique right from the time of its
acceptance in 4G enhanced mobile broadband accesses. In 5G as we know we need low
latency, high data rates and wide channel bandwidth along with low complexity per bit. This
modulation technique is very much suitable to these specifications. OFDM has a scalable
symbol duration and subcarrier spacing with low complexity receiver for wider bandwidth.
This also runs efficiently with special multiplexing and multi user data SDMA. OFDM
implementations make way for more number of transmissions and reception filtering based on
link and adjacent channel requirements. Also RSMA waveforms have better uplink for short
data bursts needed for low power internet of things devices. This supports asynchronous and
synchronous contention based access [15].
Advanced technologies that could recognize the surrounding objects and more number of
sensors are to be used. Also, real time rendering and hologram technologies that can revive a
real image in real time in an all angle (360 degree) view are to be employed. MMT which is
an acronym for MPEG Media Transport is a processing technology used to decrease the
latency. With the help of MVC which is an acronym for Multi View Video Encoding high
efficiency in 3D transmission can be achieved. For agility of network and cost reduction
efficient control of the networks based on software and virtualization are done through an
orchestration that is integrated. Finally, big data is used for the 5G technologies to compare
the required existing data to the whole unstructured data in real time for Traffic analysis to
equip the network with intelligence for feedback and decision making. Also, self-organized
networks are also the intelligent networks that detect anomalies and take the help of big data
to organize a solution.
Deployment
It is quite popular that the deployment of the 5G services is due in the year 2020. This
particular year was foretold taking many surveys into consideration. The factors that led to
the forecast of the year 2020 for the deployment of 5G Technology are [16]:
1. Higher number of connected devices

It is expected that the number of connected devices using the 5G Technology should be
50 to 500 billion and depending on the present surveys it would take at least 4 to 5 years to
reach the expected number from the present number (2 billion). The 5G Technology should
be deployed into the practical commercial network gradually with respect to the geographical
areas and then completely marketed to connect all the 5G enabled devices.
2. Energy efficiency
The energy drain is likely to be very high with the 5G services with reference to the
heavy data rates and connectivity. The use of lithium ion battery devices made a heavy impact
on the battery life for the high end devices, but is analyzed to be less efficient in 5G enabled
devices. This factor becomes more unsolvable for low power devices. Hence, the research for
new, high battery capacity components is also expected to come to a result by 2020.
The Increase in the use of applications on mobile computing and also user needs like
portable cell phones and devices will increase the need for the mobile wireless networks in
the upcoming years. Cell Phone users will assume more bandwidth and fewer amounts of
delays in the cell phone network. All these expectations and assumptions will increase in the
infrastructures of mobile industries which will eventually lead to the discharge or emission of
carbon dioxide. We can say that by 2020, 181 Megatons of carbon dioxide are emitted by
mobile networks, which is almost equal to triple [17].
High energy performance and minimizing the energy usage is the basic requirement of
5G. It reduces the ownership cost and extends the network connectivity to almost everywhere
and also the network access is very bearable and very resource efficient way. The main
technology to finish the ultra-lean model and separation of user’s data on the radio
interference, 5G is very costly when compared to other data plans. It`s functioning model is
different from 3G and 4G. It really plays an important role in the energy saving while the data
is transmitted. The device doesn’t transmit the data unless and until a user data transfer is
going on. The main two design principles of this technology are; a) being active only when
the transmission is required and b) being active only where the transmission is required.
CONCLUSION
While telecommunication developers have created four generations of mobile
technology, a variety of mobile technologies will be included in the 5G technology.
Therefore, the 5G will be released in a couple of years, and it will comprise various features
such as an increase in efficiency. Establishing the 5G of mobile technology will inevitably
provide higher and higher data rate. Even more, it will meet the customers’ demands since it
is reliable for communication, and the capability of 5G will resist the future challenges in
mobile communication.
REFERENCES
[1] Bhalla, Mudit Ratana, and Anand Vardhan Bhalla. “Generations of mobile wireless
technology: A survey.” International Journal of Computer Applications 5.4 (2010).
[2] Yarali, A., “The Future Connectivity and Technological Advancement in Higher
Generation of Telecommunication Systems,” 4G and Beyond: The Convergence of
Networks, Devices and Services, Nova Inc. Publisher, 2015.
[3] Wang, Li-Chun, and Suresh Rangapillai. “A survey on green 5G cellular networks.”
Signal Processing and Communications (SPCOM), 2012 International Conference on.
IEEE, 2012.
[4] Yarali, A., Barrow, K., “The Road Towards Densified and HetNet Gigabit Wireless
Networks,” 4G and Beyond: The Convergence of Networks, Devices and Services,
Nova Inc. Publisher, 2015.
[5] https://5g-ppp.eu/The 5G Infrastructure Public Private Partnership, 2015.
[6] White paper, Ericsson, “5G Energy Performance,” Uen 284 23-3265, April2015.
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5G era. Communications Magazine, IEEE, 52(2), 90-96.
[8] Sharma, Pankaj. “Evolution of mobile wireless communication networks-1G to 5G as
well as future prospective of next generation communication network.” International
Journal of Computer Science and Mobile Computing 2.8 (2013): 47-53.
[9] Li, Xichun, et al. “The future of mobile wireless communication networks.”
Communication Software and Networks, 2009. ICCSN’09. International Conference
on. IEEE, 2009.
[10] Osseiran, Afif, et al. “Scenarios for 5G mobile and wireless communications: the vision
of the METIS project.” Communications Magazine, IEEE 52.5 (2014): 26-35.
[11] “What is 5g, 5g visions,” GSM History: History of GSM, Mobile Networks, Vintage
Mobiles. 20 November 2015.
[12] Toni Janevski (10–13 January 2009). “5G Mobile Phone Concept.” Consumer
Communications and Networking Conference, 2009 6th IEEE [1-4244-2308-2]. Facility
of Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, University Sv. Kiril i Metodij.
Retrieved 20 November 2015.
[13] Xichun Li; Abudulla Gani; Rosli Salleh; Omar Zakaria (February 2009). “The Future of
Mobile Wireless Communication Networks” International Conference on
Communication Software and Networks. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
[14] Hoydis; S. Ten Brink; M. Debbah (February 2013).”Massive MIMO in the UL/DL of
Cellular Networks: How Many Antennas Do We Need?” IEEE Journal on Selected
Areas in Communications, vol. 31, no. 2. Bell Labs, Alcatel-Lucent. pp. 160–171.
Retrieved 20 November 2015.
[15] Akhtar, Shakil (August 2008). Pagani, Margherita, ed. 2G-5G Networks: Evolution of
Technologies, Standards, and Deployment (Second ed.). Hershey, Pennsylvania, United
States: IGI Global. pp. 522–532. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
[16] Zeadally, Sherali, Samee Ullah Khan, and Naveen Chilamkurti. “Energy-efficient
Networking: Past, Present, and Future.” (n.d.): n. pag. Sameekhan.org. Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC 2011, 31 May 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2015.
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[17] Moon, Sangwoo, and Yung Yi. “Energy-Efficient User Association in Cellular
Networks: A Population Game Approach.” YouTube. Sogang University, 25 Aug.
2015. Web. 21 Nov. 2015. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jc2HXP5qwsY>.
In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 2
QUALITY OF SERVICE IN THE 5G NETWORK
Valery Tikhvinskiy* and Grigory Bochechka†

IcomInvest, Moscow, Russian Federation
Moscow Technical University of Communications and Informatics,
Moscow, Russian Federation
ABSTRACT
Confidence and trust in the quality of modern telecommunications networks plays an
important role as driver of technological and market success of any technology or
telecommunication service. Most of the technological approaches to this problem are
focused only on network security and do not include such aspect as the quality of service
(QoS), which also plays an important role in the formation of confidence, both from the
consumers and the regulator side. The authors present their view on the trust to 5G
networks in the spheres of QoS requirements formation and QoS management. QoS
requirements to 5G networks were determined based on three main business models of
services: extreme Mobile BroadBand (xMBB), massive machine type communications
(M-MTC) and ultrareliable machine type communications (U-MTC) and the need to
fulfil the user expectations on trustability to networks. Infrastructure requirements for
QoS control and spectrum management of network entities, which are based on Network
Function Virtualization (NFV) principles, have been formulated. Proposals of a dynamic
spectrum management, which uses QoS criteria for support of access to current spectrum
resources, including additional frequency bands, are described in the following chapter.
Keywords: QoS, QoE, 5G, NFV
*
Email: v.tikhvinskiy@icominvest.ru
†
Email: g.bochechka@icominvest.ru
14 Valery Tikhvinskiy and Grigory Bochechka
QOS MANAGEMENT MODEL EVOLUTION IN MOBILE NETWORKS

By developing last generations of mobile networks, 3GPP has made successful
standardization of principles and models of services quality management at the network level,
moreover, the new feature-to-service quality management has been introduced in 3GPP
networks.
The verification of QoS in 3GPP networks by their evolution from HSPA technology to
LTE Advanced technology is based on the following principles [1]:
 operator provides services management;

 differentiation of services quality and users;
 minimal involvement of the user terminal in services quality management process;
 support of QoS for client applications, that are invariant to the access network;
 the rapid establishment of the sessions;
 continuity of quality management function with mobile networks of previous
generations;
 convergence of services in the interaction of mobile networks with fixed access
networks;
 fast introduction of new services to the market.
Temporary borders of further development of QoS management principles at the network

level in new 3GPP releases and their implementation in 5G networks will depend on many
market factors.
Implementation of QoS management principles at the network level suggests a steady
increase of the number of mobile applications, which control QoS based on the service
quality requirements and the creation of necessary high-level data exchange by bearer
services.
Figure 1. Тwo QoS management models in Mobile networks.

Quality of Service in the 5G Network 15
4G networks, which are based on QoS model management on network level, have
implemented new types of QoS management, which can use QoS network model
management. In these cases, the old applications have to be renewed. However, one can meet
some terminals, which are using QoS terminal model management. It means that two QoS
management models coexisted in mobile terminals for some years.
Situations, when two QoS management models are used in parallel, and the evolution of
these models are shown on Figure 1.
The period of 2008-2010 is considered the point of transition from a model of QoS
management based on user terminals to the network QoS management model.
To date there are 3GPP requirements, in particular for GPRS networks and packet
switched networks, to maintain QoS management at both: the user terminal layer and just like
it at the network layer, to provide a smooth transition to the QoS management only at network
level.
Implementation of 3G user’s requirements to ensure quality of service in the chain “end
user - end user” (E2E) starts from the activation of the QoS parameter negotiation procedures
in the network. These procedures depend on the parameters of the user subscription to
services, stored in the HSS database, and the current availability of network resources to 3G
subscribers, which allows guaranteeing the final compound for subscriber. The procedure of
QoS parameters approval and QoS management in 3G network begins from sending a
signaling message of session control by the user terminal at Non-access stratum (NAS) layer.
In 4G networks, unlike packet connections in 2G/3G networks, a typical service of data
exchange with a predetermined class of QoS is prepared to establish a connection to the
packet network, when a subscriber terminal is connecting to the network. QoS options for
data exchange services are determined by the QoS parameters in the user profile, which is
stored in the SPR (Subscription Profile Repository) database. This situation is very similar to
the QoS management in GPRS/3G packet switched networks. However, in a 4G network,
after transmission of the first data packet from the user terminal, will route the packet to the
packet network (PDN). There the PCRF node, managing network policies and billing,
analyzes the required quality class of requested service in the chain “E2E”. Depending on the
requested service class, the PCRF node can use different modifications of the QoS parameters
for all nodes involved in the management of QoS data services. The LTE user terminal,
unlike 2G/3G user terminals, has no opportunity to request a particular QoS class, and only
the LTE network is responsible for the management QoS. Similarly, a 4G network user
cannot request information about the QoS parameters, as it is done, for example, through the
use of a secondary context in the 3G network.
Feature of QoS management in 4G network is that one user terminal can simultaneously
support a variety of active services in E2E chain and each of these services will have their
own individual QoS profile. 4G user terminal may have up to 256 E-RAB (communication
services between the user equipment (UE) and the S-GW) service connections by using
protocols of E-UTRAN, while in 3G networks only 15 different RAB-ID are possible.
Thus, under the assumption of current QoS management strategies, 5G QoS management
mechanisms have to be based on mechanisms of QoS management in 5G network and have to
be supported by NFV software solutions.
For realization of QoS management in fixed and mobile networks, we have to define
main QoS parameters for future 5G networks, which will allow managing of quality of
service for new technologies.
QOS AS A FACTOR OF TRUST TO 5G NETWORKS

Currently leading organizations in international standardization and development of
telecommunication technologies, such as e.g., ITU, 3GPP, IEEE and ETSI, have not
formulated a strict definition of “Trusted Network”. However, the confidence to a
communication network significantly affects consumers' choice of a communication provider,
regulation of operators’ activities by state bodies, as well as the market demand on
communication services and equipment.
Trust to networks or communication technologies has market and regulatory aspects,
which can contribute to the development of the networks and technologies and increase
attractiveness of the services. Therefore, networks and communication technologies should
correspond to both: market and regulatory requirements of trust.
Given many factors affecting the trust to 5G networks, in this article we will briefly
review the major factors and examine in details the impact of service quality on the trust to
(in) 5G networks.
The existing understanding of “Trusted Network” is based on the concepts, taken by the
developers of computer networks, which traditionally include [2]:
 Secure Guest Access: guests obtain restricted network access without threatening the
host network.
 User Authentication: Trusted Network integrates user authentication with network
access better to manage, who can use the network and what they are permitted to do
or use.
 Endpoint Integrity: Trusted Network performs a health check of devices, connecting
to the network. Devices out of compliance can be rejected, restricted or repaired.
 Clientless Endpoint Management: Trusted Network offers a framework to assess,
manage and secure clientless endpoints, connected to the network, such as IP phones,
cameras or network printers.
 Coordinated Security: Security systems coordinate and share information via the IF-
MAP standard, improving accuracy and enabling intelligent response.
According to Kaspersky Internet Security company definition [3], Trusted Network is a

network, which can be considered absolutely safe and within the network a computer or
device will not be a subject to attacks or unauthorized attempts to gain access to user’s data.
The proposed comprehensive look on the issue of trusted communication networks
complements the concepts of computer network developers by the views of consumers, which
also comprise quality of services provided by a Trusted Network. The view on the Trusted
Network from the quality aspects is not always taken into account, when creating the new
mobile technology, which reduces trust to the network, both: on the part of subscribers and
the regulator.
To implement a systematic approach to the Trusted Network the trustworthiness of two
major players in the telecommunications market should be considered: consumers and
regulators that provide both: market demand on the communication services and the
effectiveness of operators' network infrastructure. As it can be seen from Figure 2, consumers'
and regulator's requirements to trusted mobile communication networks may either coincide
or differ. The main factors affecting the trust of the subscriber and the regulator are shown in
Table 1 taking into account their importance in descending order.
Most of consumers' and regulator's factors are the same, but factors determining
consumer trust, according to the author’s evaluation, have the dominant influence on the
mobile network.
Traditional factors of consumers' and regulator's trust to 5G networks are information
security of confidential user data, as well as security of subscriber's devices and network
infrastructure. The basis for such security is the resistance to physical attacks on subscriber’s
devices, such as illegal substitution of Identification Modules (USIM card), installation of
malicious software on the user device and their impact on the user device configuration,
resistance to network attacks on user devices and network infrastructure, such as DoS-attacks
and “Man in the middle” attacks, and resistance to attacks on confidential user data.
Figure 2. Domains of trust to mobile networks.
To ensure the safety functioning of 5G networks, devices and applications, including the
security of transmission and storage of user data, is a major priority and challenge of
developers of future 5G technologies and networks.
In addition to security performance, the trust of users and regulators to 5G networks will
depend on quality performance, since security of the mobile network itself does not
guarantee, that the communication service will be provided without interruption and with the
required quality. Reduced quality of 5G networks will lead to a decrease of confidence to
them, and as a result in an outflow of subscribers. In addition, given that the 5G network will
be used in a variety of financial systems, public safety systems, traffic and energy
management systems, the deterioration of their quality could lead to the loss of human life,
environmental disasters and financial frauds.
Table 1. The main factors affecting the trust of the subscriber

and the regulator to network
Consumer Regulator
 Quality of Service  Network Security
 Quality of Experience  Information Security
 Information Security  Network performance
 Network performance  Network reliability
 Network reliability  Quality of Service
 Convenience and security of subscriber’s equipment
Figure 3. Quality and security levels of trust to mobile network.
Quality parameters of 5G networks can be divided into three levels: Network

Performance (NP), QoS and Quality of Experience (QoE), as shown in Figure 3. NP and QoS
are objective indicators, which can be measured using specialized analyzers or tools, while
QoE indicators are subjective, estimated by users based on their personal experience. The
deterioration of QoS and NP will primarily lead to lower trustability to 5G networks of
regulators and Business-to-Business (B2B), Business-to-Government (B2G) customers, while
the QoE deterioration will lead to lower trustability by the mass market.
For definition of QoS requirement for future 5G networks, taking advantage of methods,
that are based on analysis of future requirement levels to services such as high-density video
and machine-to-machine communications, one can transfer these levels into 5G QoS
requirements.
SERVICES AND TRAFFIC IN 5G NETWORKS

METIS and 5GIS projects consider three basic business models of 5G services: extreme
Mobile BroadBand, massive machine type communications and ultrareliable machine type
communications [4].
Forecasts of the leading specialists, working in international 5G projects [5-7], show, that
video services, such as HD and UHD video, with high-quality resolution, will have a
dominant position among services, provided in 5G networks. According to reports of leading
4G networks operators, video services dominate the subscribers' traffic and will properly
continue to dominate in 5G networks content.
For instance: now the traffic volume of video services is estimated by different operators
[5] from 66 to 75% of the total traffic in 4G networks, including 33% for YouTube services
and 34% for clear video, as well as CCTV monitoring (video surveillance) in M2M networks.
In addition, by 2020 the volume of mobile M2M connections will grow with CAGR index of
45% [8] up to 2.1 billion connections. Given the growing mass scale of M2M services in all
industries, they will dominate over basic services (voice & data) in 4G and 5G networks.
5G European development strategy also aims to enable subscribers by 2025 to choose,
how to connect to TV broadcast: via 5G modem or antenna with DVB-T. This will require
appropriate quality management mechanisms.
Therefore, the efforts of developers to improve the quality management mechanisms will
focus on video and M2M services traffic, improvement of quality checking algorithms and
creation of new quality assessment methods.
When defining requirements to QoS in 5G networks two key traffic models should be
firstly considered: high-speed video flow “server – subscriber” and massive M2M.
Video transmission services will be an important stimulus to development and a rapidly
growing segment of 5G networks traffic. In 2013 the volume of video services of the total
traffic of 4G networks subscribers already exceeded 50%, and by 2019 it is forecasted to
increase at least by 13 times [9]. Thus, we can already observe the first wave of oncoming
“tsunami” of subscribers’ traffic in 4G networks. Monthly per-subscriber consumption of data
transmission traffic in 4G networks has already reached 2.6 GB and monthly consumption of
traffic in 5G networks will exceed 500 GB.
The growth of video services traffic volume will be associated with the implementation
of various technologies of video services image quality from standard SD TV to UHD TV
(8k), which in its turn requires a data transmission speed of up to 10 Gbps in the mobile
network. Technological capabilities of mobile networks of various generations to broadcast
video for various video image quality are shown in Figure 4 [10-11]. Capability of video
broadcasting depends on data transmission speed in the radio access network.
Figure 4. Technological capabilities of video transfer for mobile networks of various generations.
Figure 5. Number of M2M connections in mobile networks (Source: Machina Research).
According to forecasts, shown in Figure 5, in 2018 the number of M2M connections in

the networks of mobile operators will exceed 1.5 billion [12], which is 5 times more than the
current rate, and in 2022 mobile operators will have more than 2.6 billion M2M connections.
At the same time, the share of M2M connections of the total number of connections in the
mobile operators’ networks will increase from the current 5% to 15% in 2018 and to 22% in
2022.
Strategies of M2M operators are aimed to create universal M2M platforms, capable of
operating in multiple vertical economic sectors. This will lead to the possibility to implement
approaches, tools and processing methods for structured and unstructured Big Data, derived
from M2M networks.
According to ABI Research forecasts, the M2M Big Data and analytics industry will
grow at robust 53.1% over the next 5 years from US$1.9 billion in 2013 to US$14.3 billion in
2018. This forecast includes revenue segmentation for the five components that together
enable analytics to be used in M2M services: data integration, data storage, core analytics,
data presentation, and associated professional services.
M2M services require much smaller data rates compared to video services and generally
do not require a guaranteed data rate. However, many M2M services, especially those used in
the management of industrial systems, are critical to delays in mobile network. Therefore,
M2M services will also affect the quality of 5G networks.
QOS PARAMETERS
Quality control and management in mobile networks are based on the use of the key QoS
parameters, such as bit rate, latency and packet loss.
In last generations of mobile networks, there are two major types of network bearers:
guaranteed bit rate (GBR) and non-guaranteed bit rate (Non-GBR). GBR bearers are used for
real-time services, such as rich voice and video. A GBR bearer has a minimum amount of
bandwidth, that is reserved by the network, and always consumes resources in a radio base
station, regardless of whether it is used or not. If implemented properly, GBR bearers should
not experience packet loss on the radio link or the IP network due to congestion. GBR bearers
will also be defined with lower latency and jitter tolerances that are typically required by real-
time services.
Non-GBR bearers, however, do not have specific network bandwidth allocation. Non-
GBR bearers are for best-effort services, such as file downloads, email, and Internet
browsing. These bearers will experience packet loss, when a network is congested. A
maximum bit rate for non-GBR bearers is not specified on a per-bearer basis. However, an
aggregate maximum bit rate (AMBR) will be specified on a per-subscriber basis for all non-
GBR bearers.
Packet Delay Budget (PDB). This parameter identifies a maximum acceptable end-to-end
delay between the UE and the PDN-GW. The purpose of using the PDB parameter is to
support the queues of planning processes and network functions at the connection level. MDB
parameter is interpreted as the maximum packet delay with a confidence level of 98%. The
PDB parameter defines the time limit for packet delay, within “final” package of the session
will be transmitted with a delay of not more than a predetermined value of the PDB. In this
case, the packet should not be dropped.
Packet Error Loss Rate. The proportion of packets lost due to errors when receiving data
packets. The maximum value of this parameter specifies the largest number of data packets
lost during transmission over the network.
Under the assumption of foregoing analysis, these QoS parameters will be used in
forming process of 5G QoS requirements, supporting the three main business models of 5G.
QUALITY REQUIREMENTS IN 5G NETWORKS

5G mobile technologies, that are expected to appear on the market in 2020, should
significantly improve customers’ QoS in the context of the snowballing growth of data
volume in mobile networks and the growth of wireless devices volume and variety of services
provided [5].
It is expected, that mobile communication networks, built on the basis of 5G
technologies, will provide data transfer speed of more than 10 Gbps.
Figure 6 shows the QoS class evolution from 2G to 4G that increased the QoS class
number by more than two times. These trends allow raising a question - how many QoS
classes are enough for 5G?
Previous 4G generation technologies (LTE/LTE Advanced) provide flexible quality of
service management based on the subdivision of data transfer characteristics into 9 classes.
These classes cover both 4G quality principles: services provision without quality assurance
(best effort or non-GBR) and guaranteed quality of service provision (GBR) [1].
Unfortunately, these LTE technological advances in the field of QoS management cover
only parts of the “end user - end user” (E2E) chain, in particular “5G-5G” and “4G-4G” intra-
network connections. The quality management system does not cover the part of connections
between 5G subscribers and other mobile 2G/3G/4G and fixed networks. The absence of
possibilities for coordinated and flexible quality management in fixed IP and mobile networks
of previous generations will still exists for a long period as a brake on the new level of
subscribers’ service quality in 5G networks.
Figure 6. Evolution QoS classes in mobile networks.
The METIS project has identified 12 use cases for 5G networks: virtual reality office,
dense urban information society, shopping mall, stadium, tele protection in smart grid
network, traffic jam, blind spots, real-time remote computing for mobile terminals, open air
festival, emergency communications, massive deployment of sensors and actuators, traffic
safety and efficiency. METIS defined QoE requirements for them [13]. QoE performance
requirements, providing trust to 5G networks, are presented in Table 2. The highest
requirements for experienced user throughput are defined for the “Virtual reality office” use
case. End-users should be able to experience data rates of at least one Gbps in 95% of office
locations’ space and during 99% of the busy period. Additionally, end-users should be able to
experience data rates of at least five Gbps in 20% of the office locations’ space, e.g., at the
actual desks, during 99% of the busy period. The highest requirements for network latency
are defined for “Dense urban information society” use case. The device-to-device (D2D)
latency should be less than 1 ms. The highest requirements for availability and reliability of
5G network are identified for “Traffic safety and efficiency” use case. 100% availability with
transmission reliability of 99.999% are required to provide services at every point on the road.
During the evolution of QoS management mechanisms in 3GPP (GSM/UMTS/LTE)
networks there was a migration from QoS management at the user equipment level to the QoS
management at the network level. This approach to QoS management will be maintained in
5G networks too.
QoS management mechanisms in 5G networks should provide video and VoIP traffic
prioritization towards web-search traffic and other applications tolerant to quality.
The service of streaming video transfer without buffering is very sensitive to network
delay, so one of the most important parameters that determine QoS requirements is the total
packet delay budget, which is defined for the RAN air interface and is treated as the
maximum packet delay with a confidence level of 98%.
Table 2. QoE performance requirements for 5G networks
QoE indicators Requirements

Experienced user throughput 5 Gbps in DL and UL
Latency D2D latency less than 1 ms
Availability ≈100%
Reliability 99.999%
Table 3. Requirements for delay in 3G/4G/5G networks
QoS terms Packet Delay Budget, ms

3G 4G 5G
Without quality assurance Not determined 100 – 300 Not determined
With guaranteed quality 100-280 50 – 300 1
Table 3 lists the requirements for delay in 3G/4G/5G networks defined in 3GPP [14] and
METIS project [15]. These data demonstrate that with the increase in mobile network’s
generations the requirements for the lower boundary of the total data delay across the network
decline. Also the analysis of the requirements for the overall 5G network delay revealed that
given the accumulation effect the delay in 5G RAN network should be less than 1 ms.
Figure 7. Requirements for delay in control and user planes for 4G/5G networks (Source: 5G Forum).
Comparison of requirements for delay in control and user planes for signaling traffic and
user traffic respectively, presented on Figure 7, show that requirements for 5G networks will
be twice more strict for traffic in the user plane and 10 times more strict in the subscriber
traffic plane [7].
Another parameter is the proportion of packets lost due to errors when receiving data
packets (IP Packet Error Rate). Values for this parameter that determines requirements for the
largest number of IP packets lost for video broadcasting through 3G/4G/5G mobile networks
are shown in Table 4 [16].
Table 4. Requirements to the Packet Error Loss Rate for video broadcasting
QoS terms Packet Error Loss Rate

SDTV HDTV 4k UHD 8k UHD
Possibilities of mobile 3G/4G 4G 4G 5G
communication generation
Video broadcasting with guaranteed 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9
quality
For M2M services the proportion of packets lost when receiving in 3G/4G/5G networks
quality also will be determined by the QoS mechanisms. Given service conditions of M2M
subscriber devices determined for both cases: with a guaranteed quality of service and
without guarantees, requirements to the share of lost packets differ by three orders.
Requirements to the Packet Error Loss Rate for M2M services are shown in Table 5.
QOS PROVISIONING AND MANAGEMENT IN 5G NETWORKS

A key trend related to 5G mobile networks is, that they will serve up to 1000 times more
connected mobile devices. All these devices will have different QoS requirements and will
interconnect to all kinds of heterogeneous and customized Internet and Intranet based services
and application.
5G networks will be open, more flexible, and able to support heterogeneous networks
(HetNets). They will be able to provide convergent network communication across multi-
technologies networks, and provide open communication system to co-operate with satellite
systems, cellular networks, clouds and data-centers, home gateways, and many more
networks and devices that are open. 5G networks and network nodes will be able to adapt
their behavior depending on the QoS and QoE requirements to handle application-driven
networks in dynamic environments [17].
The advanced 5G network infrastructure for future mobile services will include multiple
heterogeneous networks that need sharing resources on all levels to meet the fast changing of
traffic patterns from different services and applications. Network operators should be able to
predict the various traffic patterns as functions of the services provided by their networks.
Service providers are evaluating implementations of storage and data traffic over a single
network to meet the flexibility, QoS and QoE requirements and the efficient coexistence of
multiple services.
Introduction of intelligent solutions such as Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
towards 5G will provide flexible solutions to cater for network heterogeneity. The primary
idea behind SDN is to move the control plane outside the switches and enable external control
of data through a logical software entity called controller. This centralization makes the
controller suitable to perform network management functions while allowing easy
modification of the network behavior through the centralized control plane.
Figure 8 shows the overall SDN architecture. The SDN community has adopted a number
of northbound interfaces (i.e., between the control plane and applications) that provide
higher-level abstractions to program various network-level services and applications at the
control plane. For the southbound interfaces (i.e., between the control plane and network
devices), the OpenFlow standard –amongst other standards - has emerged as the dominant
technology.
Table 5. Requirements to the Packet Error Loss Rate for M2M services
QoS terms Packet Error Loss Rate

3G 4G 5G
Without guaranteed quality (non – GBR) 10-2 10-3 10-4
With guaranteed quality (GBR) 10-2 10 -6
10-7
Figure 8. Reference Architecture of Software-Defined Networking [17].
SDN makes it possible to manage the entire network through intelligent orchestration
and provisioning systems. Thus, it allows on-demand resource allocation, self-service
provisioning, truly virtualized networking, and secures cloud services. SDN allows creating
different network partitions in the same network infrastructure to provide a strict QoS,
performance and isolation required by across applications without interfering with traffic in
other partitions, however, SDN does not provide the ways for automating QoS provisioning
per-application/per-service [17].
One of the limitations of the OpenFlow protocol is that it does not implement strict QoS
in the forwarding plane. Thus, data packets will require an external tool/protocol to be
handled according to QoS requirements. QoS management in SDN is implemented at high
abstraction level through the northbound interfaces. The SDN controller can map the flow
requirements to the priority queues in the network device it controls, and thereby allocating
the reserved network resources to individual and aggregated flows in a particular switch, but
the QoS configuration cannot be done in real-time. A network administrator is required to
specify the configuration of each service before the communication starts.
Improving automatic QoS allocation for different and heterogeneous networks requires
new methods, models and compositions to commit to multiple Service Level Agreements
(SLAs) end-to-end to provide a unified resulting SLA. These new mechanisms should allow
services and applications evaluating SLAs in local nodes and then be aware of all the context
chaining before used in unified environments. Cloud service providers’ solutions may be a
good approach to follow, since virtualizing charging and security functions would improve
network resiliency and availability and enforce QoS provisioning end-to-end.
Virtualization of quality management function could be introduced in the form of two
main functions: Cloud QoS management function (CQMF) and Cloud QoS control function
(CQCF) as shown in Figure 9.
CQCF function of QoS control provides real-time control of traffic flows in 5G network
based on QoS levels established during the connection. Basic QoS control mechanisms
include traffic profiling, planning and management of data flows.
CQMF function of QoS management provides QoS support in 5G network in accordance
with SLA service contracts, as well as provides monitoring, maintenance, review and scaling
of QoS.
Implementation of algorithms for traffic prioritization in 5G networks will be based on
traffic classification procedures with a focus on video traffic priorities and M2M traffic.
Traffic classification procedure should be done taking into consideration the adaptation
possibilities, as the traffic characteristics will dynamically change with the emergence of new
applications, both in M2M area and in the field of video services.
In addition to QoS management functions in 5G networks, related to traffic management
and prioritization, the scope of service quality management also includes management of
radio frequency resources, used by mobile network (Spectrum toolbox).
Licensed primary access (LPA) based on the dedicated licensed spectrum utilization
enables controlling QoS for those 5G traffic types, that require it, but possibly has limited
capacity and may not support the maximum QoS (i.e., users may experience limited QoS
while being connected only via dedicated licensed spectrum) for elastic services.
Unlicensed bands access (UBA) might however play a complementary role for offloading
purposes or for opportunistically enhancing QoS beyond the average requirements.
Figure 9. Virtualization of control and management functions in 5G network.

Licensed shared access (LSA) is based on dynamic assignments combined with

mechanisms, which ensure the targeted QoS under appropriate agreement with the incumbent.
Capabilities of access to the radio spectrum on the principles of LSA in 5G networks require
QoS guarantees to operators who granted access to their spectrum for other operators [18-19].
The spectrum management function (SMF) in the 5G network will be designed as
Spectrum Manager entity. Spectrum Manager as a network entity, which is responsible for
deciding how resources should be shared between mobile networks or other radio networks of
the same regulatory priority.
LSA module of Spectrum Toolbox – the Spectrum Manager entity has to supply the
provision of a predictable QoS for both Incumbents and LSA licensees, whenever operation
by a particular service is allowed by the systems.
Spectrum ToolBox through Spectrum Manager supports sharing on a non-interfering
basis, meaning that the shared systems will operate without causing harmful interference.
Predictable QoS in this context means, that the Spectrum Manager entity can operate in a
similar way to a non-sharing case, at the radio level.
In case of shortage of frequency resources for provisioning of services with required
QoS, the 5G networks must decide to use additional frequency channels for aggregation and
select the channels from the frequency ranges, which use spectrum based on LSA or Licensed
Exempt (LE) principles [19].
Therefore, the QoS management system must have information exchange with the
Spectrum Manager for effectively managing the spectrum resources in the interest of 5G
network QoS. The process of deciding about spectrum resource allocation is based on a
certain policy, which takes into consideration the 5G QoS requirements of primary spectrum
user in LSA.
CONCLUSION
The emergence of 5G networks on the market in 2020 will focus on a significant
improvement of characteristics of mobile networks including quality of service that will
provide a high level of trustability to these networks.
One-sided view on trusted 5G network from security position will limit the growth of
trust of customers and regulators. Defining of high-level requirements in the QoS field will
allow 5G-developers to obtain the trust to 5G on an early stage.
Given that the principles of QoS control will be preserved during the transition from 4G
to 5G, main effort of 5G developers should be focused on the virtualization of network
functions, responsible for the management and control of QoS in the network. In addition,
QoS architecture of 5G should provide information exchange between QoS manager and
Spectrum Manager for effective management of spectrum resources for the benefit of
ensuring QoS and trust to 5G networks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Ministry of education and science of the Russian
Federation, State task № 3.8177.2017/ITR, and by The National Research Tomsk State
University competitive recovery program in 2017.
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19.06.2015.
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technology roadmap”, Project METIS Deliverable D6.6, 30/04/2015.
[5] Valery Tikhvinskiy, Grigory Bochechka. Perspectives and Quality of Service
requirements in 5G Networks. Journal of telecommunications and information
technology, Poland, №1, pp.23-26, 2015.
[6] Ying Weimin. No-Edge LTE, Now and the Future//5G World Summit – 2014,
http://ws.lteconference.com/.
[7] Yongwan Park. 5G Vision and Requirements of 5G Forum, Korea, February 2014.
[8] Tikhvinskiy V. O., Bochechka G. S., Minov A. V. LTE network monetization based on
M2M services//- Electrosvyaz, 2014-№ 6 - pp.12-17.
[9] Sam Baker, Delivering New Revenue Opportunities with Smart Media Network.5G
World Summit – 2014, Amsterdam, June 2014.
[10] Series H: Audiovisual and Multimedia Systems. Infrastructure of audiovisual services –
Coding of moving video. High efficiency video coding. Recommendation ITU-T
H.265.
[11] Elena Puigrefagut, HDTV and beyond. ITU Regional Seminar “Transition to Digital
Terrestrial Television Broadcasting and Digital Dividend”, Budapest, 06 November
2012.
[12] Machina Research. The Global M2M Market in 2013, London, January 2013.
[13] ICT-317669-METIS/D1.1, “Scenarios, requirements and KPIs for 5G mobile and
wireless system”, Project METIS Deliverable D1.1, 29/04/2013.
[14] Adrian Scrase. 5G//ETSI Telecoms Standards Workshop. The future of telecoms
standards, London, June 2015.
[15] Project METIS Deliverable D2.1 Requirements and general design principles for new
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MPEG-2 TS Based DVB Services over IP Based Networks. ETSI TS 102 034 V1.4.1,
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Deliverable D5.4, 30/04/2015.
In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 3
5G MOBILE NETWORKS:
VISIONS AND RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Abdulrahman Yarali and Michael Ramage†

Institute of Engineering and Center for Telecommunications Systems Management,
Murray State University, Murray, KY, US
ABSTRACT
This chapter explores the information on technological advancements that can be
forecasted to take place in the future telecommunications infrastructures through the
adaptation of 5G networking systems. Through the discussion of the 5G wireless
networking system, the study evaluates the future visions and research directions toward
more advancements and innovations within the wireless world. The study emphasizes the
future scope, general characteristics and requirements in context to the next generation of
mobile communications systems for global digital and mobile wireless networking. The
functional elements and appliances that will help to build the unified network of 5G along
with its possible future challenges are the focus of this chapter. In the analysis, we show
that the graphical expressions of 5G networking systems and its working procedures have
provided a unified understanding among vendors, providers and regulators necessary to
make the vision of 5G implementation a reality for 2020.
Keywords: 5G networking system, technological advancement, innovation, architecture
INTRODUCTION
In this present era of globalization, development is largely dependent on technological
advancement, which is considered as a major factor to maintain the global trends and remain
up-to-date. The concept of digitalization contributes to the connecting of people and corporate

E-mail: ayarali@murraystate.edu
†
E-mail: mramage@murraystate.edu
32 Abdulrahman Yarali and Michael Ramage
sectors within a synchronized and networked atmosphere. The major characteristic of this
atmosphere is associated with the fast and rapid flow of communication that makes this world
a small global village, well-connected within itself.
The development in communication system as a result of technological advancement
provides the global population with a wireless networking system to stay connected beyond
the geographical boundaries and physical distances. Wireless networking system has
been designed to detect and connect a wider area using air as the medium. With the
passage of time, wireless telecommunication networks are being constructed using the r
adio communication conceptual framework, wherein networks are administrated by
implementation of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model network structure (Hakiri
and Berthou 2014; Shao, Chen, Avestimehr and Li 2010).
In the present scenario, the accessibility of the internet on mobile has led the businesses
operating in the global environment to reach greater heights within a shorter span of time.
Flexible working practices are hence largely facilitated through mobile networks, which play
a significant role for enabling the global corporate sectors to conduct business operations
across the geographical boundaries. Continuous innovations in the technological domain have
led to the emergence of several generations of networking over the time and such innovations
will be evident even in the near future. These developing and implementing technologies
concentrates largely on true purposes that are based on the connectivity of human-centric and
machine-centric networks. This networking hence leads to the redefining of working
processes and connection with the end users’ mobility as well as the entire servers of the
global telecom industry. In context to the scenario of development and advancement, the 5th
generation of mobile networking (5G) will be capable enough to raise the speed and quality
of internet accessibility using the mobile platform by realizing the growth and expansion of
entire ICT (Information and Communication Technology) network (Huawei Technologies
Co., Ltd. 2013).
The study provides an in-depth understanding of the new wave of digital society, which
has the potential to bring about prominent changes in the telecom landscape. In accordance to
this internet evaluation, the study has considerably focused on its massive capacity as well as
connectivity traits prevalent in the digitalized society. Through the assistance of previous
studies and recent researches, the study will also contribute largely to the critical evaluation
of adaptability and immediacy of 5G along with its challenges and requirements. Through the
comprehensive discussion on 5G wireless network system in globalized corporate era, the
study has also emphasized on the future vision with the research directing towards the
development of a complete wireless world in the future period of time.
METHODS
Based on the requirements of the study, it can be stated that it is comparatively more
relevant to discuss the previous studies regarding the wireless networking system and its path
of evaluation. The subject matter of the study is a significant story of wireless networking
development, which has been critically evaluated in several steps of research, planning and
execution. In context to 5G wireless networking, it has its presence only in the virtual world,
which is still under processing of the research context. The study provides an elaboration of
5G Mobile Networks 33
the previously conducted studies on similar subject matter and associated factors. Hence, it
can be asserted that the study is completely based on secondary researches, including
different literature resources on the concerned issue.
Here, this study has derived its understanding through the assistance of significant online
available sources (such as e-books, e-journals, e-articles), peer reviewed journals, articles and
library sources (books, magazines). The information collected from these resources and
interpreted in the study has been properly in-texted to avoid cases of data infliction. Ethical
considerations are completely followed at the time of secondary researches and hence
biasness with regards to gathering and interpretation of data is immensely avoided. In this
context, it can also be stated that all the norms and projected regulations of the conducting a
research has been adequately adhered for the effective completion of the study. Since the
concept of wireless networking system is completely new and ever-changing, therefore
secondary sources older than 10 years have been completely excluded from the research
process. In this study, the gathered data as well as the comprehensive interpretation of
collected data are not accountable for any kind of data violation under the projected relevant
acts and regulations.
THE FUTURE 5G NETWORKING VISION

Overview of 5G and General Characteristics
The journey of 5G network had entered into the society of technology and science as a
completely new conceptual framework in the year 2015. The incorporation of 5G in ICT
network in the future will make a unified global standard. The wireless technology of 5G
network can hence be defined as the physical as well as data link layers effective cooperation.
This specific wireless technology is known as the Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), as per
which 5G can be incorporated into virtual multi-wireless networking system comprising
several network layers. It is immensely crucial to develop an in-depth understanding of the
sub-division of network layers along with significant ids. These layers’ ids are sub-divided
into two parts such as upper network layer, which utilizes mobile terminal as well as lower
network layer that associates with the network interface. To maintain these network layers
appropriate routing process is necessary to be implemented within the respective networking
systems. Contextually, the routing of networking systems is typically based on IP addresses.
Throughout the world, there are several IP addresses, which are utilized in networking and are
largely different from one another. According to the advanced technology of 5G, it can be
observed that the basic application layer is unable to work for the quality of service
management over various types of networks. In this regard, 5G’s technological invention can
bring an advanced phase that reveals a step forward towards the real Wireless World Wide
Web network (WWWW) (Churi, Surendran, Tigdi and Yewale 2012).
IT has also been evaluated from the previous studies that the speed of 5G network will be
ranging between 1 to 10 GBPS and will also possess a frequency rate of between 3 to 300
GHz. The primary access technology of 5G will consider only CDMA and BDMA systems.
The standard IP broadband will be LAN, PAN, WAN and WWWW. According to the
researchers, the implementation of the standards under the 5G networking system in the real
world has the chances of being initiated during year 2020. In future, the application of 5G
network will provide the users with an experience of compact wireless communication
network, which has almost no boundaries regarding accessing segment. As previously
mentioned, 5G will be able to bring a perfect real world of wireless communication system,
named WWWW. Under this communication system and assistance of 5G network the end
users will be provided with a real wireless world of networking that do not have any
limitations related to the access potential or critical zonal issues. Internet protocol version 6
(IPv6) assigns a visiting care of mobile IP address according to the locations as well as
connected network (Churi et al. 2012).
Offers in 5G Technology
5G technology is a revolutionary mobile technology that will be able to change the motto
of the present mobile market. Through the assistance of 5G technology, users will be able to
utilize worldwide cellular phones, which will further portray an image of perfect undividable
global communication. It can also be stated that 5G networking system will possess
remarkable data capabilities y to access the free call volumes as well as unlimited data
transmission through single operating system. The technology of 5G networking system has
incredible potentials, through which the network can maintain the software as well as its
consultancy (Churi et al. 2012).
5G network can increase mobile’s data volumes and can also expand the wireless
communication system’s array of application domains. The process is possible only when the
wireless communication system and mobile are allowed the support of 5G network. 5G
compatible systems will further be able to build a perception on the new radio concept in the
existing process, which will be designed particularly for the accomplishment of the individual
challenging requirements of networking. Essential services of banking, learning and health
aspects, which can presently be conducted through internet, will continue to proliferate and
attain prominence as pocket devices for individuals. Evolutionary research on advance
technology and science has taken place through the development of the interactive television
(iTV) and other new technological advanced equipment, which can be effectively delivered in
mobiles and wireless systems of end users throughout the world in the future period of time
(Reddy 2016).
Internet Evolution
Network implementation for next generation is allied with the context of ultra-broadband
network infrastructure. To process this, it will require the rethinking and reframing of designs
and structures related to the approaches, through which the mobile network can construct as
well as expand the process accordingly. Fundamentally, 5G will be able to drive the future
evolution in the internet.
The ultra-broadband infrastructure is one of the crucial steps towards effective
implementation and technological advancement. Incorporation of cloud architecture in mobile
networks can make the services flexible and provide unprecedented speed due to the
extraordinary growth in mobile data traffic.
This particular scenario is also associated with diversification of mobile app innovation,
IoT connectivity as well as security. For achieving the forecasted objectives of future
developments in networking system, thorough implementation of 5G system will initially
concentrate on two basic aspects including capacity as well as connectivity (Huawei
Technologies Co., Ltd. 2013).
Adaptability and Immediacy of 5G Networking System
Massive capacity of the wireless 5G networking system will provide the users with a
functional ability to allow the connection with the devices through a network, faster than ever.
This concept of faster and efficient internet connection will contribute to the ‘zero distance
gaps’ between the users as well as devices, through which the users will witness tremendous
speed in the functioning of wireless networking. To activate the projected form of wireless
networking in every mobile devices of the future, creation of advanced mobile services work
upon the proliferation of the frameworks, thereby thinking about a complete new set of
mobile applications. With the assistance of new thoughts, technology will increase the
capability of communication beyond the potential levels of networks not only in the present
scenario, but also in the future time-period. An effective capacity for managing high speed
wireless connections will reflect a widespread adoption of effective services to the users and
crucial interactions with them that can effectively facilitate the innovativeness of mobile
services through the delivery of positive final outcome (Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
2013).
Requirements for 5G Network Building
The three basic requirements for building 5G wireless networks has been thoroughly
discussed in this section to understand the relevancy and viability of implementation of 5G
networking system in real world. The major requirement for 5G wireless network is allied
with networking capabilities that can provide support of massive capacity and connectivity to
the system. The second major requirement is the networking support, which is necessary for
an increasingly diverse set of services and applications for end users. The network can be
allied with the requirements of users’ daily life as well as their working procedures through
this support. The third requirement is network flexibility, within which users can be
effectively utilized from all available spectrums for significant deployment scenarios (Huawei
Technologies Co., Ltd. 2013).
In this context, it is also observed that mobile networks in the near future has the chances
of becoming the foremost priorities for maintaining individual person to person as well as
person to machine connectivity. These effective networks connectivity will require matching
advances in fixed networking in terms of delivered quality of service, along with its efficient
reliability and compact security as well. To provide the required quality, reliability as well as
security in the projected networking system, the technologies of 5G will require to be
enhanced with the capability to convey ‘fiber-like 10 GBPS speeds’. The capacity of
delivering fiber-like 10 GBPS speeds within 5G networking system can build ‘ultra-high
definition visual communications’ along with intensive multimedia connections in the
wireless network (Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. 2013). These advanced technologies of 5G
networks will depend on certain functional appliances such as ultra-wide bandwidth and sub-
millisecond latencies, which can provide support to process the networking system (Chávez-
Santiago, Szydełko and Kliks 2015).
In this regard, it can be asserted that the highly advanced technological supports of 5G
network can build an active infrastructure within the professional and personal space of
communication in the real world. The virtual understanding of 5G networking provides a
comprehensive understanding of its requirements in future. Contextually, it can also be
evaluated that 5G will be able to provide the initial and efficient infrastructure for the
development of smart cities. Within highly advanced technological environment, residents of
smart cities’ will possess the capability to move towards experiencing wireless network
performance along with its extreme levels of capability. In this context, it can be observed
that poor latency as well as exceptionally high reliability will also be considered among the
essential requirements for the future prospects of the mobile industrial automation, vehicular
connectivity, and other IoT applications. Besides there are certain other applications related to
5G networking system, which entails smart sensors and text-based messaging. These are
utilized as exceptionally high volume mobile applications, which will require communication
not only on a person to person basis but also within person to machines connectivity at
relatively lower data rates. (Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. 2013).
Challenges and Prospects
The design of 5G network is associated with emerging technologies, which also needs to
face and overcome major challenges associated with measurements, validating and testing of
performances as per its implementations. For understanding the challenges of implementing
5G networks in the global system, an in-depth knowledge regarding its experiences and
proposals are essential that has been elaborated in table provided below:
Table 1. Features and Trends of 5G networks
5G expectations and features Trends/proposals

Capacity and throughput improvement, high data Spectrum reuse and use of different band (e.g., mm-
rate (~1000x of throughput improvement over 4G, wave communication using 28~GHz and 38~GHz
cell data rate ~10 Gb/s, signaling loads less than bands), multi-tier network, D2D communication, C-
1~100%) RAN, massive-MIMO
Reduced latency Full-duplex communication, C-RAN, D2D
(2~5 milliseconds end-to-end latencies) communication
Network densification Heterogeneous and multi-tier network
(~1000x higher mobile data per unit area,
100~10000x higher number of connecting devices)
Advanced services and applications (e.g., smart C-RAN, network virtualization, M2M
city, service-oriented communication) communication
Improved energy efficiency (~10x prolonged Wireless charging, energy harvesting
battery life)
Autonomous applications and network M2M communication, self-organizing and
management, Internet of Things cognitive network
Source: (Hossain 2015)
Network and Devices of 5G System
5G network has several cellular activities within it programming that recognizes the
heterogeneous individuality as well as capacities of significant D2D appliances such as macro
cells and various small cells. These specific constructional specialties make the 5G network a
multi-tier architecture. These multiple functional elements and layers in 5G networking
system can make the process complex in terms of its management and coordination with the
different tiers and nodes. These complex behaviors can be handled through self-organization.
The complete process contains effective power adaptation, self-directed load balancing,
spectrum distribution, interference control and minimization among others. The user
equipment of 5G networking system is designed to provide simultaneous proactive
connection within more than one base stations (BS) or access points (AP) through the
assistance of radio access technology (RAT).
The seamless connectivity of 5G can be made possible through the active assurance of
heterogeneous nodes, which has been incorporated with unified network such as cloud based
system and ensure uninterrupted network connectivity (Hossain 2015; Alexiou 2013).
In this regard, one of the important issues of 5G network is allied with the
communication efficiency that requires continuous improvement in maintaining the process’s
accuracy and sustainability.
For maintaining the process of sustainability as well as consistency in communicational
efficiency, the system needs to incorporate certain significant techniques including
coordinated multipoint (CoMP)’s combine transmission, network-assisted interference
cancellation, three dimensional or full dimensional MIMO and spectrum reutilization for
multiple access.
High speed and connection with the central processing nodes such as clouds is another
important issue for 5G networking maintenance, which can be controlled through the
utilizations of maximum numbers of remote radio heads (RRHs). From the discussion of
technological assurance of 5G network, it can be asserted that the architecture of 5G
networking system includes communication system and spectrum virtualization. The level of
significance as well as complication of the 5G network will be comparatively higher than 4G
network and all other networks that already exist in the real world (Chang, Zhou, Ristaniemi
and Niu 2016; Hossain 2015).
Figure 1. Single tier and 5G multi-tier activities. Hossain, Paul Pickering 2015.
Figure 2. 5G New Radio (NR) requirements (The3G4GBlog2016.)
Figure 3. The Scenario of Integrated Energy and Spectrum Harvesting in 5G System(F.I.N.D, 2015).
Figure 4. Trends towards 5G for experimentally-driven facilities(P. Demestichas 2015).
Figure 5. The Utilization of Access Network and Core Network with Cloud-based Radio Access
Network (Source: Hossain, 2015).
Figure 6. SDN-Based 5G Access Cloud Architecture(Pablo Ameigeiras).
The devices that will work under the 5G networking system must be capable enough to
operate multiple spectrum bands and existing network technologies such as 3G and 4G. In
context to the maintenance of high speed and energy efficiency of the network, it is desirable
that the devices used by the end user will maintain regularity through the incorporation of
energy harvesting technologies. Based on this stand point, it can be asserted that energy
harvesting technology is important for 5G networking system. In addition, it requires supports
from several functional capabilities to evade the challenges of designing as well as testing
operations (Hossain 2015; Alexiou 2013). The following figures of 5G networks and its
device activities help to clarify our discussion accurately.
Research Challenges for 5G Network
According to the research designs and testing networking facilities, 5G networking

system is significantly different from all other networks existing in real world. As previously
mentioned, the operations in terms of designing and testing pathways for 5G network is
complex and even faces various challenges. In terms of characteristics, it has been found in
the study that this generation network are posed with challenges based on two different
categories, one of which is the measurement and test challenges for its future implementation
while the other comprises the management challenges for radio resources. The study initially
focuses on the prime challenges of 5G network in association with ‘measurement’, ‘testing’
as well as ‘validating’ it’s working procedure of 5G network. The challenges in measurement
and model propagation comprise the utilization of higher frequencies, bandwidths, and
antenna arrays. The wireless traffic needs additional spectrums to enable other advanced
technologies for aligning the effective requirements of measurements in spatial domains. In
addition, the channel measurements and modeling pattern of 5G is also considered the issues
related to massive numbers of devices, heterogeneous traffic direction along with the pattern
of node density (Hossain 2015).
In order to test the RF modules, transmitters as well as receivers’ aspect are considered
important in relation to the future implementation of 5G networking systems. The testing
projection for MIMO and other beam forming capabilities need to be tested for enhancing the
potentials of consistent transmission and propagation of bands. During the testing operations,
the most critical issues such as band impairment and cost effectiveness need to be considered.
Stress testing in nodes and traffic patterns has to be proceeded for understanding the standards
of network performance in terms of its specifications and flexibilities. During the operations
of multi-standards and low power nodes stress testing is considered to be most appropriate
option for completing the purpose of energy efficiency-testing. On the other hand, there are
several emerging technologies and trends associated with the 5G network system, which are
‘heterogeneous multi-tier network’, ‘full-duplex communication’, ‘energy harvesting
networks’, ‘Cloud RAN’ and ‘wireless network virtualization’. These stated aspects are
critically interrelated with the assistance of certain basic research challenges. Heterogeneous
multi-tier network challenges associates with interference management and adaptive power
control within the network. In addition, the functionalities such as dynamic mode selection,
device discovery and MAC designing include technology challenges under the multi-tier
network. Full-duplex communication, facilitating spectrum efficiency along with energy
efficiency are also considered to be the challenges that the operations associated with cross-
layer resource management, interference management, power allocation and designing the
MAC protocol faces in the path of attaining the pre-determined objectives. Wire-free energy
efficiency and energy-aware communication process conduction are the major features of
energy harvesting networks, which face immense level of complication during the operation
of multi-user scheduling, transmit time adaptation, and SWIPT enabled resource allocation.
For easier network management process, cloud RAN technology is adopted by the 5G
network system, which not only reduces delays in dynamic traffic and saving of power, but it
also suffers from operational challenges at the time of BBU management, energy-aware
scheduling and resource allocation as well. Wireless network virtualization is another
important technological support that faces operational challenges regarding isolation, price
optimization and mobility management (Hossain 2015).
This is an overview of several emerging technologies for 5G wireless networking systems
that can effectively help to improve the possibilities of high speed and consistent
communicational assistance. Certain open research challenges have been segregated in this
section in terms of testing and measurements of 5G networking system. These challenges can
make impact on the design as well as development of 5G network. 5G cellular wireless
networks will be largely applied in the representation of different significant technologies
although its accurate incorporation can be considered the largest challenge in the future
period of time.
5G TECHNOLOGY ENABLERS
With regards to the achievement of ambitious 5G vision in technological advancement
for future prospects with faster, easier and undividable network connection, the wireless
research community considers certain technological directions that are utilized as the enablers
of 5G networks. The concept of functional enablers has largely developed from the ideas of
previous cellular network generations starting from 2G ranging to 4G networks. The most
commonly considered enablers have been discussed as follows:
Incorporation of Large Numbers of Spectrums
Licensed bands such as 3.4 to 3.8 GHz and unlicensed bands such as 5 GHz Wi-Fi bands
along with other high frequency unallocated bands are also tactically handled with more
spectrums in 5G networks (Alexiou 2015).
Intense Infrastructure for an Improved Local Access in 5G Networks
For exploring the Wi-Fi technology and traffic of hotspot along with other indoor areas,
reutilizing resources by arranging hyper-dense small cell clusters will prove beneficial in
improving the 5G networking system. In addition, the scenarios can also transform the
infrastructure into an intense functional one (Alexiou 2015).
Inventing new spectral efficiency as well as multiplexing radio technologies. Both the
aspects will be able to enhance the access modes of small cells and macro cells within 5G
networking system (Alexiou 2015).
Besides these basic enablers, certain proximal links will also need to be accessed
accurately for implementing the innovative concept of proximal communication within 5G
networking system. Device centric architecture of 5G network will control the uplink,
downlink and data channels while D2D connectivity entails load balancing opportunity to
evade the limitations of network and centralization. Millimeter Wave or mmWave technology
has already proved its efficiency in standardization of short-range services. Now to remain
viable in 5G networks, it will require being utilized in a broader manner in terms of
interference management as well as utilization of resources. Massive MIMO will also require
5G networking system for main architectural changes and especially for the designs of
antennas as well as air interface. Correspondingly, machine to machine or M2M
communication in the future wireless networking system will be recognized as the
differentiator, which can dominate the entire world of wireless network at a single point of
time (Alexiou 2015).
5G networking enablers associated with alternative view of future wireless networking
and advanced technological assistance, novel architecture and compact resource management
will involve visionary prediction of research directions for future improvements. According to
the present scenario of existing wireless network facilities, there are certain limitations that
need to be highlighted. Present networking systems’ users are facing lack of flexibility in the
cellular regimes, which is one of the major complications for communication networking. In
addition, limitations in network up gradations and cost efficiency along with criticality in
radio technology can provide certain in the utilization of current wireless network. In
accordance with the scenario, issues related to flexibility are widely predominant in the in the
corporate.
Moreover, the niche opportunities of corporate assistance and other investment criteria
eventually indicates the better implementation of a wireless network, which will be able to
provide an undividable connection with higher speeds, intense infrastructure, flexibility,
availability, and cost effectiveness (Alexiou 2015; Hakiri and Berthou 2014).
In the context of readiness of 5G networking system and future implications, the study
highlighted upon Huawei’s RandD commitments towards the implementation of 5G
networks. From the year 2009, Huawei plays a key role to establish the required technologies
and innovations as per the 5G network. The company takes effective steps in order to endorse
and build up 5G technologies within its existing system through collaboration of several
global ecosystem partners, governments, international trade associations, private sector
companies and universities. With the assistance of collaboration with multiple global
organizations, Huawei builds a large pool of wireless networking system for 5G
implementation. Contextually, from the research and development team of Huawei, it can be
stated that the successful implementation of 5G networking system will be possible through
ICT ecosystem innovation, which has the potential to create a large market for 5G networks
(Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. 2013).
CONCLUSION
Based on the above discussed scenario of information technology, the study focuses on
5G wireless networking system, which is a concept of the virtual world and scientists are
preparing fields for its successful implementation. Through discussions based on researches
of future technological assistance and derivation, the study critically evaluates the important
factors associated with 5G networks. For developing a comprehensive idea regarding vision
and research direction for the wireless world with 5G technologies, the study segregated its
sections in different subject oriented issues such as future implications, requirements,
technological advancements, and challenges for implementations along with empirical
example for preparation.
The limitations of present wireless networking systems have also been evaluated for
finding out the measures for leading to the development in the domain of wireless
technologies. The study critically evaluates several challenges in the path of generating
difficulties in the journey of 5G networks, thereby expecting that continuous research and
development might evade the complications effectively and provide a faster and uninterrupted
world of wireless networks.
REFERENCES
Alexiou, A. (2013). Visions for the Wireless Future: Wireless World 2020 Workshops.
Visions and research directions for the Wireless World, 8, 2-9.
Alexiou, A. (2015). 5G Vision, Enablers and Challenges for the Wireless Future. Wireless
World Research Forum, 1.0, 4-11.
Chang, Z., Zhou, Z., Ristaniemi, T. and Niu, Z. (2016). Wireless Network Virtualization in
5G.
Chávez-Santiago, R., Szydełko, M. and Kliks, A. (2015). 5G: The Convergence of Wireless
Communications. Wireless Personal Communications, 83(3), 1617 - 1642.
Churi, J. R., Surendran, T. S., Tigdi, S. A. and Yewale, S. (2012). Evolution of Networks
(2G-5G). International Conference on Advances in Communication and Computing
Technologies (ICACACT), 8 - 12.
F.I.N.D Future Information Network and Data http://www.find-lab.com/ researches.
Hakiri, A. and Berthou, P. (2014). Evolution of the Wireless Communication towards the 5G.
Leveraging SDN for The 5G Networks: Trends, Prospects and Challenges, 2 - 21.
Hossain, E. (2015). Networks and Devices for 5G Systems. 5G Cellular: Key Enabling
Technologies and Research Challenges, 1 - 18.
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. (2013). Collaborating Globally. 5G: A Technology Vision,
1 - 13.
Pablo Ameigeiras Link-level access cloud architecture design based on SDN for 5G
networks, IEEE Network (Volume: 29, Issue: 2, March-April 2015).
Paul Pickering, 6 Trends Driving Transceiver Design and Development, Jun. 9, 2015 |
Microwaves and RF.
Reddy, R. S. (2016). Research Trends and Development on 5G Wireless Networks -
Advances in Wireless Technology. Retrieved from http://www.iitk.ac.in/nerd/web/
technology/research-trends-and-development-on-5g-wireless-networks-advances-in-
wireless-technology/#.WCA-dtJ97IX.
Shao, Z., Chen, M., Avestimehr, S. and Li, S.-Y. R. (2010). Cross-layer optimization for
wireless networks with deterministic channel models. INFOCOM'10 Proceedings of the
29th Conference on Information Communications, 181 - 185.
The3G4GBlog. 5G New Radio (NR), Architecture options and migration from LTE
(September 2016).
Towards Service-oriented 5G: Virtualizing the Networks for Everything-as-a-Service,
2-16.
In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 4
FOG NETWORKING FOR 5G AND IOT
Stojan Kitanov1,* and Toni Janevski2

1
Mother Teresa University, Faculty of Informatics, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
2
Ss Cyril and Methodius University,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technologies,
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
ABSTRACT
Pushing computing, control, data storage and processing into the cloud has been a
key trend in the past decade. However, in order to meet the computing and intelligent
networking demands in 5G network and IoT, the cloud alone encounters growing
limitations for the requirements such as reduced latency, high mobility, high scalability
and real time execution. Fog Computing and Networking, or briefly Fog emerged to
resolve these limitations. Fog extends the cloud to the edge of the network and distributes
computing, data processing, and networking services closer to end user devices. It is an
architecture where distributed edge and user devices collaborate with each other and with
the clouds to carry out computing, control, networking, and data management tasks. Fog
in 5G network significantly improves the network performance in terms of spectral and
energy efficiency, enables direct device-to-device wireless communications, and supports
the growing trend of network function virtualization and separation of network control
intelligence from radio network hardware. It also effectively addresses a wide range of
unique IoT challenges such as security for resource-constrained endpoints or support for
local analytics. This chapter performs evaluation of the quality of Fog Computing and
Networking service orchestration mechanisms for 5G network and IoT in terms of
latency, throughput, product latency – throughput and energy efficiency.
Keywords: 5G, cloud computing, fog computing, fog networking, IoE, IoT, mobile cloud
computing, WoT
*
Email: stojan.kitanov@unt.edu.mk
46 Stojan Kitanov and Toni Janevski
INTRODUCTION
The key trend in the last decade was to push computing, control, data storage and
processing into the cloud [1 - 4]. However, in order to meet the computing and intelligent
networking demands in 5G network and IoT, the cloud alone encounters growing limitations
for the requirements, such as reduced latency, high mobility, high scalability and real time
execution [5 – 8].
5G would support multiple gigabits per second mobile traffic volumes [9]. It would be a
set of telecommunication technologies and services that should support 1000 times more data
capacity than today, and should provide ultra-low latency response of less than few
milliseconds. Also it should deal with a proliferation of new and complex applications and
services, many of which are unknown today.
The emerging wave of Internet of Things (IoTs) would require seamless mobility support
and geo-distribution in addition to location awareness and low latency. In addition the future
Internet of Everything [10], which is clear evolution of IoT would exacerbate the need for
improved QoS/QoE, supported by services that are orchestrated on-demand and are capable
of adapt at runtime, depending on the contextual conditions, in order to allow reduced
latency, high mobility, high scalability, and real time execution.
All these demands can only be partially fulfilled by existing cloud computing solutions
[11]. A new paradigm called Fog Computing and Networking, or briefly Fog emerged to
resoilve these limits [12 - 14]. Fog distributes computing, data processing, and networking
services closer to the end users. It is an architecture where distributed edge and user devices
collaborate with each other and with the clouds to carry out computing, control, networking,
and data management tasks.
Rather than concentrating data and computation in a small number of large clouds, many
fog systems would be deployed close to end users or where computing and intelligent
networking can best meet user needs. The core idea is to take full advantages of local radio
signal processing, cooperative radio resource management, and distributed storing capabilities
in edge devices, which can decrease the heavy burden on front haul and avoid large-scale
radio signal processing in the centralized baseband unit pool.
Cloud and fog are mutually beneficial: certain functions are naturally more advantageous
to carry out in Fog while others in Cloud [13]. Fog and cloud together applied in 5G network
significantly improve the network performance in terms of spectral and energy efficiency,
enable direct device-to-device wireless communications, and support the growing trend of
network function virtualization and separation of network control intelligence from radio
network hardware [15]. It effectively addresses a wide range of unique IoT challenges such as
security for resource-constrained endpoints or support for local analytics.
The move from a stand-alone cloud to a hybrid cloud and fog environment brings out
several key challenges, including the need for supporting the on-demand orchestration and
runtime adaptation of resilient and trustworthy Fog Services. This is essential for the success
of the future Internet of Everything (IoE).
This chapter evaluates the quality of Fog Computing and Networking service
orchestration mechanisms for 5G network and IoT in terms of latency, throughput, product
latency – throughput and energy efficiency. It is organized is as follows. Firstly, it discusses
the 5G service requirements. After Internet of Things (IoT), Web of Things (WoT) and
Fog Networking for 5G and IoT 47
Internet of Everything are introduced. Then an overview of Fog Networking and Computing
is provided. The fog computing and networking hybrid environment service orchestration
model and architecture for 5G and IoT are also introduced. In addition, the scheduling of
cloud and fog resources to end user devices are explained. Then it is evaluated the quality of
fog computing and networking orchestrated services in 5G and IoT in terms of latency,
throughput, product latency – throughput and energy efficiency. Finally the chapter is
summarized and possible directions for open research challenges and issues are also included.
5G NETWORK SERVICE REQUIREMENTS

The next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards is the Fifth Generation or
5G [7, 8]. 5G would enable the future Internet of Services (IoSs) paradigms such as Anything
as a Service (AaaS), where devices, terminals, machines, and also smart things and robots
would become innovative tools that produce and use applications, services, and data [16].
5G would be a multi-layered heterogeneous network that consists of existing 2G, 3G, 4G
and future Radio Access Technologies (RATs). It may also converge many other radio
technologies like Mobile Satellite System (MSS), Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB),
Wireless Local Access Network (WLAN), Wireless Personal Access network (WPAN),
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access network (WiMAX), etc. with multi-tiers
coverage by macro, pico, femto, relay and other types of small cells. 5G would support a wide
range of applications and services to satisfy the requirements of the information society by the
year 2020 and beyond [6, 7].
5G network will include support of a large number of connected devices and flexible air
interfaces, different interworking technologies that are energy efficient, and will possess
always on-line capabilities [17]. This will require not only upgrade of existing systems, but
also innovation of new protocols and new access technologies altogether.
There are three possible migration paths to 5G network [9, 18]:
 a step-by-step evolutionary path focusing on further enhancements of existing

technologies;
 a revolutionary path using a brand new innovative technologies; or
 a symbiotic integration and convergence of existing or new technologies such as
communication, information systems and electronics, multi radio access
technologies, computing techniques, device-to-device communications, bands, links,
layers, services, multiplexing, etc.
Context-rich support services such as context extraction service, recommendation service

and group privacy service should be supported in 5G. Particularly important is the context
extraction service that performs data mining analysis of mobile data combined with other
forms of data such as social networking data, and sensor network data in order to extract
contextual clues relevant to the user.
Data mining services should be able to scale and analyze large group of people and large
quantities of data (big data) in order to extract collective trends among the population of users
in real time. Additionally, recommendation services based on collective group context rather
than individual context need to be created and scaled. By using these clues, a layer of
recommendation services can be built that creates output which is adjusted to a user, or set of
users with those contextual characteristics [15].
In order to fulfill these demands, 5G systems should deliver a higher order of magnitude
cell capacities and per-user data rate compared to 4G. 5G should support huge mobile traffic
volumes in the order of multiple gigabits per second [9]. It would be a set of
telecommunication technologies and services that support a 1000 times more data capacity
than today, and should provide ultra-low latency response of less than few milliseconds. It
would also deal with a proliferation of new and complex applications and services, many of
which are unknown today.
The network should provide capacity of 50 Gbps per cell, and guarantee anywhere more
than 1 Gbps per user through super dense networking, regardless of the user location,
including the cell edge. Compared to 4G, the cell spectral efficiency would be increased by 3
to 5 times, and the latency response in control plane will be reduced to one half, i.e., to 50 ms.
In addition, 5G would support ultralow latency response of 1 ms in data plane, which is equal
to one tenth of 4G network [9, 17, 18, 19].
In order to enable the forthcoming Internet of Everything (IoE) [10], 5G should provide
4A (Anytime, Anywhere, Anyone, Anything) massive and simultaneous connectivity that
would accommodate one million different mobile devices per unit square kilometer. It would
have flexible and intelligent network architecture with software based structure capable to
analyze data in real time and to provide intelligent and personalized services [6].
5G would provide reliable secure operation with more than 99% network availability.
The network would possess self-healing reconfiguration and self-optimization features. The
battery life of the mobile devices would be increased to 10 times. Finally, 5G will have low
cost for infrastructure and devices and will be 50 to 100 times more efficient in terms of
energy usage per bit, compared to the legacy systems [17].
Таble 1. QoS Requirements for 4G and 5G Networks
Parameters 4G 5G
Air Link User Plane Latency 10 ms 1 ms
Air Link Control Plane Latency 100 ms 50 ms
Simultaneous Connection Density per km2 105 106
Mobility 300 km/h 500 km/h
Uplink Cell Spectral Efficiency 1.8 bps/Hz 5 bps/Hz
Downlink Cell Spectral Efficiency 2.6 bps/Hz 10 bps/Hz
Peak Throughput (Downlink) per Connection 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps 10 Gbps to 50 Gbps
Cell Edge Data Rate 1 Mbps 1 Gbps
Cost Efficiency 10 times 100 times
Packet Delay Budget without Quality Assurance 100 to 300 ms Undetermined
Packet Delay Budget with Guaranteed Quality 50 to 300 ms 1 ms
Packet Loss Ratio for video broadcasting 10–8 (4k UHD) 10–9 (8k UHD)
Packet Loss Ratio for M2M Services 10 –3 10 –4
(without quality assurance)
Packet Loss Ratio for M2M Services 10–6 10 –7
(without guaranteed quality)
Two key traffic models must be considered in 5G. These are high-speed video flow from
the server to the subscriber and massive Machine-to-Machine (M2M), or Device-to-Device
(D2D) communications [19].
The QoS management mechanisms in 5G networks should provide video and VoIP traffic
prioritization towards web-search traffic and other applications tolerant to quality [19]. The
QoS parameters such as, Packet Delay Budget (PDB), or maximum packet delay and Packet
Loss Ratio (PLR) have much lower values to the order of magnitude, than 4G. A comparison
between 4G and 5G networks is given in Table 1.
INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT), WEB OF THINGS (WOT)

AND INTERNET OF EVERYTHING (IOE)
Because of ICT developments, many end-user devices, networks and services acquire
more complicated features and capabilities. Currently the Internet progressively evolves from
a network of interconnected computers (Internet of Computers – IoC) to a network of
interconnected objects, so called Internet of Things (IoT) and moreover any-thing
communications, referred to as Web of Things (WoT) [20]. In future the IoT would clearly
evolve into Internet of Everything (IoE), which would introduce high mobility, high
scalability, real-time, and low latency requirements that raise new challenges on the services
being provided to the users [10]. Nanotechnology, Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID)
and sensor network technologies will contribute in this direction.
Internet of Things (IoT)
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of internetworking smart physical objects or

“things” embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and network connectivity
that enable these objects to collect and exchange data over various networking interfaces and
Internet [10, 21 - 23]. In 2013 the Global Standards Initiative on Internet of Things (IoT-GSI)
defined IoT as the infrastructure of the information society.
IoT allows objects to be sensed and/or controlled remotely across existing network
infrastructure. The smart things may have their own IP addresses, can be embedded in
complex systems, use sensors to obtain information from their environment, and/or use
actuators to interact with it. When IoT is augmented with sensors and actuators, the
technology becomes an instance of the more general class of cyber-physical systems, which
also encompasses technologies such as smart grids, smart homes, intelligent transportation
and smart cities.
Through the exploitation of identification, data capture, processing and communication
capabilities, the IoT makes full use of things to offer services to all kinds of applications,
whilst maintaining the required privacy. The Internet of Things woud create opportunities for
more direct integration between the physical world and computer-based systems, which result
in improved efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit.
Experts estimate that IoT will consist of almost 50 billion objects by 2020 [24] that will
generate large amounts of data from diverse locations. In addition, there would be consequent
necessity for quick aggregation of such big data, as well as to index, store, and process the big
data more effectively.
Web of Things (WoT)
IoT has limited capabilities in the integration of the devices from various manufacturers
into a single application or system, because many incompatible IoT protocols exist. As a
result, the integration of data and services from various devices is extremely complex and
costly. In addition, no unique and universal application layer protocol for IoT exists, that can
work across the many available networking interfaces.
Rather than re-inventing completely new standards, this issue can be solved by using the
existing and well-known Web application layer protocols, standards and blueprints for
connecting heterogeneous devices. This is known as Web of Things (WoT) [20].
The WoT is considered an IoT by integrating smart things not only into the Internet (the
network), but into the Web (the application layer). WoT provides an Application Layer that
simplifies the creation of IoT applications.
The physical devices can be accessed as web resources by using standard Web protocols,
where the services/applications can be provided either upon a web-based service
environment, or legacy telecommunications. Therefore, the integration across the systems and
applications will be much easier. The services and data offered by smart web objects will be
available to a larger pool of web developers that will enable them to build new scalable and
interactive applications which will be beneficial for everyone.
Internet of Everything (IoE)
In future everyday objects will interact and communicate each other by using the network
intelligence that allows convergence, orchestration and visibility across disparate systems.
Large amounts of data will circulate between the objects in order to create smart and
proactive environments that will significantly enhance the user experience. Smart interacting
objects will adapt to the current situation with or without any human involvement. This will
cause IoT and WoT to evolve into Internet of Everything (IoE) [10, 21, 23].
IoE is the intelligent connection of people, process, data and things. It brings together
people, process, data, and things to make networked connections more relevant and valuable
than ever before [10, 21, 23]. It also turns information into actions that create new
capabilities, richer experiences and unprecedented economic opportunity for businesses,
individuals and countries.
The main drivers that will enable the IoE to become reality are: the development of IP
devices, the global availability of broadband services and the advent of IPv6. The network
plays a critical role in the Internet of Everything – it must provide an intelligent, manageable,
secure infrastructure that can scale to support billions of context-aware devices. The main
elements in IoE are: people, process, data, and things (See Figure 1).
Figure 1. Internet of Everything Connectivity.
People or humans would be able to connect to the Internet with different devices, like
smartphones, PCs and tablets, as well as through social networks, such as Facebook and
LinkedIn. In addition, they themselves will become nodes on the Internet, with both static
information and a constantly emitting activity system (for example the health status) [23].
Data will be collected by the smart things, where it will be transformed into useful rich
information that will be transmitted throughout the Internet to a central source (machines,
computers and people) for further processing, analysis, evaluation and decision making. The
data transform into information is very important because it will enable us to make faster,
more intelligent decisions, as well as control our environment more effectively [23].
The smart things, or objects consist of sensors, meters, actuators, consumer devices, and
enterprise assets that are connected to the Internet and each other. In IoE, these smart things
will sense more data, become context-aware, and provide more experiential information to
help people and machines make more relevant and valuable decisions [23].
The process manages the way people, data, and things work together. It plays an
important role in the way of communication and cooperation among people, data, and things
in order to deliver an economic value and social benefits in the connected world of IoE. With
the correct process, connections become relevant and add value because the right information
is delivered to the right person at the right time in the most appropriate way [23].
OVERVIEW OF FOG COMPUTING AND NETWORKING

Fog Computing and Networking extends cloud computing and services to the edge of the
network. It is an architecture that users one or a collaborative multitude of end-user clients or
near-user edge devices to carry out a substantial amount of storage, communication and
management. It will combine the study of mobile communications, micro-clouds, distributed
systems, and consumer big data [13].
Fog is an environment where a huge number of heterogeneous (wireless and sometimes
autonomous) ubiquitous and decentralized devices communicate and potentially cooperate
among them and with the network to perform storage and processing tasks without the
intervention of third parties [14]. These tasks support basic network functions or new services
and applications that run in a sand-boxed environment. Users leasing part of their devices to
host these services get incentives for doing so.
The main characteristics of the fog computing and networking are its proximity to end-
users, its dense geographical distribution, its support for mobility, the heterogeneity of
devices, and the real time interactions with the applications. By hosting fog services at the
network edge or even end devices such as set-top-boxes, or access points service latency will
be reduced, and the QoS and QoE will be improved. All of these will result in superior user-
experience. Fog will support the emerging IoT applications and the future IoE that demand
realtime/predictable latency (industrial automation, transportation, networks of sensors and
actuators). Therefore, fog computing and networking is well positioned for real time big data
analytics in 5G and IoT.
The main difference between cloud and fog is basically in three dimensions: storage,
communication and management [13]. The substantial amount of data in the fog is stored near
the end-user, while in the cloud is stored primarily in large-scale data centers. The substantial
amount of communication in the fog is performed at or near the end user, while in the cloud
all communication is routed through the backbone network. The network measurement,
control, configuration and other type of management is carried out in the fog near the end
user with the fog computing and networking nodes, while in the cloud it is primarily
performed by the gateways located in the core network. More detailed comparison between
fog and cloud is given in in Table 2 [25].
The existence of Fog would be enabled by both the emerging trends on technology usage
patterns, and the advances on enabling technologies. Cloud and fog are inter-dependent, e.g.,
coordination among devices in a Fog may rely on the Cloud. Fog is also a continuum of the
cloud, because the smartphones can be viewed as a cloud. They are also mutually beneficial:
certain functions are naturally more advantageous to carry out in Fog while others in Cloud
[13].
Table 2. A Comparison between Cloud and Fog Computing
Cloud Computing Fog Computing and Networking

Target Type General Internet Users Mobile Users
Service Type Global Information Collected Limited localized information
from Worldwide services related to specific
deployment locations
Service Location Within the Internet At the edge of the local network
Distance between Multiple hops Single hop
client and server
Number of server Few Very large
nodes
Latency High Low
Delay jitter High Very low
Geo-distribution Centralized Distributed
Security Undefined Can be defined
Hardware Ample and scalable storage, Limited storage, processing and
processing and computing power computing power, wireless interface
Deployment Centralized and maintained by Distributed in regional areas and
OTT service providers maintained by local businesses
Today there is already large and increasing range of smart phones, tablets, set-top boxes
and small cell base stations (femto cells) that possess resources for powerful computation,
communication, storage and sensing capabilities. All these resources can be distributed to the
end users in more efficient manner with these devices.
There is a variety of applications that may benefit of fog computing and networking.
Some of them are healthcare for monitoring the patients, augmented reality applications that
require very low latency, caching and preprocessing for improving the web site performance,
etc.
Reasons for the Rise of Fog Computing and Networking
There are several reasons for the rise of fog computing and networking [13]. Some of
them are:
1. Real time processing and cyber-physical system control. Edge data analytics, as
well as the actions it enables through control loops, often have very stringent time
requirement in the order of few milliseconds that can be carried out only at the
network edge. This is particularly essential for Tactile Internet, that enables virtual-
reality-type interfaces between humans and devices.
2. Cognition or awareness of client-centric objectives. The applications can be
enabled by knowing the requirements and the preferences of the clients. This is
particularly true when privacy and reliability cannot be trusted in the Cloud, or when
security is enhanced by shortening the extent over which communication is carried
out.
3. Increased efficiency by Pooling of idle and unused local resources. The idle and
unused gigabytes on many devices, the idle processing power, the sensing ability and
the wireless connectivity within the edge may be pooled within a fog network.
4. Agility or Rapid innovation and affordable scaling. It will take some time the
vendors of large boxes inside the network to adopt an innovation. On the other hand,
it is usually much faster and cheaper to experiment with client and edge devices. In a
fog environment, a small team may take advantages of smart phone Application
Programming Interface (API) and Software Development Kit (SDK), proliferation of
mobile applications, and offer a networking service through its own API.
5. Feasibility to operate on encrypted and multipath traffic. Today data leaves the
edge of the network and enters the network backbone. However, the user data is
already encrypted and traverses through multiple paths, which makes it expensive to
operate on such data.
Fog Computing and Networking Architecture
The fog computing and networking architecture uses one or a collaborative multitude of
end-user clients or near-user edge devices to carry out a substantial amount of storage,
communication and management [13]. An overview of general fog architecture is given in
Figure 2. Each smart thing device is attached to one of fog devices in the RAN network that
could be interconnected and each of them is linked to the centralized cloud via the IP/MPLS
core part of the network.
The intermediate fog layer in the RAN network consists of geo-distributed intelligent fog
computing and networking servers which are deployed at the edge of networks, e.g., parks,
bus terminals, shopping centers, etc. Each fog server is a highly virtualized computing system
and is equipped with on-board large volume data storage, compute and wireless
communication facility [25].
Figure 2. Fog Computing and Networking Architecture.
Figure 3. Data and Control Plane of Fog Computing and Networking.

The role of fog servers is to bridge the smart mobile device things and the cloud. Each
smart thing device is attached to one of fog servers that could be interconnected and each of
them is linked to the cloud [14]. The geo-distributed intelligent fog servers directly
communicate with the mobile users through single-hop wireless connections using the off-
the-shelf wireless interfaces, such as, LTE, WiFi, Bluetooth, etc. They can independently
provide pre-defined service applications to mobile users without assistances from cloud or
Internet. In addition, the fog servers are connected to the cloud in order to leverage the rich
functions and application tools of the cloud.
Fog computing and networking contains both data plane and control plane that will
enable different applications with different communication protocols over all layers in the
OSI system [28]. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Fog data plane is focused on 5G mobile network, IoT and the future IoE. Some of the
possible applications of the fog data plane are:
 Pooling of idle computing/storage/bandwidth resources from the local clients [26];

 Pooling of local content;
 Content caching at the edge of the network in order to reduce the network overload;
 Local network bandwidth management according to each session’s priority and
individual preferences in order to achieve scalable, economical and accurate control
of capacity [27];
 Client-driven distributed beam-forming in order to improve the throughput and
reliability [28];
 Client-to-client direct communications (Peer-to-Peer communications); and
 Cloudlets and micro data-centers.
Fog control plane is mainly about cyber physical system control and real time data
analytics. Some of the possible applications of the Fog control plane are:
 Over the Top (OTT) content management and network provisioning, by using end
user client devices for the tasks such as Universal Resource Locator (URL)
wrapping, content tagging, location tracking, behavior monitoring, in order faster to
innovate the network services;
 Fog-RAN: Fog driven radio access network, by migrating the cloud from the core
part of the network to the RAN part of the network;
 Client-based control in selecting the network in Heterogeneous network environment
[29];
 Client side control of the privacy of the Cloud storage [30];
 Session management and signaling load at the edge of the network, in order to reduce
the overload in the core part of the network;
 Crowd-sensing inference of network states such as the number of resource blocks
used, by using a combination of passive received signal strength measurement (e.g.,
RSRQ), active probing (e.g., packet train), application throughput correlation and
historical data mining [31].; and
 Edge analytics and real-time stream-mining by using both cloud computing centers
and fog devices [32].
FOG COMPUTING AND NETWORKING HYBRID ENVIRONMENT

SERVICE ORCHESTRATOR MODEL FOR 5G AND IOT
Traditional service orchestration approaches that have been applied to Cloud Computing
[1 - 4] are not adequate to the forthcoming large-scale and dynamic 5G services [5 - 8] since
they cannot effectively cope with reduced latency, high mobility, high scalability, and real
time execution. Therefore, a new fog computing and networking Hybrid Environment Service
Orchestration (HESO) model for 5G and IoT is needed, that will be capable of ensuring the
resilience and trustworthiness of open, large scale, dynamic services on the Fog [15].
The HESO Orchestrator will be responsible for the composition of service elements
available in the fog environment (e.g., sensing, connectivity, storage, processing, platform
services, and software services) into more complex fog services (e.g., traffic crowd sensing
and trip planning services) to be offered to the users in the fog environment. The execution of
the fog services may involve multiple different components and entities spread in a wide area,
increasing the complexity in terms of the decision making process in what regards the
resource allocation to achieve acceptable QoS/QoE levels. To coordinate the execution of the
fog services, the orchestration mechanisms need to synchronize and combine the operation of
the different service elements in order to meet the specifications of the composed fog
services, including low latency, scalability and resilience.
Figure 4. Hybrid Environment Service Orchestrator Model for Fog Computing.

The HESO in Fog should operate in a loosely coupled mode, resulting in a solution with
several levels: Regional Service Orchestrator (RSO), Domain Service Orchestrator (DSO),
and Federated Service Orchestrator (FSO), as it is shown in Figure 4.
The RSOs are located at the edges of the Fog environment and enable semi-autonomous
operation of the different Fog Regions. This allows the distribution of the load which
provides scalability and much higher proximity to the end users with lower latencies.
The DSO is responsible for the Fog domains and supervises the RSOs below. This level
would support mechanisms to enable intra-domain cooperation between different regions.
The FSO allows a fruitful interaction between different Fog domains. It is responsible for
the management between different Fog domains and, similarly to the DSOs, it should be
properly adapted to operate in a federate Cloud environment. The FSOs will support
federation mechanisms to enable cooperation among different Fog Domains (e.g., belonging
to different entities or under the administration of different authorities) and the creation of a
Multi-Domain Fog Environment able to support service ubiquity.
HESO model is flexible and scalable and can be implemented in any network technology
standard. In particular, its application is important for critical usage cases of IoT devices and
Tactile Internet that requires 1 ms end-to-end latency in order to provide virtual-reality-type
interfaces between humans and machines. In addition big data analytics that requires real time
processing with stringent time requirement can only be carried out in the fog [33].
FOG COMPUTING AND NETWORKING SERVICE

ORCHESTRATION ARCHITECTURE FOR 5G AND IOT
The fog computing and networking architecture of the HESO model is given in Figure 5.
It consists of several tier levels.
The top tier level is the Federated Service Orchestrator (FSO) which allows a fruitful
interaction between different cloud computing Domain Service Orchestrators (DSOs). The
FSO with its federation mechanisms and with its FSO Data Center will enable cooperation
and exchange of data among communication links. The domains may belong to different
entities, and can be administered by different authorities. Like that a multi-domain fog
environment will be created, that will support service ubiquity.
The next tier level contains the cloud computing centers or cloud computing Domain
Service Orchestrators (DSOs). Each DSO is responsible for a single domain and supervises
several FogRAN Regional Service Orchestrators (RSOs) below. The DSO would support
federation mechanisms to enable intra-domain cooperation and exchange of data between
different fog regions. This is enabled through the cloud gateways, fog-cloud communication
links and fog-cloud gateway. Each cloud computing center contains multiple high-end high
performance computing cloud data centers, servers, and cloud storage that are capable of
processing and storing an enormous amount of data.
The third tier level is the fog computing and networking layer, that consists of the 5G
Radio Access Network (5G RAN), or FogRAN Regional Service Orchestrators (RSOs). Each
RSO enables semi-autonomous operation a particular local cloud region. Each RSO could be
interconnected with other RSOs and each of them is linked to the cloud. This allows the
distribution of the load which provides therefore scalability and a much higher proximity to
the end users and therefore lower latencies.
The fog computing and networking layer comprises of geo-distributed fog devices,
deployed at the edge of the network, such as Fog Data Center and Fog Storage, that are
intelligent enough to process, compute, and temporarily store the received information. The
fog devices directly communicate with the mobile users through edge gateway and single-hop
wireless connections using the off-the-shelf wireless interfaces, such as, LTE, WiFi,
Bluetooth, etc. They can independently provide pre-defined service applications to mobile
users without assistances from cloud or Internet. In addition, the fog servers are connected to
the cloud in order to leverage the rich functions and application tools of the cloud.
Figure 5. Fog Computing and Networking Hybrid Environment Service Orchestration Architecture for
5G Network and IoT.
Figure 6. Scheduling of Local Distributed Peer-to-Peer Mobile Cloud Resources to the Smart Device.
Finally, the bottom tier level consists of local cloud regions, formed by a group of smart
devices, such as smartphones, IoT, sensors, which sense multitude of events and transmit the
sensed data to the upper fog computing and networking layer, for further processing if
necessary. Within this region the smart devices can be either resource users, or resource
providers. The devices form so called local distributed peer-to-peer mobile cloud, where each
device shares the resources with other devices in the same local cloud. The devices in each
local cloud elect a Local Cloud Resource Scheduler, that performs management on the
resource requests and allocates tasks to the devices in the local cloud or Fog Data Center if
necessary. The decision about the election of the Local Cloud Resource Scheduler is done
according to the connectivity to the local network, CPU performance battery life time, etc.
One device can be served by several FOGRANs, and one device can be elected as local cloud
resource scheduler for several local cloud regions.
The locally distributed peer-to-peer mobile cloud has its own strong capacities such as
storage space, computational power, online time, and bandwidth. The workload of the
application is managed in a distributed fashion without any point of centralization. The lack
of centralization provides scalability, while exploitation of user resources reduces the service
cost. The local cloud has ability to adapt to network failures and dynamically changing
network topology with a transient population of devices, while ensuring acceptable
connectivity and performance.
The following subsections explain the scheduling of cloud computing resources to the
smart user device.
Scheduling of Cloud Resources from the Locally Distributed Peer-to-Peer

Mobile Cloud Computing Devices
The scheduling of the cloud resources in the distributed peer-to-peer mobile cloud region
is given Figure 6. Smart device 1 request cloud resources from the Local Cloud Resource
Coordinator for data processing. The request includes information what type of task the
device has to perform, how many resources the device has, and how many additional
resources are needed to perform the task.
Local Cloud Resource Coordinator acknowledges this request and starts to search for
available cloud resources from the other smart user devices. When the available cloud
resources are found for example in smart device 2, the local cloud resource coordinator
allocates them to the smart device 1, and notifies him about this allocation. The local cloud
resource coordinator may allocate resources from several smart devices.
When the local cloud resources are assigned to smart user device 1, it starts to transmit
the task requests to the cloud resource provider (smart device 2). Smart device 2
acknowledges the task request, and starts to process the tasks, according to the instructions in
the task requests. When the results are obtained the smart device 2 forwards them to the smart
device 1, and also informs the cloud resource coordinator that its cloud resources are released.
Allocation of Cloud and FogRAN Resources to the Smart User Device
If the cloud resources provided to the user from the local cloud are insufficient, then the
user would request cloud resource from the serving FOGRAN, or the cloud computing center.
This is illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Scheduling of Cloud and FogRAN Computing Resources to the Smart Device.
The smart device requests cloud resources from the serving RSO. The request includes
information about what type of task the device has to perform, and how many resources are
needed to perform the task.
Upon the request being received, the serving RSO acknowledges this request and checks
whether with it has a capability to process this request. If there are sufficient cloud resources,
the serving RSO will send an assignment notification of the cloud resources to the smart user
device.
If the serving RSO doesn’t possess enough resources to process the request, it will
communicate the neighboring RSO. Several neighboring RSOs can be contacted. The
neighboring RSO will send either positive or negative acknowledgement to the request
depending whether it has the necessary resources. If the neighbor RSO sends a positive
acknowledgement it will send assignment notification about the cloud resources to the smart
user device via the serving RSO.
If the neighboring RSO sends a negative response, then the serving RSO will forward the
request to the serving DSO. The serving DSO acknowledges the request and checks whether
it contains the necessary information requested by the user device. If the serving DSO possess
the relevant cloud resources, it will notify the serving smart user device via the serving RSO.
If the serving DSO does not contain the necessary information, it will forward this
request to the FSO. The FSO will acknowledge this request and it will start to look for DSOs
that will be capable to deal with this request. When such DSO is found, the FSO will assign
the cloud resources to the correspondent FSO, and will notify the serving DSO about the
resource assignment. Several neighbor DSOs can be assigned. The serving DSO will forward
this notification to to the smart user device, via the serving RSO.
When the notification is received by the smart user, it will start to transmit the task
request to the relevant cloud resource providers. The cloud resource providers will process the
task and will forward the task results to the smart user device.
QUALITY EVALUATION OF FOG COMPUTING AND

NETWORKING ORCHESTRATED SERVICES IN 5G AND IOT
The quality evaluation of fog and networking orchestrated services in 5G and IoT can be
explored in terms of Round Trip Time (RTT) latency, throughput, product latency –
throughput, and energy efficiency per user for different payload. The following scenario is
used. There is a region in which are located a group of N smart user devices, which are
simultaneously covered by several different RANs. Each RAN is connected to several clouds,
which can be in the same or different region with the RANs. First five clouds are in the same
region with the RANs, and the other 5 clouds are in a different region with the RANs. The
users are assumed to have equally capable smartphone devices, and are located on a different
distance from the RANs. The users can be simultaneously served by the RANs and the
clouds. The simulation results are based on referent average values for the peak data and the
RTT latency of 3G, 4G and 5G Network RAN, that can be found in [9, 17, 19, 34 - 37] and
are summarized in Table 4. Here it is assumed that 5G RAN has 90% improvement in energy
per bit over 4G [13].
Round Trip Time Latency
RTT latency is the time it takes for a single data transaction to occur, meaning the time it
takes for the packet of data to travel to and from the source to the destination, and back to the
source [36 - 37]. The RTT latency between the user equipment to any cloud via any RAN is
equal to:
Table 3. Throughput, Latency and Energy Efficiency for 3G, 4G and 5G RAN networks
RAN Type
Parameter 3G 4G 5G
Latency [ms] 70 20 5
Peak Data Rate [Gbps] 0.021 3 40
Energy per bit [µJ/bit] 100 170 17
(Data File: 10 KB)
Energy per bit [µJ/bit] 4 0.3 0.03
(Data File: 10 MB)
RTT  RTTRAN  RTTRAN CLOUD (1)
where RTTRAN represents RTT latency for any RAN network, and RTTRAN CLOUD represents
the RTT Latency between the RAN network and the cloud. The average RTTRAN values for
3G, 4G and 5G are given in Table 3, and the average values of RTTRAN CLOUD varies from 50
ms to 500 ms depending whether the cloud is in the same or different region with the RAN
network. For simulation purposes randomly generated values were used for RTTRAN CLOUD .
Cloud 1 is the least distant from the RANs, with the lowest RAN – CLOUD latency, while
cloud 10 is the most distant from the RANs, with the highest RAN – CLOUD latency.
500 cloud 1
450 cloud 2
400 cloud 3
350 cloud 4
Latency [ms]
300
cloud 5
250
cloud 6
200
cloud 7
150
100 cloud 8
50
0
3G RAN 4G RAN 5G RAN
Figure 8. RTT Latency between the User Device and the Cloud through a particular RAN.
80
70
60
Latency [ms]
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 9. RTT Latency in the Fog Computing and Networking Environment.
The simulation results for the RTT latency for different RANs are given in Figure 8. RTT
latency between the user equipment and any cloud is the lowest for 5G RAN, and the highest
for 3G RAN, and the user will have preferences to choose the 5G RAN. The RTT latency for
any RAN exponentially increases from cloud 1 to cloud 10, because cloud 1 has the lowest
latency to the RANs, and cloud 10 has the highest latency to the RANs.
If there is a fog device in the RAN (Fog RAN) and information requested by the user is
located in the fog, the RTT latency for any user becomes:
RTT  RTTRAN (2)
The RTT Latency of 5G network in the Fog environment is shown in Figure 9. The RTT
latency here is significantly reduced compared to the RTT Latency in 5G network in the
cloud, especially for 5G RAN to the order of few miliseconds.
Throughput
Throughput is the quantity of data that can pass from source to destination in a specific
time [36]. The total throughput of any user served by M RANs (M = 10) is:
M
T   rT
i RANi (3)
i 1
Here ri is the weight coefficient equal to 0 or 1, that identifies whether the user will use
the flow of a particular RAN in the total throughput. The user throughput for each RAN
TRANi can be calculated as a ratio of the peak data rate R in the RAN, and the number of users
N served by one, or all clouds connected to that RAN is:
R
TRANi  (4)
N
The peak data rate R for each RAN depends from the distance between the user device
and the RAN, where a different modulation coding scheme is used. However for simplicity
the impact of the distance here is neglected. The number of the users N is varied between 100
and 1000.
0.6
User Throughput [Gbps]
0.5
0.4
3G RAN
0.3
4G RAN
0.2
5G RAN
0.1 Combined
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Number of Users
Figure 10. User Throughput in the Fog Computing and Networking Environment.
The user throughput results are shown in Figure 10. 5G RAN offers much higher user
throughput than 4G and 3G, which means that much higher quantity data can pass through 5G
RAN, compared to 4G and 3G networks. One important feature in 5G will be the user
equipment to be simultaneously connected to several RANs, i.e. to combine the flows from
several RANs, for a single application or service. The combined user throughput is a sum
from the user throughputs from the individual RANs. This approach offers the highest user
throughput. In addition, the network overload is significantly reduced, and energy efficiency
in the 5G network RAN is significantly improved.
0.03
RTT x User Throughput [Gbit]
0.025
0.02
0.015 3G RAN
4G RAN
0.01
5G RAN
0.005
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Number of Users
Figure 11. Product RTT x User Throughput for Cloud 1.

Product Latency – Throughput
The product RTT x User Throughput and RTT x Peak Data Rate correspond to the
bandwidth delay product, i.e. to the maximum amount of data on the network at any given
time, that has been transmitted but not yet acknowledged. The simulation results for these
products for cloud 1 and 10 are given Figure 11 and Figure 12. The simulation results for the
product RTT x peak data rate for Cloud 1 and 10 are given in Figure 13. It can be noticed that
5G RAN has better performances than 4G and 3G RANs, and therefore smart user device
would prefer to choose the 5G RAN.
0.18
0.16
RTT x User Throughput [Gbit]
0.14
0.12
0.1
3G RAN
0.08
4G RAN
0.06
5G RAN
0.04
0.02
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Number of Users
Figure 12. Product RTT x User Throughput for Cloud 10.
20 19
18
RTT X PEAK DATA RATE [GBITS]
16
14
12
10 cloud 1
8 cloud 10
6
4 2.48
1.425
2 0.219
0.00252 0.009975
0
Figure 13. Product RTT x Peak Data Rate for Cloud 1 and 10.
Energy Efficiency per User
The energy efficiency per user (EE) is explored through the energy consumption per user
that uses fog or cloud computing service. The energy consumption per user is a product of the
energy per bit which depends from the RAN type and the size of data file being transferred to
the user:
EC  EranT (5)
where, EC is the energy consumption per user, Eran is the energy per bit that depends from
the type of the RAN given in Table 3, and T is the size of the payload 10 KB or 10 MB.
Data File Size

400 335.54 10 KB
Consumption [J]
300
200
Energy
100 8.192 13.93 25.16 1.39 2.52

0
3G 4G 5G
Radio Access Network
Figure 14. Energy Efficiency in Fog Computing and Networking Environment.
The simulation results for different payloads and RANs are provided in Figure 14. The
following can be concluded. 3G RAN wastes a lot of energy for the transfer of big data files.
4G RAN provides much better energy efficiency for large data files, compared to 3G RAN.
On the other hand, 4G RAN wastes energy for the transfer of small data files, and 3G RAN
demonstrates better performances. Finally, 5G RAN has the best energy efficiency for the
transfer independently from the size of data files, that the user is requesting them from the fog
or cloud.
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

The results clearly demonstrate the benefits of fog computing and networking
orchestration Mechanisms in 5G and IoT. In particular, the big data analytics that requires
real time processing and very often has stringent time requirement can only be carried out in
the fog. This is essential for critical usage cases of IoT devices and Tactile Internet where 1
ms end-to-end latency is required in the network in order to provide virtual-reality-type
interfaces between humans and machines (human-machine interaction and machine-machine
interaction) [33]. In 5G network where the smart user device will be served by different
RANs, it has to make choice which RAN will be the most suitable for transferring data files.
The choice should be make primarily of the size of data files being transferred, throughput,
latency, energy efficiency, etc.
CONCLUSION
This chapter provided a survey of Fog Computing and Networking for 5G and IoT. First
it provided an overview of 5G service requirements and the Internet of Things, as well as the
future Internet of Everything. It also provided an overview of Fog Computing and
Networking. Then fog computing and networking Hybrid Environment Service Orchestrator
model and architecture for resilient and trustworthy Fog Computing and Networking services
for 5G network and IoT was proposed. The scheduling of cloud and fog computing resources
were also discussed. Finally it was performed quality evaluation of Fog Computing and
Networking Orchestrated Services in 5G and IoT in terms of RTT Latency, user throughput,
product RTT Latency – user throughput, and energy efficiency per user for different payloads
and RANs. The results clearly show that 5G and IoT will have a great benefit of using the
Fog Computing and Networking environment, because its service orchestration mechanisms
will effectively cope with the forthcoming services that require reduced latency, high
mobility, high scalability and real-time execution. This is particularly important for Tactile
Internet where 1 ms end-to-end latency is required in the network in order to provide virtual-
reality-type interfaces between humans and machines.
The cloud in 5G networks will be diffused among the client devices, often with mobility
too, i.e., the cloud will become fog. 5G in the fog would use the benefits of the centralized
cloud, CRAN and Fog RAN cloud and the distributed Peer-to-Peer mobile cloud among the
devices which would create opportunities for companies to deploy many new real-time
services that cannot be delivered over current mobile and wireless networks. More and more
virtual network functionality would be executed in a fog computing environment, which
would provide mobiquitous service to the users. This will enable new services paradigms
such as AaaS, where devices, terminals, machines, and also smart things and robots will
become innovative tools that produce and use applications, services and data. This is also
essential for the success of the future IoE, which is a clear evolution of the IoT.
However there are still open issues that need to be resolved. For example, the selection of
RAN and cloud flows that will be combined and used for a single service or application by
the smart user will depend from payload type, low latency requirements, high throughput
requirements, and optimal latency throughput, or bandwidth delay, or energy efficiency of the
clouds and the RANs. The algorithm for selecting the RAN and cloud flows are the possible
directions for further research. In addition, Peer-to-Peer Mobile Cloud should be explored in
more details. The Fog – Fog and Fog – Cloud interface is another challenging issue in order
to make the transfer of information much easier.
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 5
5G: THE PATH TOWARDS ZETABYTE AND

THE INTERNET OF THINGS
Abdulrahman Yarali*, PhD

Telecommunications Systems Management, Institute of Engineering,
ABSTRACT
The collective evolutions of computing into mobile cloud computing, cloud storage,
big data analytics and access grow exponentially and so is the anticipated user base with
the advent of other emergent technologies such as Internet of Everything (IoE) and 5G
wireless communications systems. Based on the statistics by ITU, by the year 2010 the
mobile users had already hit 4.6 billion and this numbers are expected to continue rising.
Despite issues with economic recession, communication demand continued to rise.
Previously used networks include the 2G, 3G and 4G networks, systems that have been
adopted in sending and receiving of data either in video, text or voice form. However,
there have been limitations with these previous systems especially in terms of speed,
quality, connectivity, scalability and reliability. This has been the reason for the IT and
telecommunications sectors rushing in the development of a better and more advanced
system, the 5G network which is presumed will offer the world a better experience. 5G is
the next step in the progression of wireless cellular technology. It is a more efficient, less
expensive, and more effective and safe way of implementing the Internet of Things than
any other technology platform. As the number of wirelessly connected devices continues
to exponentially grow, 5G will need to be designed to accommodate the growing demand
for diverse applications and services. To meet this need the 5G architecture will need to
be designed to provide an extremely larger capacity and coverage, faster data rates and
higher throughput, and shorter end to end response times. One of the key upgrades to that
architecture will be the seamless interconnection with other networks such as WLANs
creating a heterogeneous network. 5G is going to increase the number of applications and
services that can be provided for large businesses, households, and individual users. The
baseline of all this is to ensure a better user experience and the fact that they can access or
send information ubiquitously faster and easily for all their needs. In the next few years
*
Email: ayarali@murraystate.edu
the internet is expected to surpass the Zetabyte threshold, IP traffic will also increase and
more massive, and critical devices will be connected. This chapter will be addressing the
path to Zetabyte under the 5G platform and its promise to realize IoT. Also, a technical
economic analysis of 5G and IoT is presented.
Keywords: M2M, 5G, IoT, architecture, applications and services
INTRODUCTION
Technological advancements with the mobile technology have proven to bare great
significance to our everyday lives. Researchers and technologists have been so much focused
in a world of very advanced technology, especially when referring to wireless
communication. The early network systems were quite inconveniencing, systems such as 1G
and 2G that could only provide very slow speeds and low capacities. This led to the
development of 3G and additionally 4G network that speeds and data capacity has been fairly
higher. According to CISCO, presently 4G has not yet been fully implemented but the world
has shifted fast to the development of 5G. The overwhelming data amounts and need for
higher speeds has caused the world to shift in this direction.
Figure 1. Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast Update, 2014-2019,
February 2015.
According to CISCO, in 2019 the world is expected to hit the 2 Zetabyte mark. This will
be attributed to by the increased number or internet users, more devices will be connected to
the internet, better speeds and more video uploads. Video will increase as more may opt for
video conferencing and Skype in HD video which usually comes in huge capacities. The
number of devices connected to the internet is expected to rise up by 24.4 billion and the
number of users will rise up to 3.9 billion. The pressure that is expected from the many
connections will force the adoption of 5G systems since the in internet will be overwhelmed
at that time (Singh 2012).
5G: The Path Towards Zetabyte and the Internet of Things 73
Based on the research by CISCO, it shows that the IP traffic will rise too high and there
are expectations of the network tripling. In fact by the year 2020, the capacities may hit 2
Zetabyte which is a very huge capacity. Overall statistics show growth will be in terms of
194EB in a month for the next 4 years. The amazing growth of traffic in the previous will best
be handled if 5G technology is adopted to address these issues.
There are various trends and paths that have led to the need for Zetabyte mobile internet
under the 5G network platform. They shall be discussed as below:
Changes in Devices and Network Connections
Based on the global statistics, the number of devices has been rising every day and this
has contributed to the huge number of connections. The rate at which the internet is being
used in the current days cannot be compared to the past. The images and videos being shared
between devices is a show that the data amounts that shall be handled in the coming years
shall be high. The number of devices per region has increased with new devices being
registered every year.
Additionally, technological advancement has also been a major contribution to the many
internet connections. Consider the case of surveillance connections that make use of Wi-Fi
networks, transportation tracking and health care systems. All these make use of networks
nowadays and a great extent of traffic can be attributed to them. It’s in fact expected that by
the year 2020 almost 46 percent of all the devices will be connected to the internet. Such
devices will include laptops, TVs, smartphones, tablets, set boxes and DVD players and many
others. All these will be expected to run on a 5G platform due to the capability to handle huge
amounts of data. Most businesses and institutions will be running on the internet platform
hence this informs the reason for the huge traffic anticipated as we approach 2020.
The United States, South Korea and Japan will be the major holders in the huge number
of connections. These countries are expected to play a major contribution to the internet
connections. In terms of percentage, the U.S is expected to contribute 12.3%, South Korea
12.2% and Japan at 11.9%. Unless the 5G network is adopted, this will be too overwhelming
especially with the data amounts hitting Zetabyte levels (Cisco 2016).
The videos are expected to bring a lot of impact to the mobile internet. Due to the
introduction of HD streaming, this has contributed to the bit impact. A HD video requires
about 18Mbps transmitting a high quality video. Such videos are expected in the coming
years which will result in a huge increase in the 4k video traffic.
The Adoption of IPv6
The IPv6 technology will be meant to increase the connectivity of the devices to the
internet. The devices under this platform will bare more capability and at the same time
content handling will be better. Most of the parts of the world have already exhausted the
IPv4 allocation for them, places such as Europe, Asia and North America. If the IPv6 is not
adopted that could mean that no more devices will be slotted in to be connected to the
internet. Therefore, the IPv6 environment is necessary to ensure connection of the additional
billions of devices expected to be connected by 2020.
IPv6 is among the platforms created towards the achievement of the Zetabyte mobile
internet technology. Already a traffic increase has been registered with the IPv6 and it’s
anticipated that the traffic will continue upwards towards hitting the Zetabyte mark. This is
due to more devices being connected to the internet. Still the number of devices presently is
low but if this continued to increase, then its anticipated that the amounts of data will rise up
to 55EB monthly, traffic from the mobile devices and this will result to even more pressure
on the internet traffic.
Another effort that is being made towards the achievement of Zetabyte mobile
technology is the changes that are being made to the content providers. Due to the entry of the
IPv6 environment into the market, this has forced the content provider to make changes such
that they can also accommodate devices in this platform. This will be the case with most of
the very popular sites such as Facebook and YouTube which are commonly used all over the
world. This is meant to ensure full compatibility of the systems such that they are able to
support these devices (Rodriguez 2015).
Allowing M2M Applications
The internet has played a major contribution with regard to the sharing of information
and data over the internet. More and more devices are each day getting connected to the
internet with expectations that the M2M applications will equally rise high. By the year 2020
many of the devices at home will be connected and this will contribute to the huge data
amounts that are anticipated by this time. Health care devices such as medicine dispensers
will be connected to the internet for ease of dispatch of medicine to the patients. Further,
information about the livestock especially with regard to tracking and medication shall be
stored in the internet which translates to huge data amounts.
The IP traffic due to the data sourced from the M2M applications is expected to more
than triple as the data continues to rise each day. As more and more applications that take up
videos continue to be adopted, this has continued to raise the capacities of data. Consider the
case of smart car applications that are meant to guide a driver in their driving on the road or
through places they have never been to. The bandwidth continues to grow each year and the
rate has been quite overwhelming, with time the Zetabyte mark may be hit and hence the need
to migrate fast enough. The data will also be quite huge to be transferred, hence the need for a
very strong network such as the 5G network with high speeds and good capability for this
(Carles Anton-Haro 2015).
Trends with Service Adoption
In the past few years, since 2014 there has been a rapid increase in online games. This
has been attributed to the development of interest in the social networking platforms as more
and more seek solace and entertainment in these platforms. Social networking together with
online gaming has played major contribution to the rise in the bandwidth and the data being
handled has been rising at the rate of 8.5% with more than 2 billion expected for registration
in 2016. At this rate, it’s expected that the internet will be handling more than 6 billion
devices by 2020 at slightly higher than a Zetabyte.
It’s expected that the digital TV and the social media will play a major contribution to the
huge data. With these services, users usually tend to upload videos, taking images and many
other files have accounted for the continued rise in the capacities of data in the internet. In
addition, there has been continued increase in the quality of gaming services available online.
Specifically, designers have been concerned with improving the graphic quality in the games
played online.
The consumer mobile services have also been recorded to have equally increased and
show a potential to continue rising in the next years. The number of users has continued to
increase and this has been attributed to the continued conversion of mots services into the
mobile platform. More especially the field of commerce and economics has adopted the use
of mobile applications in most of their operations. This is being done due to the ease and the
convenience that is attached to this process unlike the physical presence. Consider the case of
mobile banking, a service that has presently become very common with the banks aimed at
reduction of the long lines in the banks. Europe and Africa have shown great potential with
the online and mobile money transfer which has been attributed to the continued growth in
money market in these regions (Deborah Morley 2014).
Under the business platform, meetings are always a common thing between the
executives. Unfortunately, sometimes the members may be far away making it rather
problematic for the meetings to run. As a way to address this concern and ensure that the
meetings and conferences are properly handled. As such there has been the introduction of
video conferencing which allows for meeting to be held through video. This means huge
amounts of data will be shared through the networks, hence this means more and more data
will be making entry into the internet in video form. Given streaming is done in HD, which
means with more businesses adopting the same they may interfere with the video capacities.
This will accelerate the rate at which the internet will hit the Zetabyte, therefore to address
this issue the world needs to work fast in the creation of proper infrastructure meant to
address the data capacities (Deborah Morley 2014).
The Need to Increase Bandwidth and the Speeds
As more and more data needs to be sent through the networks, this has made it important
for high speeds to be adopted which can enable large capacities to be sent through networks.
This has been the reason for the continued improvement of the broadband speeds, especially
given the high IP traffic capacities. Presently, the broadband speeds stand at about 24.7 mbs
but this is expected to rise up to about 47 mbs. The introduction of the fibre optic cables has
also played significant roles in the enhancement of the speeds. Increasing the speeds and the
bandwidth coverage is among the strategies that are being set out as the world approached the
Zetabyte mark. At high speeds even downloading of files will be faster with less than 2
minutes for a whole HD video.
There is also the need to increase the mobile speeds for the mobile devices such as the
cell phones. By the year 2015 the speeds were at 2 mbps which comparatively is low. This is
due to the desire to send bigger files through the internet uploads and downloads. Besides
with the rise of mobile use there has been desire to share files between people which thus
calls for the higher speeds. Currently, some mobile phones bare the capability to take high
quality pictures and they can also record HD video. This translates to huge capacities; they
thus need high speeds for them to send these files through various platforms in the internet.
Even with the 4G the speeds have still been low. The number of users continues to
become high every now and then and this calls for the need to have powerful devices. As part
of the efforts of sustaining high internet speeds and high data capacities, the cell phone
companies have started working towards hitting an almost double internet speeds. The speeds
ate expected at about 12.5 mbps which is enough to send and receive HD videos with ease. If
the technologists work even better, we may be looking at hundreds of mbps (Tarkoma 2010).
There is also the impact of the Wi-Fi speeds on the devices. Usually, different devices
have different connection capabilities to the Wi-Fi, usually dependent on the adapter that has
been included in the devices. Besides, the Wi-Fi CPE has an impact on the internet speeds of
Wi-Fi with the speeds varying with the standard that has been included in the broadband. The
latest so far in the market is IEEE 802.11 which has been termed one of the largest with
capability to video stream high quality videos and can also send high capacity files. As the
data capacities continue to rise and as the world approached the 5G platform, the adapters
need to be worked on so as to ensure faster Wi-Fi speeds. Despite the presence to this latest
technology in Wi-Fi broadband, still many people have not adopted this technology and the
old broad bands are still being used. However, it’s anticipated that with time there shall be
development of better technologies that can be adopted in Wi-Fi networks.
Over the years the data uploaded to the internet has been increasing and this continues to
pose a threat to the safety of the data and the identities of the users. It’s the expectation of the
internet users that the data that they send through the internet is always safe. In the past we
have witnessed issues of cybercrime and breach of data; therefore, if the data accounts rise
quite high then the security threats will increase. The year 2015 recorded about 780 million
cases of security breach and with connection of more devices to the internet then this will
mean the security breaches are anticipated to continue rising.
As a meant to address the security breaches that have been experienced in the past and for
a better safe environment for the internet users in the future, there has been the introduction of
secure internet servers. These are able to provide a safe environment for the internet users
considering the messages sent and those that received have been encrypted. There has also
been the adoption of the Secure Socket Layer technology which ensures safe data is sent
through the network. In the past most of the breaches in the internet safety has been attributed
to web protocols, the security firms have been working to address this issue. If the world
continues this way, then we could be headed to a better place in terms of internet security
(Cisco 2016).
Conclusion
The world is on the verge of immense growth, clearly visible with the continued usage of
the internet in huge rates. With the coming years, it’s expected that even more devices will be
connected to the internet which raises concern on the data and the speeds. It’s expected that
by 2019 this may hit a Zetabyte level and sooner 2 Zetabyte. This has been due to the large
amount of data in the form of videos, audio, text and pictures.
Due to these concerns, it has been the reason for the plans to adopt the 5G platform. This
will come with high connection speeds, manage the data traffic and ensure a good experience
for the users. Issues with improvement of speeds, management of internet traffic and
enhancement of security are among the steps that have been made to ensure smooth transition
to the 5G platform and Zetabyte mobile internet (Gilder 2000).
5G NETWORKS AND THE IOT

The explosion of heterogeneous devices linked through a large-scale and fast internet is a
clear indicator that the Internet of Thing (IoT) is becoming a reality. Also, several experts and
researchers in the field of technology posit that the 5G network will be reliable and efficient
enough to boost the deployment of IoT. It is imperative to note that exponential and
unprecedented take-up of video and data services spearheaded by the proliferation of social
media platform and extensive availability of smartphones has made the fifth generation (5G)
network inevitable. In fact, 5G resulted both from the increased user application prompting
for high bandwidth and throughputs as well as the increasing trend of smart devices that are
expected to flood the global market in future. In particular, with increased adoption of
motion-based sensors, wearable technology, eye movement sensors, and voice command, the
use of 5G networks will be driven by high-reliability requirements and low latency of such
sensor-linked Internet of Things devices. Its adoption is expected to facilitate interaction of
billions of smart devices at high gigabit speeds across various networks within milliseconds.
For this reason, the 5G network that connects such devices will require simplified operations
and extreme scalability with effective corrective systems. Given that there is minimal human
interaction, the availability and reliability expectations of Internet of Things and 5G networks
is extremely high. In this regard, this document aims at discussing Internet of Things and 5G
network by focusing on previous work done by others, technical and economic analysis,
applications and services, technical opinion, and feedback on the two technological aspects
that have taken the world by storm.
It should be acknowledged that the Internet of Things (IoT) holds the capability of
improving our lives via the introduction of the sophisticated wide array of application
domains ranging from home appliances, industrial automation, and consumer and healthcare
electronics. Presently, there is over ten billion Internet of Things devices that have been
connected. Moreover, out of fifty billion total connections that are expected with the
prevalence of Internet of Things and 5G network, twenty-four billion are scheduled to be in
place within a span of next five years. Primarily, the growth of IoT has been sustained by
increasing trend in the use of devices for processing and monitoring the flow of information.
An increase in their use is also attributed to their decreasing costs, implying that many
individuals can afford and utilize them (Yuvrai 2016). However, successful implementation
of current Internet of Things solutions requires the adoption of Cloud computing services,
besides 5G network that is extremely first. However, the operators of 5G networks will be
challenged by increasing groups of new customers ranging from distant healthcare providers,
hyper-sensor automotive, and the development of smart cities. In this consideration, the
consumers of such digital services will unbearably have high expectations concerning the
push for stringent policy control and SLAs as well as the quality of the offered services. Thus,
several layers of IoT and 5G network ought to be dedicated for use by such customers,
prompting the operators to incorporate the use of automation techniques for delivering
reliability and the demand for exceptionally high speed. Besides this, it is becoming a
common trend for companies offering 5G infrastructures to collaborate with research
organizations and service providers for communication to define customized standards for 5G
based on articulated cases. It is of the essence to note that 5G network eyes higher availability
of spectrum bands ranging from 5GHZ to 60 GHZ, thus offering a shorter wavelength for
incorporation of Multiple Input-Multiple Output (MIMO) techniques.
It should be noted that cellular networks for long-range are perceived as the probable
candidates capable of guaranteeing the internetworking of Internet of Things devices due to
high data rate, enhanced coverage, high spectrum efficiency, and low cost per bit. On a
similar note, various standardization and industrial bodies have been relentlessly pushing for
the fulfillment and accomplishment of Internet of Things requirements through the adoption
of 5G wireless systems (Agyapong 2014). It is argued that 5G network does not represent the
evolution of the existing system generations. In this case, it is perceived to be the revolution
of the field of Information Communication and Technology, thus adopting a holistic overview
with the incorporation of innovative and accommodative network features.
IoT Facts
The Internet of Things has been viewed as an evolution and superset of machine to
machine expanding the concept of link establishment and intercommunication between huge
variance of devices and things over IP platform. The IoT will be the biggest smart device
advertise on the planet with promise of higher connectivity, efficiency, productivity and
increasing revenue streams. It is perceived that by 2019 it will be more than twofold the
measure of the cell phone, PC, tablet, associated auto, and the wearable market joined (Arias
2015). With big data analytic and data processing tools and methods, there are many
important factors propelling the Internet of Things forward for cost saving and revenue
generation for companies and businesses. With a flood of money from companies and
governments, low cost of sensors and devices, adoption of smart devices as the gateway to the
IoT, staggering growth of internet connectivity of users, embedded and adoption of IPV6 by
most networking equipment the IoT will bring a huge variance of business opportunity in
consumer demands, health and wellness, and industry to mention a few. For best practice and
exploiting the IoT platforms, companies will likely need to use solutions integration of third-
party such data integration tools, application management, iPaas, and Enterprise Service Bus
(ESB), Extraction, transformation and Loading (ETL) (Lheureux, 2015).
There are many challenges such as scalability, security, energy efficient networks, broad
range of coverage, etc. need to be overcome for an indoor and outdoor IoT implementation.
Based on research and studies, the following are some of the facts about the IoT:
 Six out of 10 Smart devices that give UIs were defenseless against a scope of issues,
for example, constant XSS and feeble qualifications.
 70 percent of Smart devices utilized decoded organize benefit.
 80 percent cloud and portable application segments neglected to require passwords of
an adequate many-sided quality and length.
 70 percent of Smart devices alongside their cloud and versatile application empower
an aggressor to distinguish substantial client accounts through record list.
 100% of home security frameworks don’t require solid passwords.
 Seven of 7 cloud interfaces show account identification issues.
 Five of 10 versatile interfaces display account identification issues.
 One framework offered two-consider verification.
 A solitary framework executed Apple’s Touch ID.
 SSL/TLS usage are powerless against POODLE or permit the utilization of SSL
rendition
 100 percent permitted the utilization of powerless passwords.
 100 percent did not have a record lockout system that would avert mechanization
assault.
 100 percent were defenseless against record gathering, permitting aggressors to
figure login certifications and obtain entrance.
 Four of seven frameworks that had cameras, gave the proprietor the capacity to
concede video access to extra clients, encourage worsening record reaping issues.
 Two of the frameworks permitted video to be gushed locally without validation.
 50 percent showed shamefully designed or inadequately actualized SSL/TLS. (HPE
IoT 2015)
 70 percent permitted unhindered record specification through their cloud-based Web
interface.
 50 percent permitted unhindered record specification through their versatile
application interface.
 60 percent showed no undeniable redesign abilities and none offered any sort of
programmed overhaul usefulness.
 70 percent made video spilling accessible through their cloud‐based Web interface or
versatile application interface.
Figure 2. M2M to IoT Evolution (5G America, 2016).

Figure 3. IoT Facts (HPE IoT REPORT 2015).
The synopsis of IoT design can be further contracted down to three primary parts that
drive the whole system and perform capacities in view of particular programming. These
segments are
1. Smart devices
2. Cloud
3. Application
These three parts make up the vast majority of the IoT system and work by interfacing
with each other through method for information investigation, information mining and
arrangement of collected data. These Smart devices are modified to gather crude information
persistently, yet they can’t straightforwardly speak with each other without any transitional
medium, in this manner, they do as such by associating through an IoT stage in the cloud
(Shameer 2016). The stage totals helpful information from numerous Smart devices, mines it
into different groups and after that performs information investigation on the information to
change over it into arranged data. This sorted information is then sent to the applications on
cell phones and other keen Smart devices having a place with the client. This whole design
depends on trade of information between keen Smart devices and the systematic change of
data in the cloud based programming.
IoT not just has a similar security issues as sensor systems, versatile interchanges systems
and the Internet, additionally has its strengths, for example, protection issues, distinctive
verification and get to control arrange setup issues, data stockpiling and administration et
cetera. Information and security assurance is one of the application difficulties of IoT. In IoT,
RFID frameworks, WSNs sensors see for the end of the data innovation, which ensure the
uprightness and classification of data by the watchword encryption innovation. There are
many approaches to scramble information and data, for example, irregular hash bolt
convention (hash work), hash chain convention, extricate key from an unbounded channel,
Encrypted identifier etc. Personality validation and get to control can decide the
correspondence between both sides and affirm each other’s actual character, anticipate
camouflaged assaults to guarantee the credibility, legitimacy of the data et cetera. There are
two noteworthy security issues in the transmission process. One danger of the IoT security is
from itself, and the other one originates from the related innovation of development and
execution of the system functions. IoT itself is the combination of various heterogeneous
systems, it ought to manage similarity issues between various systems which is inclined to
security issues, for instance, it is hard to set up the intersection of relationship as the
relationship of trust between hubs that are continually changing, yet this can be explained by
administration and steering conventions. Security issues, for example, DOS/DDOS assaults,
falsification/center assault, heterogeneous system assaults, application danger of ipv6, WLAN
application clashes additionally influence the vehicle security of IoT. In the center system,
because of the huge measure of information amid the transmission, it is anything but difficult
to bring about system clog. We ought to give full thought to the limit and availability issues,
for example, address space, reference organize repetition and security gauges. The application
security issues incorporate data get to and client verification, data protection, obliterate and
track of information stream, IoT stage soundness, middleware security, administration stage
et cetera. The use of IoT straightforwardly associates with individuals’ regular day to day
existence, to guarantee the innovation security and to reinforce human security mindfulness
and standards of human conduct in the meantime. In the meantime, individuals related CPS
(digital physical frameworks), and inescapable registering security has likewise been
examined. Figure 4 and Table 1 show possible use cases of IoT and its layered architecture.
Figure 4. IoT Layered Architecture (Vermesan & Friess).

5G NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE
In essence, the 5G network is expected to be intensely embraced in business contexts.
Spurred by socio-economic transformations and technological development, the network is
majorly characterized by technology, customer, and operator settings. Therefore, with its
inception, instant information will be easily fetched due to interconnectivity with virtually all
devices.
Table 1. Prospective Use Cases for IoT (5G America 2016)

Fundamentally, significant technological advancement is characterized by the advent of

tablets and smartphones. Given that smartphones are primarily expected to be personal
devices. Further, development will be executed regarding enhancing their capability and
performance (Min 2015). However, it is projected that the number of personal devices, apart
from smartphones and tablets, will increase prompted by devices such as sensors and
wearables. It is expected that personal devices will have extended capabilities concerning
cloud gaming, identity proof, payment, content sharing and production, high-quality video,
and mobile TV. In this essence, they will be significantly applied in security, health, social
life, and safety.
As per the projections, the context of world businesses beyond 2020 is expected to be
different from today’s scenario. As such, the emergence of new business models and cases
spearheaded by operators and customers need ultimately revolutionize business operations
(Gubbi 2013). Therefore, 5G network is expected to support several emerging cases with
divergent variability and applications for various performance attributes. In particular, 5G
network will facilitate lifeline communication, ultra-reliable communication, and real-time
communication, massive internet of things, higher-user mobility, broadband access
everywhere and broadband access in dense areas.
Access to Broadband in Dense Areas
Principally, there is an increasing need for the development of an intensely connected

society. Therefore, 5G network facilitates service availability in dense urban city centers and
multi-storey buildings that may be densely populated. As such, the system will facilitate
communications in areas where thousands of individuals per square kilometer live. It will also
support 3D services, multi-user interactions, and other services that will play a crucial role in
facilitating the process of communication. In particular, aspects such as HD videos, smart
office, and pervasive video will be supported.
Broadband Access Everywhere
In essence, 5G network provides access to the services of broadband to virtually

anywhere, with the inclusion of challenging situations such as rural and sub-urban areas.
Therefore, 5G network guarantees consistency among users due to throughput that requires
minimal data rate. On an additional note, 5G network is characterized by aspects such as
50+Mbps everywhere and ultra-low cost networks to facilitate interaction of individuals.
Higher User Mobility
Principally, high demand for mobile services in trains, vehicles, and aircraft is expected
to be in place by 2020. Despite the fact that some of the services are simply a natural
evolution of those that already exists, others may be a complete representation of new
scenarios such as broadband communication while on an aircraft. Similarly, there will be
demand for improved internet access, in-vehicle entertainment, and enhanced navigation
through real-time information. In this consideration, depending on the degree of required
mobility, 5G network will effectively offer the platform for their realization.
Figure 5. A multi-tier architecture for 5G networks with small-cells, mobile small-cells, and D2D- and
CRN-based communications (Mika Lasanen).
Figure 6. Key IoT market drivers (5G America 2016).
INTERNET OF THINGS
It is technologically projected that there will be increased use of devices such as
actuators, sensors, and cameras by 2020. Mainly, this will be accompanied by increased
demands and extensive range of characteristics. The inception of Internet of Things is
primarily characterized by low cost and is depicted in aspects such as smart wearables, sensor
networks, mobile video surveillance, real-time communication, tactile internet, and lifeline
communication.
Smart Wearables
Principally, the use of wearables utilizing multiple types of sensors and devices is
expected to be mainstream. In such contexts, Internet of Things comes into necessitate
everything. For instance waterproof sensors, low power, and ultra-lights will be integrated
into the clothing by the people. In particular, such sensors can measure attributes such as
temperature, pressure, blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate and volume, body
temperature, and skin moisture.
Sensor Networks
It is postulated that smart services will be pervasive in the urban, suburban, and rural
area. Therefore, Internet of Things can be deployed in metering, city light management,
traffic control, monitoring, and other services likely to be offered in smart cities. The
aggregation of such services needs an efficient network and high-speed connections through
an interworked framework. Such platforms are comfortably provided by Internet of Things
and 5G network.
Tactile Internet
In this regard, it should be noted that tactile interaction refers to contexts where human
beings control virtual and real objects wirelessly. In this essence, it requires a real control
audio and signal or visual feedback. Therefore, facilitation of such activities will be greatly
enhanced by Internet of Things since it is an appropriate platform. Such techniques can be
deployed in autonomous cars, remote medical care, and manufacturing.
Automated Driving and Traffic Control
In the next decade, the world expected to be characterized by advancements in safety

applications for mitigation of road carnages, improvement of traffic efficiency, and
supporting of the mobility of various emergency vehicles. Such applications are not restricted
to infrastructure communication application but also interaction with other road users such as
cyclists and pedestrians. Primarily, aspects such as controlled fleet driving require end-to-end
ultra-low latency for execution of warning signals and higher data rates for sharing of video
information between infrastructure and cars. In such cases, 5G network will facilitate Internet
of Things for the provision of low latency, high reliability, and scalability needed for
execution.
Previous Work Done By Others
According to Akhil Gupta and Rakesh Mumar JHA (2015), 5G network is an emerging
technological improvement hugely utilized in cellular infrastructure (Gupta 2015). It is
attributed that 5G network is intensely deployed in device-to-device communication (D2D)
and multiple input technology (Wortman 2015). According to their conducted research, it is
established that 5G network can be comfortably be used in sharing spectrum with ultra-dense
networks, cognitive radio, multi-radio access, millimeter wave situations and duplex
communications. As such, it is stipulated that 5G network is the basic framework needed for
small access points, D2D, cloud computing and Internet of Things.
Moreover, in June 2011, the IEEE Communication Magazine cited several proposals
regarding the use of wave of millimeter spectrum for mobile communication. According to
the published report, the measurements for radio channels were validated by their ability to
use various millimeter frequency waves’ for mobile communication in urban areas. Published
in June 2014, The IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communication comprehensively
surveys 5G network its solutions and enabling technologies. Bases on several conducted types
of research, it is stipulated that the incepted next generation of 5G network and standards may
be formally introduced starting early 2020. Similarly, it has been established that still, some
industries are skeptic towards the 5G network for the fear on new standards that may be
imposed after that. Despite this, the inception of 5G network has been well received in the
market according to previously conducted research. For instance towards the end of 2013,
Huawei, the Chinese telecom equipment vendor, said that it has allocated $600 million in
extensive research work for 5G network and technologies for a span of next five years.
Technical and Economic Analysis
Principally, unlike the 4G or 3G network platform, 5G networks is a significant

technological advancement that promises to technically and economically benefit most
cellular company operators. For instance, the 5G network, which is the key platform for
Internet of Things, will offer exceptional SLA-driven digital services. As a matter of fact,
operators utilizing 5G network will experience a high influx of customers seeking several
digital services. Therefore, such players will be prompted to dedicate a section of their 5G
and Internet of Things network to such customers to meet all their needs and services.
Mainly, this will be earnestly executed with the aid of cloud computing to facilitate prompt
execution of commands and responses (Gupta 2015). It is imperative to note that 5G network
is characterized by increased speed and capacity. Notably, this is attributed to the fact that it is
available in a broad spectrum band ranging from 5GHZ to 60 GHZ. As such, it can travel
over an extremely shorter wavelength to facilitate implementation of MIMO in the whole
course of company operations.
Besides this, the 5G network has ultra-dense networks that are heterogeneously
orchestrated due to short range propagations. Therefore, it is able efficiently to manage the
real-time end-to-end performance of respective services. It is imperative to note that 5G
network aims at evolving the whole concept of communication among cellular service
providers who will be transformed into a digital platform for the provision of their services. In
this regard, digital services will be successful commercially because real-time analytics and
high dependency will provide detailed and correlated insights regarding network behaviors
and customers.
Furthermore, there is assured reliability regarding 5G network and Internet of Things. It
has a 100 percent service assurance acceptance level. Thus, it can be relied on by various
customers for specific needs. In particular, customer-centric and insight-driven services
offered by 5G network will play an auspicious role towards upholding the reliability and
efficiency of 5G networks. On a different note, human lifestyle is expected to be
revolutionized by 5G network due to hyper-connection of devices utilized for communication
by humans.
Application and Services
It is imperative to note that Internet of Things and 5G networks have a wide array of
applications. In particular, 5G network necessitates and facilitates access to broadband in
densely populated areas such as city centers. Besides this, it is used in higher user mobility,
extensive access to broadband, massive Internet of Things, and lifeline communications.
Also, it will enhance ultra-reliable communications, broadcast-like services, and extreme real-
time communications. Therefore, its inceptions and applications will guarantee offering of
several services aimed at facilitating the operations of operator companies and prompt
execution of customers’ needs and expectations.
On a different note, Internet of Things can be deployed and manifested in several
application contexts. In particular, it is extensively utilized in smart wearables such as clothes.
Furthermore, IoT is also applied in sensor networks, mobile video surveillance, real-time
communication, tactile interaction, lifeline communication, ultra-reliable communication,
automated driving and traffic control, and managing network of robots. In this consideration,
it can be noted that it offers several services in both domestic and industrial settings.
CONCLUSION
In essence, Internet of Things and 5G network are expected to redefine information,
communication, and technology. In particular, the high speed and reliability offered by 5G
network will imply that humans can execute many activities that could be virtually tedious
presently within a short time. Furthermore, besides personal devices such as smartphones and
tablets that are commonly used, the inception of Internet of Things and the 5G network will
lead to improvement in their efficiency and performance. Also, other devices such as
wearables and sensors are expected to be hugely deployed in people’s life. Therefore, a digital
era is in waiting characterized by high speed, and reliability. It is additionally scheduled to
increase interactions among individuals given that 5G network can support interconnection of
billions of devices.
Principally, 5G network is an essential requirement for Internet of Things. Therefore,
given that the two aspects are interrelated, it is imperative for their rolling out be executed
soon. Given that 5G network is expected to be functionally operational by 2020s, it should be
used as a launching pad for the realization of Internet of Things. Primarily, this is because its
high speed of 5GHZ to 60GHZ is fast enough to facilitate the transfer of information, be it
video or audio within a millisecond. As such, the evolving business models will compel
different companies to adopt them given that they will revolutionize human lifestyle and
technology as a whole. However, its implementation should be executed in line with the set
policies and standards to avoid it being abused and used for unintended purposes.
Internet of Things entails interworked objects containing embedded technological
frameworks for communication and interacting with internal and external states of the
environment. It should be noted that it is a confluence of improved sensors, efficient wireless
protocols, large capital requirement, and cheaper processors. Fundamentally, Internet of
Things is used in sensor networks, smart wearables, video surveillance, tactile interaction,
automated driving and traffic control, remote surgery, drones, and public safety to enhance
life and delivered services. In this regard, it applies to the domestic, commercial, social, and
industrial environment. 5G networks offers massive Internet of Things, higher mobility,
access to broadband everywhere, access to broadband in densely populated areas, real-time
communications and broadcast-like services. Both infrastructures enhance transfer of data and
information in an efficient manner. The key research areas and consideration for IoT
implementation in the future are security, diversity, scalability, end-to-end connectivity
requirements for both networks and devices and maturity. To scale up the IoT implantation,
companies and The Internet of Things implementers must consider solutions integration of
third-party such data integration tools, application management, iPass, and ESB, ETL.
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Benjebbour. “Design considerations for a 5G network architecture.” IEEE
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2016.
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Architecture, Performance and Applications. Elsevier Limited, 2015.
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network: virtualized, reconfigurable, smart wireless network to enable 5G technologies.”
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service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/vni-hyperconnectivity-wp.html (accessed
June 15, 2016).
Deborah Morley, Charles S. Parker. Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow,
Introductory. Cengage Learning, 2014.
Demestichas, Panagiotis, Andreas Georgakopoulos, Dimitrios Karvounas, Kostas Tsagkaris,
Vera Stavroulaki, Jianmin Lu, Chunshan Xiong, and Jing Yao. “5G on the horizon: key
challenges for the radio-access network.” IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine 8, no. 3
(2013): 47-53.
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“Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions.” Future
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Ovidiu Vermesan & Peter Friess, “Internet of Things from Research and Innovation to
Market Deployment.”
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 6
5G SPECTRUM UTILIZATION AND

SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT
Valery Tikhvinskiy1,2,*, Grigory Bochechka1,2,†

and Victor Koval3,‡
1
IcomInvest, Moscow, Russian Federation
2
Moscow Technical University of Communications and Informatics,
Moscow, Russian Federation
3
Geyser-Telecom, Moscow, Russian Federation
ABSTRACT
This chapter considers new principles of 5G spectrum utilization based on two
regimes of spectrum authorization. These two regimes of spectrum authorization
represent the classic approach: individual spectrum licensing and common spectrum
utilization based on unlicensed spectrum sharing or licensed assisted access (LAA). The
authors are now presenting a new spectrum sharing concept for 5G Networks in the
implementation of a mixed strategy called Licensed Shared Access (LSA).
Frequency bands investigation has proceeded from the requirements of data speed
transmitting over 20 Gbps and 5G frequency bandwidth over 1 GHz. This work was
divided into two four-year periods, the first for WRC-15 in the bands below 6 GHz and
the second one for WRC-19 in the millimeter bands above 24 GHz.
Basic 5G business models and 5G Applications have defined requirements for
spectral resources which will entail significant differences in different spectrum bands.
Subscription of 5G users and current traffic changes in 5G RAN will define dynamic
spectrum management needs according to the Spectrum ToolBox. Proposals for 5G
Spectrum utilization scenarios which use a licensed shared access for spectral resources
allocation of incumbents are considered in this chapter.
Keywords: LSA, WRC-19, 5G, spectrum toolbox
*
Email: v.tikhvinskiy@icominvest.ru
†
Email: g.bochechka@icominvest.ru
‡
Email: koval@geyser-telecom.ru
92 Valery Tikhvinskiy, Grigory Bochechka and Victor Koval
NEW PRINCIPLE OF 5G SPECTRUM UTILIZATION

International principles of radio spectrum access and usage, as defined in the Radio
Regulations [1], are classified into two categories:
 Individual authorization for spectrum usage (Licensed);

 General authorization (License Exempt/Unlicensed).
In accordance with Authorization Directive 2002/20EC [2], usage of the radio frequency
spectrum in European Union countries is currently permitted in two cases:
 an individual authorization of rights to access the spectrum (obtaining an individual

license), and
 general authorization of rights to access the spectrum (unlicensed spectrum usage).
However measures designed to indicate the frequency bands to be used in a spectrum

sharing mode are now under way in order to improve spectrum effectiveness specifically for
implementation of advanced technologies, including those of 5G.
The simplest case of spectrum sharing is implemented in LTE-Advanced networks where
channel aggregation is used in wireless access networks. The case allows for a mode of
supporting the method of Licensed Assisted Access also known as LTE-U (LTE for
Unlicensed Spectrum). The solution is based on spectrum sharing in licensed and unlicensed
frequency bands in a transmitted, aggregated downlink signal.
Radio Regulations and National Regulatory frameworks distinguish «primary» and
«secondary» usage and/or allocation of frequency bands for the individual authorization of
rights to spectrum access (dedicated licensed spectrum). The secondary spectrum usage
significantly restricts the spectrum rights of a secondary user due to the requirement to
prevent any harmful interference to primary spectrum users.
The regulation framework for individual authorization of rights to spectrum use specifies
different levels of spectrum access and models of spectrum sharing. Furthermore, five basic
spectrum usage scenarios can be identified for these authorization modes: dedicated licensed
spectrum, limited spectrum pool, mutual renting, vertical sharing, and unlicensed horizontal
sharing [6].
Licensed Shared Access is a regulatory approach developed by the European
Commission [3-5] and standardized by ETSI [6-8] to facilitate the implementation of radio-
communication systems operated by a limited number of licensees under an individual
licensing regime in a frequency band already assigned or expected to be assigned to one or
more incumbent users (holders of right to use).
The Regulatory framework could provide:
 the LSA spectrum to be licensed to be identified by the government;

 a private commercial agreement between incumbent and LSA licensee.
5G Spectrum Utilization and Spectrum Management 93
Figure 1. Types of licensed and unlicensed spectrum sharing (RSPG [3-5]).
Within the scope of the LSA concept, all spectrum users are authorized to use the
spectrum (or part of the spectrum) in accordance with sharing rules included in their rights of
use of spectrum on the primary basis, thereby allowing all the authorized sharing users,
including incumbents with LSA mode, to provide a certain Quality of Service (QoS) to their
subscribers.
Thus a new model of Spectrum management and Access in which a primary licensee of a
bandwidth for LSA (incumbent) will grant the rights of access to his allocated spectrum for
one or several spectrum users. Those users may operate in the same frequency band, subject
to operation parameters, specified by the Regulator for usage of shared frequency bands.
Specific features of spectrum usage, based on frequency-sharing principles, are defined in
individual agreements (agreements with attached conditions), or in the rules established by
the National Administration/Regulator for sharing in a specific frequency band.
LSA definition was initially introduced as the Authorized Shared Access (ASA) by an
industrial consortium. The European Commission (EC) and the EC Radio Spectrum Policy
Group (RSPG) facilitated significantly in accepting the concept of spectrum sharing on a
licensed basis as a standard of spectrum management. The concept was renamed to Licensed
Shared Access.
The RSPG document [1] characterizes the LSA concept as «A regulatory approach
aiming to facilitate the introduction of radio-communication systems operated by a limited
number of licensees under an individual licensing regime in a frequency band already
assigned or expected to be assigned to one or more incumbent users.
Appearance of frequency bands for shared usage in ECA [9] based on the LSA approach
will stimulate developers of 5G networks to create new scenarios of spectrum management in
arranging the frequency channels based on a hybrid spectrum usage with three different
statuses such as a primary licensed option, a licensed spectrum sharing option, and a license-
exempt sharing option with common access (see Figure 1 [6]).
The set of rules for sharing a framework or sharing conditions that may result in change
of the spectrum rights of the Incumbent(s) and which define the spectrum, with corresponding
technical and operational conditions, may be made available for alternative usage under LSA.
The main parties concerned in the management of licensed spectrum sharing, based on
the LSA concept include the following players [6-8]:
Incumbent spectrum user (Incumbent):

In accordance with RSPG [1] the Incumbent is a current holder of the rights to spectrum
use. The Incumbent may offer an unused spectrum for one or more LSA sharing licenses. The
Incumbent may negotiate spectrum-sharing features with LSA licensees based on the rules
specified by the Regulator for Licensed spectrum sharing.
LSA Licensee:
LSA Licensee is an entity operating as a 5G carrier, which holds individual rights of use
to LSA spectrum resources. The LSA licensee uses spectrum additional to the one allocated
on a shared basis with a primary incumbent spectrum holder. As a preliminary condition, the
LSA-licensee obtains a license for spectrum usage through LSA. The license is issued by the
National Administration/Regulator. The licensee also obtains a spectrum sharing agreement,
i.e., a treaty between the principal holder of rights to use the spectrum and LSA licensees. The
agreement specifies conditions of LSA spectrum sharing.
The Regulator:
The Regulator is a body which guarantees the rights of LSA licensees and issues
spectrum sharing licenses to them. The Regulator also sets the rules for granting a license for
spectrum sharing with reference to the incumbent spectrum holder.
Cooperation between the main players and a regulatory framework for licensed spectrum
sharing is shown in Figure 2. A similar shared spectrum approach could be used for the 2.3-
2.4 GHz band in Europe and the 3.5 GHz band in the US.
The main advantage of the LSA concept lies in the fact that the number of LSA licensees
is limited and that they have on-line access to current information associated with the
spectrum usage situation for each user. Such information may be retrieved from the
Regulator’s Geolocation Data Base (GLDB). This approach to specifying objectives for
spectrum sharing guarantees a higher level of investment recovery (and thus a higher
motivation for investments in 5G infrastructure) compared with the situation where only the
LSA capabilities in license-exempt spectrum sharing are accessible.
When issuing an LSA, the license Regulator appoints an LSA license holder official to be
responsible in the event of it causing interference in the future, when spectrum sharing
procedures are initiated.
Figure 2. Co-operation and the main players for LSA (ETSI, Ericsson [7]).
Figure 3. Scenarios of utilization and spectrum sharing for 5G (METIS II project [12]).
The National Administration/Regulator may issue one or more LSA licenses in two
specific cases.
The first case refers to a situation where spectrum of an incumbent holder of a license for
primary spectrum usage is unused, and consequently may be shared with other applicants. In
this case, a system of LSA license issuing is the only method ensuring the right to access
spectrum sharing.
The second case is related to situations where several operators holding LSA licenses
could share the spectrum assigned to them on a primary basis with other operators also able to
share their assigned spectrum between them (providing mutual spectrum sharing services).
Thus there are many options of sharing in the case of the individual authorization of spectrum
usage rights.
Implementation of the LSA concept complicates the process of spectrum sharing due to
the requirements to protect the incumbent operator’s network from harmful interference
caused by licensees having rights to spectrum usage. In turn, the shared licensed bands are
opened for secondary access and provide for the maintenance of a high level of spectrum
usage effectiveness and predictability.
Figure 3 depicts interaction between spectrum access authorization modes specified as
relevant for 5G network operators and a set of scenarios for shared and assigned spectrum
usage.
The complete set of spectrum usage authorization modes is included in the spectrum
management domain which contains «primary spectrum usage» mode and «licensed sharing»
(LSA) mode. The set is interspersed with appropriate scenarios of spectrum sharing.
As shown in Figure 3, the spectrum usage scenario domain contains four basic scenarios
including that of spectrum sharing defined for the following authorization modes
 a limited spectral pool;

 mutual renting;
 vertical sharing; and
 unlicensed horizontal sharing.
To improve spectrum usage flexibility, 5G networks should allow for the implementation
of different spectrum sharing scenarios to support any mode for future spectrum management
in 5G frequency bands.
It is worth noting that overlapping of the above scenarios could occur in some cases such
as those of horizontal sharing and a limited spectrum pool, or mutual renting and unlicensed
sharing which may be used concurrently with the vertical sharing mode when a 5G network
would employ a less prioritized spectrum access compared with that of the main users of the
shared licensed band.
In LSA mode the licensee holds the right of access to the spectrum unused by its
incumbent user (holding the primary usage rights) in specific places and/or at specified times.
Such vertical sharing is based on strictly specified spectrum usage conditions being an
integral part of the appropriate sharing license issued by the National Administration/
Regulator.
Horizontal sharing between licensees using spectrum on the LSA framework may be
employed under more advanced regulatory conditions of spectrum access with license
sharing.
The order of cooperation between spectrum users may be defined on the basis of
interaction rules and licensed spectrum sharing models as shown in Figure 4.
Appropriate solutions for spectrum sharing are similar to those employed in spectrum
usage on the primary level. Centralized solutions would coordinate the coexistence of
incumbent spectrum holders with users licensed for spectrum sharing. This would require
meeting the Regulator’s regulatory provisions established for licensed sharing. Reusing the
central sharing depository for a horizontal spectrum sharing refers to an approach providing
for horizontal spectrum sharing between licensees where appropriate.
Figure 4. Interaction between users under unlicensed spectrum sharing (METIS project [11]).
Thus, two approaches to spectrum management are relevant:
 a centralized one with spectrum usage on the basis of information of current

spectrum usage, retrieved from the geolocation data base (GLDB), and
 the other one, based on the incorporation of a special functional module referred to as
a Spectrum Coordinator (manager).
Information retrieval and exchange between networks is provided for by the principle of
peer networks that is applicable to horizontal spectrum sharing with the assumption that the
networks are separated from horizontal sharing mechanisms.
The order of cooperation between spectrum users may be depicted with the use of
interaction rules and unlicensed spectrum sharing models as shown in Figure 5.
Usage of unlicensed frequency bands on the basis of common spectrum access provides
for employing horizontal sharing in a 5G network. In this case, the 5G network should be
ready to coexist with a network of any other technology which may operate in each of the
unlicensed bands.
The most beneficial solutions to implement horizontal sharing include the employment of
marker (reference) signals for the synchronization of time cycles to provide for shared
operation under a time division mode; development of MAC mode for shared operation (e.g.,
for shared operation with Wi-Fi™ networks); and spectrum sensing using embedded devices
for dynamic frequency/channel selection (DFS/DCS).
Analysis of strategies for spectrum usage in 5G networks has shown that operators would
employ sharing of three types, namely primary (vertical) sharing, licensed sharing, and
unlicensed sharing. Comparison of the strategies for spectrum usage in 5G networks with a
regulatory basis of many countries in Europe, Asia and Africa shows that employment of
licensed sharing of any kind is inaccessible for future 5G network operators due to the
unavailability of relevant provisions in national spectrum regulations.
Figure 5. Interaction between users under unlicensed spectrum sharing (METIS project [11]).
5G FREQUENCY BANDS IN SCOPE WRC-19

Recommendation ITU-R M.2083 [10], approved in September 2015, defines the
framework and overall objectives of the future development of IMT for 2020 and beyond.
Traditional cellular frequency bands (< 6 GHz) will remain important for mobile services, but
will not provide sufficient bandwidth for all 5G applications. Frequency band investigation
proceeds from the requirements of data transmission speed of over 20 Gbps and 5G RF
channel bandwidth of more than 1 GHz [11-12].
The search for 5G frequency bands was divided into two four-year periods, one for
WRC-15 in the bands below 6 GHz, and the second for WRC-19 in the millimeter bands
above 24 GHz. WRC-15 has agreed that ITU-R will conduct sharing and compatibility
studies for a number of frequency bands between 24.25 GHz and 86 GHz in time for
WRC-19.
The selection of unused frequency bands for development of future 5G networks was not
undertaken only at WRC-15 (Agenda Item (AI) 1.1) but has been incorporated into the WRC-
19 Agenda. Conference preparatory meetings decided to adhere to the following strategy:
WRC-15 would allocate spectrum of 500 MHz for pre 5G development in 500 MHz
bandwidth, and WRC-19 would begin massive spectrum allocation based on results of the
new ITU study period (see Figure 6).
Preparation activities for WRC-15 AI 1.1 was conducted by Joint Task Group 4-5-6-7
which pursued a strategy referring to addressing only frequency bands between 400 MHz and
6 GHz in the first period of 5G development. Therefore WRC-15 considered spectrum
allocation in width from 100 MHz to 500 MHz in frequency bands below 6 GHz for 5G
development.
The Conference Preparatory Meeting (CPM) report contains 19 potential candidate
bands, namely: 470–694/698 MHz, 1350–1400 MHz, 1427–1452 MHz, 1452–1492 MHz,
1492–1518 MHz, 1518–1525 MHz, 1695–1710 MHz, 2700–2900 MHz, 3300–3400 MHz,
3400–3600 MHz, 3600–3700 MHz, 3700–3800 MHz, 3800–4200 MHz, 4400–4500 MHz,
4500–4800 MHz, 4800–4990 MHz, 5350–5470 MHz, 5725–5850 MHz and 5925–6425 MHz
to be discussed by WRC-15 delegates. Regional Spectrum Groups’ positions concerning the
band identification for IMT and 5G development in a spectrum below 6 GHz are shown in
Figure 7.
Unfortunately WRC-15 delegates were unable to reach a constructive consensus on
identifying wide bands for mobile communications development on a global basis specifically
in the frequency bands 3400-4200 MHz and 4400-4990 MHz with a bandwidth of 500 MHz
as the most appropriate for development of pre-5G equipment for the period of solution
standardization 2016-2019.
Thus WRC-15 has not allocated spectrum of 500 MHz bands for 5G development as
expected by 5G system developers and standardization entities, resulting in significant
retarding of pre-5G solution development before WRC-19.
WRC-15 adopted WRC-23 preliminary agenda and WRC-19 agenda. Resolution
COM6/20 [13] invites WRC-19 to consider a number of issues related to spectrum allocation
to mobile broadband systems in the bands above 24 GHz including the mm-band. Proposals
by Regional Spectrum Group Organizations submitted to WRC-15 are shown in Table 1 [14].
Figure 6. Strategy of 5G spectrum allocation at WRC-15 and WRC-19.
Figure 7. The Positions of Regional Spectrum Groups on 5G bands below 6 GHz.

Table 1. 5G spectrum proposals
Regional Spectrum Frequency bands

Groups 6-20 GHz 20-30 GHz 30-86 GHz
APG 25,25-25,5 31,8-33,4; 39-47;
47,2-50,2; 50,4-52.6;
66-76; 81-86
ASMG Support the general principle of
allocation of bands above 31 GHz
ATU Support the general principle of allocation of bands above 6 GHz
CITEL 10-10,45 23,15-23,6; 31,8-33; 37-40,5;
24,25-27,5; 45,5-47; 47,2-50,2;
27,5-29,5 50,4-52,6; 59,3-76
CEPT 24,5-27,5 31,8-33,4; 40,5-43,5;
45,5-48,9; 66-71;
71-76; 81-86
RCC 25,5-27,5 31,8-33,4; 39,5-40,5;
40,5-41,5; 45,5-47,5;
48,6-50,2; 50,4-52,6;
66-71; 71-76; 81-86
Note:
APG – Asia-Pacific Telecommunity Preparation Group;
ASMG – Arab Spectrum Management Group
ATU – African Telecommunications Union
CITEL – Inter-American Telecommunications Commission.
CEPT – European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
RCC – Regional commonwealth in the field of communications
Taking into considerations the positions of Regional communications organizations,

WRC-15 decided to conduct and complete in time for WRC-19 the appropriate sharing and
compatibility studies, taking into account the protection of services to which the band is
allocated on a primary basis, for the frequency bands [13]:
 24.25-27.5 GHz, 37-40.5 GHz, 42.5-43.5 GHz, 45.5-47 GHz, 47.2-50.2 GHz, 50.4-
52.6 GHz, 66-76 GHz and 81-86 GHz, which have allocations to the mobile service
on a primary basis; and
 31.8-33.4 GHz, 40.5-42.5 GHz and 47-47.2 GHz, which may require additional
allocations to the mobile service on a primary basis.
All indicated bands are located in the millimeter band which is characterized by specific
propagation conditions [14]. Thus the task of a choice of bands for 5G becomes more and
more complicated as the need to address multi-criteria aspects is identified. This task includes
the identification of moderately used spectrum bands in the millimeter band with RF channel
bandwidth over 1 GHz and which are suitable for the connecting of devices in a 5G network
at optimal cost.
Estimation of spectrum bands with their channel bandwidths which may be identified as
5G bands in a future spectrum allocation of millimeter band is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. 5G studied bands for WRC-19 (ITU [13]).
Analysis of total channel bandwidths which are to be studied as 5G bands in ITU for
WRC-19 has shown that total bandwidth of over 33.25 GHz could be achieved.
Thus potential decisions by WRC-19 on spectrum allocation for 5G mobile broadband
communications may give hope that an even wider spectrum would be available for
deploying the relevant networks by 2020.
SPECTRUM REQUIREMENTS FOR 5G APPLICATIONS

One of first 5G development project called METIS established three key use case
families for 5G. These use cases defined not only 5G technical requirements but also
Spectrum requirements.
These use cases described in System Reference documents are as follows [11]:
 Extreme Mobile BroadBand (xMBB) provides both extremely high-throughput and

low-latency communications, and extreme coverage improving the Quality of
Experience (QoE) by providing reliable moderate rates over the coverage area.
 Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) provides wireless connectivity for
tens of billions of network-enabled devices (in the order of 100,000 per access point).
Scalable connectivity for an increasing number of devices; wide area coverage and
deep indoor penetration are prioritized over peak rates, contrasted with xMBB.
 Ultra-reliable Machine-Type Communications (uMTC) provides ultra-reliable low-
latency and/or resilient communication links for network services with extreme
requirements on availability, latency and reliability, e.g., Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X)
communication and industrial control applications.
An illustration of 5G generic services is depicted in Figure 9.

Analysis of 5G use case families (xMBB, mMTC, and uMTC) revealed several features
of 5G spectrum utilization.
xMBB require a mixture of frequency spectrum comprising lower bands for coverage
purposes and higher bands with large contiguous bandwidth to cope with the traffic capacity,
including wireless backhaul solutions. Licensed spectrum on a primary basis is essential to

guarantee the coverage obligation and QoS, supplemented by other licensing regimes, e.g.,
LSA or utilization of unlicensed spectrum to increase overall spectrum availability.
mMTC applications require the use of frequency spectrum below 6 GHz because
millimeter waves do not provide large coverage and good penetration. Spectrum utilization on
a primary licensed basis is preferred for this use case. However, other licensing regimes might
be considered depending on specific application requirements.
uMTC applications require a licensed spectrum as most appropriate, because there are
very strong requirements for safety in Intelligent Transport Systems (V2V and V2X
communication). Some Administrations have allocated for these tasks the frequency bands
below 6 GHz (5875 MHz - 5925 MHz in Europe [9]) but a such a narrow band is not suficient
for 5G use case at the present time.
The 5G spectrum demand can be formed under the following prerequisites [12]:
 Sufficient amount of spectrum needs to be available in low spectrum bands in order

to satisfy the requirement for seamless coverage of the 5G services xMBB and
mMTC.
 A 5G Spectrum below 6 GHz is essential for mobile delivery traffic in urban and
suburban areas, and in medium dense hotspots
 Spectrum above 24 GHz is necessary for enabling wireless access in high-density
usage scenarios, i.e., to fulfil the high contiguous bandwidth demand for xMBB, and
also for wireless backhaul solutions for high capacity ultra-dense small cell networks.
 A dedicated spectrum licensed on the primary basis is essential for the success of 5G
to provide the expected QoS and to secure it at high levels.
 Shared spectrum may be considered in addition, provided that predictable QoS
conditions are maintained, e.g., by LSA mode. License-exempt spectrum might be
suitable as a supplementary option for certain applications.
On the assumption of the above 5G use cases concerning spectrum utilization, these cases
can all be divided into three other main groups:
 Capacity group (use cases which cope with high traffic per cell / area, including
large contiguous bands of spectrum). The main requirement for such use cases is
high bandwidth usage (above 24 GHz).
 Coverage group (use cases which ensure the availability of 5G everywhere). The
main requirement for these use cases is lower frequencies utilization (below 6 GHz).
 Reliability group (use cases which fulfil the demands of critical services, requiring
stable and predictable operation conditions). The main requirement for these use
cases is the utilization of dedicated spectrum on a primary basis.
Analysis of the suitability of frequency bands for three use cases of 5G, and for different
spectrum use modes, which also depend on the specific application, is provided in Table 2.
Figure 9. Families of key use cases for 5G services.
Table 2. Frequency bands and spectrum use modes for three main use cases of 5G
5G use Bands below 6 Bands above Primary (licensed) Licensed Unlicensed mode
case GHz 24 GHz mode of spectrum Sharing Access of spectrum use
use
хМВВ applicable applicable applicable applicable applicable
mMTC applicable possible applicable possible possible applicable
applicable applicable
uMTС applicable not applicable applicable possible not applicable
applicable
As a comment to Table 2 it should be noted that for 5G network development in the EU

and Russian scenario, it is possible to provide frequency bands below 6GHz, which are
applicable to the three main use cases xMBB and M2M (massive MTC and uMTC).
Scenarios using bands above 6 GHz are suitable for high-speed ultra-wideband access
services xMBB (HD video, 3D video), and partly apply to massive M2M model and do not
apply to use cases with highly reliable M2M.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT

USING THE SPECTRUM TOOLBOX
Dynamic Spectrum Management (DSM), also referred to as dynamic spectrum access
(DSA), will enable the solution of issues concerning efficient spectrum utilization in 5G
networks. One of the examples of DSM utilization is the application of the LSA method for
spectrum sharing in 5G as an add-on to Unlicensed spectrum sharing.
Five basic spectrum usage scenarios can be identified for three authorization modes
(Primary user mode, LSA mode and Unlicensed mode) which include: dedicated licensed
spectrum, limited spectrum pool, mutual renting, vertical sharing and unlicensed horizontal
sharing.
So, for 5G operation in all authorization modes, 5G networks need to be equipped with a
set of instruments and the means for dynamic spectrum management which can be added to
the traditional technical enablers of 2G/3G/4G networks. Spectrum resource of the LSA band
which is to be shared between an Incumbent and a LSA Licensee on a static or dynamic basis,
according to the National sharing framework, requires new enablers.
Different spectrum sharing enablers are fundamental to the design of a flexible radio air
interface that is frequency agile, coexistence/sharing capable, and applicable to the
developments in spectrum regulation. DSM enablers for frequency bands below 6 GHz and
above 24 GHz are important due to the different propagation characteristics of higher
frequencies relative to lower frequencies. The requirements of 5G use cases may be expected
to demand access to the spectrum in both frequency ranges.
Dynamic Spectrum Management has defined the need for a new spectrum management
enabler called the Spectrum Toolbox.
The sharing “tools” are collected in a toolbox and may be turned on to enable a particular
sharing situation. The Spectrum Toolbox is an enabler (designed within the scope of the
METIS project) that emerges as the main concept that can determine the 5G future spectrum
usage. The proposed Spectrum Toolbox instruments as a set of technical enablers of DSM are
illustrated in Figure 10 and comprise [12]:
 Coordination protocol – for efficient spectrum sharing between independent MBB

deployments of the same type/technology,
 Spectrum coordinator support – a more technology-neutral, centralized, alternative
for tightly coordinated sharing,
 Detect-and-avoid mechanisms such as Dynamic Frequency Selection or Dynamic
Channel Selection – used either as a simple mechanism for low-granularity spectrum
sharing or as an initial step for selection of the most favourable channel before other
sharing techniques are applied within that channel,
 Geo-location database support – to enable scenarios where this is mandated by the
regulator for primary user protection, and
 Wi-Fi coexistence mode – to enable co-channel operation with Wi-Fi in unlicensed
bands.
In the DSM process for 5G networks, either the DSM system provides one sharing mode
directly in the dedicated frequency band or supports flexible spectrum usage for radio
interface of 5G network. In practice, a certain set of technology Spectrum Toolbox
instruments may not support all five scenarios of spectrum sharing (Figure 10), and therefore,
it is necessary to select only that enabler which can solve the management problem at this
stage of the 5G network.
The LSA system for 5G is a system that enables and/or facilitates the implementation of
an LSA arrangement, which provides a practical realization for the sharing of an LSA
spectrum resource, and which comprises the LSA-specific technical features, architecture,
protocols, and interfaces. Licensed access of 5G networks in frequency bands over 24 GHz
(millimeter bands) is an additional innovation to 5G technology.
Figure 10. Subset of technical enablers for 5G Spectrum Toolbox (METIS project [11]).
Different spectrum management enablers which allow a spectrum sharing and connection
with the scenarios described above are shown in Figure 10. To enable operation in some
sharing scenarios only one enabler is needed, but for others a set of multiple enablers is
required. It also must be stressed that some of the spectrum management enablers and
relations are optional (indicated by a dashed line connecting them to the respective scenario)
meaning that they are not strictly necessary but may be helpful or desirable, or subject to
design choices.
Following analysis of different sharing scenarios and spectrum usage of 5G, a set of
instruments has been designed to enable efficient spectrum utilization. This set can be
combined in several common spectrum access enablers and has been named the «Spectrum
ToolBox» (see above). It facilitates work with corresponding spectrum sharing scenarios.
Instruments of the Spectrum toolbox can work simultaneously and as required by, for
example an interference situation.
In some cases, even one particular instrument of spectrum management in 5G network
can enable the sole use of a spectrum sharing scenario. In other cases a combination of
instruments of spectrum management may be needed. The Spectrum Toolbox can include
several variants making for flexible spectrum usage and specific types of spectrum sharing
utilization.
The new principle of Licensed shared access in 5G Network architecture is supported by
a new entity named the Spectrum Manager. The Spectrum Manager is the 5G RAN entity for
coordination of spectrum usage, supported by Radio Resource Management (RRM), the
Measurement Function (MF), QoS and Network Management, and possibly Spectrum
Controllers from peer networks.
Two models that provide coexistence of 5G operator and other incumbents using LSA are
proposed:
 Static Sharing Model;

 Dynamic Sharing Model.
Static Sharing Model is used where an Incumbent’s licence pertains to non-mobile radio
services (for example to Fixed Service (Radio Links)).
Dynamic Sharing Model is used where an Incumbent is a 5G operator.
The main entity for Licensed Sharing Access to spectrum is the Spectrum Sharing Server
(SAS-server) which can works in two modes:
 Off-line SAS mode;

 On-line SAS mode.
On-line SAS mode requires the delegation of the RRM function from the 5G RAN to the
SAS-server and an opportunity to manage radio resources for each 5G spectrum incumbent
(the operator allows the use of primary allocated spectrum for sharing) for the expansion and
modification of radio resource allocation at geographical, temporal and frequency points.
Figure 11. Static LSA scenario for 5G networks.
Figure 12. Static spectrum sharing model.

Figure 13. Dynamic LSA scenario for 5G networks.
Figure 14. Dynamic spectrum sharing model.
The proposal of Scenario 1 (Figure 11) for the static sharing access model is based on the
current control of the QoS level of the Incumbent. The static situation associates the
utilization of long-term spectrum windows with work cycles of the radio networks and
interest in a Spectrum lease of free spectrum resources. The quality of services of the
incumbent must not degrade after sharing part of the Incumbent’s spectrum. The Regulator
has to monitor the QoS KPI of the Incumbent via the SAS-server. The Quality of Service of
both Incumbents and LSA Licensees (5G operator) is based on the sharing agreement which
defines how the sharing will be made between Incumbents and LSA Licensees. A command
exchange datagram for Scenario 1 is shown in Figure 12.
For Scenario 2 it was proposed to use the dynamic sharing access model (Figure 13). The
model describes the exchange between the 5G base stations of two 5G operators, one of them
being the incumbent and the second being a primary individual access 5G operator.
For this model, radio resource management levels escalate to common spectrum sharing
services and all 5G networks involved in LSA sharing are managed by the SAS-server.
The datagram of command exchanges between the 5G base stations of two 5G operators
is shown in Figure 14. All requests are addressed to the RRM manager of the SAS-server
which consolidates the RRM resources of all 5G networks involved in LSA sharing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was carried out under the 5Grus project, funded by LLC IcomInvest.
REFERENCES
[1] Radio Regulations, Geneva, 2015.
[2] Directive 2002/20/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002
on the authorisation of electronic communications networks and services.
[3] RSPG Opinion on Licensed Shared Access (Doc. RSPG13-538 12 November 2013).
[4] RSPG Public Consultation on Shared Spectrum Access (2nd half 2013).
[5] ECC Report 205 Licensed Shared Access (LSA), 2014.
[6] ETSI TR 103 113 (V1.1.1, 07/2013) - System Reference Document for LSA “Mobile
broadband services in the 2 300 MHz - 2 400 MHz frequency band under Licensed
Shared Access regime.”
[7] ETSI TS 103 154 (V0.0.11, Draft 05/2014) - System Requirements for LSA “System
requirements for operation of Mobile Broadband Systems in the 2300 MHz - 2400 MHz
band under Licensed Shared Access.”
[8] ETSI TS 103 235 (V0.0.1, Draft 01/2014) - System Architecture for LSA “System
Architecture and High Level Procedures for operation of Licensed Shared Access
(LSA) in the 2300 MHz-2400 MHz band.”
[9] ERC Report 25. The European Table of Frequency Allocations and applications in the
frequency range 8.3 KHz to 3000 GHz (ECA table), approved June 2016.
[10] Recommendation ITU-R M.2083.
[11] METIS Project Deliverable D5.4. Future spectrum system concept. Version: 1.0, 2015-
30-04.
[12] METIS II Project. Report R3.1. Preliminary spectrum scenarios and justification for
WRC Agenda Item for 5G bands above 6 GHz Version: v1.0, 2015-10-02.
[13] Resolution COM 6/20 (WRC-15) Studies on frequency-related matters for International
Mobile Telecommunications identification including possible additional allocations to
the mobile services on a primary basis in portion(s) of the frequency range between
24.25 and 86 GHz for the future development of International Mobile
Telecommunications for 2020 and beyond.
[14] Recommendation P.836 ITU-R. Water vapour: surface density and total columnar
content.
In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 7
MIMO AND THE NEXT GENERATION

OF MOBILE NETWORKS
Abdulrahman Yarali* and Jacob L. Holloman

Instituite of Engineering, Murray State University, Murray, KY, US
ABSTRACT
There has seen tremendous changes leading to the integration of several
telecommunication networks, devices and services over the last 30 years. The rate of this
progress and growth has increased particularly in the past decade because people no
longer use their devices and networks for voice only, but demand bundle contents such as
data download/streaming, HDTV, HD video, 3D video conferencing with higher
efficiency, seamless connectivity, intelligence, reliability and better user experience. 5G
is the term used to describe the fifth generation of mobile network technology and has
been the most faddish term used among the tech savvy jargon since the finalized
deployment of LTE in 2010. Despite not being an adage, 4G LTE has already been
clichéd in the west. This resulted in a surge of the forecast in many aspects of 5G
technology like the services, applications, implementation, reliability, cost, security,
economics, spectrum, efficiency, energy expenditure, regulation and standardization,
compatibility, connectivity, open sourcing, etc. This chapter accords with the various
mentioned issues, implementation and impending scenario of the 5G technology in
conjunction with its affiliation to the predecessor. This chapter serves as an introduction
to MIMO (Multi-Input-Multi-Output) systems for the future communications networks.
This involves providing a basic framework understanding of the systems, providing a
look at the history of MIMO systems, showing the advantages and disadvantages
associated with the use of MIMO, and showing paired technologies which can be used to
further enhance a MIMO enabled system. This document will also cover extensions on
MIMO such as MU-MIMO and massive MIMO. Additionally, this chapter will discuss
subjects such as beamforming, spatial multiplexing, and millimeter waves. The content in
this document is targeted for individuals with a basic to intermediate level of
understanding in telecommunications.
*
110 Abdulrahman Yarali and Jacob L. Holloman
Keywords: Multi-Input-Multi-output (MIMO), Multi User MIMO (MU-MIMO), LTE, 5G
INTRODUCTION
For each year that passes the internet becomes more and more central to everything we
do, from watching movies at home, to video conferences at our businesses. The demand for
higher bandwidth is greater than ever before and to combat that demand technology is
constantly being improved or developed. One of these developing technologies is that of
MIMO.
This documents primary purpose is to provide a spotlight on MIMO based technologies.
This document assumes the reader has a basic understanding of the telecommunications world
and technology in general. This document will highlight on MIMO, from its history, to how it
operates and its associated technologies.
MIMO technology has been under studies and application for almost two decades. In
those two decades it has been shown that MIMO can significantly improve the capacity and
reliability of wireless systems. Additionally, the performance of MIMO systems has been
shown to be less sensitive to environmental propagation. You will see this benefit take effect
time and time again as we go through our sections that detail the advantages of MIMO.
The structure of this document is designed around exploring all of the facets surrounding
one technology. The first segment of this document shall be focused entirely on conventional
MIMO. This section shall both discuss the history of MIMO and associated technologies/uses
of MIMO such as spatial multiplexing, space time block codes, and antenna beamforming.
In addition to discussing basic MIMO this document shall discuss other variations of
MIMO. The first of these variations is MU-MIMO. MU-MIMO is a specification of MIMO
built around transmissions directed at multiple users. The subsection on MU-MIMO will
introduce what MU-MIMO is, as well as discuss its advantages and drawbacks.
The second variation on MIMO this document will discuss is that of Massive MIMO. A
massive MIMO system is a MIMO system taken to a massive scale. In truth, having a
massive MIMO system changes the way many technologies interact with the system and
gives the operators some unique characteristics to work with.
Our subsection on massive MIMO will provide an introduction on what massive MIMO
is. This document will discuss various potential uses for massive MIMO which includes the
topics of base-centric architectures, device to device nature support, and heterogeneous
networks. Additionally, due to massive MIMO being such a unique technology, a few
sections will be dedicated to talking about its unique traits, highlighting both the
complexities/issues and the positives/advantages of using a massive MIMO system.
This section on massive MIMO will finish up with a section focused entirely on 5g
cellular technology. Once 5G is here, it’ll get fine-tuned through its life time and evolve but
the basis will remain the same and that’s why it’s important to figure out what technologies
should be implemented into its basis.
There needs to be a balance in both being able to fulfill the capabilities of 5G and still
maintaining a low cost for the systems. This section will serve to answer those questions and
to answer the question of where we will go from here, and showing what the future of a
MIMO enabled 5G world can look like.
MIMO and the Next Generation of Mobile Networks 111
MULTIPLE-INPUT-MULTIPLE-OUTPUT (MIMO)
What Is MIMO?
MIMO is defined as technology which uses multiple antennas to make use of reflected
signals and provide gains in channel throughput and channel robustness. MIMO is a type of
radio communications technology and it sees application in many different types of
technology, including Wi-Fi, LTE, and millimeter wave based technologies.
These technologies are using MIMO technology to provide an increased link capacity and
an increased spectral efficiency. Improving these features also results in MIMO being
indirectly responsible for an improved link reliability. Each year that passes results in more
technologies adopting MIMO into their use, and more uses for MIMO are being developed.
MIMO can be considered one of the most complex and beneficial enhancements. This is
because it enables Wi-Fi routers to do something they never could before: simultaneously
send data to multiple devices (Geier, 2015). The world we live in is one where your average
household generally has anywhere from 2-4 devices pulling from the same Wi-Fi unit. We
soon will be stepping into a world where your average household will be able to stream or
download from the internet on multiple devices all simultaneously with near zero buffering
thanks to MIMO.
In 2007, 802.11n wireless standard was introduced to the public market. This device
came with SU-MIMO technology. SU-MIMO is one of the differing types of MIMO formats.
Each of these formats offer their own advantages and disadvantages. Later in this document
we will discuss each type of MIMO format in detail, but for now the only two you need to
know is SU-MIMO (Single User MIMO) and MU-MIMO (Multi User MIMO).
The introduction of 802.11n’s decision to include SU-MIMO was a huge payoff for the
development of MIMO. It was a successful system and that garnered a lot of attention to its
direction. One of the biggest selling points for SU-MIMO was that it enabled our Wi-Fi
routers and devices to simultaneously transmit or receive multiple streams of data between
each other which increased the speed of the connection.
The addition of MIMO also started the idea of YxY routers, or routers tiers for supporting
multiple stream transmissions. To provide an example of a YxY system, we could have a 1x1
router, this router can only support one transmit and one receive stream at a time, which is
what all true SU-MIMO are capable of, but a 3x3 stream could support up to three
transmissions and three received streams at the same time.
Routers of different transmissions can communicate between one another. For example, a
1x1 could communicate with and transmit data to and from a 3x3 stream router, but when
paired like this the routers are limited by the lesser of the two. This means that even though
we have a 3x3 router involved in the transmission of data, we can only pair as a 1x1 router.
For SU-MIMO devices to have this function the devices must have multiple antennas.
The devices which go through the trouble of obtaining multiple antennas however will often
find themselves still connecting at 1x1 speeds. This is not due to the device itself having an
inability to connect to multiple devices, but instead due to having the majority of Wi-Fi
devices only at 1x1. Most devices on SU-MIMO are still operating at 1x1 because the extra
antennas require more space on the device, which some devices are incapable of handling,
such as most cellular devices.
However, if a router is operating through MU-MIMO (multi-user MIMO), the router

gains the ability to transmit to and receive data from different Wi-Fi devices at the same time.
The use of MU-MIMO ensures that a router can operate as a 2x2 or 3x3 type router without
the need of additional antennas. To do so results in the device not needing as much power as
modified SU-MIMO devices, nor requiring as much signal processing as a modified SU-
MIMO device would.
Deployment and History
MIMO technology has been in development for over two decades, it started as all
technologies do, with a basic concept, but even once MIMO had a solid basis on how it could
work the world was not quite yet ready for its implementation. Technologies still needed to be
developed which could handle the weight of MIMO.
One of the key technologies lacking at the time was spatial diversity. New processers
were needed to allow many of the features of spatial multiplexing. Up until the 1990’s spatial
diversity was often limited to systems that switched between two antennas or combined the
signals to provide the best signal (Poole, n.d.).
However, as time moved forward and technology advanced additional levels of
processing power had become available. This increased processing power would enable us to
utilize spatial diversity. Here is where the basic work on MIMO systems truly started. Initially
the focus was on using MIMO to limit degradation (the condition or process of a signal being
degraded over space).
Though the issue of degradation is not gone, it is a diminishing problem thanks to the
initial research done through MIMO. Researchers saw further potential in this technology and
soon MIMO’s research had moved to figuring out how to use multipath propagation as an
advantage. This researches basic premise was figuring out how to turn additional signal paths
into what effectively could be considered additional channels to carry data (Poole, n.d.).
This turn of events was a significant progression for the world of telecommunications as
multipath propagation exists everywhere. Anytime a signal hits a building it causes a signal
split, and a signal travelling between transmitter and receiver tends to hit many buildings.
Traditionally these objects served as a nuisance by interfering with signal power but with
MIMO they provide an opportunity for advantages. With the assistance of MIMO these
buildings now allow the strength of the link to increase. The minds involved in MIMO took to
the task of learning how to harness that splitting of signal and use MIMO to force that split
signal to not only reach its destination but also to enhance the overall security of the system.
Whilst the research pushed forward for multipath propagation, two researchers proposed
the use of MIMO for spatial multiplexing. The two researchers which first proposed this use
were Arogyaswama Paulraj and Thomas Kailath. The first test demonstration of MIMO
would not occur however till 1998. It was during this test that spatial multiplexing was used
for the first time as the principle technique to improve the communication system
performance using MIMO (Kumar, 2015). It only took three years after this test for the
marketplace to have adopted MIMO for commercial use.
MIMO Diversity
MIMO is effectively considered a radio antenna technology, this is because it uses

multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the receiver. Doing so allows MIMO to enable a
variety of signal paths that can carry the data, and each antenna is assigned a different path
which results in enabling multiple signal paths to be used from one transmission.
One aspect of telecommunications is the idea of channels. A channel refers to either a
physical transmission medium such as a wire or a logical connection over a multiplexed
medium. Most channels today fall under the latter of those definitions. Channels have the
potential to have their efficiency affected by fading, fading refers to the distortion that a
signal experiences.
There is a principle in the wireless telecommunications industry known as the principle
of diversity, its job is to provide the receiver with multiple versions of the same signal. To do
this the system takes identical signals and alters them so that each signal is affected in
different ways by the signal path. Doing so makes it so that if the signal is affected, there is a
much lower probability that multiple signals can be affected at the same time. Diversity can
help to stabilize a link and improve its performance by reducing the error rate on that link.
There are three different versions of diversity modes. Each of these versions provide their
own specific advantages and disadvantages. The first of these is known as time diversity.
Time diversity works by taking a message and transmitting at different times using different
timeslots and channel coding.
The second is known as frequency diversity, which uses different frequencies. This may
either be in the form of using different channels or through using technologies such as spread
spectrum and OFDM (Yarali, 2004). Spread spectrum is a type of communication change in
which the frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately varied.
The last of these types of diversity is known as space diversity. Space diversity is the type
of diversity most often used as the basis for MIMO enabled technologies. Space diversity
uses antennas located in different positions to take advantage of the different radio paths that
exist in a typical terrestrial environment.
So, now we have a basic understanding of type diversity modes, and know that space
diversity is the variant for enabling diversity most applicable with MIMO. The core reasons
MIMO uses space-time processing is that it is complimented by the use of antennas placed at
different points.
Spatial Multitasking
Throughout this document you’ve heard the terms spatial diversity and spatial
multiplexing. This short subsection is dedicated to providing a better definition for these
terms as they will continue to show up throughout this document.
Spatial diversity, when referring to MIMO in particular, is defined by its ability to
improve the reliability of the system with respect to the various forms of fading. Spatial
multiplexing is used to provide additional data capacity by using different paths to carry
additional traffic. By increasing the number of receive and transmit antennas, MIMO is able
to considerably increase the capacity of a given channel. This is made possible by linearly
increasing the throughput of the channel with every pair of antennas added to the system. As
spectral bandwidths become a rarer and more valuable commodity the ability to manipulate
bandwidths more effectively is crucial, which just makes MIMO all the more important as a
developing technology, considering it can do just that.
Antenna Placement
One of the key issues to keep in mind for any MIMO system is the placement of
antennas. Many systems use small units and the placement of antennas can present issues. To
ensure a MIMO system is able to operate satisfactorily the correlation between antennas
should remain small. A common rule of thumb for antenna placement in MIMO systems is
that space should be delta/2, where delta represents the wavelength of the signal. This rule of
thumb is considered necessary if you want to provide near zero correlation issues between the
antennas.
In order to achieve this a variety of approaches has been developed. The first of these
approaches is the use of higher frequencies. In order to accommodate the higher antenna
numbers that will be required for some of the larger antenna systems mentioned later in this
document, higher frequencies are required. These higher frequencies are useful as they
shorten the wavelength of the signals, and thereby allows the antenna spacing to be
accommodated within a small physical space.
The second approach comes from using the three dimensions within an item to provide
spacing instead of a two-dimensional linear fashion. Many items, such as mobile phones, are
often too thin for this approach to be applicable. But in cases where you could deploy a
mobile cube this method allows you to accommodate more antennas by using spacing in three
dimensions.
The last method that can combat the issue of antenna placement is the use of spatial
modulation, the number of RF chains needed for larger scale MIMO systems can be reduced
by using spatial modulation. Spatial modulation is a form of modulation which only requires
the use of one transmitting array to function with multiple receiving antennas.
MIMO Formats
Earlier in this document in our introduction to ‘what is MIMO’ we briefly discussed what
SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO were and noted that later in this document we would discuss in
greater detail about each type of MIMO Format. Let us start this section by stating there is of
course a handful of different MIMO configurations and formats that can be used. Each of
these formats have their own advantages and disadvantages. There is no catch all format
which excels at everything, rather instead MIMO is a technology where you pick your
accompanying technology based on the specifics of your need.
In this section we will be discussing four different types of MIMO configurations. These
configurations are known as SISO, SIMO, MISO, and MIMO. In addition to each format
having their own advantages and disadvantages each format also has a different set up and
differing levels of complexity. These different configurations refer to the different ways
telecommunication can do input and output.
The simplest form of RADIO link is that of SISO (single input single output). This mode
of communication has been the standard for radio channels for a long time, the transmitters
and receivers on SISO operate with one antenna. The advantage of SISO is in its simplicity.
SISO requires no processing diversity, however, its hindrance comes in limited performance.
SISO is affected by interference more than any other of these systems and a further limitation
for it is that it has a very narrow channel bandwidth. SISO is the system of choice if you are
looking for a straightforward and simple link.
Next comes SIMO (single input multiple output). This format is when a transmitter only
has a single antenna but the receiver has multiple antennas. A term often used in the industry
for describing SIMO is ‘receive diversity’. This format is most often used to enable a receiver
system that receives signals from a number of independent sources to combat the effects of
fading. It has been used for many years with short wave listening/receiving stations to combat
the effects of ionospheric fading (Poole, n.d.). SIMO’s advantage over MIMO is that it is still
easy to implement, with processing only required at the receiver. Its downside is mobile
devices, as current technology in cellphones limits the leveling of processing a receive device
could handle and would in many cases quickly drain battery life.
SIMO comes in two modes. The first of these is known as Switched Diversity SIMO and
is programmed so that SIMO will just look for the strongest signal and switch to that antenna.
The second mode is known as Maximum Ratio Combining SIMO which takes both signals
and sums them. This method has both antennas contributing to the overall signal. The latter of
these two modes is the more commonly used mode on the field and provides slight help with
SIMO’s cellular flaw (Poole, n.d.).
The third MIMO format is that of MISO (multiple input single output). In the industry
MISO is sometimes referred to as ‘transmit diversity’. In MISO data is duplicated and
transmitted multiple times from the transmitter antenna. The main advantage of MKISO is in
its redundancy, unlike SIMO though the strain is on the transmitter instead of the receiver.
This is beneficial to cellular devices; MISO does not negatively impact the battery life of the
receiving cellular device. For systems that are looking to upgrade from SISO but not take the
full leap to MIMO, this would be the recommendation I would give those systems.
Last on our list is MIMO (multiple input multiple output). This is where there is more
than one antenna at both ends of the radio link. MIMO is used to provide improvements in
both channel robustness as well as channel throughput though for something to be able to
fully benefit from MIMO it has to be able to use channel coding. This was highly important
up until a few years ago as many systems did not have this capability.
The differing forms of MIMO are all able to provide a system with significant
improvements in terms of performance. Generally, this comes at the cost of additional
processing and additional required power on some end of the transmission. The important part
for individual technology makers is deciding which format is the best fit. The future is slowly
encroaching to a world though where MIMO is likely to exist in near every industrial
technology.
Shanon’s Law
Areas of science are bound by limitations; this is the natural order of things. We refer to
these limitations as laws, rules which cannot be broken however we are constantly striving to
push those limitations and sometimes find ways to subvert them.
Telecommunications suffers from a multitude of limitations. These limitations could be
anything such as a limitation on associated technology, something which halted the
procession of MIMO not too long ago. But some limitations cannot be passed over, these
limitations are the laws, and we have laws that affect telecommunications. One particular law
is associated with the cap limitation on how much data can be passed along a specific channel
in the presence of noise.
The law which governs this aspect of telecommunications is referred to as Shannon’s
Law. It’s important we understand the basics of Shannon’s Law and a brief understanding of
the history behind it. This law is particularly important to us because MIMO is a wireless
technology which provides a way to push the limitations of this law far beyond the
possibilities of what a traditional single channel system can do.
Shannon’s law defines the maximum rate at which error free data can be transmitted over
a given bandwidth in the presence of noise. It is expressed in the following form: C = W
log2(1 + S/N).
In this equation, C refers to the channel capacity in bits per second. W is the bandwidth in
hertz, and S/N is the signal to noise ratio. From this equation you can see that there is an
ultimate limit on the capacity of a channel with a given bandwidth, however this point
limitation is rarely reached due to the limitation by signal to noise ratio of a received signal as
well.
These limitations force us to make decisions about the way our technologies
transmissions are made. One key part in this is the modulation scheme as channel capacity
can be increased by using higher order modulation schemes. However, there is a downside to
using higher modulation schemes; this downside is that they permit a higher allowable error
rate.
Though there are multiple improvements that can be made in terms of optimization for a
modulation scheme and improving signal to noise ratio these improvements are a compromise
and require balancing all of the other factors involved with telecommunications. Most of the
time improving upon one parts efficiency would reduce another parts efficiency. Due to this
factor a natural limitation was formed on single antenna systems and so it became necessary
to look towards other ways for improving data throughput on individual channels. The
technology we found to do so is MIMO.
MIMO Spatial Multiplexing
In order to take advantage of additional throughput capabilities MIMO must utilize

several sets of antennas. In many MIMO systems two antennas are sufficient enough, but
besides a limitation on budget there is no reason why further antennas could not be employed
to a system to further increase the systems throughput. The general rule surrounding spatial
multiplexing is that for your system to operate with spatial multiplexing effectively it requires
that the number of receive numbers be equal to or greater than the number of transmit
antennas.
In addition to spatial multiplexing, MIMO systems will sometimes utilize a matrix
mathematical approach to take advantage of additional throughput. A matrix is a rectangular
array of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged in rows and columns. A matrix in a
MIMO system allows data streams from differing transmissions to be transmitted from
differing antennas. In other words, a matrix allows each path to transmit multiple differing
paths and each of those transmissions to have different channel properties.
An example from (Poole, n.d.), on a three transmit, three receive antenna matrix system
is as follows:
r1 = h11 t1 + h21 t2 + h31 t3

r 2 = h12 t1 + h22 t2 + h32 t3
r 3 = h13 t1 + h23 t2 + h33 t3
where r1 = signal received at antenna 1, r2 = signal received at antenna 2 and so on.

The avove equations can be represented in matrix format as:
[R] = [H] x [T]
Above is a simple example of a matrix format, but for a matrix format to work (so that
you can recover the transmitted data-stream at the receiver), it is necessary to perform a
considerable amount of signal processing. First, the MIMO decoder has to estimate the
channel transfer characteristics individually, this estimation determines the transfer matrix.
Once this matrix has been estimated the matrix is copied then produced. From there the
transmitted data streams are reconstructed by multiplying the received vector with the inverse
of the transfer matrix (Poole, n.d.).
The reality of this process/situation is far more difficult than a formula can fix. There are
near countless variations and factors that have to be taken into account in the real world. But
the examples above demonstrate a well-placed basic principle on the calculations which
serves as a safe estimate for understanding how the system works.
MIMO Space Time Block Coding
The section above was dedicated to spatial multiplexing; this section is directly related to
that as in this section we will explore what is required in order for spatial multiplexing to be
utilized. One of the necessary components is to add coding to the different channels so that
the receiver can detect the correct data.
One of the coding technologies this document will be covering is that of space time block
codes. These codes are used for MIMO systems to enable the transmission of data streams
across a number of antennas and to exploit the various received versions of the data to
improve the reliability of data-transfer (Poole, n.d.). Space time coding takes all the copies of
received signals and combines them in the most efficient way for extracting data.
Space time coding uses both spatial and temporal diversity; it involves the transmission
of multiple copies of data and helps to compensate for channel fading and thermal noise.
When using space time coding, the data stream is encoded in block format. These blocks are
then distributed along the different antenna paths and sent out in time space increments.
Generally, a space time code is represented by a matrix. In this matrix, each row
represents a time slot and each column represents one antenna’s transmissions over time.
Figure 1 shows an example of one such matrix.
Tansmit antenna
 S11 S12   S1n 

S S 22   S 2 n 
 21
    
 
Time Slots
    
 S m1 S m2   S mn 
Figure 1. Space time code representation.
There are multiple different types of schemes developed for space time block coding.
One of these schemes developed back in 1998 is known as Alamouti’s code. This code is
extremely special; it is known as a transmit diversity scheme. Its biggest achievement is that
to this day it is the only orthogonal based code which has been able to obtain its full diversity
gain without needing to sacrifice data rate.
Differential block coding is a form of space time coding which does not need to know the
channel impairments in order for the signal to be decoded. Normally, differential space time
block codes are based on other more standard block codes. Block sets are designed in such a
way that they allow the receiver to extract the data from one another with good reliability.
Antenna Beamforming
MIMO is only a function, a powerful one, but it is still just a function. Co-existing
technologies are crucial in the telecommunications world; few technologies can get by
without the assistance of other technologies to provide some sort of support.
In the world of MIMO, antenna technologies are one of the most key components to
seeing how well MIMO performs. Sometimes this performance can be even further enhanced
when MIMO and antenna systems manage to both incorporate the use of a third technology.
One such case of this enhanced capability is the relationship between MIMO and
beamforming.
Antenna technology is often being used to improve upon existing technologies. Directive
antennas for instance have been used for years to improve upon signal levels and to reduce
interference. One such media that uses directive antennas in this means is the field of cellular
telecommunications. They do so because it is beneficial to split a cell site into sectors, small
pocketed walls where each antenna only illuminates a certain degree of the user basis.
Beamforming is a technique that has the potential to be used on almost all antenna systems.
One use for them is to create a required antenna directive patterns that give the required
performance under given conditions (Poole, n.d.).
The antenna types most commonly paired with beamforming technology are smart
antennas, of which there are two sub-groupings. The first group is known as phased array
systems. These systems are switch based and have a number of pre-defined patterns, the
required one being switched according to the direction required. The second group is that of
adaptive array systems, and this type of antenna used adaptive beamforming. These systems
are adjusted in real time to the requirements at hand.
MIMO systems that make use of phased arrays require the overall system to determine
the direction of arrival for incoming signals and then switch to the most appropriate beam.
While adaptive systems have an advantage in the mobile world as they are able to direct the
beam in the exact direction needed and move the beam with near perfect real time accuracy.
The biggest downside to these systems is in their cost and in the sheer amount of extra
complexity on the array to operate them. But ultimately most systems in the industrial world
that are serious about providing competitive telecommunication systems will go with adaptive
beamforming.
Wrap Up
This concludes the first section of our document. The subsections above have been
focused on introducing MIMO. This document started with a definition on what MIMO is.
Next we discussed the four formats MIMO can operate in, SISO, MISO, SIMO, and MIMO.
Afterwards the document took a turn in pace and we switched gears from talking directly
about MIMO to talking about its associated technologies. This began with a section on
Shannon’s law a scientific law associated with the wireless telecommunications field, which
led directly into our discussion on spatial multiplexing and into our section on space time
block coding. From here we move into more specific territory. The next section of this
document will be focused on a particular subtype of MIMO, one known as MU-MIMO.
MU-MIMO
Introduction to MU-MIMO
MIMO is a broad and complex technology that broadness comes with MIMO being home
to multiple sub-technologies. One of those sub-technologies is multi-user MIMO (MU-
MIMO). MU-MIMOs functions enable multiple independent radio terminals to access a
system. This enhances the overall communication capability of each terminal. MU-MIMO is
considered an extension on Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) technology.
SDMA is a satellite communications mode which optimizes the use of radio spectrum
and helps to minimize system cost by taking advantage of directional antenna properties, in
SDMA satellite antennas transmit signals to multiple location zones on Earth’s surface.
SDMA can operate with fewer channels than receiver zones. It only needs three or four
channels to push that signal to a dozen recipients. Often SDMA is employed with a variant on
narrow signal beaming which ensures a minimal interference.
MU-MIMO works by exploiting the maximum system capacity through scheduling
multiple users to be able to simultaneously access the same channel using the degrees of
freedom offered by MIMO (Poole, n.d.). MU-MIMO can be enabled using several different
approaches, we are going to discuss three of these approaches.
The first is known as MIMO-MAC. The MAC in its name stands for multiple access
channel and it is used in uplink scenarios. For a MIMO-MAC receiver to perform most of its
processing the receiver requires knowledge about the channel state. This is because it uses
channel state information at the receiver. Determining this information is easier than
determining the channel state information at the transmitter. The downside is that for it to
work it requires significant levels of uplink capacity to transmit the dedicated pilots from each
user.
The second of the MU-MIMO forms is MIMO-BS. This form is used for MIMO
downlink broadcast channels and is considered more challenging and complex to operate than
that of MIMO-MAC. The reasoning for its increased complexity is that this form requires
transmit processing. Transmit processing typically comes in the form of pre-coding, and is
based in a user scheduling format of Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA). Additionally,
for this mode to operate it requires knowledge about the channel state information at the
transmitter. Having this information is what enables MIMO-BC to enact significant
throughput improvements over that of ordinary point to point MIMO systems (Poole, n.d.).
MIMO-BC and MIMO-MAC are not meant for every system. They are meant for
specialty systems and to be put in place for locations which either cannot operate under
normal circumstances and require most of their power to be exclusively to either the receiver
side or the transmit side, or to specialty systems which hope to either take advantage of these
systems special properties.
This next short subsection on our introduction to MU-MIMO is about a
telecommunication technique often employed in use with MU-MIMO. This technique is
called dirty paper coding and it is a technique most commonly put in practice in the wireless
communications world to provide a more efficient transmission of digital data through a
channel that is undergoing channel interference.
This technique consists of precoding the data in such a way so that interference data can
be read. In the presence of the interference pre-coding normally uses the channel state
information. To better explain dirty paper coding, an article gives a nice analogy which goes
as follows. “Normally black ink would be used, but if the paper is dirty(black), then the
writing cannot be read. However, if the writing was in white, although it could not be read on
white paper, it would be perfectly legible on dirty paper. The same technique is used on the
data transmission, although the nature of the interference must be known so that the pre-
coding can be incorporated to counter the effect of the interference (Geier, 2015).”
In the years to come more techniques will be developed for MU-MIMO and alongside
those new techniques will come improvements on the existing ones and perhaps entire new
forms on how MU-MIMO can operate. These developments will help to determine the
optimum format for its use in the telecommunications world. But even with MU-MIMO in its
infancy stages it already provides several advantages over traditional point to point MIMO. In
the sections to come this document will discuss some of the advantages associated with
MIMO.
MU-MIMO Advantages
MU-MIMO does more than make your network faster. It also aids in increasing a systems
network capacity. For your standard home network this should mean being able to handle
more Wi-Fi devices simultaneously without issue. Where MU-MIMOs increase in network
capacity should really shines though is in public Wi-Fi hotspots areas with a dense number of
users.
One of the most beneficial pieces to having MU-MIMO in an area is that it even provides
improvements from non-MU-MIMO devices that are operating within its sphere of influence.
It does this through the following logic, MU-MIMO enables all the MU-MIMO capable
devices on a network to be serviced at a much quicker rate which inadvertently provides more
time for SU-MIMO and non-MIMO enabled devices to communicate with the router.
Another piece that sets MU-MIMO apart from other wireless technologies is that the
transmit beamforming commonly used in pair with MU-MIMO is standardized which means
that products which support MU-MIMO can now all easily incorporate a standard
beamforming method.
Its other benefits range across a multitude of things; one side-benefit is that the data sent
from the router of a MU-MIMO device is unreadable by any other device. Only the indented
recipient can process and read the data from the signal. Other additional advantages MU-
MIMO has include its ability to enable a level of direct gain to be obtained in a multiple
access capacity. (How-To -Geek, 2016).
MU-MIMO also appears to be less effected by propagation issues. MU-MIMO also
allows spatial multiplexing gain to be achieved at the base station without the need for
multiple antennas at the user end. This allows for the production of cheaper remote terminals.
Bonding Channels
Wi-Fi networks operate on 5GHz of the radio frequency spectrum. The 5GHz spectrum is
one of the most heavily regulated spectrums because of how many technologies operate on
and compete for this space. One of the significant advantages that drew most companies
operates on the 5GHz spectrum was the number of non-overlapping channels, each of which
is 20MHz in width.
Wi-Fi can bond channels together; this increases the amount of data that can be carried
over the network. The standard 802.11ac routers on today’s market use this method of
channel bonding to create channels of 80MHz in width. The problem with this is that bonding
channels results in a reduced number of available non-overlapping channels. The standard
method of channel bonding reduced this number of operable different channels from 25 to 6,
with MU-MIMO enabled on the device that channel width can jump all the way to 160MHz
wide. This means the number of operable channels decreases to only 3.
In a non-densely packed area, increasing your channel width is ideal. Your system will
generally operate better and you won’t have to worry about your limited number of channels.
But in environments where many Wi-Fi network devices are operating, such as a multi-level
apartment building or a densely packed office, you can start to see the congestion of the
network as all of the operating devices attempt to compete for the same limited bandwidth
space. Thankfully 802.11ac comes with a standard provision where the system will
automatically begin to use narrower channel widths if it detects the presence of inference or
noise that impacts a portion of the wider channel.
This results in fluctuating channels. In prime time users experience some minor
congestion across the 25 channels. But as the busy hour fades so does the congestion levels
are reduced. Eventually, the traffic halts enough that the system increases channel bandwidth
and the small number of users can enjoy a healthier internet experience. Depending on your
location and needs, the introduction of MU-MIMO into this system could be extremely
beneficial, or rarely seen.
Even with all of this power in MU-MIMO’s possession it is far from a perfect
technology. The following section highlights the drawbacks of a MU-MIMO system. At the
end of that section I will provide thoughts on why I feel it is worth just waiting to see where
MU-MIMO goes before adopting it into your system.
Drawbacks and Caveats of MU-MIMO
MU-MIMO has many faults. The first one this document will be introducing is that for
MU-MIMO to gain the fullest benefit from the network feature the technology must be
supported by both the router and the receiving device.
Currently MU-MIMO routers are only able to broadcast over second generation 802.11ac
wireless protocols which are a signal that many devices haven’t been updated to decode just
yet, and even more problematic is that the client must also explicitly support MU-MIMO. In
today’s world where MU-MIMO is still an infant in terms of development, the technology
which is capable of meeting that technology is just a select number of smartphones/tablets.
It’s likely to be years before other systems manage to implement MU-MIMO which
results in it currently being a dead technology, as communication from MU-MIMO to another
MU-MIMO system is unlikely. This means that even if your average every day man drops the
extra money to get a router with MU-MIMO, it would likely be somewhere between 5-7 years
before he would see every day use in it, and by that time the router itself is likely to be
outdated. So besides the heaviest of tech enthusiasts most people are not going to go through
the trouble of obtaining such a device for a technology they aren’t even sure is going to pick
up.
One of the biggest limitations for MU-MIMO is that it only works on the downlink
connection. MU-MIMO does not directly improve upon the speed of uplink connections. This
limitation alone severely cripples its use in large industries which need to consistently upload
files. There is also the issue of maxing out your available streams. Right now MU-MIMO
tops out at four streams which means that if a fifth device is added to the network it is forced
to share a stream with another device in the same way a SU-MIMO router would.
Additionally, there is a limitation in that MU-MIMO broadcast signals are designed to
work on a directional basis and can only be split when devices are in different locations in
your house. Currently there is no known workaround for this with MU-MIMO which means
MU-MIMO won’t provide any extra benefit over SU-MIMO for those who live in a small
apartment or generally have their devices browsing from the same room.
One more limitation for MU-MIMO is that it is designed in such a way to work best
through stationary Wi-Fi devices. This is problematic for the cellular world where roaming is
a key component. In situations with a moving device the receiver will not be getting the full
benefit of MU-MIMO. At best they are hoping for around 60-70% of its capacity. This
problem coupled together with the problem from our previous paragraph about same-room
devices makes you question where exactly MU-MIMO’s current place in the wireless world
is.
Where MU-MIMO could shine is in the business world. Specifically, in sectionalized
offices, each of these office would naturally be hosting a computer and by design to the
offices would be sectionalized which allows each person to be assigned their own stream. As
MU-MIMO currently stands this is the most optimal use for MU-MIMO on the market, and
even this use is very limited. Its limitation comes from the earlier note about MU-MIMO
currently being capped at a 4 active streams at a time which means that a 5th worker in an
office is forced to share a channel.
For the time being MU-MIMO is likely to be reserved for small offices and packed
households. The increased cost of this newer technology and the current limitations of MU-
MIMO are sure to steer the standard buyer away from it until its usage becomes more
commonplace.
Wrap Up
MU-MIMO is a developing technology just barely out of its infancy stage and due to
such is tied in with a handful of problems. The issues associated with MU-MIMO are not
contained within one field and this is troublesome for MU-MIMO as it makes it sub-par to
traditional SU-MIMO in both the mobile and the home frontier.
Ultimately MU-MIMO is in a hard place and is destined at best to find a very niche
audience/market for its use. Its current problems outweigh its current advantages. Not of all
these problems have to be fixed for MU-MIMO to find a place though. MU-MIMO however
is not the only alternative to SU-MIMO. The next section of this document will start our
discussion on millimeter wave technology.
MILLIMETER WAVE
What Is Millimeter Wave Technology?
Millimeter waves are the band of spectrum that falls between 30 gigahertzes and 300
gigahertzes. This band range has been the subject of research testing for 5G wireless
broadband technologies. Millimeter waves can be used for high-speed wireless broadband
communication. Millimeter wave frequency is considered an undeveloped band of frequency.
Millimeter wave band is important as it allows the use of data rates higher than 10 Gbps.
Millimeter waves suffer from two main factors. The first of these is that they have a
naturally short wavelength that only ranges from 1 to 10 millimeters. The second is that they
have a high amount of something known as atmospheric attenuation which further reduces the
range and strength of the waves (Nokia, 2013).
We are at a point where our end users range from corporate data centers to children
watching movies through Netflix. Both ends of this spectrum are very different but both
require the same end goal, they both require more bandwidth. Millimeter waves present an
opportunity to provide that needed bandwidth through wireless means.
There does come some minor limitations in terms of accessible space. The space
provided through millimeter wave technology is greater than the space we have available now
but there are some heavy restrictions on the use/operation of millimeter wave bands. In fact,
in the United States there are only four main bands that fall under the classification of
millimeter wave bands which can be utilized by commercial applications. Of these four
bands, the band known as “V-band” is the only one which is classified by the FCC as a band
usable for unlicensed operations.
History of Millimeter Wave
Millimeter wave technology was ahead of its time and did not see introduction into the
telecommunications world till recently. Millimeter wave concepts can date all the way back to
1890. In this time an individual named Bose was experimenting with millimeter wave signals
at just about the time when his contemporaries were inventing radio communications.
Following Bose’s research, millimeter wave technology remained within the confines of
university and government laboratories for almost half a century (Adhikari, 2008).
Though the concepts existed this early in time it wasn’t until the 1980’s that the
development of millimeter wave circuits became a thing. It was during this decade that the
birth of the modern day millimeter wave technology should be credited to. Over the next two
decades’ millimeter wave technology would see several experimental applications for testing
but it wouldn’t be until the early 2000’s that the public market managed to pick up millimeter
wave technology.
Propagation Characterictics
As a radio signal of any type moves through the atmosphere it is continually reduced in
its signal strength by numerous atmospheric factors. This affect is usually in the form of
either absorption or through the scattering of radio signals.
Following this factor can dictate how much of the transmitted signal actually made it to
the intended receiver and how much was simply lost or miss received. This loss is commonly
defined in terms of dB, the propagation characteristics through the atmosphere that affect
millimeter wave the most would be atmospheric oxygen, humidity, fog, and rain.
Of these conditions rain is the one which causes the most loss and oxygen causes the
least. Heavy rains can cause a loss of up to 80 GHz signal strength. But even with this
restrictive loss on millimeter wave signals links formed through millimeter waves have been
shown in testing to function for years at a time without disruption, even in the presence of
excessive downpours.
Testing in a lab about loss can only do so much after all. Actual performance of a system
such as massive MIMO or millimeter wave links depend on several factors which can include
the distance between radio nodes, distance between link margins of the radios, and sometimes
includes random factors such as the diversity of redundant paths (Rouse, n.d.).
Performance Reliability
The performance reliability of communication systems is often benchmarked in terms of

percent availability of the system. Percentage availability refers to signifying the average
percentage of the time the system is expected to operate to its specification/standard.
There are many factors in the real world which can affect/dictate the performance of a
wave link. For example, an intense storm would be likely to cause significant attenuation of
millimeter wave signals but it would be unlikely to cause an outage on the link.
The main countermeasures which protect a link from having an outage involve the
technical specifications of the product such as its transmit power, receive sensitivity, and
beam divergence. Additionally, this also includes the distance the communication must travel.
The availability of a link also generally depends on the probability of occurrence of
sufficiently heavy rain to cause an outage (Adhikari, 2008). The characteristics of rainfall
throughout the world has been well studied by various organizations and based on these
studies the international telecommunications union developed a model for computing the
probability of rain rates at various geographical locations.
This model is considered a well-accepted standard in the telecommunications world for
estimating the performance for microwave systems. It is also generally used to estimate a
millimeter wave links performance in any part of the world.
The next figure in this document (Table 1) is an example from (Adhikari, 2008) which
provides a comparative list of the expected performance of commercially available millimeter
wave products. The samples were taken from large metropolitan areas around the world based
on the International Telecommunication Union model that was discussed above.
In this Table the second column (labeled: link range) lists the maximum range the link
can achieve with 99.99% availability, the third column of this figure shows the availability of
links in those regions through millimeter wave systems at exactly 2 km.
Table 1. Comparative list of the expected performance of commercially available

millimeter wave products
Location Link Range (km, at 99.999% Availability) Availability

Los Angeles 1.75 99.998%
New York 1.25 99.991%
London 1.65 99.998%
Milan 1.35 99.994%
Sydney 1.2 99.99%
Riyadh 2.85 >99.999%
Millimeter Wave Applications
With the world economy becoming more information dependent each year, the
bandwidth needs of corporations large and small continue to grow. Sadly, many of these
corporations are old and being serviced by barely functioning copper wires. Millimeter wave
technology creates an opportunity to fill in the gap of lost time to these companies in a cost
effective manner. But bringing companies up to date is not the only functional application for
millimeter wave. Technologies based on this application are well positioned to serve the
needs of mobile applications into the foreseeable future.
Solutions based on lower frequency microwave wireless systems may perhaps be able to
meet the short term bandwidth demand for the next generation of wireless networks. But
when you look at the cost over time, millimeter wave solutions become more and more
attractive for scenarios like this.
In the future, millimeter wave technologies should look to intergrading themselves into
the cellular world. But for now video signals are what demand the greatest bandwidth and
accordingly also demand a higher data rate. The speeds videos demand can currently be
reached using video compression techniques prior to transmission but these techniques
diminish the quality of the videos. Millimeter wave technologies make gigabit rates a
commonplace and easy to achieve ultimately resulting in making uncompressed video a
reality.
Other current applications for millimeter wave equipment includes being a backhaul for
wireless base stations, short-range radars, and airport body scanners. In this next subsection
we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated with using millimeter wave
technology as a part of your design.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Millimeter waves open up more of the spectrum. The governmental bodies of the world
control most of the spectrum this leaves just a few channels of spectrum left for the rest of us
to use. Needless to say that remaining space left has led to some conflicts; the expansion of
cellular technologies thankfully is helping to push the need for better spectrum allocation.
The cellular industry relies on the availability of the spectrum to properly expand.
Millimeter waves are a method of partially solving this problem and they do so by providing
more room for expansion. One of the key benefits to the use of millimeter wave links is the
scalability of their deployment. For example, millimeter waves are well suited for network
topologies such as point to point mesh, a dense hub-and-spoke, or even a ring. Most other
wireless technologies often reach their scalability limitation due to cross interference before
the full potential of such topologies can be realized (Adhikari, 2008).
The bad news is that while millimeter waves give us additional spectrum room to play
with, that room isn’t useful for all types of wireless applications. One of the key limiting
factors of millimeter wave technology is its limited range. This limited range though can now
(at least to some degree) be compensated for through good receiver sensitivity, high transmit
power, and high antenna gains.
Those three things sound familiar don’t they? Well that would be because MIMO
technology delivers an increase to all three of those things making millimeter waves and
MIMO a match made in heaven. Thankfully that pairing does not just need to remain
something for the imagination.
Millimeter-Wave MIMO
This section will be introducing an interesting fusion of technologies, architecture for

bridging the existing gap in speeds between wireless and optical links. Millimeter wave
MIMO is employed in the millimeter wave spectrum E-band (70-95GHz range). This band is
available by the FCC on a semi-unlicensed basis for outdoor point-to-point communications.
The small wavelengths of this fusion enable the use of highly directive beams which
provide link budgets sufficient enough to communicate through poor weather conditions due
to the use of MIMO with low-cost silicon processing front-ends requirements.
The goal behind the creation of millimeter-wave MIMO was to increase data rates by
more than an order of 10-40 Gbps and at the same time also simplifying installation. Such a
wireless link would offer a natural application for communication infrastructure recovery as
well as offering tremendous commercial potential. This is because this type of link can be
used interchangeably with optical transmission equipment.
One of the greatest advantages this type of system provides is that its 10-40 Gbps
wireless link has a lowered cost. This is because they provide the bridge connections between
optical links. The small wavelengths provided by this system make it possible to synthesize
highly directly beams with moderately sized antennas which permits significant spatial reuse.
This system is not yet in development or testing, but the key concepts behind this
proposed system include the use of adaptive beamforming and spatial multiplexing. The use
of adaptive beamforming in this makes a highly directive beam steerable over a larger angle.
This system drastically simplifies the task of installation, with directivity gains being obtained
at both the transmitter and receiver by the use of adaptive antenna arrays (Eric Torkildson).
As for spatial multiplexing, the design for this system states that the transmiting and
receiving nodes each consist of an array of subrays and each subray can be interpreted as a
single virtual element (Eric Torkildson). The small wavelengths assist in separating the
subarrays which ensures that each virtual transmit element sees a different enough response at
the receive array.
Millimeter wave MIMO is currently a theoretical system and I felt it was important for
this document to include a small piece on this theoretical system. Nothing says that millimeter
wave MIMO won’t be the next huge leap in technology come 10 to 15 years from now. If you
as a reader are further interested in learning about the theories and mathematics behind
millimeter wave MIMO I suggest reading through the entirety of the scholarly article which
you can find in my sources as Millimeter-wave MIMO: Wireless Links and Optical Speeds by
(Eric Torkildson).
MASSIVE MIMO
Introduction
Massive MIMO systems can be defined as any MIMO system which uses dozens or even
hundreds of antennas in the communication terminals. A traditional MIMO system will often
have two, four, or maybe up to eight antennas.
Though massive MIMO is a newer technology it has been finding itself into many
different areas of development. Massive MIMO has had a smooth start and even though it is
still just in its infancy stages developers have already come to realize that its inclusion into
systems offers distinct advantages.
To briefly touch on the history of massive MIMO, its development was a slow crawl for
several years but over the last five to eight years massive MIMO has gathered a lot of
attention from researchers. Because of this, this sections focus on the developments
associated with massive MIMO will be targeted specifically to the last few years of research.
In a later segment this document is going to specifically discuss how massive MIMO can
be implemented into the still developing cellular 5G systems. This initial segment however
will be focused more on the broad wireless capabilities of massive MIMO which includes
topics such as energy efficiency, exploitation of degrees of freedom, TDD calibration, and
pilot contamination.
When you think of a massive MIMO system, what should come to mind is you thinking
of a system which uses a few hundred antenna arrays. Antennas aren’t the only thing massive
MIMO does in large scale, massive MIMO systems also generally have a few dozen terminals
associated with them which this cluster of 200 or so antennas are responsible for
transmissions to and from.
Earlier in this document we spoke about the distinct advantages and disadvantages
associated with traditional MIMO technology. Most of these advantages still apply to massive
MIMO technology. However, due to the unique design of massive MIMO some of the
disadvantages associated with traditional MIMO systems are of a lower concern.
The question that’s being raised now is how can massive MIMO systems achieve this?
Most of the advantages do come from software changes in massive MIMO systems compared
to traditional MIMO systems. Some of the other advantages simply work due to the theory
known as the rule of large numbers. Because of its unique properties and unique advantages
massive MIMO has become something of an enabler for the development of future networks.
Enthusiasts for massive MIMO would say it is an enabler for the future digital society
infrastructure that will connect the internet of people, internet of things, with clouds and other
network infrastructure (Erik Larsson, 2014). A more practical view would say massive
MIMO has a lot of untapped potential. The question is whether this potential can outweigh
the flaws associated with it and can that potential be put into practical use.
One advantage massive MIMO already has over MU-MIMO is that massive MIMO
already has different deployable configurations and deployment scenarios. In the figure below
each antenna unit would be small and active preferably fed via an optical or electric digital
bus.
Figure 2. Sample of antenna configurations/deployable scenarios.
Massive MIMO is reliant on the use of other technologies to assist its operation. In
particular, massive MIMO is very reliant on the use of spatial multiplexing. Spatial
multiplexing relies on the base station having a generous amount of channel knowledge for
both the uplink and the downlink. On the uplink, this is easy to accomplish by just having the
terminals send pilots based on which base station estimates the channel responses to each of
the terminals (Eric Torkildson).
The downlink is more difficult to accomplish. In a conventional MIMO system like LTE
standard, the base station would be the one sending out pilots and it sends them based on the
terminals which estimate channel responses. These terminals quantize (approximate a
continuously varying signal by one whose amplitude is restricted to a prescribed set of values)
the estimates and feed that information back to the base station. This type of running system
is not really feasible in a massive MIMO system due to how massive MIMO will often be
operating in a high-mobility environment.
The reasons a high-mobility environment hampers this system is that optimal downlink
pilots have to be mutually orthogonal between the antennas (Erik Larsson, 2014). This means
that the amount of time-frequency resources needed for downlink pilots must scale as the
number of antennas increases. A massive MIMO system which naturally comes with many
more antennas that a traditional system, could require costs in resources up to a hundred times
more than your conventional system. Which means the normal method of having optimal
downlink pilots is not going to cut it for massive MIMO.
The second reason a high-mobility environment is hampered is the sheer number of
channel responses that each terminal must estimate. This number of responses is also
proportional to the number of base station antennas. So once again the uplink resources
needed just to inform the base station about the channel responses could be up to a hundred
times larger than your conventional station. The general solution to this is to operate the
station in TDD mode and force reliance on the cooperation between the uplink and downlink
channels.
The concepts for massive MIMO up until approximately just a decade ago have been
almost entirely theoretical and still even today the majority of concepts are still just theories.
But even so, massive MIMO has oddly garnered a lot of interest and attention from the
telecommunications community.
The telecommunications community has laid out their testbeds, picked aside numerous
channel measurements and has drawn a map on the direction for where massive MIMO has
headed. The telecommunications community generally agrees massive MIMO should be used
for mobile wireless communications.
Energy Capacity
In the previous sub-section on massive MIMO, we reiterated how MIMO technology is

reliant on other software technologies to ensure it operates properly. Another of the
technologies that massive MIMO is reliant on is that of phase-coherent processing of signals
from each antenna at the base station. In this section and the sections to follow we will be
talking about the potential of massive MIMO and some of the specific benefits it brings to a
telecommunication system.
These subsections not only serve to highlight how massive MIMO can benefit a system
but they also will be noting the background technology which assists MIMO in being able to
perform these feats in the first place. There are many different places we could start, but I
believe the most interesting first topic of choice would be on massive MIMO’s ability to
increase the capacity 10 times or more and simultaneously improve the radiated energy-
efficiency in the order of 100 times (Eric Torkildson).
This capacity increase results from spatial multiplexing in massive MIMO, the
fundamental principle that makes dramatic increase in energy efficiency possible is that with
a large number of antennas energy can be focused with extreme sharpness-into small regions
in space. (Erik Larsson, 2014).”
By shaping the signals sent out by the antennas a base station can ensure that all the wave
fronts add up at the locations intended. Shaping the signals also ensures that all information
which ends up in non-intended locations is raddled /scrambled. The interference between
terminals can be suppressed even further by using a technique known as zero-forcing this may
come at the cost of more transmitted power though.
Quantitatively…depicts the fundamental tradeoff between the energy efficiency in terms
of the total number of bits (sum-rate) transmitted per Joule per terminal receiving service of
energy spent, and spectral efficiency in terms of total number of bits (sum-rate) transmitted
per unit of radio spectrum consumed (Erik Larsson, 2014).” What this means is that energy
spent, translates into joules and bits, which shows the concept of energy efficiency trade-off,
and that spectral efficiency is shown through bits and radio spectrum consumption.
Maximum ratio combing is generally considered more attractive due to three main
factors. The first factor is its simplistic nature comparative to ZF combing. The second reason
is how maximum ratio combing can multiply received signals. The third attractive benefit to
maximum ratio combing is that is capable of performing in a distributed fashion and does so
independently at each antenna unit. ZF works well for a moderate sized MIMO system, but
begins to fall off towards the larger ends that massive-MIMO requires for operating. This is
because that the channel responses associated with different terminals at this level tend to be
nearly orthogonal, something that ZF does not handle very well.
Energy Efficiency
In one research the author (Erik Larsson, 2014) gathered some information based on an
information-theoretic analysis. This analysis accounted for intracellular interference,
bandwidth, and pilot energy cost in relation to acquiring channel state information. The MRC
receiver in this test operated in noise-limitation regime, and provided each terminal with a
rate of about 1 bit per complex dimension.
In a massive MIMO system, there are differing zones of operation. A MRC is generally
operated in what is referred to as the green zone. The green zone is designed to be where the
system scaled down power as much as possible without seriously affecting the overall
spectral efficiency. There is a lot of room for this kind of work in massive MIMO systems,
enough so that the overall spectral efficiency can be up to 10 times greater than conventional
MIMO.
Figure 3. Sample of massive MIMO configuration.
There is of course a reason for this increased allowance of efficiency, even when
operating in the green zone, which by nature hampers spectral efficiency. That reason is a
direct result of having the dozens of terminals served simultaneously in the same time-
frequency resource. When operating in the 1 bit/dimension regime (as in this example) there
is evidence to show that intersymbol inference can just be treated like additional thermal
noise, which offers an indirect solution for providing a way to dispose of intersymbol
interference.
Scale of Capacity
One of our references (Choudhury, 2014) gives a good example on understanding the
scale of capacity gain offered by massive MIMO. Their example says to consider an array
which consists of 6400 omnidirectional antennas, transmitting with a total power of 120 watts
over a 20 MHz bandwidth in the PCS band. The array serves 1000 fixed terminals which are
randomly distributed in a disk radius 6km, with the center being the array.
The height of the antenna array is 30m in this example and the height of terminals are
each 5m. Using a model, you can find the path loss to be 127 dB when you are at a range of 1
km, at this distance the range-decay exponent is also 3.52. Additionally, there is also log-
normal shadow fading with 8 dB standard deviation. The receivers have a 9 dB noise figure.
In this example, one quarter of the time is spent on transmission of uplink pilots for TDD
channel estimations, and it is assumed that the channel is just substantially constant over
intervals of 164 MS in order to estimate the channel gains with sufficient accuracy. Downlink
data is transmitted through maximum-ratio beamforming with power control. In this
transmission the 5% of terminals which have the worst channels are excluded from service.
Continuing with this example, it uses a capacity that is extended to accommodate slow
fading, near/far effects, power control which accounts for receiver noise, channel estimation
errors, the overhead of pilot transmissions, and the imperfections of MRT beamforming. This
example system uses an optimal max-min power control which confers an equal signal to
interference/noise ratio on each of the terminals, providing an equal throughput.
Massive MIMO systems such as this one show that 95% of the terminals can receive a
consistent throughput of 21.2 Mb/s/terminal. Overall, the array in this example offers all
terminals a total downlink throughput of 20 Gbps and a sum-spectral efficiency of 1000
bits/s/Hz. In a more laymen term, this means that this single system could provide
simultaneous service at 20 Mbit/s to 950 homes. And this is the power of massive MIMO,
when other types of power controls, combined with massive MIMO massive and time-
division multiplexing join together, it allows an accommodation of even larger sets of
terminals.
Low-Power Components
This section is on the components associated massive MIMO. The first component we are
going to touch on is the ultra-linear amplifiers used in conventional systems. In massive
MIMO those amplifiers are now replaced by hundreds of low-cost amplifiers.
These new amplifiers each have output power in the millimeter wave range. There is a
significant contrast between the designs for these amplifiers to the design of your classical
arrays. The classical arrays used few antennas and these antennas were fed by high-power
amplifiers. Massive MIMO does not need this kind of system. Massive MIMO is focused on a
high number of antennas and part of the backbone for massive MIMOS design was to reduce
the constraints on accuracy for each individual amplifier and RF chain.
Massive MIMO is somewhat reliant on the scientific law of large numbers for many of its
advantages. It uses the law of large numbers to ensure that noise fading and hardware
imperfections average out when signals from a large number of antennas are combined in the
air together. The same property that makes massive MIMO resilient against fading is also
responsible for making the technology resistant against failure of one or two antenna units.
This does not mean those antennas have a lower chance of failure but rather just that MIMO
will not be slowed or affected by their loss.
Constant envelope is the method for the modulation of data that is commonly used in
wireless modems. This type of modulation was chosen over what is known as coherent digital
phase modulation techniques. These techniques revolve around using CPM to ensure the
carrier phase is modulated in a continuous manner. Having such a near-constant envelope
signaling is what facilitates the use of extremely cheap and power-efficient RF amplifiers.
RF amplification is often done through beamforming. The beamforming techniques used
with massive MIMO are not your conventional beamforming techniques. The distinction is
that no beams are formed; rather a wave field is created. In massive MIMO systems this is
more beneficial due to the fact that if a wave field is sampled at the spots where the terminals
are located the terminals see only the signals that we direct them to see (Erik Larsson, 2014).
The property of massive MIMO that makes this possible is the fact that massive MIMO
channels have a large null space and almost anything can be put into this null space without
affecting what the terminals can see. For example, components can be put into this null space
and these components can make the transmitted waveforms satisfy the desired envelope
constraints.
Why Is Energy Efficiency Important?
The previous section has been dedicated to the components associated with MIMO and
focused on how these components are efficient for energy. You may be asking why does
energy consumption even matter in a system like this?
Energy consumption is a real problem in the technological world. Energy consumption
affects the world we live in and lowering that consumption helps to combat the negative
effects technology can have on the environment and lowering your energy consumption can
reap positive effects on any company, even the ones who could care less about the
environmental state of the world.
The benefits any company can reap comes from the simple fact that the higher your
energy consumption, the higher your energy bill. So naturally, implementing a technology
which reduces energy consumption will lower your energy bills in addition to the positive
environmental effects on the world and other beneficial effects a system can reap by choosing
to operate through massive MIMO.
If massive MIMO base stations become a mainstream technology and were to continue
focusing research into energy efficiency, it is very possible we may see a future where
cellular systems are running effectively by solar power. If we manage to get to this point it
would provide yet another advantage for systems which incorporated massive MIMO, the
stations which ran on solar power would generate much less electromagnetic interference.
Energy consumption and capacity increase. These are the two main points of advantage
for massive MIMO systems, but the advantages associated with massive MIMO do not stop at
just those two. Through the next section we are going to cover several more advantages for
massive MIMO systems.
Assorted Advantages
As you’ve seen through this documents coverage of massive MIMO there are many
advantages to using massive MIMO technology. This section is focused on a few other
smaller advantages that massive MIMO provides. Massive MIMO is unique in that it comes
with a large amount of degrees of freedom. Many of these advantages incorporate the use of
these degrees of freedom to better improve performance.
One of the basic advantages for the use of MIMO systems is that it improves the signal to
noise ratio of the overall system. The use of massive MIMO enables this to be taken to a
greater level and by doing so provides an increased defense against intentional jamming.
Another advantage of massive MIMO is that by providing an increase in the number of
antennas it allows for a greater number of paths to be used and thus increases the level of data
that can be transferred within a given time. Additionally, increasing the number of antennas
means that the system becomes less sensitive to the channel matrix entries.
Massive MIMO systems can also result in allowing simple detection methods to achieve
an increased performance rate. This decrease in overall system complexity has a significant
positive effect on processing which in turn means that massive MIMO should be surprisingly
easy to work with in the future for many new and upcoming applications.
Massive MIMO systems enable a significant reduction of latency on the air interface. The
performance of wireless communications systems is normally limited by fading. Fading can
render received signal strength very limited. This happens when the signal sent from a base
station travels through multiple paths before it would reach the terminal. The end waves from
these multiple paths interfere with the strength, this fading is what makes it hard to build low-
latency wireless links. Massive MIMO’s reliance on the law of large numbers and
beamforming allows it to avoid these fading dips which results in fading no longer limiting
latency.
Another benefit of massive MIMO is that with OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing), each subcarrier in a massive MIMO system has the same channel gain. Each
terminal can be given the whole bandwidth; this renders most physical-layer control signaling
redundant.
Signal Jamming
The last benefit of massive MIMO that this section will discuss is on how massive
MIMO can increase the resistance to man-made interference and to intentional jamming.
Intentional jamming of wireless systems has become a growing concern in some markets over
the last few years. It is a serious cyber-security threat that seems to get little publicity and thus
the public has little knowledge on it.
Simple signal jammers can be bought off the internet for a few hundred dollars, military-
grade equipment like this can be cobbled together using off-the-shelf radio based software for
a few thousand dollars. Recent incidents illustrate the serious magnitude of this problem. For
example, “During the EU summit in Gothenburg, Sweden, in 2001, demonstrators used a
jammer located in a nearby apartment and during critical phases of the riots, the chief
commander could not reach and of the engaged 700 police officers (Stenumgaard, 2013).”
Spreading information over frequency becomes less feasible each year due to the growing
scarcity of bandwidth. One of the only ways to improve the robustness of wireless
communications is through the use of multiple antennas. Massive MIMO systems offer an
excess in terms of degrees of freedom. These degrees of freedom can be used to cancel
signals from intentional jammers thus allowing massive MIMO to close the threat of jamming
and lessen the problem of man-made interference.
This closes our discussion on the numerous amounts of advantages that are associated
with massive MIMO. What we know about massive MIMO systems is that they are
extraordinarily robust systems, especially considering it is something of a specialized system.
Massive MIMO is not easy to configure though, it is a very complex system, powerful, but
complex. This next section will be focused on the downsides of using MIMO, its limiting
factors.
Pilot Contamination
In an ideal scenario every terminal in a massive MIMO system is assigned something

called an orthogonal uplink pilot sequence. In reality however the maximum number of
orthogonal pilot sequences is bounded/limited by the duration of the “coherence intervals
divided by the channel delay-spread (Frenzel, 2013).” This is a law for telecommunications,
something we can subvert but not something we can dismiss.
In a typical operational scenario, the maximum number of orthogonal pilot sequences in a
one millisecond interval is estimated to be approximately 200. Since massive MIMO units are
built around having many co-running connections those 200 orthogonal pilot sequence units
per millisecond are easy to exhaust the supply of.
But what are the disadvantages brought to a system by exhausting this supply? The
answer to that would be that it creates pilot contamination. Pilot contamination is the effect
which occurs from the re-use of pilots from one cell to another, it is a term for when the
service-array correlates its received pilot signal with the pilot sequence associated with a
particular terminal (Choudhury, 2014).
When the service-array retrieves its pilot signal it also obtains a channel estimate. Each
pilot signal should be unique but in the case of pilot contamination the signal is not unique.
When this contaminated signal reaches the other terminals it will be alerted that it shared an
already in use pilot sequence. This begins a chain of checks and errors which results in this
sequence being sent through resulting in interference to the terminal which shares the same
pilot sequence as the transmitting signal.
Similar interferences are associated with uplink transmissions of data. This type of
directed interference becomes an increasingly more noticeable problem for massive MIMO
systems as it follows the scaling of large numbers, meaning that as the number of service
antennas increase so too does the probability of this type of interference.
Pilot contamination is not a phenomenon that is specific to massive MIMO but its effect
is felt harder than on traditional MIMO systems. Pilot contamination constitutes an ultimate
limit on performance as the number of antennas is increased (Frenzel, 2013). Due to this
limiting factor on massive MIMO systems, pilot contamination is something that must be
dealt with.
There are several ways which this can be done. The first of these involves the use of
channel estimation algorithms. These blinding techniques circumvent the use of pilots and
may mitigate the effects of pilot contamination. The most promising direction for blind
techniques are the ones which jointly estimate the channels and the payload data.
The second way to combat pilot contamination is optimizing the allocation of pilot
waveforms. One possibility is to use a less aggressive frequency re-use factor for the pilots.
This pushes contaminating cells farther apart. It is also possible to coordinate the use of pilots
or adaptively allocate pilot sequences to the different terminals in the networks.
The last method of combating pilot contamination deals with new precoding techniques.
These techniques take into account the network structure, such as pilot contamination
precoding. This allows utilization outside of the beamforming operation in order to nullify the
directed interference that results from pilot contamination.
Normal coordinated beamforming over multiple cells requires the estimates of the actual
channels between the terminals and the service-arrays of contaminating cells. But these new
anti-pilot-contamination precoding techniques require only the corresponding slow-fading
coefficients.
Practical pilot-contamination precoding remains to be developed and currently the
optimal strategy for combatting it is unknown. But the methods above are some of the more
common and more stable methods for combatting pilot contamination. Pilot contamination is
arguably the biggest problem that massive MIMO systems face.
This section does give you a mastery on pilot contamination, but rather highlights its
existence. If you are further interested in learning more about pilot contamination and its
inner workings I give my recommendation to an article called an Overview of Massive
MIMO: Benefits and Challenges. This article is written by a team of student members of the
IEEE and was published in their journal of selected topics on signal processing. It gives a
very thorough and mathematically based grounding on how pilot contamination functions.
We’ve already discussed an introduction to massive MIMO, as well as now providing an
in depth look at the advantages and problems associated with the use of massive MIMO. In
the section below we will begin our discussion on how massive MIMO works in a general
sense, plus providing an analysis of support technologies that help assist massive MIMO its in
day to day cycle.
Radio Propagation of Channel Responses
Massive MIMO systems rely on many supporting software’s and other technologies. In
this section we will be looking at one more function that provides massive MIMO with many
benefits. This function is a radio property known as favorable propagation.
Favorable propagation means that the propagation channel responses differ from terminal
to terminal. This section is of course, focused on the unique propagation associated with
massive MIMO. To study the behavior of massive MIMO systems, channel measurements
must be performed using realistic antenna arrays.
Realistic antenna arrays mean arrays which cover a spectrum from large antenna arrays to
small antenna arrays due to the different experiences both may receive. The most important
differences can involve large scale fading over the array, or small-scale signal statistic
changes over the array.
Next set of figures (Figure 4 & 5) were taken by (Lu Lu, 2014). These figures show the
two massive MIMO arrays used for the measurements that this document references. Figure 4
depicts a compact circular massive MIMO array with 128 antenna ports. This array consists
of 16 dual-polarized patch antenna elements arranged in a circle, with four of those circles
stacked atop one another. This array provides an advantage by both being compact and by
providing the possibility to resolve scatterers at different elevations. However, its downside is
that it suffers from worse resolution in azimuth (the arc of the horizon measured clockwise
from the south point).
The next figure (Figure 5) features a physically large linear array, in this array a single
omnidirectional antenna element is moved to 128 different positions. This is done in a static
environment to emulate a real array with the same dimensions.
Figure 4. A compact circular massive MIMO array with 128 antenna ports.
Figure 5. A compact circular massive MIMO array.

Figure 6. Different channel responses.
Figure 7. The sum-rate for closely spaced users.
One way of determining how different channel responses are is to look at the spread from
terminal to terminal between the smallest and largest singular values of the matrix that
contain channel responses. The next figure in this document (Figure 6) taken from (Erik
Larsson, 2014) illustrates this in a demonstration involving four user terminals and a base
station which has 4, 32, & 128 antenna ports.
Each of these ports is respectively configured either as a physically large single-polarized

linear array or a compact dual polarized circular array. Figure 7 shows the cumulative density
of the difference between the smallest and the largest singular value for the different
measured (narrowband) frequency points (Erik Larsson, 2014). This figure shows simulated
results for ideal independents.
This type of simulation is a reference most often used in theoretical studies, the
measurements for this reference figure are real measurements that were performed at Lund
University, the center frequency of this test was 2.6 GHz, and the measurement bandwidth
was 50 MHz.
When using the cylindrical array, a RUSK Lund channel sounder was employed. With
the synthetic linear array, a network analyzer was used for the measurements. In the 4-
element array, the median of the single value spread is about 23 dB and 18 dB. This number
is a measure for the fading margin, additional power that has to be used in order to solve all
users with a reasonable received signal power. With the massive linear array, the spread is
less than 3 dB. In addition, none of the curves has any substantial tail, this means that the
chance of seeing a singular value spread larger than 3 dB is essentially null.
Next we will take our illustration a step further, continuing to show just how much of a
difference there can be from one antenna to another. Specifically, we are focusing on the
relationship between antenna elements at the base station and the antenna configuration.
The following information is from figure 7. This figure plots the sum-rate for closely
spaced users (less than 2 meters between each user at the distance of about 40 m from the
base station) in a non-line-of-sight scenario that uses MRT as pre-coding.
The transmit power in this example is normalized so that on average the interference
signal-to-noise-ratio is 10 dB. In figure 8, you can see that the sum-rate approaches that of the
theoretical interference-free case. This is a good thing, our rate is very close to interference
free and as even better news for massive MIMO systems this rate is a scaling rate. This means
that the rate grows closer to interference free as we add more antennas to our systems.
In our figure we have areas represented by different colorations of shading. The areas
shaded in red represent the linear array, and the areas shaded in blue represent the circular
array. These areas show the 90 percent confidence levels of the sum-rate for the different
narrowband frequency realizations (Hoydis). The variance for sum-rate decreases the number
of antennas increase, but it does so at a slower rate for measured channels.
The slow decrease of this can be attributed to the shadow fading occurring across the
arrays. “For the linear array in the form of shadowing by external objects along the array and
for the cylindrical array as shadowing caused by directive antenna elements pointing in the
wrong direction. The performance of the physically large array approaches that of the
theoretical i.i.d. case when the number of antennas grows large. (Frenzel, 2013).”
Out of our two arrays the compact circular array has inferior performance, the reason
why the cylindrical array has inferior performance is primarily due to its smaller aperture.
This smaller aperture results in it not being able to resolve the scattering as well as the
physically large array. The circular array and its directive elements can sometime result in
miscalculated directional pointing as well. Due to the fact that most of the scatterers are seen
at the same horizontal angle the possibility to resolve scatters at different elevations gives
only marginal contributions to the sum-rate in this scenario (Frenzel, 2013).
When using linear precoding methods such as zero-forcing or minimum mean-square

error the convergence to the i.i.d channel performance grows faster and the variance of the
sum-rate is lowered as the number of base station antennas is increased.
When operating a tricky propagation scenario, the large array is able to separate the users
using different spatial signatures that the users have at the base station. This is due to the
enhanced spatial resolution. This is something that is not possible with traditional MIMO.
If we had a theoretical massive MIMO station which has about ten times more base
station antennas than number of users, it would be possible for us to get a stable performance
in a real world scenario that is very close to the theoretically ideal scenario. It’s a rare
moment when a technology can consistently meet the standard for its ideal and even rarer
when the technology that is doing so is one which is still considered in development.
Wrap Up
While massive MIMO isn’t perfect, it comes with a few hefty benefits. The first of these
benefits we covered was the increase to energy capacity that is provided by massive MIMO
systems. Part of this increase in capacity comes directly from our earlier mentioned partner,
spatial multiplexing. In this sub-section on energy capacity we learn how massive MIMO
deals with beamforming in a unique way, through wave fronts.
Additionally, we spoke about an analysis on intracellular interference and bandwidth. In
this analysis we learnt about the different zones of operation for massive MIMO systems and
about the scale of capacity gain offered by massive MIMO systems. This segment provided a
detailed example about this topic.
From there the next point of advantage we discussed for massive MIMO was that of low-
power components. In this section we spoke about the differences in amplifiers from
traditional MIMO systems to the ones used in massive MIMO systems. In this sub-section we
also introduced the law of large numbers in its fullest.
Additionally, we spoke about the type of modulation most commonly associated with
massive MIMO and further discussed the beamforming differences from the previous
subsection. Lastly, this sub-section spoke about the use of null space and highlighted why it is
important to care about power consumption in the first place.
Next we learnt about the issue of pilot contamination. This is the priority issue for
massive MIMO systems. In this section we went over what pilot contamination is and how
pilot contamination occurs. Additionally, we discussed the negative effects associated with
pilot contamination. This sub-section ended with a discussion on how we can combat pilot
contamination and though we do have some methods for fighting against this occurrence the
methods are lacking in potency and pilot contamination remains a real issue for causing
interference in massive MIMO systems.
The last sub-section in this segment was on radio propagation. This segment opened with
a reiteration about MIMO and paired technologies, this time we focused on the paired
technology known as favorable propagation. From here we are going to shift topics from
discussing massive MIMO in a broad overview to discussing what massive MIMO can do for
the cellular world, in particular our next main segment will be discussing how we can
implement massive MIMO into 5G and what benefits we will reap from doing so.
5G MASSIVE MIMO
Massive MIMO Modeling
Normally, the first sub-sections on each of our topics is dedicated to introducing our
technology and providing a general overview on its history, and teasing at the associated
technologies which are commonly found working alongside it. Since we’ve already gone over
massive MIMO in this document we will forgo much of that introduction.
All I want to reiterate is that MIMO technology is a vital aspect for modern cellular
communication standards because it is an evolving technology which offers a considerable
increase in data bandwidth without requiring any extra transmission power, sometimes the
systems even requiring less transmission power than previous systems.
Massive MIMO networks in particular have been shown to provide higher performance
than MU-MIMO or conventional MIMO. We’ve spoke in great detail about Massive MIMO’s
capabilities. This section however is not about introducing massive MIMO. This section is
dedicated to introducing the model for how to implement massive MIMO into a 5G system.
The focus in such a system must be on optimizing the energy radiated towards intended
receive directions while minimizing intra-cell and inter-cell inference (Choudhury, 2014).
This focus sets the basis for the direction we take for massive MIMO 5G. Modeling for 5G
comes with many research challenges.
One of these research challenges is the estimation of criticality of coherent channels.
Propagation impairments for massive MIMO can be calculated to measure the channel
orthogonality. This is a future technology which if implemented in the future would lower the
base costs in the context of hardware power consumption for each antenna.
There are however a limited number of antennas in MIMO that are fit for the current
standard of cellular communication, but massive MIMO is given an advantage over
traditional MIMO systems for cellular design as it is not limited by this if time division
duplexing is incorporated into its channel characterization.
Base-Centric Architectures
Modeling is of course only one aspect to building a massive MIMO network that is
designed for 5G. Each of the sub-sections for 5G massive MIMO will be highlighting one or
two specific aspects which all build together to show what is needed to turn a massive MIMO
network into one that is 5G ready.
For 5G evolution, the base centric architectures will play a huge role in wireless
communication. The up-link and down-link concepts for its architecture must be integrated to
better serve data flowing from wireless channels. Additionally, they must also be integrated
with different priorities towards nodes within a wireless network.
Wireless designs in this concept have so far have been founded on basic building block
units within the radio network access. By use of base centric design both the control and
traffic signals are transmitted under the same downlink. This increase in transmit power could
be a future issue for denser coverage areas.
Massive MIMO would be employed in these scenarios to assist in the decoupling of

uplinks and downlinks, allowing link data to flow through various node sets, helping with the
issue of transmit power. Additional technologies which are likely to see implementation in a
base-centric 5G architecture would be the inclusion of virtual radio access networks.
These networks would have access to node and hardware allocation and would be
responsible for handling processing. Hardware allocation would depend on the network
operator’s defined matrix, but network design for 5G in most contexts should be focused on
compensating hops through the aggregation of resources, something else that with massive
MIMO as a backing would not be too troublesome.
Defining a well-established base-centric architecture is one of the most important points
in the development for 5G but it is not the only point that its designers need to look out for,
after the structure is built the links and lines must also function correctly.
Heterogeneous Networks
Cell phones are the deciding factor when it comes to defining the factors associated with
smart proxy call caching in massive MIMO. A 5G wireless system must employ the use of
many technologies, and it must meet many standards.
Data transmitted through heterogeneous networks rely on sets of device to device
support. These networks must be capable of providing full connectivity in a cellular approach.
With massive MIMO as a base line for modeling, these systems can reach the enhanced
requirements needed by 5G.
In systems that employ voice centric operations a call is established when two parties in
close proximity have situations of several devices sharing multimedia content. In these
situations, a single hop is usually established. This results in a significant waste of signal
resources as several watts are consumed just to achieve a few mill watts per device. This can
be minimized by focusing on systems accompanying overheads, which is done through
controlling the estimation of used wireless channels.
Benefits such as this however are not the only ones massive MIMO provides. It is still the
same functioning technology as earlier and each advantage we gave the system then still
apply now. These sections are focused on highlighting the extra features that massive MIMO
brings to the table for 5G and at the same time gives a briefing on how to go about
implementing MIMO into 5G.
Our base-station is rapidly becoming more and denser; this is driven by the rise of
heterogeneous networks. While these networks were sort of already standardized in cellular
4G, the architecture for 5G massive MIMO is being designed to support these on 5G
networks.
5G networks are being designed to provide a significantly improved data rate, which
allows offloading traffic and providing dedicated capacity to homes and urban hotspots. As
the evolution of wireless cellular devices continues to explode the traffic demand in wireless
telecommunication systems also increases.
The tools used today for network planning just require too much manual intervention to
meet the scaling of tomorrow. These tools simply put aren’t advanced enough for the future
of heterogeneous networks. Self-organizing networks will enable operators to automatically
manage the operational aspects of their networks. In denser networks this automization will
reduce the potential for errors and free up resources to focus on network design and operation.
It also will eventually allow for the introduction of network-performance processes that
would be too granular for manual intervention. The move towards these automated
heterogeneous networks is driven by the capacity limitations of manually operated 4G
networks.
Figure 8. Potential 5G HetNet network architecture incorporating massive MIMO and mmWave
(Bogale 2015).
Operators expect heterogeneous networks to be capable of delivering a higher capacity

density, increasing the spectrum efficiency and improving the subscriber experience and it
does so under the backing of a massive MIMO network. This process will not be easy. in fact,
it will take years of dedicated research and testing but the potential is there.
The potential for MIMO in the telecommunications world is a huge one and massive
MIMO is poised to find its place amongst the backing technologies which make 5G functions,
between the segments on the capabilities of MIMO in general to studying the specific
advantages massive MIMO gives, to then looking to what it can specifically provide to a 5G
system. I have little doubt that massive MIMO will find its place in this industry.
CONCLUSION
This document began with a statement on the importance of meeting the demands of
tomorrow. At the time that statement may have felt a bit hollow and weightless but after
reading through all of this it seems so much more impactful. Every word in that opening
statement was very true, the demand for higher bandwidth is greater than before and a
plethora of technologies are on the rise to meet that demand.
Almost the entirety of this document has been focused on highlighting one rising
technology, MIMO. At our introduction MIMO was just something we had a brief
understanding of, and while this document does not make you a master on how to operate
MIMO systems it does make you knowledgeable about the technology. This documents
purpose was to provide a spotlight on MIMO, to show the capabilities and complexities of
MIMO and I’d like to say we’ve achieved both of those things.
This document has provided segments to serve as summaries at the end of each main
section, due to this it is unnecessary to repeat a summarization of the content covered in this
document. Rather instead of a full summarization, this closing will be used for a statement on
MIMO. We’ve learnt how robust and complex MIMO is, we’ve seen the advantages and
disadvantages associated with using MIMO. We’ve learnt about different ways to operate
MIMO technology and learnt about extensions on that technology such as MU-MIMO and
massive MIMO.
We’ve also learnt though that MIMO is not a perfect system, on the contrary, it is one
which comes with many drawbacks. But those drawbacks can be fought against either
through some clever optimization or the introduction of a paired technology. One of the most
important parts to operating a telecommunications system is not only knowing how the main
system works, but knowing about the supporting technologies and their reliabilites.
Without our supporting technologies we only have MIMO as a frame, but with the help
of those technologies we’ve shown in this document through tests and charts and descriptive
writing just how powerful MIMO can really be. MIMO is a developing system and one that is
on the frontier for telecommunications technology. MIMO will continue to see growth in the
years to come, many of the theories mentioned in this document will be a reality and new
even more powerful theories to improve MIMO will be in the works.
MIMO has great potential in the wireless telecommunications world, though some of its
variants need time to flourish such as the case with MU-MIMO, others have sprung into the
world and are ready to change the scene for cellular communication.
REFERENCES
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Network Solutions, Leoa Corporation.
Choudhury, R. R. (2014). A Network Overview of Massive MIMO for 5G Wireless Cellular:
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pdf.
Erik Larsson, O. E. (2014, 1 23). Massive MIMO For Next Generation Wireless Systems.
Retrieved from Arvix: https://arxiv.org/pdf/ 1304.6690.pdf.
Frenzel, L. (2013, Mar 6). Millimeter Waves Will Expand the Wireless Future. Electronic
Design. Retrieved from Electronic Design.
G Parsaee, A Yarali, OFDMA for the 4 th generation cellular networks, Electrical and
Computer Engineering, IEEE Canadian Conference 2004.
Geier, E. (2015, June 1). How MU-MIMO Wi-Fi works to improve the speed and capacity of
home networks. Retrieved from techhive: http://www.techhive.com/article/2928725/how-
mu-mimo-wi-fi-works.html.
How-To Geek. (2016, 2 23). What Is MU-MIMO, and Do I Need It on My Router. Retrieved
from How-To Geek: http://www.howtogeek. com/242793/what-is-mu-mimo-and-do-i-
need-it-on-my-router/.
Hoydis, H. W. (n.d.). Channel measurements for large antenna arrays. IEEE international
symposium on wireless communication systems. Paris, France.
Jr., R. W. (n.d.). Comparing Massive MIMO and mmWave MIMO. Austin, Texas, United
States of America: University of Texas, Cockrell School of Engineering.
Kumar, S. (2015). Wireless Communications. In S. Kumar, The Fundamental and Advanced
Concepts (p. 617). River Publishers.
Lu Lu, G. Y. (2014). An Overview of Massive MIMO Benefits and Challenges. IEEE
Journal of Selected Topics In Signal Processing.
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Newsletter.
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techtarget.com/definition/millimeter-wave-MM-wave.
Stenumgaard, P. W. (2013). An early warning service for emerging communication problems
in security and safety applications. IEEE communication mag., 186-192.
Tadilo Endeshaw Bogale, Massive MIMO and Millimeter Wave for 5G Wireless HetNet:
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 8
SECURITY, PRIVACY AND TRUST IN

5G WIRELESS MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
A. Yarali, R. Yedla, S. Almalki, K. Covey and M. Almohanna

ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this chapter is to identify the potential threats that can occur in
5G mobile communications systems and to discuss the possible techniques that can be
implemented to avoid these threats. The design of the 5G networks must be scrutinized at
the beginning phase of its implementation considering massive connectivity of M2M,
D2D and new applications and services. The migration from 4G to 5G is not just a
quantative transition because this generation of mobile communication expected to
integrate and to connect various sectors such as smart grid, health, transportation and
manufacturing. To counter such threats in 5G, cryptographic techniques and other new
means of security designs for identity management, cloud, radio access and architecture
need to be considered. This chapter discusses the security techniques such as
cryptography using stream and block ciphers methods for data integrity.
Keywords: 5G mobile communication, privacy, cryptographic techniques
INTRODUCTION
The demand for the security techniques are increasing day by day with the evolution of
new products and new techniques. The hackers too could break through the system and could
extract the data of the user. Our crucial bank details, passwords, transactions, and important
personal data are getting into the hands third party interceptors. To counter these many
algorithms have been developed from 2G to 5G. Some of the embedded security techniques
that are being used still today are: A5/3 for Second Generation GSM networks, f8 and f9 for
third generation UMTS networks, and A5/3 also known as Kasumi Cipher is still being used
148 A. Yarali, R. Yedla, S. Almalki et al.
for the latest generation of cellular communication. Some say XXTEA is the replacement of
the Kasumi cipher although it is too early to confirm since 5G is still at its esrly stage of
considerarions. Technology is evolving, and technology like Long Term Evolution offers
different services that come with speed like video conferencing downloading movies,
uploading large files, and gaming etc.
Every service they provide should be technologically secured; the security service should
be integrated within the cellular technology. With every generation of the new invoked
cellular technology, they create a better prominent technique that makes the data more
secured. 5th Generation cellular technology is totally dependent on TCP/IP layered model. 5G
is broader than the previous versions of cellular technology, and technically making it
different from the previous versions (4G and 3G). In simple words, the paper first gives an
overview about the next generation of mobile communications, second, about the 2020
agenda from 3GPP, third, about the threats 5G wireless mobile communications could face,
fourth, techniques involved in cryptography to secure the user data, fifth, about the trust
model and ends with a conclusion.
WIRELESS ANONYMITY
Anonymity is a relatively new concept in the wireless world. Over the past decade, the
public has become increasingly concerned about the privacy of their communication methods.
Due to events, such as whistleblowing, hacking, and governmental corruption, society is
becoming aware of malicious attackers, and their policy makers pulling the wool over their
eyes. Because of this, citizens are taking certain measures to ensure that their
telecommunications remain private. Whether the government likes it or not, people are not
going to be as easily fooled as they once were. Luckily, there are many software and
hardware engineers who have taken the task of keeping the wireless world anonymous and
secure, upon themselves as their personal mission. Therefore, there have been so many
accomplishments in the world of security because of these volunteers. Hence, this paper will
only be scratching the surface. In this study, we will see how the public views their privacy
and the steps they are taking to remain hidden - and safe - in the wireless world.
Wireless anonymity, put plainly, is ensuring by any necessary means that guarantee all
information you are sending over a network remains private between you and your endpoint.
All over the country, people are continuing to funnel money into programs dedicated to
helping them retain their privacy online. There are solely set up communities that instruct
people on how to remain anonymous over their networks. Websites, such as the Information
Security section of StackExchange, are flooded with questions about remaining anonymous
over the internet daily. Google is certainly searching the terms “wireless anonymity” to bring
results from the aforementioned site. This goes to show that people are indeed interested in
remaining private.
Companies have begun to take advantage of this recent privacy trend as well. One such
company, Anonabox, has created a hardware router that connects to the Tor network so that
they can keep your communications secure (explained later, for now just think of it as the
ultimate private network) (Anonabox). This device is for sale on their website for $99. Any
person can purchase this device and use it with their computer as long as their computer has a
Security, Privacy and Trust in 5G Wireless Mobile Communications 149
USB port and complies with the technical specifications of the peripheral. This is just our first
example of easily accessible wireless anonymity for everyday people. The reason this device
is mentioned first because it is the easiest for people to wrap their head around. In essence, it
is just a piece of hardware that you plug into your computer’s USB ports (which almost all
computer users are familiar with). The device then acts as your own personal computer and
private router; accordingly, rerouting all of your communication messages to a separate
global network before going to your destination, thus, protecting your online identity. This is
a remarkable achievement towards everyday privacy. Consumers with a little knowledge of
the information technology industry can ensure that their communications stay private just by
purchasing a convenient and pluggable device, and running it alongside their everyday
computer tasks. In the not-so-distant past, this would have only been attainable by a
programmer or information technology professional manually setting up such a system
catered to each individual. As you can see, however, this is no longer the case. Wireless
anonymity has become such a major concern of the public in which we now have easy-to-use
peripheral devices, readily available on the market, and can perform these tasks for us.
Now, we have gotten a little technical analysis, so we can start talking about certain
software technologies that have been around in recent years to help us remain secure and
private in the online world. One mentionable technology is a security protocol by the name of
Secure Sockets Layer, or SSL for short. It is now a standard technology that is available to
use by the public with updated operating systems on their computers and smartphones. SSL is
a technology based on security. What it does is setting up one-and-done secure connection
between a server and a client over the internet. It can often be seen in web browsers when you
visit a website with the “https” prefix. Unlike “http” counterpart, “https” uses SSL to
establish a secure connection between your web browser and the server that you are trying to
connect to. Usually this type of security benefits everyday communications such as credit
card transactions, private passwords and keys, social security numbers, and other similar
information from being sent over a network using plain text (as it is used to doing). This
information, when it is sent as plain text, is in danger of being intercepted by an attacker. A
malicious hacker can listen to your insecure connections and “eavesdrop” on your
communications. This can lead to identity theft, stolen money, and other headaches that can
be prevented by secure technologies. SSL is one solution to this problem. As a matter of fact,
SSL is a protocol that lets the server and the client know how to expect the incoming data to
be encoded. The data is first encrypted, using the specification supplied by SSL, into an
indiscernible string of data. This data is then sent over the network and to the server where the
server, knowing how to expect its incoming data, decodes it using the same specification and
decides what to do with it from there (logging a user in, processing a payment, etc.). The
beauty of SSL, however, is that the specification we discussed is one that is only known to the
client and the server, so it is completely unique to that session. This is where the security of
SSL lies. It establishes these keys between the client and the server through its initial
connection between the two. After the two have identified with one another, the keys are
shared, and communications can proceed. These keys are the specification as I mentioned
before. They allow the two nodes to decode one another’s information during transmissions
(Digicert). Without this, the web would greatly be a different place. To point that out, credit
card payment gateways would be much harder to trust. Forms requesting social security
numbers would be dismissed as malicious phishing attacks. We certainly would not be at the
level of comfort with online communications that we are today. Technologies available to
protect and serve the public have made many of our daily tasks easier.
Connecting to a website using a secure connection is just as easy as a malicious
individual is capturing your information when you are not on a secured connection. It seems
that as long as improvements are made to help people out, just as many improvements are
made to the opposite end of the spectrum designed to hinder your everyday life and
communications. Have you ever wondered how easy it is for an attacker to retrieve your
information over an insecure connection? It is as easy as downloading the right software,
telling it where to listen, and relaxing in your chair while you sneakily eavesdrop on someone
else's private conversation over a network. Public locations like coffee shops, libraries, office
buildings, and any other location with unsecure public networks are the ideal hunting ground
for people to snoop into your wireless transmissions. People are able to download free
software, built by others who enjoy snooping on other people’s information, and lurk on the
network looking for private information they can steal. Things like credit card numbers,
social security numbers, passwords, and other confidential information are what these people
intend to capture. This software can observe the packets being sent over the public network
and capture the information being distributed. This information, often in plain text, can be
used against you if the attacker chooses. Things such as the web pages you visit, the emails
you send, login information, form submissions, and any other data sent over an unsecure
network are completely available for an attacker to retrieve using these methods (Geier). With
all of this astoundingly simple to use software specifically to monitor your confidential
communications, it appears that the world is out to get the everyday internet user. There is a
hope, and it comes from a place we have already visited. Using SSL, or any other similar
network security protocol, you can combat network eavesdroppers by making it nearly
impossible for them to decipher your information. The beauty of this technology is that it is
free to public. You are not charged to keep your internet communications safe, and that is
great news to anyone who is concerned about their wireless anonymity. One downside to this
type of wireless security is that it is up to the company running the website to implement the
SSL security layer. Without them stepping in and actively working towards the
implementation of this encryption based security, you cannot utilize it. When you access a
website using your browser, and the prefix of the URL is “https,” then that was made possible
by an IT professional. This downside, while still a valid point, truly is not that big of a
negative aspect. It is free (to you), easy to use, easy enough to implement, and it is a huge
player in making sure our connections stay secure.
Another secure communication protocol is the Transport Layer Security protocol (TLS).
The RFC defines the main goal of the TLS protocol as “to provide privacy and data integrity
between two communication applications.” The TLS protocol is made up of two parts: the
TLS Record protocol and the TLS Handshake protocol. TLS must be layered over the top of
some transport protocol, such as TCP, to function. The lowest level functionality of TLS is
the Record protocol. The Record protocol strives to provide a secure connection between two
communicating devices for the length of their session together. It can be thought as a protocol
providing two basic requirements:
1. A private connection secured by symmetric encryption. The data sent during the
communications between the two applications is what gets encrypted. It is done so by
algorithm encryption, such as AES, RC4, and others. The private connection uses
keys that are uniquely generated for every connection established, which are based
on a secret key that is established between the applications during the process of
another protocol (Handshake protocol, in the case of TLS). Despite this, the Record
protocol can function without using any encryption techniques. This is not desirable
when it is concerned with the utmost security and anonymity, however.
2. A connection should be reliable. To ensure the integrity of transported messages, a
keyed MAC is used. Hashing algorithms, such as SHA-1 (Secure Hashing
Algorithm), are used for the MAC computations. The Record protocol does not
require a MAC, but it is only used without it when there is another Record protocol
being used to transport security parameters.
The Record protocol encapsulates other, higher-level, TLS protocols. One of these
encapsulated protocols is the Handshake protocol mentioned earlier. The Handshake protocol
allows each end in a server-client relationship to authenticate one another. It also allows them
to decide upon an encryption algorithm and unique cryptographic keys before either end ever
sends any data. Similar to the Record protocol, it can be defined in three attributes:
1. The identity of the peer can be authenticated using asymmetric (public key)
cryptography, such as RSA or DSA. This step of authentication is optional, and it is
only required for one node.
2. The reconciliation of the shared secret to be used in the connection is secure. This is
an important feature because the shared secret cannot be obtained by eavesdropping.
If the connection is authenticated, the shared secret cannot be obtained even if an
attacker can intervene in the middle of the connection.
3. The negotiation of the shared secret is reliable. An attacker could not alter the
involved communication with the negotiation without being known to the nodes
involved in the communication.
An upside of the TLS protocol is that it is independent of an application protocol already

existing on the system. Other higher-level protocols can seamlessly be layered on top of TLS
completely transparently, and they do not interfere with one another in the process. One part
of the TLS specification that is quite peculiar and makes it stand out is that TLS does not
attempt to dictate the methods used to add security with TLS. Those decisions, such as how to
start a TLS Handshake negotiation and how a connection will interpret authentication
certificates, are left up to the engineers developing and constructing the protocols that exist on
top of TLS. TLS is not an extremely ambitious security protocol. In fact, it simply aims to
provide a very flexible, easy to implement, and solid security foundation for the
communication between two applications. As a protocol, TLS is said to have a very simple
set of goals:
1. Cryptographic security: The protocol aims to provide a secure connection, backed by

cryptographic means, to two communicating nodes during their communication
session.
2. Interoperability: The protocol needs to make it possible for two completely
independent applications, with no prior or current knowledge of one another's’ code,
to communicate securely utilizing the TLS protocol extensively.
3. Extensibility: The protocol tries to create an environment where the implementers are
not restricted in the types of encryption they are able to use with it. This means that
the new public key and encryption methods should ideally be able to integrate
smoothly with the protocol. This single goal satisfies other sub-goals: removing the
necessity of a new protocol just to implement a particular method, and not having to
create a brand-new security library.
4. Relative efficiency: Encryption functions are normally very CPU intensive, due to a
high amount of operations that need to be executed to successfully encrypt the data,
during the generation of public keys. Because of this, TLS utilizes a session caching
scheme that reduces the amount of connections to need to be spawned. Also, the
designers have taken the amount of network activity into consideration and desire to
limit it as much as possible.
These overall goals for the TLS protocol can be summed up to cover the quality and
speed in which it is able to operate. TLS is just one more example of the available secure
communication protocols obtainable for developers to use in their applications. TLS is
available for use in all realms of software, and it is used quite often. TLS options come
automatically in the Microsoft web realm on their Windows Server, IIS, and Internet Explorer
software suites (RFC 5246).
Having security protocols readily available is a big proponent for their continued purpose
and popularity. However, just like the SSL protocol, it is up to the developers and engineers
to utilize TLS for its benefit. It is a shame when extensive websites that receive copious
amounts of traffic do not adhere to these security rules, but instead they choose to ignore
them. These websites are putting their users at risk by denying them the right to operate their
sight securely. Websites that allow their users to purchase via credit card, or event through
connecting a bank account, are at risk for wireless snooping from malicious attackers. This is
horrible, unsafe, and needs to be fixed. Every website that utilizes any kind of confidential
information such as card numbers, social security numbers, bank accounts, or even passwords
(because people often use the same password for many things, meaning if one password is
snooped on, the attacker can most likely access other accounts owned by that user) should be
using the free, easy to implement software found within these security packages. Until we get
one hundred percent cooperation from every trafficked website on the internet, the web will
continue to be a place where malicious attackers can eavesdrop on other people’s
communications. As long as this is true, people need to be careful with what they submit
online. Anything and everything can be obtained simply from having the correct software
installed, and by being in the right place at the right time.
Earlier in this paper I mentioned a technology known as Tor. Tor is perhaps one of the
coolest and the most intriguing technology that has emerged as a result of the wireless
anonymity craze. Tor, a project started in the early 2000’s (approximately 2003, this is as far
back as their issue tracking tickets go) is short for “The Onion Router.” It is called The Onion
Router because the onion (the vegetable, not the fictitious news network) is used as the
project’s mascot. The thing that is similar to the two is the fact that both of them are made up
of layers upon layers. An onion, if you have never had to peel one before, is made up of
layers expanding outward from its core. To get to the core (or out of the core, probably a
better analogy, but I digress), you must traverse these layers by either peeling them away, for
the sake of this analogy, piercing the layers, or traveling through them until you get to your
destination. This analogy is perfect for what the Tor project aims to do! The Tor project, in
essence, masks your online identity anonymously (in a way that will be described shortly) so
that you can travel the web and pass through all networks attached to it. It does this in a very
unique and innovative way. The Tor network is developed, operated, and maintained by a
group of volunteers determined to keep the internet a place of private travels. Basically, these
volunteers take on many tasks to benefit the project, such as contributing development to its
repository (it is open source, go figure), using the software and reporting any bugs, or by
running a relay for the network. The latter option is the true heart and soul of Tor. Volunteers
can maintain and operate relays to be used by nodes traversing the Tor network. So basically,
imagine if you have a spare computer that you have never been using (or going to use), and
you were a big advocate for wireless anonymity. You could play a significant part in helping
the internet to become more anonymous by “donating” your unused computer to the Tor
project as a relay. All you would have to do is download a certain software of the Tor
project’s website (do not worry, they use SSL), install the software on your computer, and as
long as the computer is connected to the internet it would contribute to the cause! The
software that continuously runs on the relay stays in constant contact with other relays on the
Tor network. Each node on the Tor network is aware of other nodes in their proximity
(proximity is relative of course). This allows a node to seamlessly communicate with any
other node on the network. Because of this, the nodes on the network are able to leapfrog to
and from one another without a hitch. This, for lack of a better phrase, is where the magic
happens. Since each relay is aware of other relays that are also connected to Tor, and Tor acts
as a closed network consisting of only these relays, they are able to select a random path from
one node to an end server (routing it through the random path of Tor relays) outside of the
Tor network. In a broader sense, each Tor relay is open to receive communications from any
other Tor relay. So, one Tor relay is able to accept a communication from a Tor user (for the
sake of our earlier example, think of this as your PC running the Tor client software) and
hand those packets off to another Tor relay, essentially making sure that your packets end up
coming from such different locations across the globe that they are virtually impossible to
track down. As a Tor user, all you have to do is download the Tor client software, install it,
and start surfing the web (or however else you intend to connect remotely to servers across
the planet). It is really that simple. The software will continuously watch for outgoing packet
transmissions and make sure to route them through a randomly selected chain of Tor relays
ultimately ending at your desired end point (most likely a web server serving you a file to
your browser). Thanks to projects such as this one, everyday people are able to take their
privacy into their own hands. After all, using software such as this, we are able to rely on
ourselves instead of rely on a third party. As long as a person is running Tor, Tor relays stay
open, and the Tor project stays alive, and wireless anonymity will be free to use for anyone
who needs it (Tor: Overview).
One thing that I continually mentioned throughout this paper is open source software.
Open sourcing software is the act of releasing the code that makes up your software for the
world to see, contribute to, and use at no cost. These projects are often released under some
license (such as the MIT, Apache, etc.), and are protected in terms of other’s taking credit for
the work of someone else. Open source software, however, is another big movement that is
helping wireless anonymity and security much more than other things. When a project is
released as open source software, anyone who has access to the internet has access to the code
that makes up the software. This is an incredible advantage for the developers who maintain
the project. It is so because those people who view the code are able to notice potential bugs
in the software. A bug in software is often times synonymous with a “hole,” which allows
someone to maliciously take advantage of the software’s weak points. Holes are obviously
not good, and often small software teams are not able to spot every hole that may be lying in
their project’s code. However, thanks to open source software communities, it is becoming a
much easier thing to handle. Projects can go open source, allow an extremely large amount of
people to view, contribute to, and use the software, and everyone ends up benefitting in the
long run. Holes are patched, features that once seemed too daunting of a task are
implemented, and projects become more than they ever would have been without the open
source contributions. To give an example of some famous open source software, I will use
Chromium as a prime candidate. Chromium is the foundation software for the Google
Chrome web browser as well as the Google Chrome OS. It is known as safe and secure, and it
is mainly used for these aspects along with its user friendliness. Most people who are not in
the development community do not know that it is also open source software. Chromium is
made to be safe, secure foundation for other software (particularly web browsers). Anyone
can go and use the Chromium project as the foundation for their own web browser if they
wish. A large part of Chromium’s success as a secure and a reliable piece of software is due
to the fact that it is an open source. Without such an idea, and a community, there is no way
to tell how far along secure software would be today. As citizens who are concerned about
our privacy and security, we owe many thanks to the open source community (The Chromium
Projects).
As persons who is aware of the importance of wireless anonymity and security, we are
glad to see that there is a rapid growth being made in the information technology industry.
Thanks to large companies who have considerable influence in the software development
industry spreading the importance of such awareness (such as. Google, Mozilla, etc.), more
big players are starting to pay attention and give citizens what they deserve. The events that
people, such as Edward Snowden, brought to light are inexcusable. No government should
ever be allowed to spy on their people without proper cause, especially, a government built
upon the foundation of freedom and democracy. It is despicable to think that our own policy
makers are citizens themselves, and would do such a thing to their country. Because of open
source security projects, we are beginning to get past this phase of wireless privacy
infringement. Eventually, people will no longer be able to snoop in on other people’s
communications. We owe our thanks to these teams that have made such a thing possible, lest
we take them and their service for granted.
3RD GENERATION PARTNERSHIP PROJECT

3rd Generation Partnership Project is an integration of seven telecommunications standard
development organizations as ‘Organizational Partners.’ Seven telecommunications standards
ARIB, TTC, ETSI, TSDSI, TTA, ATIS, and CCSA and these standards combinedly develop
a dominant common standard. The collaboration of these standard organizations has
standardized our mobile communication previously, and their progressive results were: GSM,
GPRS, EDGE, HSPA, HSPA+ and LTE. 3GPP’s main areas of interest were: on the service,
concentrating on core networks and radio interfaces. The multiple access techniques were
used to evolve Time Division Multiple Access to Code Division Multiple Access to
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access, and the OFDMA access technique is what
is used in LTE.
3GPP introduced LTE to the cellular market, and it is only the system which made a
unified approach in telecommunications industry. It is widely spread in telecom market due to
3GPP. 3GPP released its first version of LTE in the year 2008 as ‘Release 8.’ The main
strategies 3GPP considering for the future: Increase in the robustness for the future smart
phones trending traffic flow, Improving the capacity and performance of LTE standard,
opening the windows of LTE towards new business segments. Now, they are collaborated to
evolve our cellular mobile communication to the next level ‘5G.’
The body of 3GPP has disintegrated the 5G into four major areas to concentrate more on
the area. The major areas to concentrate: Massive Internet of Things, Enhanced Mobile
Broadband, Critical Communications, and Network Operations. Like, 3GPP other bodies
which are working towards the 5G are: NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Networks): it
associates leading operators, vendors, manufacturers, and universities. GSMA, 5G-PPP
‘Public Private Partnership’ initialized by European Commission, IETF, and IEEE. 3GPP
believes that LTE (Long-Term Evolution) will only be the standard that they are depending
on. There is a possibility that they are going to reach the maximum limits of LTE, but they
must improvise the current standard of LTE, such that they are compatible with the 5th
Generation Mobile Communication. LTE will remain as a key factor for wide area broadband
coverage of 5G era.
5G: THE NEXT GENERATION MOBILE COMMUNICATION

The next generation of mobile communication is about the connectivity to every
electronic device. Unlike the predecessors of the cellular communications the main agenda
that the 5G cellular communication is considering is to: provide better coverage, greater
connectivity, higher reliability, greater mobility range, higher throughput, and lower latency.
These features will be featured by different network layers, implies directly to the need of
provision of an identity, security, trust, and privacy. Currently, we have IMT-Advanced/4G
standard in the market. 5G standard plans to accommodate more number of users per unit area
than that of the 4G, it aims for greater capacity with faster internet connections. Allowing
greater speeds of internet service, for example, in gigabytes for every user without any
latency in the service, thus allowing user to stream the HD videos for hours long without any
interruptions. The internet of things is what the 5G is about, for instance, end to end
communication; machine to machine communication is what 5G is targeting. Till now the 5G
is just a theory without a standard, but there are some basic requirements 5G is going to be
based on, like:
 Lower latency duration, for example, less than 1ms.

 Greater battery efficiency of the device
 Internet of things: Connectivity to everything, i.e., smart homes, machine to machine
connectivity.
 Cloud based data storage and retrieval, big data.
 Improved security, privacy, and storage.

 Connectivity of millions of devices around the world to the world-wide web at
speeds of gigabits per second.
 Greater connectivity and mobility to the networks with reduced call drops and
increased handover capabilities.
GEARING UP FOR 2020 AND BEYOND

The technological innovations that lead the world to move forward in a faster pace, 90’s
of the hippies have changed the digital world. Now, our handheld devices have: Processing
speeds clocking at 1 Gigahertz, Some GB’s of storage space, 1920 X 1080 Pixels per inch
screens, high performance OS, Artificial Intelligence, and anywhere accessibility to the
world-wide web and much more. The data hungry devices need more data, greater speeds,
and security. Every year the number of internet users increases, and the time they spend on
the internet are increasing as well as the network traffic is increasing; therefore, people are
expecting the best innovative technique ever to make their work in a simple manner. The
thought of 5G has evolved with evolution of their technological innovations, and 5G defined
the standards that must be based on the requirements that they have defined. The deadline that
has been set by the Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance is around 2020. The Next
Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feels that the 5G evolution is set to change the
industries to evolve for a new era of chip designing and base stations with new, fast, and sleek
application processors. The evolution the cellular communication has progressed through first
generation to fourth generation. 1981: The first-generation mobile communication which is
analogous in nature. 1991: The second generation used GSM and introduced MMS & SMS
services, data rates of 64kbps. 2001: After 10 years of 2G service, the introduction of
smartphones which are more addicted to data usage, the speeds introduced were of 2Mbps.
The 3G era was web based applications and video files. 2012: Current cellular
communication speeds up to 1Gbps, principled with the concept of mobile broadband
everywhere. 2020: International Telecommunication Union planning to launch the fifth-
generation mobile communication which speeds some thousand times faster than that of the
4G. South Korea is planning to localize trail during Winter Olympics. Many companies are
involved in the research and development of 5G, recently, Samsung has made its first steps of
achievement in attaining the speeds of 7.5Gbps in a ‘stationary environment’ & speeds of
1.3Gbps uninterrupted service while travelling at a speed of 63mph.
On September2015, ITU- Radio Communication finalized its views towards International
Mobile Telecommunications, for instance, encompassing both IMT-Advanced and IMT-2000
of 4G into IMT-2020 for 5G. The approved spectrum for 5G by Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) USA in the bands of 28Gigahertz, 37 Gigahertz and 39 Gigahertz, it was
approved on 14th July 2016. ITU set deadlines for the launch 5G service worldwide.
Standardization details deadlines are:
 2017 as the year for the submission of templates, evaluating the requirement and
methods to follow.
 2018-2019 for proposal submissions.
 2019 for evaluating the submitted proposals before standardizing.

 2020 for IMT-2020 publication.
5G SECURITY
The security issue is a major concern from the beginning of the time of cellular mobile
communication. The security in the systems has tremendously improved and yet remains a
vital concern in the industry. 5G is wider than 3G, 4G, or any mobile generation because
everything we see in the 5G is completely profound to the online internet world, 5G attracts
more number of cyber-attacks. Main qualities of ‘Security’ involves: integrity, privacy &
availability. That implies that high level sorts of security prerequisites can be recognized as:
Security of service layer, Privacy, Integrity & Authenticity of transmission of data over
different network layers, Security of network application.
Technological changes, abilities, services, regulatory requirements, and new security
concerns will surface with a new beginning of 5G just as every new product in the market.
More and more security standards will be under developing stage until a standard of good
security ability is finalized. The current 4G security standards are confined to 4G itself since
the use of virtualization and cloud in 5G encourages the telecommunication industry to
develop a better secured and trusted model to be developed. The whole agenda again must
consider the efficiency and performance since it should degrade the efficiency and
performance of the system. The security should be considered between end to end
communication, such as machine to machine and not just confining to one device alone.
Development of 5G technology will trigger profound cloud-based applications and
services that emerge in unimaginable levels. Cloud computing provides many advantages to
businesses such as flexible cost structure, efficiency and scalability (Marcus, 2015). The
promising advantages of cloud computing have lured many organizations, small and large to
venture into it. However, cloud technology can be viewed as a disruptive technology because
it is likely to change greatly the traditional way of availing computing services to
organizations and individuals (Zhang, 2015).
Data security in cloud computing is an important aspect that needs to be put in
consideration and standardized. There are many aspects of information security that need be
harmonized such as network security, data security, and perimeter security for cloud
applications to be entirely secure. At the global layer, the standardization reference is listed in
ITU-T Recommendations X.805 “Security architecture for systems providing end-to-end
communications, Data Security Framework Rev1.0” issued by the Open Data Center Alliance
(ODCA, 2014). The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) states that there is a
standardization gap between developing and developed countries when it comes to
implementing international ICT standards and recommendations.
The primary principle of the above framework is to provide security for the whole
application by considering threats and vulnerabilities. This system security system is based on
layering and plane concept which aims at obtaining security end-to-end on every layer. As
depicted in the above diagram, security aspects are divided into, access control,
authentication, non-repudiation, data confidentiality, communication security, data integrity,
availability, and privacy. However, it is hard for regulators to ensure security at every layer.
Figure 1. Security Architecture X.805 ITU-T (ITU-T, 2003).
DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACKS AND

DISTRIBUTED DENIAL OF SERVICE IN 5G
It is an attack on the network, which floods the networks with unwanted traffic and
making the network congested. Teardrop and Ping of Death attacks are examples of DoS
attacks. The flooding of traffic is caused by one computer, and one internet connection on the
target whereas, in DDoS the flooding of unwanted traffic is from the multiple computers and
multiple internet connections on the targeted source or user. There are different types of
DDoS attacks such as on the attacks on traffic, bandwidth, and application. These attacks are
originating from the machines that maybe located far away; moreover, DoS tends to steal and
deplete the logical and physical resources of the target. The attacks are categorized into two
types: From a network manager perspective: supporting network infrastructure will be
exhausted because of these attacks on the targeted network. This will make the network users
who are connected through this network indirectly suffer. From the user or devices
perspective: These attacks are targeted to deplete the information of the user or on large
number of users which can indirectly effect the operator resources.
 The physical resource DoS attacks on the users: CPU, Memory, Battery, Sensors, etc.
 The logical resource DoS attacks on ‘users’: Configuration, Applications, OS, etc.
5G SECURITY REQUIREMENTS
5G security requirements includes identifying and defining application, user, device,
network, service, ability to handle security for the operations that require less latency period,
authenticity, privacy, and integrity of data with less complexitny. Some of the high level
security (figure 2) for 5G can be categorized on service layer security, network security, and
network application security. Encrypted data movement acroases the nodes without any
decryption capability from any third party in the network is a basic requirement. There are
measures that must be taken to meet thses security requirements. Some of these steps are
providion and management of identity and credentials, user storage data security and their
integrity protection, dynamic security mechanisms, and security assurance (simalliance).
Figure 2. High level security requirements in 5G (simalliance).
CRYPTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
With few resources in hand, building a security standard for 5G is a difficult task, for
example, the system built should be compact, sleek, efficient, and powerful, building a
cryptographic system with limited resources is a complex job and difficult to estimate. The
data traffic is set to increase in the coming years as more and more number of device
connectivity is expected in the coming years. 5G has greater data speed (Gbps) and expecting
higher traffic, for example, something around thousand times greater than that of the present
LTE, and low latency should be considered in building a secure system. In general, there will
be a tradeoff between speed and size of hardware for building a secure system which is a
severe setback. Ciphers like ‘Grain’ has high propagation delay and Ciphers like ‘Trivium’
use too many ‘flip flops’ to maintain the security level, such as cryptography must
compromise w.r.t speed or size of the hardware.
In cryptography for encryption purpose, there are different types of cyphers and those are
categorized as stream and block ciphers. Block ciphers research started some fifty years back,
and the development led to Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm, which is
secured and it can withstand different kinds of attacks. The most recent ciphers are known as
Stream ciphers as binary additive stream ciphers. At this point, the plain text, the key, and the
cipher text are all in binary sequences. The key is generated by a keystream generator in
which it attains a secret key and initial value as a source, and these generate a random
sequence of 1’s and 0’s. The ultimate cipher text is, thus, attained by the bit-wise addition of
the generated key and the plain text. Stream ciphers are sleeker and faster than block ciphers
as in the case of Trivium and Grain.
Recent innovations and research made the block ciphers too in the size of Trivium and
Grain. Examples of block ciphers which are almost the same capabilities as Grain and
Trivium are Piccolo, LED, PRESENT, TWINE, and KATAN. The block codes are mostly for
radio frequency identification tags and they can be clocked at frequencies of 100KHz, yet
some of them can be clocked even faster up to 1Gbps. However, stream ciphers are naturally
the best choice when considering compact size and higher throughput. Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM) ciphers A5/1 and A5/2 belong to stream ciphers category.
As we have seen that the stream ciphers are sleek and fast, yet they were found susceptible to
attacks. So, later they were replaced with more secure stream cipher A5/3 in place of A5/1
and A5/2 was restricted from any further use.
KASUMI belongs to the block cipher category which is used in GPRS, UMTS and GSM
cellular mobile communication systems. GPRS uses ‘GEA3’ as ‘keystream generator’; GSM
uses ‘KASUMI’ in ‘A5/3’ keystream generator and UMTS where KASUMI is used for
‘integrity’ and ‘confidentiality’ as ‘f9 and f8’ algorithms as UIA1 and UEA1. KASUMI has a
key size of 128 bits and a block size of 64bits. The Kasumi cipher is replaced by AES in 4G-
LTE. 802.11 used something called RC4 especially for ‘secure wireless networks’;
nevertheless, the drawback was used for the same keystream twice. Therefore, basing on the
results from previous standards, it was replaced by AES in 802.11i and the latest standards.
4G LTE mobile network used 128-bit AES algorithm after a careful observation and
simulation, LTE-SAE security uses EIA2 or EEA2 as its options and these are based on AES.
WiMAX uses168-bit digital encryption because, in WiMAX, the transmitting data should be
secured when used air as a medium. The concept of combining the encryption models with
the AES is now a trend among the researchers to produce more secured system. 4G-LTE uses
three cipher suites which were introduced by 3GPP for UMTS system. One from block cipher
and two from stream cipher, and block cipher used KASUMI; the two stream ciphers are
SNOW 3G and ZUC.
The A5/3 cipher can be replaced by much advancement such as in block cipher. XXTEA
is a block cipher, which is a ‘Corrected Block TEA.’ It was designed to counter the weakness
of Block TEA, and it is dependability on variable-length blocks that are multiples of 32 bits in
size and the minimum acceptability in size is 64 bits. However, the acceptance rate is higher
in stream ciphers.
TRUST MODEL
Previous versions of cellular mobile communication networks and the authentication
process to the network for a user is the responsibility of the telecommunication networks.
In previous version, a trust is formed between the network and the users but not between
the network and the service providers. Unlike the trust model in the 5G networks, the trust is
only between the user and the network just as in the 4G. The trust model of 5G is more
secured in which the networks communicate with the service providers, and it establishes a
secured connection between the user and the network, making it more efficient and secured
way of identity management.
Figure 3. Trust Model Evolution (Huawei, 2015, Koteswararao, 2016).

AUTHENTICATION MODEL
The 5G era would change the businesses around the world with abundant of services they
provide. Different businesses require different authentication techniques. The service
providers try their best to provide their service at lower costs with simplicity. The possible
authentication models that could exist in the 5G era for different business needs:
 Network Authentication:
 Service providers must first pay to the networks, and then the service authentication
will be granted so that the users can access through the services through single
authentication. This procedure incurs costs on service providers.
 Service Provider Authentication:
 Networks relay on the authentication from the service providers, and there is no
necessity for any network access authentication. It implies the incurred costs on
operating the networks are lowered.
 Service Provider and Network Authentication:
 In this case, networks are undertaken by the network access and services providers
stick with the service access.
CONCLUSION
5G security and privacy design must be integrated along with 5G system, moreover, 5G
cellular mobile communications is vast, and it can encounter more threats from the third-party
intruders. The rise of new technologies, networking and businesses through 5G mobile
communications systems require high level of security from access layer up to applications
layer. The need for stable cryptographic techniques is necessary when developing 5G mobile
communication. The researchers and many academic institutions have a keen interest in the
prospering field of 5G. As we can see a combination of cryptographic technique with
Rijndael to form a more secure system or some say corrected block, TEA is better than the
previous versions of A5/3 as in 4G. The ciphers should be sleek and fast, as we cannot
compromise on either one of them alone. The latency time in 5G is too low that the ciphers
must act quickly. Although there have been an extensive research and considerations for
building a copmrehensivcve and secured sysetms by vendors, and academicians, but at
present, there is still uncertainty about privacy and security concerns from the stakeholders. It
is the right time to act upon the mistakes of the past; furthermore, the system design of 5G is
new, and it will be efficient if the feature is considered in the early stage of 5G. 3GPP has
decided to use LTE system with release 15, for instance, upgradation of LTE to utilize it in
5G mobile communications, and 5G is set to launch 5G by 2020.
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“RFC 5246 - The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2.” RFC 5246 - The
Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2. Web. 20 June 2015.
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“Tor: Overview.” Project: Overview. Tor. Web. 18 June 2015.
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Sockets Layer)? Digicert. Web. 17 June 2015.
Chitimalla, Divya, Koteswararao Kondepu, Luca Valcarenghi, and Biswanath Mukherjee.
“Reconfigurable and Efficient Fronthaul of 5G Systems.” Advanced Networks and
Telecommunications Systems (ANTS) (2016): n. pag. IEEE Xplore Digital Library. IEEE.
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Cryptography and Communications. Ed. Martin Hell. Vol. 8. N.p.: Springer Link, n.d. 1-
17. Print.
Fragkiadakis, Alexandros, Antonis Makrogiannakis, and Stefanos Papadakis. “Signal
Processing Techniques for Energy Efficiency, Security, and Reliability in the IoT
Domain.” Internet of Things (IoT) in 5G Mobile Technologies. Ed. Elias Tragos. N.p.:
Springer, 2016. 416-448. Print.
Geier, Eric. “Here's What an Eavesdropper Sees When You Use an Unsecured Wi-Fi
Hotspot.” PCWorld. PCWorld. Web. 17 June 2015.
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METIS project,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 26-35, 2014.
Huawei, 5G Security: Forward Thinking Huawei White Paper, 2015.
Jungnickel, Volker, Kai Habel, Michael Parker, Stuart Walker, and Carlos Bock. “Software-
defined Open Architecture for Front- and Backhaul in 5G Mobile Networks.” (2014): n.
pag. IEEE Xplore Digital Library. IEEE. Web.
Kaul, Vikas, Bhushan Nemade, Vinayak Bharadi, and Narayan Khedkar. “Next Generation
Encryption Using Security Enhancement Algorithms for End to End Data Transmission
in 3G/4G Networks”: 1051-059. Science Direct. 2016. Web.
Marcus, Michael J. “5G and “IMT for 2020 and Beyond” [Spectrum Policy and Regulatory
Issues].” IEEE Wireless Communciations 22.4 (2015): n. pag. IEEE Xplore Digital
Library. IEEE. Web.
ODCA, “Data Security Framework Rev 1.0,” Open Data Center Alliance (ODCA), 2014.
S. X. Zhang N, “Cloud assisted HetNets toward 5G wireless networks,” IEEE
Communications Magazine, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 59-65, 2015.
Sima, Ion., D. Tarmurean, V. Greu, and A. Diaconu. “XXTEA, an Alternative Replacement
of KASUMI Cipher Algorithm in A5/3 GSM and F8, F9 UMTS Data Security
Functions.” Communications (COMM), 2012 9th International Conference (2012): n.
pag. IEEE. Web.
Simalliance, An analysis of the security needs of the 5G market.
Yan, Zheng, Peng Zhang, and Athanasios V. Vasilakos. “A Security and Trust Framework for
Virtualized Networks and Software-defined Networking.” Security and Communication
Networks 9.16 (2016): 3059-069. Wiley Online Library. Web.
In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 9
THE ROADMAP TO 5G MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
Tyler Davenport and Abdulrahman Yarali

Telecommunication Systems Management,
ABSTRACT
Technology networks and connectivity are a part of everyday life in our modern
society. All technology users, particularly mobile technology, are concerned with
connectivity, speed, and data volumes. This chapter will present the transformation of
mobile technology networks through to the future of connectivity known as 5G network.
It will detail, in general and in technical aspects, the older and newer aspects of Wi-Fi, as
well as the technology prior to LTE leading up to 4G LTE, to show the foundation of the
enhanced networks to come. A discussion of how heterogeneous networks function and
the future of Heterogeneous network technology is presented. A review of the upcoming
deployment of 5G follows with a discussion of how it will provide more availability for
the Internet of Things (IoT), Machine-to-Machine enabled capabilities (M2M), Device-
to-Device (D2D) technology and how D2D will free up cell site data demand. Further,
the authors will speak about business models, security risk and obstacles carriers could
endure on their journey to meet the year of 2020 deployment goal. It is the authors’
intentions to give the reader a general understanding of the listed topics and how they are
obtained by users.
Keywords: Wi-Fi, LTE, 3GPP, heterogeneous, 5G, security
INTRODUCTION
As the mobile industry continues to grow around the world and new technology is being
made, the future for the industry is going to be a big part in the daily lives of everyone. The
most used device in the mobile industry is phones. As the use of cellular phones has
164 Tyler Davenport and Abdulrahman Yarali
dramatically increased over the years, there are always discussions on how they can be
improved. Since the use of technology is increasing and everyone is using it to communicate
with each other, the devices in the mobile industry needs to worked fast and efficiently.
With the mobile industry still using previous technology like 3G and 4G, the future for
5G is still in development. The 5G technology is currently being tested to determine its
functionality and how to continue to the deployment stage. At the moment, the industry is
attempting to make 4G available everywhere around the world before they start to deploy 5G.
5G will not be deployed until 2020 and will not be available everywhere. For the mobile
industry, 5G will have its high speed, low latency, and high capacity. This greatly improves
the users experience with their mobile devices and how they use them. It will also lead to a
higher quality of service in the mobile industry.
The proposed technology for the future is 5G and beyond. The plan is to have 5G replace
some of the older technologies like 2G and 3G. Even with this new technology, 4G service
will remain and be used in some areas. 5G offers many benefits for consumers and the
telecom companies. Some of these benefits include being more effective and efficient, easily
managed, high resolution and bi-directional large bandwidth shaping. These are just some of
the benefits that will be offered – there are many more. But for this to be possible, there are
some requirements that 5G must meet to be what customers need. They must have
connections up to 10Gbps, one millisecond delay, 1000x bandwidth; the number of connected
devices must increase by 100 times, 99.999 percent availability, 100 percent coverage, 90
percent reduction in energy use, and a high battery life.
Even though 5G will be the next big thing that consumers will hear, there really isn’t
anything new that hasn’t been seen or done. That is why 5G will be an evolutionary
technology and not a revolutionary technology. This means that it will be the same
technology as 4G, but will expand on that technology and take the next step ahead. While it is
only an evolution from previous technology, it will be a big one and have a huge impact of
future mobile technology. 5G will have increased speeds from 4G, as well as having lower
latency, allow more devices to be connected to it, have a wider range of coverage, and other
qualities that will make it substantially better.
With 5G in the foreseeable future, the mobile industry will change greatly. There are
many advantages that 5G will offer. This will be just a small step for the industry and the
future beyond 5G will reach even greater heights to bring communication to everyone around
the world. As it reaches around the glove and is integrated into other technologies, will we be
able to see how it improves other technologies, like SDN for example.
Software-Defined Networking’s (SDN) purpose is to make networks more flexible and
agile. There are three parts to a SDN namely the controllers, the Southbound APIs, and the
Northbound APIs. The controllers are considered the brains of the network. They look at the
overall view of the network and choose how traffic should be handled. The Southbound API
relays information with OpenFlow by enabling the control plane to communicate with the
forwarding plane, but it is not the only protocol that can be used with the API and is only one
small piece to the SDN as a whole. The Northbound API communicates with the application
layer above it. This helps with traffic and deploys the services that will be used.
There are some benefits of using Software Defined Networking for the needs of its users.
The benefits are: it is directly programmable; it has centralized management; it reduces
CapEX; it reduces OpEX; it delivers agility and flexibility; and, it enables innovation. The
The Roadmap to 5G Mobile Communications Systems 165
addition of 5G to this technology will provide faster speeds for businesses who plan on using
Software Defined Networking.
There are some requirements to using SDN. One of the requirements that it needs is
adaptability. For it to be adaptable it must adjust and respond to the applications needs,
policies, and network conditions. Another requirement is automation. For it to be automated,
some policy changes must be propagated automatically so that errors can be reduced. A
further requirement is maintainability. To keep the maintainability up, new features must not
have any disruption of operations. Another requirement is model management. The
management software must allow managements of the network at a model level, rather than
implementing changes by reconfiguring network elements. Mobility is another requirement,
that is, it must accommodate mobile user devices and virtual servers. Another requirement is
integrated security. It must integrate security as a core service instead of an add-on solution.
The last requirement that it must have is on-demand scaling. It must can scale up or scale
down the network as needed.
SDN will play a role in how 5G will work in the future. With SDN using cloud and
virtualization resources, 5G will use the same resources to improve the existing technology.
One of the main technologies that will play a role in how SDN interacts with 5G is SoftAir.
There are five main properties that go into SoftAir: programmability; cooperativeness;
virtualizability; openness; and, visibility. This will increase the benefits of cloud and
virtualization for 5G. A technology of SDN is network virtualization. Virtualization works by
creating a virtual setting that allows you to run multiple things at once. Network virtualization
combines hardware and software resources into a single virtual network. There are four
benefits to using network: virtualization; cost savings; efficiency; security; and, flexibility.
While SDN and Network Virtualization are two separate things, they have similar
technologies that overlap so they can be used together.
With virtualization being the way the technology is leaning, it makes sense to add it to a
device that just about everyone around the world has – smartphones. Smartphones are the
leading devices in the mobile industry and virtualization is making its way round to other
types of technologies as well. Virtualization on mobile phones will be a great innovation for
security of data. With smartphones becoming more like computers and more people using
smartphones constantly, all the data that people store on their phones will need to become
secure so that their information is not stolen. Smartphones are also used in the work
environment in addition to personal use. This leads to the storage of sensitive data that can be
stolen. By making them virtualized, it would separate the two and keep them safe from each
other. Another area that would be big for virtualized smartphones is the cost reduction and
user experience. Users would be able to navigate between their data types and keep them
from being attacked together.
There are basically five disruptions that can be expected which will be the driving forces
that will require changes in the telecommunications arena by year 2020. (1) Integrating
among service providers will continue to make being connected more economical will be
trend in the future. (2) What the next big mobile gadget or device that will create an explosion
of devises that can be interconnected. (3) Simple mobility. The development of mobile
connectivity is far outperforming fixed line connectivity. (4) The elder population retiring to
digitally enhanced retirement communities with assisted living will creates a market
saturation of bandwidth usage never imagined. (5) Finally, security. Customers will begin to
not only demand, but expect, better protection from the internet value chain as a whole.
WI-FI
In most peoples’ everyday life, Wi-Fi plays a very important role in our day to day
operations. As soon as we arrive at a location of any sort, we pull out our mobile devices and
look for public Wi-Fi. Most technical devices are equipped with Wi-Fi capable devices. Even
things such as our washers, dryers, door locks, refrigerators, cars, stoves, and many more
things are now equipped with Wi-Fi capabilities. Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity and is
also known as WLAN (Wireless Lan). Wi-Fi is based from IEEE 802.11 standards. Wi-Fi
operates using unlicensed wireless frequencies 2.4 and 5 gigahertz [1]. Generally, devices can
either connect to either frequencies, or both, which would be considered having dual band
capability. There are different revisions of the IEEE 802.11 standard.
In consumer Wi-Fi, the first to show its excellence to the world was 802.11a. 802.11a,
introduced in 1999, operated using the 5 gigahertz frequency and offered speeds up to
54mbps, but was not generally used in a consumer based configuration. 802.11b was the next
Wi-Fi technology brought to the attention of home users. 802.11b operated using the 2.4
gigahertz frequency and was introduced the same year as 802.11a. 802.11b was popular with
home users accomplishing speeds of 11mbps. When Wi-Fi was created, technology started
taking an explosive spike in personally owned devices such as laptops and PDA’s.
Consumers were able to have wireless capability in their homes, and they loved it. Although
in 1999 when consumers were rocking the high speeds of 11mbps, a new 802.11 technology
was introduced. 802.11g was brought into the force of Wi-Fi in 2003 and consumers could
now enjoy speeds of up to 54mbps using the 2.4GHz frequency. To take another look at the
frequencies used by Wi-Fi, there is a reason consumers preferred 2.4GHz over 5GHz. 2.4GHz
is half as narrow of a frequency as 5GHz which has a greater potential to penetrate obstacles
such as walls, trees, or floors. Until 802.11g, consumers seemed to choose the range of
802.11b over the speeds of 802.11a, not to mention the prices of 5GHz equipment was
drastically more expensive than 2.4GHz equipment.
Wi-Fi continued to grow more and more popular and devices continued to support the
growing need of this new way of communicating data. Just as in 2003 when we thought we
had more capability than we would ever need, 2009 ushered in 802.11n. 802.11n introduced
the new 802.11 technology capability of MIMO (Multiple-In Multiple-Out). MIMO gave Wi-
Fi and 802.11n the capability to transmit and receive using multiple transmitters and antennas
to increase the throughput of a Wi-Fi access point and devices. 802.11n can have up to eight
antennas but most used only four antennas. Using the four antenna system, two antennas
would be used to transmit simultaneously as the other two antennas would be used to receive
data packets simultaneously. Vendors claimed that 802.11n could deploy speeds up to
250MBps [24]. A more recently deployed consumer 802.11 technology is that of 802.11ac.
802.11ac can support speeds up to 7Gbps of throughput using wider channels and QAM
increase to 256, from 802.11n’s 64 QAM. QAM is an abbreviation of quadrature amplitude
modulation. QAM is an adjustment of amplitude and phase that allows transmission of data
wirelessly in which each path is represented as a symbol [2]. The greater the QAM, the more
paths a wireless signal can transmit, which in return increases the throughput. The following
is a chart of consumer Wi-Fi mentioned thus far and their corresponding speeds and other
facts.
Table 1. 802.11 Technology Chart
802.11( ) Max Speed Year Introduced Frequency

802.11a 54Mbps 1999 5Ghz
802.11b 11Mbps 1999 2.4Ghz
802.11g 54Mbps 2003 2.4Ghz
802.11n 250Mbps 2009 2.4/5Ghz
802.11ac 7Gbps 2013 2.4/5Ghz
802.11AC TYPES
IEEE 802.11ac is being launched in the market in a succession of releases (Waves) of
innovative products, the main reason for which is that 802.11ac has various abilities, and
launching them in waves allows the industries to take advantage of the features without
waiting for all the other features to be accessible. 802.11ac comes to market as two releases:
Wave 1 and Wave 2.
 Wave 1: It supports different channels like 20 MHz, 40 MHz, 80 MHz in 5GHz

bandwidth, uses three spatial streams and supports up to 1.3 Gbps.
 It shows 30% increase in the performance because it supports the 256 QAM levels.
But this performance gain can be achieved under high-quality, low interference
settings, which makes it less suitable for office environment.
 Like 11n AP, Wave 1 APs supports three spatial streams, which is achieved by using
3x3 SU-MIMO.
 Wave 1 supports Wi-Fi alliance, it’s an interoperability standard. Wi-Fi alliance
products are tested for three factors: Compatibility, Conformance, and Performance.
 Wave 2: It supports 20, 40, 80, 160 MHz channels. Theoretically, 160 MHz supports
more users with better performance. Moreover, 160 MHz channel requires low
interference environment, implying that Wave 2 will still operate on both 40 MHz
and 80 MHz.
 Wave 2 APs are going to introduce four spatial streams which is going to increase
the data rates up to 3.5 Gbps, making the addition of a fourth antenna mandatory for
both AP and the user.
 One of the greatest update 802.11ac in wave 2 items is identified with MU-MIMO.
This is a multi-client variant of MIMO innovation that permits a base station to
transmit to different clients (up to 4) at once, giving customers concurrent access to a
channel.
 Wave 2 does not support Wi-Fi alliance.
802.11AC IN COMPARISON TO 802.11N

802.11ac is the scalable, adaptable and faster version of 802.11n. With the introduction of
a few new features of 11ac, the differences can be contrasted with 11n and can be categorized
on the basis of speed, network capacity, and range.
Speed: The 802.11ac delivers a huge pick up. More speed yields more data transmission.
With the first gen 802.11ac APs will provide data transfer capacity of 1.3 Gbps, around thrice
the amount of transmission capacity currently obtained from 802.11n AP with double radios.
Network Capacity: The 802.11n can handle close to 30-40 customers to an AP. This isn’t
because of the limitations in number of AP, but rather the limitations of bandwidth. RF has
limited bandwidth, in addition to a shared medium. However, 802.11ac have significantly
more transmission capacity to circulate and better strategies for doing it, so the customer
count can be much higher.
Range: A user connected at 75 feet away from 11n AP nets the speed of 200 Mbps, while
11ac user nets speed of 400 Mbps at the same distance. The signals of 11ac can’t cover more
range than 11n, but they provide better data throughput at high speeds as compared to
the 11n.
ADVANTAGES OF 802.11AC
 Better Speeds: With 11ac amendment, speed was increased up to 1.3 Gbps from 450
Mbps of 11n. Practically, Wave 1 devices can provide speed up to 750 Mbps, and it
is anticipated that Wave 2 devices will provide speeds up to 3.5 Gbps.
 Less Interference: 11ac works on 5GHz bandwidth which is less crowded, due to
which the efficiency of the network is increased.
 Increased user support: With 11ac, a single AP can handle 30 to 40 users at same
time with optimal performance.
 Improved speed at the cell edge: Users can get speeds up to 400 Mbps, 75 feet away
from the AP, as compared to the 200 MBPS provided earlier to the 11n users.
 Better application performance: Some of the applications are directly related to the
throughput of the network, as increase in throughput of the network increases the
performance of the application.
 Extended battery life of the devices.
APPLICATIONS OF 802.11AC
 Corporate Companies: Most of the major companies in North America and Europe
have shifted to BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) networks. For shifting to BYOD
network, large bandwidths are required because the users connect a large number of
devices, and with the wide channels of 802.11ac it can be achieved.
 Medical Applications: Most of the major medical equipment manufacturer and
hospitals are working together to develop the devices through which a patient can be
operated upon remotely. These devices require instantaneous connectivity with low
interference, as 11ac works on 5GHz band which is less crowded and less prone to
interference than 2.4 GHz band.
 Campus Network for Higher Education Institution: Most of the higher education
institutions are changing their network to 802.11ac, because it can handle more
number of clients per AP, which increases the efficiency and the user handling
capacity of the network.
 K-12 Education: K-12 organization is opting for the 11ac network, as for making
classroom learning interactive for the students, video streaming is used, which
requires high speed, wide bandwidth network to keep it free from lag.
 Public Hotspots: Most of the telecom companies are planning to implement 11ac
APs as public Wi-Fi network, as it provides better cell edge connectivity and can
handle a greater number of users per AP.
Wi-Fi not only has grown as a technology itself, but it has also helped the world
economically. There are many businesses that take advantage of Wi-Fi and its great
capabilities. When passing through an area with businesses or looking for a hotel, consumers
are attracted to the “Free Wi-Fi” notice associated with services that are offered. Wi-Fi has
had a tremendous effect on the economy of Africa. As mentioned in an article by
montegray.com, there is projection that by the year of 2025 Wi-Fi will be responsible for an
increase of up to $300 billion to its GDP [3]. Africa started their projects to implement Wi-Fi
to its citizens to improve education and economics of the country. According to an article at
smallbiztrends.com, free Wi-Fi does several things for your business. Businesses found that
customers spend more time at their business after offering free Wi-Fi. During a study it was
determined that 62% of businesses stated that people spend more time at their businesses after
offering free Wi-Fi [4]. While only a few businesses believe that offering free Wi-Fi just
crowds their business with people looking for free Wi-Fi, the study showed that 50% of the
customers spent more money [4]. The article also mentions that customers are more likely to
sit alone at restaurants or cafés when free Wi-Fi is offered. A survey showed that 53% of
people are happy to sit alone when free Wi-Fi is offered [4]. With the growing trend of free
Wi-Fi, businesses must embrace the free service in that a study showed one of ten people will
leave a business if free Wi-Fi is not available [4]. This case is even stronger in hotels when
people are staying for a long period of time. Free Wi-Fi at businesses can also give a business
the capability to have customers view adds. When a customer connects to the free Wi-Fi at
the business, the customer could be initially forced to a webpage displaying daily deals or ads
in reference to discounts.
Wi-Fi has changed the world of technology to levels the never could have imagined.
Consumers have demonstrated that they believe “more is never enough,” and as long as the
speeds and technology progresses consumers will want it. This has a huge effect on our
society in meeting consumers’ needs, both technologically and economically. As Wi-Fi
progresses, there will likely be a day when Ethernet data cabling is completely replaced with
Wi-Fi. Although data cabling may be replaced, the need for infrastructure will continue to
increase. Currently, with 802.11ac wireless, a majority of devices cannot support these
wireless speeds. The effects, however, will soon start to change with 802.11ac and new
infrastructure.
As an example for this reasoning, consider an education facility. Each classroom has
approximately 30 students, and in a lot of situations, each student has a wireless device. The
infrastructure to the wireless access point could currently have a 1Gbps to the access point.
As more and more devices begin to embrace 802.11ac, this could eventually cause network
congestion at that access point. Access points, such as Extreme Networks, are manufactured
with two 1Gbps Ethernet ports. This enables network administrators to aggregate two 1Gbps
ports to an access point creating a 2Gbps trunk to the access point. While this helps today,
there will be a need in the future for 10Gbps connection to each access point. The point being
made is that technology will never stop progressing and infrastructure will always need to be
upgraded to support faster connections to access points.
It would also be remissive to not mention how WiFi has helped cellular carriers. How
would WiFi ever help mobile networks? Simply put – capacity. Everyone with cellular
devices are always looking for a free WiFi connection so they don’t use the data capacity
associated with their personal service. This has greatly controlled congestion in cellular
networks and is considered in the formula of cellular capacity needs.
PATH TO LTE
Consumers desire constant mobile technology connectivity for many of life’s every-day
activities. When we as consumers do not have the capability to attach to Wi-Fi we still want
internet connectivity. The phenomenon of cellular data has changed society and our lives
forever. Through the generations of cellular data starting with 1G in the 1970’s, things have
progressed exponentially for cellular data technology. 2G was released in the 1990’s and is
also referred to as GSM. 2G introduced better coverage along with texting, voicemail, faxes,
and paging. In 2001, the next generation was introduced in Japan as 3G. 3G was 4 times
faster than 2G with speeds up to 7.2Mbps [5]. 4G technology was introduced to the cellular
world in 2009, although we have never truly seen the full capabilities of 4G. Following is a
depiction of cellular data speeds and technologies by smartipx.com.
Most consumers and carriers today use 4G LTE, in which LTE stands for Long Term
Evolution, the first generation implementation of 4G. LTE was first introduced in 2004 by
NTT DoCoMo of Japan [8]. Although studies and actual work began in 2005, the first
deployment of LTE was in Oslo and Stockholm in 2009 in the form of a USB modem. LTE is
offered by all leading cellular carriers today and most advertise using “LTE.” There are
companies that use the terms “LTE” and “4G” interchangeably in advertising as having “4G”
which is not technically true. 4G was a cellular data standard that was created for the next
level of cellular technologies. The standard was intended for speeds to reach up to 100Mbps
in high movement environments such as riding in a car or a train. The 4G standard was also
intended to reach speeds up to 1Gbps for mobile users that were in a slow movement state
such as sitting still or walking. According to an article at extremetech.com, the average speed
that is produced by Verizon Networks LTE service is 31.1Mbps download and 17.1Mbps
upload [6]. LTE’s predecessors, GSM and CDMA, moved data in smaller amounts which was
a down side for the technology and its speeds. LTE moves data in larger packets. LTE’s
major benefit over the third generation is that it reduces latency by using a technology called
time delayed duplex (TDD).
Our beloved cellular devices are operational using frequency and spectrum. LTE operates
on a frequency spectrum between 700MHz and 2.6GHz. Many of us remember the days of
using cordless phones that seemed to work at very long distances. Those cordless phones that
worked so well were interconnected using an in-home base that was 900MHz. In basic
principles of frequency wavelengths, it is known that the lower the frequency, the better the
object penetration it can accomplish. While this gives better range the data transmission can
be less. Similarly with LTE, places such as rural areas will most likely use the lower
frequency spectrum of around 700MHz. This will allow the signal to travel further and reach
rural households and roadways. Are the transmission speeds lower than those of higher
frequencies? Yes, but consumers that live in rural areas will tell you that they take what they
can get considering their location. In areas such as a city full of businesses and homes that are
close by, frequencies closer to 2.6GHz will be used. Greater speeds can be reached at this
frequency with a smaller area to cover.
Economics in the cellular data businesses are complicated and are driven by not only by
consumers’ needs, but also providers’ deployment of technology and the development of that
technology. Consumers are at the mercy of the technology and the carriers which choose
which technology to implement. When consumers were getting 3G, they were buying cellular
devices as quick as they were put on the shelf. With LTE, another economic explosion took
place. With the speeds LTE are able to produce, cellular carriers are now able to compete
with home internet providers. The first mobile phone that was introduced with LTE
capabilities was Verizon’s HTC Thunderbolt. The Thunderbolt increased HTC’s sales and it
was recorded that the HTC thunderbolt sold 28 percent better than iPhones during the quarter
that the HTC Thunderbolt was released. LTE was definitely showing its effect on economic
sales data. Deloitte LLP did a projection on the US economy effects of 4G LTE
implementations during the years of 2012-2016 [9]. The studies showed that 4G helped
contribute to a 41% annual growth rate in the use of cellular data. According to an article in
wsj.com, 4G could be accounted for $73 Billion in GDP growth and 371,000 new jobs [9].
The data again proves that LTE has grown the economies of the world. The US is the leading
economic country in cellular technology as they have developed three of the five top cellular
devices operating systems.
Figure 1. Mobile Generations [7].

LTE has truly changed the world of cellular technology. Most of us are enjoying the
benefits of the fast speeds and low battery usage cost. While LTE is deployed by most
carriers in the US, other countries are beginning to deploy if they have not already done so.
LTE will remain as the standard in cellular devices for a while. While faster speeds are
always more desirable, the majority of people are satisfied with the average speeds that are
offered by LTE, for now. When 5G makes its way to consumers at the end of the decade,
everyone will run to the store to upgrade their service. A few years can make a lot of
difference in regards of technology and the needs of consumers.
3GPP
Without the combined intelligence of the 3GPP organization, cellular services would not
be what it is today. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) was established in 1998
and is an organizational guidelines group that consists of seven telecommunication standard
development organizations. 3GPP is not to be confused with 3GPP2, which is an organization
for standards on the competing technology of CDMA. The seven groups’ members of 3GPP
are ARIB (The Association of Radio Industries and Businesses, Japan), ATIS (The Alliance
for Telecommunications Industry Solutions, USA), CCSA (China Communications Standards
Association), ETSI (The European Telecommunications Standards Institute), TSDSI
(Telecommunications Standards Development Society, India), TTA (Telecommunications
Technology Association, Korea), and TTC (Telecommunication Technology Committee,
Japan) [10]. These group partners are responsible for maintenance of the partnership
agreement, approval of applications for additional 3GPP partnerships, and making decisions
related to the dissolution of 3GPP. There are four Technical Specification Groups, (TSG), in
3GPP and that are Radio Access Networks (RAN), Service and Systems Aspects (SA), Core
Network and Terminals (CT), and GSM EDGE Radio Access Networks (GERAN).
According to 3GPP.org, RAN is responsible for the functions, requirement, and interfaces of
the UTRA/E-UTRA (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access/Evolved-UTRA) in its two modes,
FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex) [10]. The SA is
responsible for the overall architecture and service capabilities. Also according to 3GPP.org,
CT is responsible for specifying logical and physical terminal interfaces to the core network
portion of 3GPP systems [10]. The 3GPP site specifies that GERAN is responsible for
specifying the radio access portion of GSM/EDGE network [10]. These groups work
throughout the year and convene quarterly. The quarterly meetings are used for discussion
and approval of work done by the groups and inclusions of any specifications. The 3GPP
organization also has what they call “Observers.” An Observer of 3GPP is an organization
who does not meet the qualifications to become a future partner of 3GPP. 3GPP currently has
four Observers as a part of their organization. These Observers are: Telecommunications
Industries Alliance (TIA), ICT Standards Advisory Council of Canada (ISACC), and
Communications Alliance – Former Australian Forum (ACIF). Having these observers keeps
the group from being accused of partiality or having motives that may benefit individual
partners.
3GPP is ultimately responsible for developing technical specifications for 3G systems.
For example, 3GPP created a triple mode design giving a cellular radio the ability to be
accessed by second generation General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), third generation
technology High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), and next generation Long Term Evolution
(LTE) radios. In the cellular data world, 3GPP is the heartbeat that allows different
generations of cellular communications to operate and communicate. In the operational aspect
of 3GPP, there are two types of federated access. Those two types of access are either 3GPP
access or Non-3GPP access [16]. 3GPP access is communications between an LTE network
and another UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) or GPRS network. For
clarification, a UMTS network is considered to be the technology of third generation (3G)
cellular access and GPRS is between 2G and 3G technologies, sometimes called 2.5G. Non-
3GPP access would be networks such as CDMA, WiMAX, and Wi-Fi. These networks do not
use the same authentication method as 3GPP access systems. Non-3GPP networks do not
recognize AKA authentication because they do not use the same authentication methods.
AKA is Authentication and Key Agreement and is a security protocol used in mobile
networks. The fix to this issue is the added authentication piece of EAP. EAP is Extensible
Authentication Protocol which is a protocol for wireless networks and authentication methods
used by Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). These two authentication methods combined created
EAP-AKA. 3GPP is responsible for the EAP-AKA authentication method created for non-
like authentication methods to work together involving third generation technologies and non-
third generation technologies. This is just a small example of how important and influential
the 3GPP organization is and the impact on the GSM cellular movement in the world.
Figure 2. 3GPP 5G Timeline [23].

For clarification, CDMA and GSM are ways in which cellular data networks
communicate wirelessly with cellular networks. LTE, (a 3GPP specification) involves the
movement of data on a cellular network in conjunction with CDMA/GSM. Considering that
GSM networks are used by 80% of the mobile network market share, it is clear that 3GPP
continually improves the global economy. According to an article on Nasdaq.com [11], the
number of LTE technology users has exceeded 1.29 billion in the first quarter of 2016. 3GPP
is the group responsible for standardizing and improving LTE. Also in the first quarter of
2016, LTE subscribers grew approximately 182 million. The numbers are astronomical and
4G LTE is expected to outnumber 3G subscribers globally by the year of 2020. Also
mentioned in the Nasdaq.com article is the growing number of LTE-Advanced technologies.
LTE Advanced (LTE-A) is another technology standardized by the 3GPP organization. LTE-
A is the latest version of LTE that is more closely aligned with actual 4G speeds of around
300Mbps. LTE networks are expected to reach 550 by the end of 2016 [22]. Currently 168 of
those LTE networks are LTE-Advanced. None of these economic feats would be possible
without the help from 3GPP and their knowledge pool. 3GPP is an organization that has truly
made a change in the world today. Although sometimes misused by cellular providers,
3GPP’s LTE has been one of the greatest impacts on mobile data and its speeds. 3GPP may
not have been entirely responsible for the high speeds offered by LTE, but without the
group’s standardization practices and guidance, its success would’ve been harder to
accomplish. 3GPP is also gearing up for the upcoming mobile technology of 5G. In recent
meetings of the 3GPP Technical Specifications group, the first release of 5G specifications
are expected to be set as depicted in Release-15 [23]. 5G is being tested by companies but
there still are no standards in place. Following is a timeline from 3GPP that is planned to be
covered in Release 15.
According to 3GPP, the normative phase of work on the NexGen architecture will begin
in December of 2016. Also, in March of 2017 will begin the RAN Working Group’s
specification of the 5G New Radio (NR) [23]. With 3GPP’s involvement, the technology of
5G will be standardized very precisely. It is certain that 3GPP is an organization that will
strive to continue providing the economy with functional mobile standardizations that keeps
the world of mobile technology on the leading edge.
HETEROGENEOUS NETWORKS
Heterogeneous networks, also referred to as HetNet, are a very important aspect in the
movement of cellular technology. A Heterogeneous Network is made up of different types of
wireless stations that complement each other to provide high quality services to end users
[12]. With the growing number of users and the growing amount of required data in cellular
services, something has to be done for the future. A Heterogeneous Network consists of
macro base stations, small cells, distributed antenna systems (DAS), and even Wi-Fi access
points [13]. There are three types of cell base stations in a mobile network that can be used in
a Heterogeneous Network. A macro base station is the backbone of a Heterogeneous
Network. Macro Base stations can typically be found on rooftops or towers covering large
areas and many users [12]. Another type of cell base used is the Micro Base Station. The
Micro Base Station can be used in indoor and outdoor crowded areas. The Pico Base Station
is the other cell base that can be used in a Heterogeneous Network. The Pico Base Stations
generally take over when a user moves indoors. An even smaller portion of a Heterogeneous
Network is known as a femtocell. The femtocell is generally a small access point that
improves cellular service in a home or small office via the internet. The Pico Base Station and
femtocell is a critical portion of Heterogeneous Networks considering that 70% of cellular
traffic is generated indoors [12]. Following is an image of a femtocell device that would act
as a repeater in a home or office.
Also involved in a Heterogeneous Network is wireless transmission between base
stations and the rest of the network. In other words, there has to be a relay device involved for
connections between the Pico, Micro, and Macro cell bases in order for the different
technologies to work together. Heterogeneous Networks are used today whether we may
realize it or not, although, it is mostly deployed in larger cities. The reason for the need of
Heterogeneous Networks is due to the growing numbers of devices and data needed to
operate a mobile network. In 2016, there will be more than 8 billion mobile users in the world
[12]. Overall mobile data is expected to grow ten times before the end of 2016. According to
their article, Ericsson envisions that there will be 50 billion connected mobile devices by the
year 2020 [12]. Following is a depiction of a basic topology of a Heterogeneous Network.
The future is clearly calling for increased throughput in cellular data. With the numbers
that are expected by cellular company Ericsson, Heterogeneous Networks could keep
consumers better satisfied and provide better connectivity. Heterogeneous networks and its
dense coverage will help 5G deployment tremendously. Once of the new technologies of 5G
mobility is deployed, consumers will need its assistance in any situation, whether at home, at
work, and in large cities.
Figure 3. Femtocell Repeater [14].
Figure 4. Heterogeneous Network [15].

5G NETWORKS
5G is the next step in the progression of wireless cellular technology. It is a more
efficient, less expensive, and more effective way of implementing the IoT than any other
technology. As the number of wirelessly connected devices continues to exponentially grow,
5G will need to be designed to accommodate the growing demand. To meet this need the 5G
architecture will need to be designed to provide an extremely large capacity, faster data rates,
and shorter end to end response times. One of the key upgrades to that architecture will be the
seamless interconnection with other networks such as WLANs creating a heterogeneous
network. 5G is going to increase the number of applications and services that can be provided
for large businesses, households, and individual users. All of these features of 5G will play an
important role in launching forward the large scale IoT in the coming years.
One of the major challenges for the evolvement of 5G is to have a flat IP network. Most
carriers still use CSFB (Circuit switched Fall Back) which allows packet switched
technologies, such as LTE, to work with circuit switched services. CSFB provides traditional
circuit-switched voice in conjunction equipment to work with their data network to pass voice
traffic. With 5G’s capabilities of improved bandwidth and latency, successful Voice over IP
transmission will not be an issue. In order for Voice over IP to be successful across 4G
technology, the infrastructure has to be top notch, which is very costly for the carrier. Even
though there are not any standards established for 5G as of yet, 5G’s capacity is expected to
be ten times more than 4G’s 100MBps [17]. This is a great accomplishment in mobile
technology to achieve this level of speed. These speeds will be especially useful with the
large impact video streaming has put upon the internet. Streaming video is very network
intensive and causes a major drain on capacity. Netflix’s recommend speed for a High-
Definition video is 5 Mbps [19]. With 5G and its projected capabilities, the capacity needed
for the growing trend will be met. With newer high definition multimedia such as UHD and
4K, a 5G infrastructure will also help meet the needed speeds of 25 Mbps or more [19],
because, as mentioned previously, with wider bands comes greater capacity and faster speeds.
Although 5G is a leap forward for wireless technology, with wider bands comes less
penetration. Back in the days of 900 MHz, a wireless signal would carry for what seemed to
be forever. 5G and its wider channels will need additional small cells to ensure each client is
reached to receive a satisfactory user experience. If a user is paying a premium for 5G, they
will expect their experience to be top notch and not patchy [18]. 5G antennas are also
expected to support massive beam forming and MIMO. Beamforming will allow antennas to
form signals in the direction where they are most needed [20]. MIMO (Multiple-In/Multiple-
Out) uses multiple antennas to improve capacity gains, spectral efficiency, and energy
efficiency. MIMO also helps combat noise, fading, and mitigate interference. If all of these
things projected for 5G become a reality, a new era of mobility will open doors for consumers
and carriers.
A great demand factor of the next generation of wireless is the Internet of Things (IoT),
Machine-to-Machine enabled capabilities (M2M), and Device-to-Device (D2D). IoT is the
internetworking of physical devices, vehicles, buildings, and other items. These items are
embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and network connectivity to allow
these devices to collect and exchange data. Items in IoT can refer to many types of devices
such as medical devices, chips that are implanted in animals, automobiles, search and rescue
devices, home appliances, and many more. An example of an internet of things device could
be a Nest thermostat. A Nest thermostat is a device installed in your home in place of your
HVAC stock thermostat. The device is connected to the internet and allows users to remotely
set their thermostat from their smartphone or computers. There are visions of 20.8 billion
internet of things devices expected by the year of 2020.
Not to be confused with IoT, M2M (machine to machine) is another mobile solution that
will be important within 5G technologies. Machine to machine is a broad label used to
describe any technology that enables network enabled devices to exchange information and
perform actions without the manual assistance of humans. The need for 5G is of utmost
importance due to the fact that as growth continues, it will exceed the capabilities of 4G and
will need more data throughput. A perfect example of M2M would be vehicles. As vehicle
automation technologies are growing, cars will be able to communicate with a cellular
network in order to make driving conditions safe on the roads.
A similar technology to M2M is D2D (Device-to-Device). 5G brings enhancement to
D2D by the fact that 5G enables mobile devices to communicate with each other for up to 10-
1000 meters, bypassing cell tower sites [21]. This will help with bandwidth usage and cut
back on overall traffic. Like with M2M, vehicles can also be an example. While vehicles on
the road are communicating with servers, they would able to utilize D2D to communicate
with other vehicles to share information. With 5G expected to make its first appearance in the
year 2020, consumers have great things to look forward to. Carriers will have an initial cost to
update their equipment, but with a flat IP network, ridding expensive legacy equipment will
provide a better return on investment for carriers.
For carriers to accomplish these incredible speeds and space-like capacity there are some
obstacles to overcome. With greater service, comes greater backhaul. This will be an expense
for the carriers, establishing more fiber connections between cell sites. Since 4G will work
together with 5G, new base stations and antennas will be installed on existing towers [24].
Adding new antennas in existence with other antennas on a tower could also cause weight
issues. Carriers need to ensure that the towers in their field of operation will support the
additional weight 5G equipment will produce. To overcome weight issues with existing
towers, carriers will need to have plans in place to re-inforce the towers with efficient
solutions. Anywhere fiber can be used for carriers in an advantage. Coaxial cable is heavy
and creates more weight for the towers. Fiber cable not only is lighter, but can provide better
connections in most cases. Replacing existing cables with fiber will be better for the carrier in
any case. There will also need to be planning for more cell sites in addition to existing ones.
As mentioned previously, the higher frequency ranges 5G will implement has less
penetration. More areas such as rooftops, water towers, and small cell backhauls will be used
in a 5G deployment. These are only a few obstacles carriers will endure and certainly the list
will continue to grow, however, considering we are already in advanced data technologies
with mobile communications, transition to 5G should be smoother than previous deployment
of generations.
NEW BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES

With the arrival of 5G, telecommunication is set to be a serious disruptor to the value
chain and empower new businesses like nothing we’ve seen before – whatever the industry
may be. We can say every period dealing with the connectivity revolution has created a new
unforeseen aspect of innovation, and 5G will be no exception. 5G will be the answer to the
long time industry vision of unlimited access to information and will be readily available to
everything and everyone. Through support of a substantial amount of data and higher traffic
volumes, we can expect a whole new user experience and the ushering in of new innovative
services. Resourceful deployment scenarios like ultra-dense placements and machine to
machine communication demand an increased network latency and dependability in order to
reach their full capabilities. Unlike the previous generations of 3G and 4G, 5G will
incorporate new and prevailing radio access technology. While it is too early in the
development for individual businesses to know exactly how to capitalize on 5G and what it
will mean for them, they are looking at it from a broad perspective no doubt. We know these
things because we know that 5G is an ongoing work in progress and not just a local or
national sensation, but rather a global collaboration.
5G is also regarded as the 3rd phase of the connectivity revolution. If the first two phases
are any indication of things to come from the business aspect, 5G should develop to be even
more lucrative for business than ever before. 5G will have a wide range of transformative
prospective, but in the same token, will raise some urgent and complex business matters in all
sectors. As they say, “It’s all in the timing,” the first to get on board with 5G will more than
likely have an advantage over their competition. On the other hand, being the first up may not
be the best strategy. Flexibility could be the deciding factor in this case, that is, juggling
business priorities, the dynamics of it as well as technology development. All business’s will
need remember that different things will impact other things on different timescales and being
conscious of that will be a major factor from the business aspect. Keep this fact in mind, all
levels of the revolution have had business success’s and business losers, so it’s reasonable to
assume 5G will be no different. There is no way of knowing who will be the ones to succeed
and who will not. The best guess of anyone is that the ones that adapt to the changes best and
react accordingly will be the ones with the better chance of succeeding. Connectivity is
already having an impact in a disrupting way to businesses globally and 5G will only take
that to a whole new level.
SECURITY RISKS
With every new technology comes new security risks and vulnerability. The IoT in 5G is
going to have serious security concerns, especially in its early development. The biggest
concern that has already been exploited is that an attacker will use the vast number of IoT
devices in a DDoS attack. This is where an attacker creates a botnet to control the behavior of
a large number of remote devices so that they send legitimate traffic to a target server or link.
For instance on October 21st, 2016 a DDoS attack was performed on a company named
Dyn which provides DNS services to many other companies including: Twitter; Verizon;
Reddit; Comcast; and, the Playstation network. These services were down for the majority of
one day causing a panic among their customers. This attack created a botnet consisting of
unusual agent devices. The botnet consisted of many home routers and security cameras that
connected to a network through IP in order to store surveillance footage on a server.
The typical users of a home router do not have the knowledge to apply a strong security
countermeasure to their router. It is estimated that at least 15% of home routers are not secure.
The devices that are connected to the router could be vulnerable as a reflection tool for a
DDoS attack if the home router is compromised. The IoT in the future will consist of at least
5-10 times more devices on a home network than what currently exist. Those devices will
likely have weaker security as well.
Security cameras that transmit IP data are vulnerable to attacks because of the
youthfulness of the service. For instance the cameras utilized for the attacks on October 21st
still had the out of the box default password. The devices didn’t require the user to change the
initial password to begin using it. Although it may be a good security practice to never use
default passwords, that doesn’t mean that everyone will follow this practice. These devices
typically don’t have the same security measures as that of host computers and servers.
Therefore they are easy targets for an attacker to exploit for a DDoS attack.
There are already some common practices that are being laid out that will help to secure
IoT devices. First, as stated above, always change the default passwords for your devices
before putting them into operation. Second, update IoT devices on a regular basis. New
patches will fix known vulnerabilities that attackers have already exploited. Third, disable
Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) on IoT devices when not necessary for its operation. Lastly,
only purchase IoT devices from trusted companies that have a reputation for strong security in
their devices.
CONCLUSION
To conclude this article it is clear that these four topics are very important to the wireless
movement. Of course, Wi-Fi, is something that everyone is familiar with and have used. The
interesting part of the Wi-Fi portion of the article was the positive effects on businesses that
provide free Wi-Fi. LTE in this article was shown to have changed the way we use mobile
internet today. With more demand speed and the applications that cellular devices bring to us,
LTE has been has provided us speeds on mobile devices that were never dreamed of only a
few years ago. With providers moving to LTE Advanced consumers are going to see faster
developments than happened for the current 4G technology. As demand for capacity and
speed grows, 5G will put us on a path of excellence for mobile communication. There will be
technical obstacles for carriers to overcome, but the payoff will be extraordinaire. With
advanced beamforming and better MIMO support, end users will be at awe in the beginning
of 5G. The discussion about 3GPP provides conclusive evidence of their contribution to
technology. Without their guidance in the standardization and implementation of third
generation technologies, mobile internet would not be where it is today. The portion of this
article that discussed Heterogeneous Networks was a look into the future. Although currently
used in larger cities, HetNet is what is required to guarantee availability and coverage for our
mobile wireless needs. Using HetNet correctly in the world will create little to no “dead
spots” while we are moving from point A to Z. HetNet will also be an important aspect to the
upcoming technology of 5G to ensure clients are receiving the utmost service as promised by
carriers. All of the topics in the article are obviously an influential part of our lives in some
way. With the future in our sights, there’s nothing that the people in our world can’t
accomplish to get us there.
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 10
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF 5G CELLULAR NETWORKS

FOR BASE STATIONS’ SWITCHING SYSTEMS
Md. Hashem Ali Khan, Poongundran Selvaprabhu,

Sunil Chinnadurai and Moon Ho Lee*
Division of Electronics and Information Engineering,
Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea
ABSTRACT
The heterogeneous cellular network (HCN) is most significant as a key technology
for future fifth-generation (5G) wireless networks. The energy efficient design of HCNs
consist of different types of base stations (BSs), which has drawn significant attention to
technologies for future 5G wireless networks. The cellular networks have faced a great
deal of challenges to meet sharply rising demand for higher network capacity and higher
data rates as well as far more power consumption which results in operating costs caused
by the number of users accessing the cellular networks concurrently. BS is the main part
of power consumption, so reducing energy consumption of the BS can obviously reduce
the total energy consumption. Recently, the power consumption of the BSs has been
attracted in cellular networks. In this chapter, we propose switching off/on systems for
the efficient power consumption at the BSs in the cellular networks which introduce
active/sleep modes in the macro BSs (MBSs) and femto BSs (FBSs). The active/sleep
modes reduce the interference and power consumption as well as improve the energy
efficiency of the cellular networks. Moreover, we derive the two-tier HCNs under
different sleeping policies as well as formulate power consumption minimization for the
MBSs and FBSs. An optimization problem is formulated to maximize the energy
efficiency subject to throughput outage constraints as well as solved by the Karush-Kuhn-
Tucker (KKT) conditions in terms of the femto tier BS density. Furthermore, the energy
efficiency of cellular network is analyzed and modeled based on Markovian wireless
channels.
Keywords: heterogeneous cellular networks, stochastic geometry, different sleeping policy,

energy efficiency, power consumption, small cells, Markovian chain
*
Email: moonho@jbnu.ac.kr, hashem05ali@jbnu.ac.kr
184 M. H. A. Khan, P. Selvaprabhu, S. Chinnadurai et al.
INTRODUCTION
Looking ahead to the year 2020 and beyond, there will be explosive growth in mobile
data traffic. The existing cellular networks are experiencing some basic challenges such as
higher data rates, excellent end to end performance, user coverage in hot-spots and crowded
areas with lower latency energy consumption and amount of expenditure per information
transfer. The fifth generation (5G) cellular networks are envisioned to overcome these
challenges. It is expected that 5G systems will have the ability to adopt a multi-tier
architecture consisting of macrocells, different types of licensed small cells, relays and
device-to-device (D2D) networks to serve users with different quality-to-service (QoS)
requirements in an energy efficient manner [1]. It is expected that 5G wireless communication
technologies will attain 1000 times higher mobile data volume per unit area, 10-100 times
number of connecting devices and longevity of battery 10 times, user data rate and 5 times
reduced latency [2]. A key attribute of 5G networks is that the expected cell data rate will be
of the order of 10 Gb/s whereas average data rate for single 4G networks is 1Gb/s. Therefore,
such a heterogeneous cellular network (HCN) architecture has drawn significant research
attention and been recognized as a key technology for future 5G wireless networks. The
energy efficiency (EE) of small cell networks is of great concern as the base station (BS)
density will be significantly increased. We study the optimal energy efficiency of a two-tier
heterogeneous network consists of a macrocell and many small cells under coverage
performance constraints for different deployments. The other more important challenge is the
greater energy consumption in HCNs because of the dense and randomly deployment of
femto BSs (FBSs) [4]. In order to realize the aspect of green wireless networks, energy
efficiency is an important tool. Because of the increasing share of wireless systems, the total
energy expended in communications and networking systems are deemed important.
With the increasing demand for high throughput wireless services, cellular networks are
evolving from the conventional structure with high-power macro BSs (MBSs) each covering
a large geographic area to a small cell structure with low-power BSs such as micro, pico and
femto-BSs [5]. Compared with a MBS, the power consumption for a micro, pico or femto-BS
is much lower. However, due to the high BS density in small cell networks, it is not clear
whether it will be more energy efficient than the conventional network structure.
Stochastic geometry offers a powerful tool in the design and analysis of HCNs, and
therefore of future generations of wireless networks [6]. The increase in BS density proposed
for HCNs can easily result in a higher energy usage than that of single-tier systems in use
today. The growing energy cost of information communication technology (ICT) not only
exacerbates global environmental degradation, but also presents a major obstacle to the
growth of the telecommunication industry. As a result, green design has been spurred and is
emphasized in current and future 5G network designs [6-8]. According to [10], BSs account
for a large fraction of energy consumption in cellular networks. For this reason, there has
been great momentum to investigate power saving strategies on the BS side. As shown in
[11], a BSs power consumption depends on not only the transmit power, but also the
transmission independent power consumption due to signal processing, battery backup, site
cooling, etc. According to the BS power consumption model [11], power minimization in the
downlink of cellular networks can be achieved by reducing BS transmit power or muting BSs
with QoS constraints on signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) [12], spectral
Energy Efficiency of 5G Cellular Networks 185
efficiency [13], throughput [14] etc. In [15], outage probability constrained transmit power
minimization problems were solved for two-tier HCNs with perfect and imperfect channel
state information (CSI), respectively. Consequently, it is practically meaningful but
theoretically challenging to investigate the BS power saving problem in HCNs. The
heterogeneous network considered consists of randomly distributed MBSs overlaid with
FBSs. The energy efficiency in cellular networks is to introduce active/sleep modes in MBSs
and FBSs. The femto tier BS density is derived by analytically solving the optimization
problem that maximizes the energy efficiency.
HETEROGENEOUS CELLULAR NETWORK MODEL

We consider a HCN composed by K independent network tiers of BSs with different
deployment densities and transmit powers in Figure 1(a). We assume that the BSs in the i-th
tier are spatially distributed as a PPP  of density  , transmit at a power Pi , and have a
SINR target of T . The locations of the BSs in the two tiers are distributed as two spatial
2
Poisson Point Processes (PPP) in the Euclidian space denoted by  M and  F , with
densities M and F , respectively. The probability density function (pdf) is given by
 
f  r   2 r exp  r 2 .
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Heterogeneous cellular networks (b) Switching system for BSs power consumption.
Signal-to Interference –plus-Noise Ratio
We denote a BS by its location while the user is at the origin 0. For downlink
transmission of a MBS to the typical user 0, the SINR experienced by a macrocell user is
given by

Ph
i ir
SINR  , (1)

i 1, i j
Pj h j ri

 2
where h is channel, the background noise is assumed to be additive white Gaussian with
variance  2 and  being the path loss exponent.
Power Consumption
Without employing any sleeping mode at each base station in the i-th tier, the average
power consumption of the i-th tier heterogeneous networks is given by
PHet,i  i  Pio  i  Pi  . (2)
In a two-tier cellular network, the total power consumption comes from macrocell tier
and femtocell tier, which is expressed as:
Ptotal  M  PM 0  M  PMBS   F  PF 0  F  PFBS  , (3)
where PM 0 and PF 0 are the static power expenditure of the MBS and FBS, and M , F are the
slope of the load-dependent power consumption in MBS and FBS, respectively.  is the
power control coefficient of MBS and FBS. PMBS and PFBS are the transmit powers of MBSs
and femto BSs, respectively.
Energy Efficiency
The throughput outage probability, defined as the probability that a user in the macro
(femto) tier is unable to achieve a certain minimum target throughput as follows:
 M  F   1   BM ln 1  SINRM   TM 
. (4)
 F  F   1   BF ln 1  SINRF   TF 
Network energy efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the total amount of throughput
and total power consumption in the network. The EE function can be written as
M 1   M  log 2 1  SINRM   F 1   F  log 2 1  SINRF 

EE  . (5)
M  PM 0  M  PM   F  PF 0  F  PF 
where  is coverage probability of macro and femto users, respectively.
Coverage Probability
We use stochastic geometry theory to analyze the coverage performance of MBS and
FBS system under different allocation strategies. The probability of coverage is denoted by
pc T , p,  ,  and is given by
pc T , p,  ,  Pr  SINR  T  (6)
Figure 2. The activity level of BSs and location of users.
Under orthogonal deployment, the spectrum allocate for MBS and FBS is orthogonal,
which avoids the cross-tier interference. The received SINR of macro-mobile station (MS)
located at the cell boundary is
Ptr hr 
SINR  (7)
2
To guarantee the coverage performance of macro-cell, the received SINR of the MS at the
macrocell edge should satisfy the following equation,
 Ptr hr  
 SINR  T   Pr  T (8)
  
2
BASE STATIONS SLEEP MODE STRATEGIES

We know that the coverage probability is independent of the sleeping mode. However,
we need to maintain the coverage of the cellular networks when we implement sleeping mode
in MBSs through power control FBSs as shown in Figure 1(b) and Figure 2. The total power
consumed by each BS in the macro and femto tiers is modeled as follows:
aM Ptx , M  bM ,
 for active mode
PMBS  

0 M , for sleeping mode
, (9)
aF Ptx ,F  bF ,
 for active mode
PFBS  

0 F , for sleeping mode
where aM and aF are the coefficients for the PC that scales with the transmit power. bM and
bF represent the transmission independent power consumption due to signal processing,
battery backup, site cooling etc.
Power Consumption for Random Sleeping
Random sleeping strategy, we take it as a Bernoulli trial that is each BS actives with
probability q and sleeps with probability 1-q independently for macro and femto BSs. Then,
the sleep modes of other BSs are determined according to the distances between a BS and
user. Power consumption of random sleeping, the problem is formulated as follows [9, 18]:
PRS (MBS )  M qM  PMO  M  PMBS   M 1  qM  Psleep ,
and
PRS ( FBS )  F qF  PFO  F  PFBS   F 1  qF  Psleep . (10)
The power consumed in the macro-tier and femto tier BS when operating in the active
and sleep mode, then the total average power is given by
Ptotal  M qM  PM 0  M  PM   M 1  qM  Psleep  F  PF 0  F  PF   F 1  qF  Psleep
M  Psleep  F  PF 0  F  PF   F 1  qF  Psleep (11)
Thus, the energy efficiency of the network for random sleeping is given by
M 1   M  log 2 1  SINRM   F 1   F  log 2 1  SINRF 

EE 
M qM  PM 0  M  PM   M 1  qM  Psleep  F  PF 0  F  PF   F 1  qF  Psleep
(12)
Power Consumption for Strategic Sleeping
The minimization problem in the case of strategic sleeping is formulated similarly as

PSS (MBS )  M E s  PMO  M  M PMBS   M 1  E s Psleep , 
and

PSS ( FBS )  F E s  PFO  FPMBS   F 1  E s Psleep  (13)

where E s  s  x  f B  x  dx and
0
fB  x is the pdf of B and B denotes the random activity
within a cell and takes values in (0, 1). Finally, the energy efficiency of the network for
strategic sleeping is given by
M 1   M  log 2 1  SINRM   F 1   F  log 2 1  SINRF  (14)

EE 
 E s  PFO  F  PMBS  
M  E s  PMO  M  PMBS   M 1  E s Psleep   F  
 F 1  E s Psleep 
 
Random sleeping models a network that is adaptive to the fluctuating activity levels
during the day, strategic sleeping goes one step further and models a network that is adaptive
to the fluctuating activity levels within the location [9]. Furthermore, the strategic sleeping
model may be used as a method of measuring the impact of cooperation among MBSs.
Optimization Problem of Energy Efficiency
To solve the following multi-objective optimization problem [15]:
max EE  F 
F
s.t . 1   BM ln 1  SINRM   TM    M , (15)

1  BF ln 1  SINRF   TF    F
where  M and  F denote the outage objectives guaranteeing a minimum target throughput for
each user in the macro and femto tier, respectively. The optimal femto tier BS density F* that
maximizes the energy efficiency of network subject to the downlink outage constraints is
given by F*

 EE , F  for  M  0,  F  0 (both inactive)
 
 1  q   1 for  M

 0,  F  0 (macro active & femto inactive) ,
F   M (16)
F  M q 1 for  M 
 0,  F  0 (macro inactive & femto active)

F 1  q 

for  M  0,  F  0 (both active)
2/
where M and  F are the Lagrange multipliers and    PF / PM  is power ratio of BSs. The
femto-tier BS densities satisfying the outage objectives  M and  F respectively attributed to
the macro and femto tiers.
Case 1. Both Are Inactive (i.e., M


 0,  F  0 )
For this case, both M and F are greater than EE , F . Since it is feasible to maximize
energy efficiency at a femto tier BS density that is lower than those specified by the outage
constraints, the optimal femto tier BS density F corresponds to an interior solution that lies
within the range. Here, the solution range for the femto tier is Pareto efficient, where the
femto tier BS density within the range provides the greatest potential to maximize the energy
efficiency.
Case 2. Macro Tier Is Active While Femto Tier Is Inactive (i.e., M 

 0, F  0 )
The outage constrained BS density occurs at the boundary of the feasible solution space,
resulting in M as the optimal solution. Here, M which is determined from the primal
feasibility Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) condition when it is satisfied with equality the outage
objective  M . The outage objective attributed to the macro tier is less stringent than  EE , the
outage probability attained at EE .
Case 3. Femto Tier Is Active While Macro Tier Is Inactive (i.e., M 

 0, F  0 )
Similar to case 2, the optimal solution is a boundary solution given by  F . This also
corresponds to the case where the potential to maximize the energy efficiency performance is
traded off to satisfy the outage constraint attributed to the femto tier. In this case,  F the
Lagrange multiplier associated with the femto tier outage constraint, is determined upon
substituting F and M 
 0 in Eq. (16). As in case 2,  F represents the marginal loss in
energy efficiency as a result of imposing the femto tier outage constraint, reduces to 0 as  F is
relaxed.
Case 4. Both Are Active (i.e., M 

 0, F  0 )
When both constraints are active, the primal feasibility KKT conditions (Eq. (16)) can be
met with equality. This also results in a boundary solution, similar to case 2 and case 3.
However, different from case 2 and case 3, the optimal solution is not Pareto efficient because
it is possible to improve energy efficiency by relaxing the outage objectives  M and  F . Since
both outage constraints become active simultaneously, the Lagrange multipliers are equal
(i.e., M

  F ) and can be determined from the complementary slackness conditions. The
optimization problem in (15) is determined by satisfying the KKT conditions as follows:
 EE , M , F , F   EE  F   M [1   BM ln 1  SINRM   TM    M ]
(17)
  F 1   BF ln 1  SINRF   TF    F 
The KKT conditions are then listed as follows:

     0,

F
F
1  BM ln 1  SINRM   TM    M
1   BF ln 1  SINRF   TF    F (18)
M 
1   BM ln 1  SINRM   TM    M   0
 F 1   BF ln 1  SINRF   TF    F   0

M  0,  F  0
Based on the listed KKT conditions, evaluating each possible scenario for which M and
 F are either active or inactive gives the optimal femto tier BS density F .
SLEEP MODES FOR SMALL CELL BSS

An HCN consisting of K tiers [3] is considered, in which each tier models BSs of a
particular class, such as femtocells, picocells, microcells, or macrocells. BSs across tiers may
differ with regard to transmit power, spatial density, coverage and supported data rate.
Deploying small cells in a wireless network aims at offloading the macro cells, improving
indoor coverage and cell edge user performance, and boosting spectral efficiency per unit area
via spatial reuse. They can be deployed with relatively low power network overhead, and
have high potential for reducing the energy consumption of future wireless networks.
As shown in Table 1, details of the different types of small cells and their comparison
with macro cells are as follows:
 Macro cellular networks consists of conventional operator-installed BSs, providing

open public access and wide area coverage on the order of few kilometers. Macro
cells typically emit up to 46 dBm, serving thousands of customers and using a
dedicated backhaul.
 Pico cells are low power, operator-installed cells towers with the same backhaul and
access features as macro cells. They are usually deployed in a centralized way,
serving a few tens of users within a radio range of 300 m and transmit power range
from 23 dBm to 30 dBm.
 Femtocells, also known as home BSs or home BSs, are low cost, low power, user-
deployed access points, offloading data traffic using customers’ broadband
connections and serving a dozen of active users in homes. The femtocell range is less
than 50 m and it’s transmit power less than 23 dBm.
 Relays are usually operator-deployed access points that route data from the MBS to
end users and vice versa. They are positioned so as to increase signal strength and to
improve reception in poor coverage areas and dead spots in the existing networks.
 Remote radio heads (RRH) are compact-size, high power, low weight units, which
are mounted outside the conventional macro BS, thus creating a distributed BS.
Using a stochastic geometry based HCN model, we derive coverage probability, average
achievable rate, and energy efficiency in heterogeneous K-tier wireless networks [4]. Then,
we try to maximize energy efficiency under 1) a random sleeping policy and 2) a strategic
sleeping policy, with constraints on both coverage probability and wake-up times.
Based on the power consumption model, we adopt power saving modes [16] for small
cells ordered by “depth.” The deeper a sleep mode, the higher the power saving. However, a
deep sleep mode requires a longer time for the small cell BS to wake up. Therefore, an
inherent tradeoff exists between sleep depth and time to wake up. We consider four modes of
BS operation as follows.
 On: The femtocell is in full operation, and is consuming maximum power.

 Sleep: The femtocell is in ‘deep’ sleep and needs some time to wake up.
 Offline: The femtocell is off and consumes no power.
Table 1. Different types of small cells and comparison with macrocell
Types of nodes Transmit power Coverage Backhaul

Macrocell 46 dBm Few km S1 interface
Picocell 23-30 dBm <300 m X2 interface
femtocell <23 dBm <50 m Internet IP
Relay 30 dBm 300 m Wireless
RRH 46dBm Few km Fiber
The corresponding wake-up times are summarized in Table 2 [4, 16]. We express the
overall power consumption as a percentage of active overall power consumption.
Table 2. Wake-up Times and Power Consumption for different Sleep modes
Sleep Mode Wake-up Time (s) Power Consumption

On 0 100%
Standby 0.5 50%
Sleep 10 10%
Off 30 0
Here, we provide two sleeping policies for small cell BS sleep mode operation.
Random Sleeping
Each small cell BS fully operates with probability qon , “sleeps” with probability qsleep ,
and is turned off with probability qoff , independent of all other BSs. Note that
qon  qsleep  qoff  1 .
Strategic Sleeping
Instead of randomly operating small cell BSs, for this strategy, we decide the sleep mode
for each small cell BS according to traffic load [4]. In a static traffic model, the number of
user equipments (UEs) in the coverage of each BS and the distance of the nearest UE to each
BS are considered. The objective of strategic sleeping is to maximize usage of BSs to serve
active users. The sleep scheduling for this case is based on 1) the number of UEs in the
coverage of each small cell and 2) the distance between each BS and its corresponding
nearest UE. First, operating probabilities in random sleeping are converted into fractions, i.e.,
we decide the number of BSs in each state based on corresponding probability and total
number of small cell BSs. The small cell BSs with most users in coverage are turned on.
Then, the sleep modes of other BSs are determined according to the distances between a BS
and UE, i.e., a BS sleeps lighter with nearer UE. More detail, the strategic scheme is
scheduled as discussed in Algorithm 1.
Algorithm 1: Strategic sleeping mode for macro and femto cell BSs
1) Let N denotes the total number of operated MBSs. Decide the numbers N on , Nsleep and N off of
MBS and FBS in on mode, sleep mode and off mode, respectively.
2) Calculate the number of users in the coverage area of each MBS and FBS based on radius r
calculated according to the SINR target.
3) The UE numbers in descending order for the entire operated MBS and FBS.
4) Choose the first N on MBS and FBS to turn on.
5) Calculate distances from the nearest UE to each of the undecided MBS and FBS, respectively.
6) Then, the first Nsleep MBS and FBS sleep. The rest MBS and FBS are turned off.
MARKOVIAN CELLULAR NETWORKS

To investigate the basic energy efficiency performance of two-cell cellular network. In
this case, a user’s channel of two-cell cellular network is modeled into good and bad states
due to channel conditions [17]. Moreover, a transition from one state to the next state only
depends on the current state with the state space 0,1 , where ‘0’ corresponds to a good state
and ‘1’ corresponds to a bad state in Figure 3. Based on properties of Markovian processes, a
channel transition probability matrix is given by
 n
q n
 n q01 n   q00 q01 
q   00 n 
q11 
, (19)
 q10 q11 n   q10
where qi , j , i and j  0,1 , is a one-step transition probability from the state i into the state j,
and q   , i and
n
i, j
j  0,1 , is a probability from the initial state i into the state j after n steps
transition.
Figure 3. State transition diagram of two state Markovian wireless channel.
The energy efficiency for multicell cellular networks is given by
 
 2 

K
Pi hi F
log 2 1  
 
 i  
2
i 1 2
Pj hi , j 
 
F
EEmulticell 
j 1, i  j (20)
P
K
i
i 1
When wireless channels of multicell cellular network are assumed as two-state

Markovian wireless channels illustrated in Figure 3, due to the memory-less property of two-
state Markovian wireless channel model, initial channels of all cells are configured as good
states. Furthermore, after an n steps state transition in two-state Markovian wireless channels,
a model of energy efficiency of multicell cellular network is given by
     
  Pi higood F
2
  Pi hibad F
2
 
  q  n  

K
 2
log  1   q  log 1 
 n 
 00   01 
 
2
i 1   i 
2
Pj higood
2
  i 
2
Pj hibad
2
 
  j 1, i  j
,j F
  j 1, i  j
,j F
  (21)
EEmulticell 

K
Pi
i 1
Figure 4. Impact of number of cells on energy efficiency.

From Figure 4, the single cell system, i.e. the number of cells is one, has the highest
energy efficiency, and this highest energy efficiency is 7.3 (bits/Hz/mW). The energy
efficiency performance of multicell cellular network with cell number from 2 to 7 is
obviously less than the energy efficiency performance of single cell communication system.
Therefore, the interference from adjacent cells has great influence on the energy efficiency of
multicell cellular network.
SIMULATION RESULTS
In this section, we present numerical evaluations of the integral expressions for the
coverage probability and energy efficiency performance. We focus on the two network tiers
consisting of a macro tier overlaid with a femto tier. The assumed parameter values for two-
tier HCNs are based on the values used in Table 3.
Figure 5 plots the coverage probability versus noise  2 for different sleeping strategies.
The sleeping strategy is modeled as 0 and 1, respectively. For random sleeping, MBSs and
FBSs are in sleep mode with probability 0.5. From the Figure 5, we can see that the coverage
probability per active user in strategic sleeping is only marginally better than no sleeping. We
also see that strategic sleeping has a bigger margin of improvement over no sleeping when
 2  0 . Finally, it can be seen that strategic sleeping is always better than random sleeping
for the same fraction of sleeping MBSs and FBSs.
Table 3. Network Parameter Values
Symbol Description Value

B Bandwidth 180 kHz
 Path loss exponent 4
TM SINR Threshold for Macro 8 dB
TF SINR Threshold for Femto 5 dB
bM Macro BS static power 68.73 W
bF Femto BS static power 26.59 W
PMBS Macro BS Transmit power 20 W
PFBS Femto BS Transmit power 2W
rM / rF Macro/Femto range 300/15m
PMO Static power MBS 130 W
PFO Static power FBS 4.8 W
M Slope of MBS 4.7
F Slope of FBS 8
PMsleep Sleeping power MBS 75 W
PFsleep Sleeping power FBS 5W
M Density of MBS 1 104 m2
F Density of FBS 1 102 m2
Figure 5. Coverage probabilities for different sleeping strategies.
Figure 6 shows the maximum two-tier achieved energy efficiency versus density. The
assumed parameter values for the two-tier HCNs are based on the values used in Table 3. In
general, the maximum two-tier energy efficiency decreases with increasing density. Note that,
we show the energy efficiency curves close to the points for PFBS / PMBS  0.1,0.2,0.3 and
0.4 . The observations made from Figure 6 underscore the impact of the femto-to-macro BS
power consumption factor on the ability to maximize the two-tier energy efficiency while
satisfying the outage objectives.
Figure 6. Two-tier network energy efficiency versus density.

Figure 7. Energy consumed by BSs of sleep mode enabled femtocell deployment.
Figure 7 plots the network energy consumption as a function of number of deployed

femtocells. The graph highlights that the network energy consumption increases linearly with
the introduction of femtocells due to more power-drawing sources in the network. Moreover,
the power consumption depends on the status of BSs i. e., active/sleep mode.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have investigated the design of energy efficient HCNs employing BSs
sleep modes and sleep strategies. We provide an energy efficient of two-tier network through
deploying sleeping strategy in MBSs and FBSs. The MBS and FBS are switching off/on
systems, i.e., it reduces power consumption and interference and improve of the HCNs. Then,
we formulate an energy efficiency maximization under either a random sleeping policy or a
strategic sleeping policy for each sleep mode of BSs. Using Numerical results show that the
proposed sleeping strategy can effectively decrease power consumption and increase energy
efficiency. Moreover, network power consumption and energy efficiency here only depend on
the status of BSs. We also analyze the energy efficiency performance of cellular network
based on two-state Markovian wireless channels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the MEST 2015R1A2A1A05000977, NRF, Korea.
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 11
WI-FI AND LTE ADVANCED TO

5G NETWORK EVOLUTION
Daniel Watkins and Abdulrahman Yarali

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the transitional role of current LTE
Advanced and Wi-Fi technologies into an evolved 5th Generation mobile network. It will
do so by examining existing, evolving, and brand new technologies to provide a
contextual framework for 5G network implementation. The discussion area of this
chapter will explain how 5G may incorporate important existing technologies into the
next generation of mobile network technology. In order to evolve into a new generation,
the current methods of backhauling, network densification, and signal propagation must
be significantly modified and improved. New network hardware, antennas, radios,
frequency spectrums, and end user devices will be implemented. Increase in overall
network data rate and speed is perhaps a strong reason for implementation of the next
generation of mobile network, but the transition to 5G promises much more than just an
increase in bit rate. The 5G evolution is a solution to the current unreliable coverage, high
latency, limited available access channels, and the overall bit rate per device in any given
area. LTE Advanced and Wi-Fi technologies can provide some of the needed solutions to
build a new standard that will attempt to end limited access issues and ensure faster, more
reliable connections. New technologies discussed here will make this transition possible
by building on these existing technologies and leading the mobile network into an
environment capable of supporting the thousand-fold increase predicted to be needed for
wireless device operation in the year 2020.
Keywords: 5G, Wi-Fi, small cells, heterogeneous networks, LTE Advanced, MIMO, massive
MIMO, millimeter-wave spectrum, beamforming/3D beamforming, D2D, spectrum
sharing, cognitive radio
202 Daniel Watkins and Abdulrahman Yarali
INTRODUCTION
It is estimated that the number of mobile devices will increase one thousand fold between
2010 and 2020. To meet the increase in demand from the sheer number of devices and
increase in users, new technologies must be developed. The concerns for expanding the
network to support the massive number of connected devices include spectrum allocation, cell
interference, greater bandwidth, increased network capacity, higher speeds for new media,
and mobile reliability. In addition to the increase in the number of user devices, machine to
machine (M2M) usage is growing exponentially as well. M2M usage includes vehicles that
communicate with mobile towers to collect data in the background such as weather and
navigation. M2M also includes emergency vehicle coordination, home device integration, and
robotics for factory and medical purposing. All of these demands and applications require a
strategic use of some existing technologies, the repurposing and upgrading of many current
“in-place” technologies, and the development and integration of new technologies.
In our current application of 4G LTE-A (Long Term Evolution – Advanced) there are
technologies that will be refined and expanded on in order to meet this need for growth such
as massive input and massive output antenna arrays (MIMO), orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM), evolved high speed packet access (HSPA+), and wireless relay
stations. Another approach to providing a broader and denser network design may utilize
previously unlicensed spectrum technologies such as Wi-Fi to create smaller discrete cells
that have little interference with the existing and new spectrum of mobile. This will allow
network traffic to be unloaded from the traditional base station and relay stations to run off of
underutilized wireline services such as Direct Subscriber Line (DSL). These merging and
expansion of these technologies will utilize the unloading of network traffic onto a denser
network of smaller cells, in addition to beam-forming and new spectrum technologies. Off-
loading and small cells scenarios will help the mobile network transition from our current 4th
Generation (4G) into the new 5th Generation (5G) of mobile systems to meet the ever growing
demand of user devices and the required M2M supports.
Many other technologies will help in this transition, such as device to device (D2D)
communication, the separation of the control plane and user plane, new radio access
technologies, new device radio technology, massive multiple input and multiple output
(mMIMO), millimeter wave frequencies, beamforming antennae, and cognitive radio. The
utilization of these technologies together will require cooperation between mobile providers,
as well as the standardization of each in order to achieve the desired level of performance for
5G users. In order for this to be realized, research is being conducted while technologies are
being developed in hopes of meeting the demand by the year 2020. The reason for the 2020
deadline is that is when the current network is projected to meet congestion, which would
lead to the possible failure and loss of robust performance for the current state of mobile
networks.
Future Mobile Projections
In the year 2010, the number of mobile devices was estimated to be around 5 billion in
total. In the year 2020, the projected number of devices is said to be upwards of 50 billion [1].
Wi-Fi and LTE Advanced to 5G Network Evolution 203
Given the estimation that our world population will be close to 7.5 trillion people by 2020 [7],
this would average out to about 1.4 mobile devices per human. What these numbers don’t
take into account is the number or machine to machine connections that will use the mobile
network to transfer data. The number of M2M connections in 2020 is expected to be close to
21 billion [1]. It has been widely agreed upon that the current state of the networks worldwide
will not support the demand of user equipment (UE) and M2M connections past 2020.
In order to support the exponential growth of mobile users, M2M data needs, and the
number of devices per user, several complex technologies must be evaluated, researched,
merged, and implemented. Currently, a 5G network can only be realized if the new and
existing technologies work in tandem. A popular strategy of speeding up the current network
is to simply offload a majority of the traffic from the cellular base stations onto other
networks, and to integrate those networks into the mobile system. Current research shows that
70-80% of time spent on mobile networks by users is while they are inside a building, rather
than outside [1, 5]. As mobile has already replaced most user landline voice communications,
mobile devices have also replaced many IP based user activities due to smartphone and tablet
web-browsing and app usage. In many edge and last mile network scenarios, users are taking
advantage of 4G LTE hotspots that tether internet access to a small mobile device specifically
for providing a small wireless access point for web browsing and internet media access such
as streaming video or music on personal devices. While it doesn’t specifically offload traffic
to last mile scenarios, integrating smaller cells where a backend line is available can free up
large amounts of bandwidth and available frequencies for the already existing network for
base stations and relay stations when users are in a building or driving down city or town
streets.
WiFi Offloading
There are different proposed strategies for offloading data using smaller cells. One
promising notion that could provide integration without enormous cost is to use existing
wired networks in combination with unlicensed frequency band wireless networks like Wi-Fi.
By using Wi-Fi access points as a part of mobile network integration, the base stations can be
opened up. Currently underutilized wire networks, like DSL, could be used to as access points
for wireless access devices on utility poles, street lights, and inside commercial or residential
buildings. When a user is in the vicinity of a smaller cell, the user device would switch its
data transfer functionality to the smaller cell, while maintaining a control function with a base
station or relay. This would allow any amount of data to now transfer through backhauls and
wired lines, instead of clogging up the mobile wireless network and antennas.
In the past, technologies like Wi-Fi were engineered primarily towards providing wire
free workflow for business and home private networks. It is only with the most recent
versions of the Wi-Fi standard that it has become a feasible option for mobile carrier handoff.
As LTE-A requires downlink data rates of 1 Gbps, and uplink rates of 500 Mbps [8], only the
newly released IEEE 802.11 ac standard and the upcoming IEEE 802.11ad standard meet the
speed requirements for LTE-A [11]. The 802.11ac standard has two versions, one that utilizes
two antennas for a rate of 867 Mbps, and one that uses three antennas for rates up to 1.3
Gbps. Both versions of the ac standard use multi user multiple input and multiple output
(MU-MIMO) at the 80 MHz frequency band. The 802.11ad standard has two modes that
estimate data rates at 1.1 Gbps and 3.0 Gbps, respectively [9]. While IEEE 802.11ac is an
expansion of the current 802.11n amendment, IEEE 802.11ad speaks to an entirely new
worldview. Today, the 2.4-and 5-GHz bands for the prior 802.11 amendments are intensely
congested. They likewise do not have the ability to reach extreme data rates for developing
businesses and applications. IEEE 802.11ac and 802.11ad both provide higher information
throughputs than previous amendments. However, they have entirely different potential. IEEE
802.11ad is an advanced development of previous WLAN amendments, and it works at 60
GHz bandwidth. It gives the ability to design unwired office network with the gigabit unwired
frameworks while offering performance equivalent to the wired network. In contrast, IEEE
802.11ad is another amendment which provides high throughput, and short range ad-hoc
connectivity. With new standards being developed, it is likely that only a 3 antenna version of
the ac standard may be used in 5G requirements (while both modes of the ad standard can be
used). The success of using the ad standard for small cells depends on the adaptation of the
broadcasting hardware, as its range is very limited at the 60 GHz band. Success will also
depend on the ability for radio access to properly receive and filter signals from the new range
in a user device.
The challenges of this type of handoff can also be strengths in this particular scenario.
Within the unlicensed spectrum of Wi-Fi, signal strength becomes very weak at the edge of
the cell. This is actually good, as this keeps interference between tower signals and the small
cell Wi-Fi signals at a minimum. However, this approach can still only lighten the load of the
current network. It does not actually do anything to improve the hardware of the current
mobile system network, but rather moves traffic off of it. Alleviating traffic demands of the
primary cells is merely a tool; however it is an incredibly useful one.
Figure 1. Characteristics of 802.11n and ac [11].
Heterogeneous Network
The novel idea of using Wi-Fi as base stations indoors for higher populated areas is but
one aspect of creating a heterogeneous network. The idea of a heterogeneous network is to
utilize a variety of cell types. This is accomplished by utilizing base station (macrocells)
access points, smaller wired backhaul access stations (Picocells), wireless relays, and indoor
small cells (Fermtocells). This is a method to balance the number of connections on any given
station or frequency band with the processing required to provide mobile function from the
user device.
Figure 2. Combining small cells and Wi-Fi in a HetNet scenario [12].
A potential issue with the usage of many cell types is deciding how a user device will
decide the type of cell to connect to. In order to prioritize cell choice, preference must be
given to the smallest cell type available to the user equipment, but only if that signal of the
smaller cell is sufficient to provide a good connection. Because macrocells will almost always
be stronger signal than a Picocell or Fermtocell, a device cannot rank priority of cell choice
on the strength of the cell alone. In order to make the right cell choice, a device must be able
to stay in contact with a mobile base station for when it moves out of the smaller cell and
back to a larger cell. This process is sometimes referred to as Cell Range Expansion [4].
Control Plane/User Plane
In order to accomplish the task of keeping both in touch with a larger mobile cell, while
utilizing smaller cells, a heterogeneous network must split the current mobile cell plane into
two different planes for operation. In this scenario, there would be a control plane and a user
plane. In the control plane, information is sent between the user device and the base station.
This allows the base station to keep a location and constant connection for control data to be
sent to and from the device. On the user plane, data transport will occur. This allows the
smaller cells to be used for data to be transferred, which eases the demand of the base station
to constantly process large amounts of data from every device in its cell area. Not only does
this open up frequency spectrum and loads for the base station, but it also takes load off the
backhaul that base station is connected to. This method can also reduce the amount of energy
it takes to power a base station. The macrocells will also utilize lower frequency bands to
send control data, which allows base stations to utilize the higher frequency bands for devices
that are not in a small cell area. This also allows additional energy savings, as these lower
spectrum frequencies do not require as much power to operate.
MIMO
To fulfill the 4G LTE-Advanced requirements, multiple-input and multiple output

(MIMO) antenna technology was utilized. MIMO uses an antenna array to send a data stream
that has been split up over the different antennas to be reconstructed at the receiver. These
antennas are supported with the backhaul by fiber optic cables dedicated to their use. The
purpose of MIMO is to provide a stronger signal at the receiver, and to increase overall bitrate
by means of splitting the data up and sending it simultaneously over separate signals that are
added up constructively at the receiver. This is performed using different beam patterns,
phase modulation, and radio frequency amplitude modulation [6]. Certain scenarios of MIMO
use beamforming technology to increase the signal strength, by directing the signal for
maximum reception. When MIMO is used in LTE-A, it uses orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) in order to achieve spatial multiplexing [2].
Massive MIMO
To extend the purposing of MIMO into 5G, LTE-A technologies will be expanded with
the use of massive MIMO. Whereas current MIMO systems are using two to four antennas,
massive MIMO systems are speculated to utilize ten to a hundred antennas in a single array
for a base station. The expansion of these systems can create very large gains in terms of
capacity and overall bitrate. Massive MIMO will add support of multiple users, and provide
faster data rates for those users simultaneously. These massive antenna arrays will provide a
larger number of users in need of macro cell channels with faster connections that support a
wider variety of data hungry applications, such as high definition streaming and video phone
calls. In addition to the benefits for users, these massive MIMO antenna arrays are energy
efficient. This is because the antennas use a lower energy output, with a highly directional
beam, that is summed into a more powerful signal when it reaches the receiver. The
distributed energy over all the antennas reduces the need for such a strong signal from a
single antenna to reach the same distance.
These arrays can also help support small cell deployments. For a business or corporate
environment, massive MIMO antenna arrays can be placed on rooftops, which can feed into
small cell hardware placed inside the buildings [1]. The use of fiber optics cables between the
rooftop antenna arrays and the small cell access points inside the building reduce the overall
bottleneck that may occur otherwise. The high transfer rate and reliability of a massive
MIMO system inside a building can not only take load off the base station for mobile
purposes, but it can also take load off the private Wi-Fi network of a building. This, in turn,
relieves network congestion for the building itself. The dedicated system of a rooftop array
can also prevent degradation in mobile signal due to obstructions inherent in a building and in
a metropolitan environment. For users who would not have access to a building’s private
network, or for buildings that do not permit connections to their wireless networks, this would
also increase mobile performance for visitors and guests.
The implication for massive MIMO to provide both macro and small cell applications
will help tremendously in reaching the capacity and speed demands for the future of 5G
technologies. Massive MIMO is aided by, and enhances the heterogeneous network topology
of 5G. Given the proper development and time, massive MIMO supporting small deployment
for businesses could also help solve issues with Internet access in areas where cable cannot be
ran. In these circumstances, like in crowded cities where digging up a street can be incredibly
costly, a business may be able to use a massive MIMO antenna array to supply a building
with reliable internet. Other options like laser optics can prove to be very costly, and still rely
on the speed of an existing network or internet access from another building. The process of
digging to lay wires may be impossible due to regulations, or have a cost well beyond a
business’ means. In these scenarios, massive MIMO may provide a better option and allow a
direct connection to a reliable network. Not only is this a possibility, but it may actually foster
growth in business in places where there is little, none, or too costly options before.
Millimeter Wave Spectrum
Currently, the spectrum for 4G LTE-A is limited to specific bands between 700 MHz and
2.6GHz. The entire spectrum bandwidth for all the licensed bands is limited in total to about
780 MHz’s. In fact, each wireless provider only has about 200 MHz total across all the
spectrums they are allowed to use. The currently available bands leave very little room for
growth in terms of spectrum expansion for mobile providers. Not only does this hinder
evolution with new technologies, but it also limits the amount of older legacy technologies
that can be supported once a new generation of mobile is introduced. User devices will
become obsolete faster than they normally would, due to these limitations in spectrum
availability. Even if existing spectrum licenses were to be made available, and resold to
mobile providers, the process to regain and reissue those bands can take years or a decade to
be processed through the regulatory legislation. If carriers were to wait that long for existing
spectrum to become available, it would be very costly [2].
It is with these factors in mind that researchers are proposing new avenues for spectrum
expansion. New technology is successfully being tested in the millimeter wavelength bands
that could provide the much needed spectrum additions to the already existing spectrum
allocations. Millimeter wavelengths would also allow higher radio frequency bandwidth for
channels. This increases the overall data capacity per channel, while decreasing latency.
Current research is showing that the available spectrum in the mm wavelength at 28 GHz and
38 GHz are viable for this expansion. While there is much debate over the effectiveness of
these spectrums to handle mobile needs without interference, experiments have been done
that have proven otherwise. With a cell size of 200 m, the same size of most urban cells, tests
have proven successful in signal propagation even in the most dense and obstacle ridden
urban environments [2].
Some other concerns for these very high spectrum wavelengths are signal attenuation due
to rain, and reflective surfaces in dense metropolitan areas [1]. These are valid concerns, but
they have not proven to be completely detrimental to the use of these cells to the point of
making them not viable for any use. By using the massive MIMO arrays to propagate these
signals, the signal strength can be achieved even with harsh obstacles. In the case of complete
loss of signal that may occur when entering a building, a handoff system can be arranged to
switch over to the small cells by use of a heterogeneous network, perhaps also in combination
with a fixed MIMO array on top of the building. These options that were discussed earlier
may work in tandem with the new spectrum allocations being proposed to create an expanded
spectrum, increased capacity, decreased latency, and overall greater performance of the 5G
network.
BEAMFORMING AND 3D BEAMFORMING ANTENNA ARRAYS

Beamforming is a technology that has been developed for various applications. It
involves controlling the direction of a signal to deliver a focused beam directly to a receiver.
By using this technology in combination with smaller wavelengths that are already more
narrow, beamforming can allow a more direct connection to a user device by means of using
location information to deliver a more powerful signal, while eliminating any extra
interference with other bands in the process. For massive MIMO, it is possible to not only
direct a signal on one plane, but on both horizontal and vertical planes. This method of 3D
beamforming in terms of a 5G application is sometimes referred to as 3D MIMO [3]. Not
only can this direct a signal for gains in strength and reduction in interference (by means of
reducing noise pollution), it can also further reduce the energy consumption of the massive
MIMO array. This technology presents some steep challenges, as creating a cell this small
and directing it to the proper point relies heavily on precise location information control data,
limited or no interference, and very fast data transmissions to ensure that the prior issues
aren’t compounded during cell mobility. However, these challenges may be worth
overcoming, if it means a significant increase in functionality and energy savings.
WIRELESS RELAYS AND BACKHAUL

A big concern for future mobile technologies will be providing service in areas where
there is currently little or no mobile signal coverage. With the combination of massive MIMO
antenna arrays and millimeter wavelength frequency bands, wireless relay stations may be
improved to provide a level of service previously unattainable in last mile and no-coverage
areas. The advancements in energy and spectrum management can allow for high data rates
by using a wireless station in a region where a wired base station or relay solution may have
proved too costly. To further support these areas, smart receivers and centrally coordinated
transmissions could be implemented so that these relays are only active when a user is
detected in the area. This would provide even more energy savings for last mile wireless
solutions [8]. Wireless mMIMO mm-wave stations could also be used for backhaul solutions
in areas where wired solutions may be deemed too costly due to environmental factors such
as densely populated metropolitan areas, where wires cannot be hung or buried.
Device to Device Communication
A very promising technology with multiple benefits that is being researched and
developed is device to device (D2D) communications. With D2D communications, devices
that are near each other are able to transmit data in the background to extend the range of a
signal beyond cell edge scenarios. D2D communications can alleviate loads off of base and
relay stations, and mitigate traffic through user equipment. Perhaps the most obvious use of
D2D connectivity is the ability to communicate wirelessly from one source to a destination,
without having to connect to, or transmit data through, a base station. In a 5G scenario, a D2D
connected environment can be imagined as its own level or layer, called the device level [1].
The device level would be primarily useful in scenarios where congestion is an issue or at the
cell edges where signals are faint or not available. The implications of D2D communications
are many-fold, with each scenario providing benefits of increased throughput, decreased
latency, energy saving, and extended coverage where there would otherwise be none.
In [1], there are 4 types of D2D communication types that are envisioned for the future
mobile environment. In a scenario where one device (source) may have a very weak signal
with a base station, but another device (relay) is both close to the source and the base station,
the device that is in cell range may act as a relay to the source, effectively extending the base
station cell to be useful beyond its signal area. This type of scenario is only present if a relay
device is available, but with the growth of mobile networks, this scenario is much more
common now. This type of scenario is referred to as “device relaying with base station
controlled link formation” (Figure 3) as control information is still be able to be sent over the
weak signal from the source, and can then establish the relay link between the source and
relay device to transmit data to the base station [1].
Figure 3. Device relaying communication with base station controlled link formation [1].
Figure 4. Direct device to device base station controlled link formation [1].
Figure 5. Device relaying communication with device controlled link formation [1].
“Direct device to device communication with base station controlled link formation”
(Figure 4) is a scenario where devices are able to communicate directly with one another, but
a base station establishes that link between them by using their control data to do so. “Device
relaying with device controlled link formation” (Figure 5) is a scenario where several devices
may link together to act as relays for a direct D2D communication, but without using a base
station for any control link information. The devices would all act independently, passing
along control information, while passing along data in the background. The last scenario is
most basic concept of this idea, but where there are no relays, no base station interaction, but
simply a source and destination device that are communicating directly with each other. This
scenario is referred to as “direct device to device communication with device controlled link
formation” (Figure 6) [1].
As one may suspect, a prominent concern of device to device communications is security.
While it is proposed that devices passively communicate when acting as relays, the fact that
information is still passing through user equipment may pose a threat. The most logical and
easily applied solution would involve using high level encryption to ensure that no
information is able to be accessed by intermediate devices. Another approach is to give the
user the option to participate or to not participate in device to device communication, but this
would also ultimately defeat the purpose of adding D2D as a means to improve the mobile
network. Instead of actively participating or opting out, a user device may be given the option
to set the level of encryption, or to participate in an entirely open system. In an open system,
no limits would be set in communication techniques, and whichever techniques provide the
best access options would be selected to extend coverage [1]. Open access would not be
advocated for sending any sort of sensitive data, but it could be very useful for emergency
scenarios where the only other option is to be cut off from mobile service.
D2D communications is not entirely new in technology. Unlicensed spectrums already
have D2D communications in the form of Bluetooth and Wi-Fi [10]. These spectrums are
prone to interference, however, and thus do not provide any necessary groundwork for the use
of long distance D2D connections [3].
D2D also can aid in spectrum reuse at the base stations, as traffic is offloaded onto
devices. While in some situations, control data may need to have an established link; other
scenarios have proven that D2D communications may take place without any link to a base
station whatsoever [4], [1]. This opens up a huge possibility for spectrum reuse at base
stations and can further increase the use of available spectrums when placed in tandem with
spectrum sharing techniques at the system side of a mobile network.
Figure 6. Direct device to device communication with device controlled link formation [1].
Spectrum Sharing
Although researchers are reaching into new spectrums to help with the growing need of
expansion for mobile systems, some measures may need to be taken in order to maximize the
efficiency of the current available licensed spectrums. Spectrum sharing is a method in which
a bandwidth is maximized to share certain frequencies between cells, by intelligently
integrating their systems so that when any spectrum is being underutilized, it can be utilized
elsewhere, within the same region. The solutions that are proposed to be used are called
distributed solutions and centralized solutions [1]. In a distributed solution, spectrum is
shared between systems through the coordination amongst the systems as a whole. The
stations and the systems that control them communicate with each other to update when and
where a spectrum is being utilized, or is free for connections. In a centralized solution, the
systems are all controlled by a central device that will hand out spectrum allocations to the
respective separate systems on a as-needed basis. In the centralized solution, systems do not
coordinate with each other, and only communicate directly with the central device that
mitigates spectrum. Spectrum sharing, when coordinated in an efficient manner, can
maximize the available spectrum to any carrier, and allow both better allocation for the
limited spectrum they are licensed to operate in, while providing better connection and
reliability to the user.
Cognitive Radio
A possible and useful way to help manage shared spectrum is to use a cognitive radio
system to sense the environment with the purpose of reporting back to systems to balance
spectrum and power between nodes. Cognitive radio can dynamically adapt to specific
conditions to help the network adjust for spectrum utilization and improving channel
accessibility [1]. Cognitive radio can extend further than adjusting spectrum allocation and
channel access by giving priority to specific applications, which improves channel
performance by choosing the most efficient and effective radio frequency spectrum for a
given application. It can then weigh those options against other current network conditions to
balance the load of the network. This improves overall effectiveness, which is needed to give
priority to individual user equipment and applications in real time. The use of an effective
cognitive radio system can also improve cell edge network support for user devices between
cells, and improve performance by utilizing these abilities to supply the best possible service
in fringe territory. This technology comes at a huge cost in both research and development as
it needs extensive testing in real world environments before it can be deployed in a large
network environment successfully.
Radio Access Technology
Taking into consideration the great number existing radio technologies that must be
present to access and take advantage the existing LTE-Advanced network, the 5th Generation
mobile network will most certainly require more advanced technologies to be fitted to the
receiver in terms of new radio transceivers for millimeter wavelength transmission and small
cell technology support [13]. Researchers and carriers will be hesitant to discontinue services
for current radio spectrum technologies, as many systems and users will still rely on them. As
such, backwards compatibility will need to be included in the already complex and cluttered
smart devices along with new radio receivers and transmitters. Proposed solutions to
accommodate these growing technologies point to highly tunable filters, or fixed frequency
filters [4]. In the case of millimeter wavelength receivers, it is likely that separate radios will
have to be placed in a device specifically for mm wave support. In the case of small cells that
may utilize new Wi-Fi 802.11ad technology, 60 GHz band support may need to be present as
well. Depending on the avenue used for device to device communication, the filters may
become even more complex, if there is to be any hope for battery efficiency. These issues
further support the effort to create a complex but highly functional advanced receiver that can
filter and adjust radio transmissions in order to maximize connectivity, energy efficiency, and
to allow smooth transitions between cells.
Self-Organizing Networks
Self-organizing networks (SON) have been introduced with the release of LTE and LTE-
Advanced technologies as a way to adjust and adapt new base stations to current network
configurations, without the need to configure each and every station manually when
introducing a new macro cell into the network environment [4]. However, the benefits of
SONs reach far beyond that of initial setup. This type of technology can utilize the
communication and smart receiver technology to adjust and optimize resources of many base
stations during lull and peak scenarios. For instance, if a base station were to experience a
significant increase in activity, it can communicate that to nearby base stations to request
spectrum allocations so that it can support more devices and capacity for its area. This saves
energy, as stations that are not needed can effectively enter a sleep mode until a user enters
the cell range, or until more spectrums are needed. These techniques can also be used when a
station or relay node becomes broken, and other stations may need to make up for the broken
node’s coverage by increasing their cell size, which can alleviate outages when a station goes
out of service.
SONs have a very useful function in 5G network scenarios in terms of network
densification. If small cells are to be deployed, using these techniques can greatly improve the
timeframe of the deployment of small cells. These small cells can self-configure themselves
as they are placed out. As more small cells are placed near each other, they can then adapt to
any nearby cells by configuring their power or frequency bands being used. This will speed
up the process and save energy. The ability of SONs to make up for dead or malfunctioning
cells will be paramount in small cell deployment, as the increase in new equipment can
sometimes result in an increase of issues with hardware in the long run. When these small
cells (and macrocells) are able to compensate for failing nearby cells, it allows carriers more
time to address the issues and replace or repair the faulty hardware, without users noticing the
outage or experiencing interruptions in mobile service.
Figure 7. 5G networks and Technology integration [1].
5G Technology Integration
The next generation of mobile is not concerned primarily with data rates as previous
generations have been. The goals of 5G will be that of supporting a massive increase in the
number of connected devices, increased spectrum, decreased latency, and reliable
connections. The way to the future of mobile is through the maximization of current
technologies, and expansion of network capabilities with new technologies. The fifth
generation of wireless will be a continued evolution, not a revolution. Given the possibilities
of new technologies to add and build upon our current mobile network, Figure 7 gives a view
of what the future of mobile may look like in a 5G environment.
The scale of this network environment is gradual, and is already happening in our current
mobile network. The key to implementation of these technologies will come down to
research, innovation, and integration. This idea of the future mobile network is only possible
if these systems are built to work in tandem with each other, as many of the systems depend
on other technologies to reach their full potential in terms of use and application. As a result,
many standard organizations, manufacturers, researchers, and engineers are working and
sharing their discoveries and technological advances with each other in order to provide the
ideal environment for the users of our mobile systems.
REAL LIFE SCENARIOS AND APPLICATIONS

The purpose of this section is to summarize how the previously mentioned systems can
prove useful to everyday life for various scenarios. The realization of a next generation
mobile system is complex, and can sometimes be envisioned better when applied to situations
we find ourselves in daily. As stated before, it has been found that most mobile users utilize
their devices 70-80% of the time while inside. This largely translates to either two scenarios,
being either at home, or at work.
At-home scenarios
While at home, many people transition their mobile data usage over to their private Wi-Fi
network. This is primarily done at the user end in order to conserve the data on mobile for
their data plan so as to not go over the limit and be required to pay an excess fee for an extra
data allowance. I do not foresee this trend changing in the future. Even with increased data
limits becoming more common (aside from the unlimited data packages of yesteryear), it is
very likely that data caps on data plans stay fixed at some rate that is comparable to the
average amount of data used per user on a mobile network. Because of this, it is likely that
private network Wi-Fi technology will remain used by individuals in their homes and at
friends and families’ homes.
As data rates and capacity increase, it is very likely that people will continue to use some
mobile data at home, especially during land-based internet outages. In turn, as mobile
networks become more reliable and robust, we may see the trend of weening off landline
internet in favor of mobile data usage. One thing that is sure to grow, as the mobile network
continues to expand, is the use of mobile internet as a very valuable resource for last-mile
users and users who have no land based wired internet service provider (ISP) options. These
last-mile scenarios are the ones who may stand to gain the most out of device to device
communication, wireless relay nodes, and massive MIMO antenna arrays (considering they
are made available for consumer installation or last mile scenarios). We may even see a trend
in mobile carriers offering small cell installation in homes as an alternative to internet access,
if they become as robust and reliable as they are projected to be. This may prove to be
somewhat troublesome for traditional landline ISPs, as mobile providers are already creeping
into competition with ISP by offering mobile hotspots. If consumers who have another option
find mobile based small cell internet to be a better fiscal option with equal or greater
bandwidth, ISPs will likely regret the neglect they have given their internet subscribers by not
upgrading infrastructure or offering better speed and reliability in recent years.
At-work scenarios
Commercial business will likely have the most to benefit from next generation mobile in
terms of fiscal gain. The possibility of small cell deployment inside commercial buildings in
urban environment where signals are congested and interference is high will provide a huge
performance increase for both employees and customers to the full range of businesses. The
incredible growth in the use of mobile devices in business activities is due not only to
business related communications, but is also due to monetary transactions using IP based
apps for smart-pay apps like Square, Apple Wallet, PayPal, and chip based, security-enhanced
credit card technologies. These technologies take advantage of both Wi-Fi and 4G LTE
mobility in terms of using tablets and smart phones as point-of-sale systems and can be
deployed anywhere a signal is available. With the densification of mobile networks, the
usability of these devices and pay methods will only increase, with businesses favoring the
mobile network over traditional phone based credit card processing and ISP IP-based
transaction processing.
The infrastructure of mobile communication and data transmission inside these small
cells will also prove very useful for customers and employees who need use of their devices
while inside the commercial environment in order to gain channel access and communication
without having to rely on guest Wi-Fi networks or private Wi-Fi networks to maintain an
effective use of their devices. With sound-proofing and reflective windows creating a large
obstacle barrier for mobile devices (in addition to the already present barriers of solid walls,
concrete buildings, and the near impossible penetration to large buildings at the central points
of the architecture), most business have to install their own amplifiers and repeaters so that
users can maintain a certain degree of mobile device functionality while inside a building.
Mobile devices have become so common place that it is an integral part of day to day
business activities for employees on small, mid, and enterprise level commercial
environments. The application of small cells for these types of scenarios would be paramount
in the ongoing support of business based mobile users.
While many people work outside, those who do are often in the presence of a vehicle. In
the future mobile network, it will become even more common to find mobile nodes in
vehicles and small satellite office buildings. The use of small cells in these scenarios will
increase the amount of work that is able to be done over mobile carriers in terms of strategic
and timely decision making, as well as data transport for outdoor jobs like architecture and
construction, GPS based farm equipment steering and harvesting data aggregation, mapping
and resource harvesting industries, and many more applications. Even in an enterprise
business scenario, administrators and managers may have access to small cells in trains and
cars when travelling much like they do now, but with greater bandwidth so that they could
utilize tools that require a higher level of data transmission that could be made possible with
the combination of small cells, massive MIMO, and 3D/beamforming to increase throughput.
Medical emergency scenarios
In the medical field, there is a massive need for better communication methods. Small
cells, beamforming/beam steering, massive MIMO, spectrum sharing, and device to device
communication can all be utilized to a great extent for medical emergencies and medical
procedures. A large part of medical emergencies involves getting the patient to a medical
facility in a timely fashion, and having preparations be made in advance of arriving at the
medical facility. In an ambulance, these new mobile technologies can provide a greater detail
of road traffic information by providing access to high definition traffic cameras to the
ambulance drivers, so that they may be able to predict the conditions of their path. The device
to device communications and small cell upload speeds can allow medical professionals
inside the ambulance to transmit much needed patient information and real-time status
updates to the medical facility to allow the professionals at the facility to give a much greater
level of detail in preparation for the arrival of the patient. Once at the hospital, small cells can
be optimized for patient monitoring. Device to device communication in terms of machine to
machine monitoring can be further developed to provide a lesser degree of latency for patient
status monitoring. The mesh network of the next generation has a lot to offer in terms of
medical facilities and medical emergency response, where mobile communications and
internal network communications have had many issues in the past.
TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES
Heterogeneous networks
Each of the technologies discussed here presents its own set of challenges to overcome.
The challenges for heterogeneous networks are inter-cell interference, distributed interference
coordination, and device discovery for link setup [3]. The issue of inter-cell interference is
brought upon by irregular cells appearing with the addition of small cells, either planned, or
unplanned. The solution to this issue will rely on self-organized networks, advance receivers,
and power control techniques. For distributed interference coordination, the issue will be
overlapping Wi-Fi technologies between home networks and small cells. This issue can be
helped by using proper filtering and advanced equipment that can use sensors to read the
wireless environment. Device discovery will play a particularly important role in device to
device communications, and will rely on spectrum sharing to help resolve any overlapping in
multiple devices.
Massive MIMO
Initial challenges with massive MIMO deal with signal feedback, algorithms for
enhanced processing, and contamination of control information due to interference with other
cells [3]. Many challenges have been overcome thanks to beamforming and 3D beamforming
by reducing the cell size and being highly directional in signal path. The issue of faster
algorithms comes down to development of smarter functions to provide the mobility needed
with highly directional antenna cells. In the case of feedback, refinement of the systems and
antennas are required in order to achieve the massive arrays 5G may need to implement in
order to attain the throughput desired by using massive MIMO.
Millimeter wavelengths
Millimeter wavelength bands have been most challenging in terms of urban environment
obstacle penetration, signal attenuation due to atmosphere and rain, and the current lack of
extensive research performed at the current time. However, some experiments have been
performed in the densest urban environments with a good success rate by using a 200 meter
cell size for outdoor signal propagation at strengths needed to provide cell coverage. These
same studies showed that even with rain attenuation, these signals could be captured at a
successful level with large buildings and obstacles present [2]. With further research and
experimentation, mm-wave bands have a lot of promise for extending the spectrum into
higher frequency bands. While these cells may not penetrate to reach indoors, the technology
can work well with small cell deployments inside buildings for ultimate coverage in dense
metropolitan areas.
Device to device communication
In D2D communications, the main challenges will be security and cell interference.
While security has been discussed already, the issue of interference remains a very large
obstacle with no absolute resolution as of yet. The biggest issue with D2D cell interference is
only largely an unsolved issue in scenarios where devices communicate with each other, and
have no control information from the base station. In these scenarios, it will be up to the
devices themselves to have the proper technology to establish a link and communicate in the
existing spectrums without causing interference between other devices and a macrocell or
larger cell stations. The possibility of resolving this problem likely will lie with the ability of
receivers to intelligently scan the environment for existing spectrum signals, much like that of
spectrum sharing methods.
ECONOMIC CHALLENGES
Cost for the evolution into 5G is going to be vast for carriers and manufacturers. While it
makes sense to unload a large portion of that cost onto the users, the users are likely not
willing to pay the costs of restructuring [5]. This leaves carriers and manufacturers to make
up for the immense difference in subscriber and consumer income streams, and the hefty
price tag of new networks, backhauls, and radio hardware. The best way to alleviate large
amounts of initial overhead may come from additional equipment in the form of energy
management. Investing in intelligent hardware to control the amount of energy used in
existing and new base stations, backhaul, and front end hardware can balance out over time in
energy savings. Further down the road when new technologies are being implemented in
terms of 5G radio technologies and massive MIMO antenna arrays, the same energy saving
hardware can be used (although likely with the need of modifications or updates) to further
save money in terms of how much energy these technologies will consume.
Another big money saver may come in terms of device to device communication. By
utilizing D2D communications effectively, some of the cost can be unloaded onto the users
by means of smarter and more capable devices that are marketed in a manner to showcase
their improvements, rather than highlighting the new hardware that is included at a greater
cost. In the same vein of energy saving at the core network components, D2D
communications unloads energy expense onto the customers in terms of using battery power
to access this new opportunity for data transmission. This not only reduces cost of energy at
base stations and relays, but of course also reduces data transmission over the network, which
will also ease energy consumption on the backhaul networks.
Suffice to say, there isn’t much to do in terms of reducing costs of upgrading the mobile
network before the evolution to the next generation begins. Regardless, this has not stopped
mobile carriers and technology manufacturers from pressing into new territories. The cost of
any business will always include a level of a sunken cost, with a possibility (in mobile it is an
almost certainty) of a greater return in the future once the groundwork has been done. Mobile
carriers and technology manufacturers must press on despite costs if they hope to continue
supporting their networks past the 2020 mark. By doing so, they will continue to provide a
service that both individuals and businesses will continue to rely on more and more with each
passing generation. The evolution of technology feeds the user, and the demand of the user
turns the wheels of continued evolution. This cycle will continue, and the technology fields
will continue to innovate and invest, or else someone else will beat them to it. The
technological challenges will always work in tandem with economic challenges, one pushing
the other, and the other pushing back, all the while spurring innovation and creativity to
accomplish the task at hand.
CONCLUSION
As our current mobile network approaches the end of its usable capacity in just a few
years, the technological advances in network structure, radio frequency propagation, spectrum
allocation, and channel availability are paramount in meeting the demand for the staggering
number of devices that are projected to be connected in the year 2020. The topics that have
been discussed here are the keys to leading us from our current LTE-Advanced architecture
into the next generation of mobile communications. Although there is no set standard for 5G,
researchers have all agreed that an increase in network and device speed will not define the
next generation. The fifth generation of mobile systems will be defined by its ability to
effectively and reliably connect to a multitude of devices with a network that can support
variants applications in a robust and almost latency free manner.
It is the combination of the technologies discussed here and the integration of them with
the current network and with each other that will permit the opportunity to accomplish these
goals in a timely manner. As with previous generations, this new mobile system must be able
to support legacy devices in addition to newer devices as the mobile network industry
progresses. In order to do so, the next generation will both evolve periodically and at times,
all at once, just as the 4G LTE and LTE-Advanced standards have evolved over the course of
the fourth generation’s lifetime. The fifth generation will likely reflect the fourth generation
in those terms as well by gradually but steadily introducing new features, network
capabilities, extended multi-device support, and efforts to reduce energy consumption and
increase throughput. With these expectations in mind, the 5G mobile network can be realized
in time to prevent network congestion, and to provide a continued evolution of mobile
technology for a functional and reliable wireless future.
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Paper_V1.0_Eng.pdf.
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 12
5G MOBILE: INFRASTRUCTURES,
INTERNET OF THINGS AND BUSINESS MODELS
Abdulrahman Yarali* and Parimi Setu Krishna

Telecommunication Systems Management,
Institute of Engineering, Murray State University, KY, US
ABSTRACT
During last few decades our society has experienced a technological renaissance in
all sectors of economy. The revolution and evolution, capabilities, applications and
services have grown exponentially in the mobile communications industry. As we are
beginning to approach the maximum capacities of our current 4G mobile networks, we
will begin to implement 5G, the next generation of mobile technology. 5G is the latest in
the generation of wireless mobile communication technology which provides a platform
to launch IoT with its event-driven architecture and applications. In this chapter 5G
technology is conversed with respect to its architecture, technological requirements,
features, and hardware and software requirements. A discussion of investment in
innovations, integration, security and scalability of IoT implementation is presented. The
business plans for 5G and IoT are also analyzed. Finally, the discussion of the challenges
faced by 5G and its future work are discussed.
Keywords: 5G, wireless, mobile network, mobile phone, Internet of Things (IoT), security
INTRODUCTION
Mobile subscribers look for new features and advancements every day. This makes the
cell phone manufactures to look for new technologies to overcome competition and to stay
ahead in market. Mobile phone evolution and revolution started with the invention of radio
waves technology in late 1880s by Heinrich Hertz, followed by the identification to use it for
*
224 Abdulrahman Yarali and Parimi Setu Krishna
commercial communication. Cell phones were thus born based on first generation (1G)
mobile networks using analog signals. Digital signals took over from second generation (2G)
cell phones. The fifth generation (5G) of mobile network is the current and advanced
technology under intensive research and development and expected to hit the commercial
market by 2020. This research paper starts with an outline of wireless technology followed by
evolution of 1G to 5G mobile communication networks. This is followed by an in-depth study
of 5G systems covering their architecture, technological requirements, features, and hardware
and software requirements.
Internet of Things (IoT) is expected to grow exponentially over the next few years.
“Internet of Things” is the proposed development in internet where everyday objects will be
connected to network, allowing them to send and receive data. The manner in which IoT can
benefit from 5G is discussed next in this paper. The business models of 5G are also discussed.
Finally the benefits, limitations, and challenges facing 5G implementation are discussed
briefly.
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY
Mobile technology and network generations are based on wireless technology.
“Wireless” means transmitting signals with radio waves as medium instead of wires. Wireless
signals can transfer information like audio, video, voice, and data. Wireless signals are radio
waves which are a sub category of electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves are
formed wound a piece of metal when electricity is passed through around it. Based on their
energy, electromagnetic waves are classified into several regions like x-rays, infrared,
ultraviolet, radio waves, and others. Electromagnetic wave energy is represented in
wavelength or frequency and indicated by the unit “Hertz.” Radio waves are electromagnetic
waves that lie in the region between 3 KHz to 300 GHz.
There are many types of wireless technologies like AM and FM radio, television cellular
phones, Wi-Fi, Satellite signals like GPS and Bluetooth. They differ by their frequency and
modulation (“Learn Wireless Basics,” n.d.).
Frequency: Wireless signals occupy a spectrum or a wide range of frequencies.
Frequency is measured in Hertz, which is a count of signal change in one second. If is signal
vibrates slowly, it has low frequency and if it vibrates quickly, it has high frequency. Cellular
phones use frequency of 850MHz, 1900MHz, and others. Wi-Fi uses 2.4 GHz, Satellite uses
3.5GHz and Wi-Fi uses 5GHz.
Modulation: Modulation is changing wireless signal to send information. Amplitude,
frequency, time, code, and phase modulation are some types of signal modulation. Signal
modulation can be analog or digital. For example, LTE, 3G and 4G for a cellular phone have
a digital modulation from 1700 MHz to 1900 MHz and others (“Learn Wireless Basics,”
n.d.).
Radio waves used for wireless communication are called spectrum and they are divided
in channels. In older generations, the frequency channels were used together by people in a
place and hence only less number of calls could be placed. Technology revolutions enable the
spectrum channels to be reused by many numbers of people and hence its speed and reach
5G Mobile: Infrastructures, Internet of Things and Business Models 225
was more. The transition of mobile network generations led to many such technological
advancements and benefits.
Key Benefits of Wireless Technology
Increased efficiency: Easy communication is facilitated through wireless technology

leading to faster information transfer between concerned parties Being in touch: Mobile
devices can be reached anywhere anytime and hence contact is seldom lost Flexibility and
mobility: Adaptors and cables are not needed to stay connected since wireless devices can be
carried everywhere. Office employees can be networked without sitting at PCs Cost
reduction: Wireless networks are easy and cheaper to install and maintain comparatively over
wired networks (Kaur et al., 2011).
Mobile wireless communication is based on wireless technology and it has evolved over
network generations, since the transmission of Morse code by Marconi in 1895 using
electromagnetic waves. The mobile network generations have evolved with change in nature
of the system, speed, technology, frequency, data capacity, latency. Each generation has
standards, features, and capacities, which differentiates it from the previous generations. The
subsequent sections discuss about the evolution of network generations to reach 5G, its
features, infrastructure, the benefits for Internet of things (IoT) from 5G, 5G business models,
and benefits and limitations of 5G.
Mobile Network Evolution
Mobile wireless industry started its technology conception, evolution, and

communication revolution since early 1970s. Mobile wireless technologies are classified
based on generations. Generation refers to change in speed, system nature, technology, and
frequency. The mobile network generations started with first generation (1G) and have
evolved into 2G, 3g, 4G, and 5G. 6G and 7G are also under research. Previous era to 1G was
also termed as 0G. The features, technology, benefits, and limitations of generations from 1G
to 5G are discussed hereunder.
First Generation (1G)
First generation mobile phones were the first cellular phones to be used with wireless
technology. 1G cellular network was invented in 1980s. In 1G, the geographical area was
divided into small cells, each of which is served by a “base station.” Frequency channels can
be reused by nearby cells, allowing many more users to be supported. 1G is an analog system
that operates in the frequency range of 150 MHz. The earliest commercial 1G cellular
network was launched in Japan in 1979 by (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) NTT. The
mobile technologies that comprise 1G are Mobile Telephone Systems (MTS), Advance
Mobile Telephone Systems (AMTS), Push To Talk (PTT) and Improved Mobile Telephone
Service (IMTS) (Jain et al., 2014).
Features of 1G
 Modulation used is Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) with channel

capacity of 30 KHz and speed up to 2.4 Kbps
 They were not secure and are prone to data theft of subscribers and theft of airtime.
 Phones are very big with poor battery life
 Poor voice quality
 No data service to convert voice into digital signals
 Calls can be placed in one country only and hence global roaming was not possible
 Limited capacity
 Offered very low level of spectrum efficiency
Second Generation (2G)
Second generation cellular phones were commercially launched in 1991 in Finland. 2G

employed digital signal for voice communication, had bandwidth of the range of 30-200 KHz
and had a speed of 64 Kbps. It offered services like text message, short message service
(SMS), multimedia message services (MMS) and picture message services. It is still used in
different parts of the world. Two digital modulation schemes are used in this generation
namely Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). 2G generation family includes 2G, 2.5G, and 2.75G networks. Mobile technologies
that comprise 2G are: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA), Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), and Enhanced Data Rates for
GSM Evolution (EDGE) (Jain et al., 2014).
Limitations of 2G
 Required strong digital signals for the mobile phones to work

 If there is no network coverage in an area, digital signals would weaken
 Unable to handle complex data like video
Third Generation (3G)
Third generation network (3G) was introduced in 2000 and the cell phones are typically
called as smart phones. It fulfills the standards for mobile phones and mobile
telecommunication services laid out by International Telecommunication Union. 3G is based
on GSM. 3G combines high speed mobile access with Internet Protocol (IP) based services.
3G uses wide band wireless technology due to which clarity has increased. Data is sent
through “Packet Switching” technology enabling computers, entertainment devices, and
telephones to share the same wireless network and stay connected. 3G Technology is
composed of Wideband CDMA, WLAN, Bluetooth, Universal Mobile Telecommunication
Systems (UMTS), and High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). 3G uses CDMA,
TDMA and FDMA technologies (Jain et al., 2014). Other features of 3G are (Vora, 2015):
 Operation range is 2100 MHz, bandwidth is 15-20 MHz, and speed is 2 Mbps
 Faster communication
 Global roaming possible
 Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates help to transfer audio and video files
faster. A 3 minute MP3 song can be downloaded within 11 sec-1.5 minutes.
 High speed web/video conferencing/3D gaming
 TV streaming/mobile TV/Phone calls
Limitations of 3G are (Prinima & Pruthi, 2016):
 Building 3G infrastructure is difficult and challenging

 Need high bandwidth
 Fees for 3G license services is very high
 3G phones are expensive
 3G phones are very large in size
Fourth Generation (4G)
Fourth generation (4G) communication network was introduced in 2010. This generation
was in accordance with the requirements of International Telecommunication Union – Radio
Communications sector (ITU-R), also called as International Mobile Telecommunications
Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification. The specification sets the peak speed requirements
for 4G at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for large mobility transmission as in from trains
and cars, and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for small mobility transmission like pedestrians
and stationary customers. 4G provides ultra-broadband access to mobile devices. 4G is an IP-
based system which provides access through a collection of radio interfaces. It has high
Quality-of-Service (QoS) and security. Potential applications of 4G are IP telephony, HD
Mobile Television, video conferencing, gaming services, and cloud computing. 4G is a
combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max technologies and cost per bit used is less. 4G is composed
of these mobile technologies: Long Term Evolution (LTE) Standard based on the
GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA, 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), Multiple In
Multiple Output (MIMO) smart antenna technology, Orthogonal Frequency Digital
Multiplexing (OFDM), 802.16e - Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX), and 802.20 - Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA). Devices that used 4G
are USB wireless modem, cellular phones with WiMax and LTE (Long Term Evolution)
technologies (Jain et al., 2014). There are some limitations with 4G namely (Vora, 2015):
 4G is hard to implement
 Need complicated equipment and expensive hardware
 Battery use in 4G mobile phone is more
 3G and 4G components made for one continent are not compatible with other
continents due to difference in frequency bands
Fifth Generation (5G)
Fifth generation (5G) mobile networking started in late 2010s and its main focus is word-
Wireless World Wide Web (WWWW) aimed at providing a complete and real world wireless
communication with no limitations. It is an All-IP network (AIPN) model based on mobile
and wireless network inter-operability. AIPN uses packet switching instead of circuit
switching used by its predecessors.
AIPN based mobile applications like Mobile Portals, Mobile Commerce, Mobile Health-
Care, Mobile Government, Mobile Banking and many more applications are provided with
Cloud Computing Resources. Cloud computing technology helps to access any data on cloud
from anywhere anytime, eliminating the need to install requisite software in local mobile
phones. 5G core is designed to be re-configurable, multi-technology core. It is a convergence
of the nanotechnology, cloud computing and radio access technologies, and will be based on
All IP platform (Jain et al., 2014).
The timeline of mobile network generation evolution from 1G to 5G is shown in
Figure 1.
5G wireless communication system is not yet deployed. The frequency band and data
bandwidth will be3-300GHz and 1Gbps and higher. These features of 5G are expected to
overcome user demand limitations for the next 200 years. Applications of 5G are multi-media
newspapers, watching TV programs with HD (high-definition) clarity, large phone memory,
dialing speed and clarity in audio/video. Presently, 5G technology is in research and early
development stage. 5G services are planned to be tested and implemented in 2017 and likely
to be available to general public by 2020. Limitations will be known when development and
testing goes on production level.
Figure 1. Evolution of Mobile Technologies (Prinima & Pruthi, 2016).

Comparison of Mobile Generations from 1G to 5G
The above section described briefly the five network generations. Tabulation in Table 1
below shows the comparison of mobile generations from 1G to 5G.
5G Technology and Development
The fifth generation (5G) mobile technology, working with internet as core, has
extraordinary data capabilities, infinite data broadcasting abilities, and the skill to tie
unrestricted call volumes. The router and switch used in 5G provides excellent connectivity.
It has ultra-broadband access, a frequency band of 2-8 GHz, and data rate of 20 mbps
approximately. With 5G, it shall be possible to download a full HD movie in 6 seconds, while
4G will take seven minutes and 3G requires more than one hour to download. Having
understood the awesome possibilities of 5G, its network architecture, its technological
requirements, key goals, features, and hardware and software requirements are discussed in
the following paragraphs.
Table 1. Comparison of Mobile Generations from 1G to 5G (Vora, 2015)

Figure 2. 5G Network Model (Jain et al., 2014).
5G Network Architecture
5G network architecture is constituted by a consumer terminal and several independent

radio access technologies. 5G network model is an All-IP (AIPN) based model. AIPN based
services are offered through Cloud Computing resources. The 5G core is likely to be designed
as a convergence of nanotechnology, cloud computing, and cognitive radio technologies, over
AIPN platform. The network model of 5G is shown in Figure 2 (Jain et al., 2014).
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model was created by ISO to standardize
communication between computer systems. OSI model has seven layers. When computer
systems interact, data flows through these seven layers. OSI model is modified to support 5G
technology as shown in table 2 (Jain et al., 2014).
The purpose of the OSI layers in 5G will be like (Jain et al., 2014):
The two layers physical layer and data link layer define the wireless technology.
The 5G mobile network architecture will probably be based on “Open Wireless
Architecture” for these two layers.
The network layer will support Internet Protocol (IP). IPv6 will be used which will
overcome the limitations of IPv4 like limited address space and no possibility for QoS.
Table 2. Modified OSI model to Support 5G Technology (Jain et al., 2014)
Transport layer will differ between wired networks and wireless and mobile networks.
Concept of Open Transport Protocol (OTP) will be used for 5G mobile network.
Application layer of 5G will be designed to handle request and provision of intelligent
QoS management over variety of networks.
Currently users manually select wireless interface for internet service without having the
ability to check QoS history for best wireless connection for the selected service. 5G mobile
phones are expected to store QoS parameters like bandwidth, delay, jitter, and reliability in a
database. They will be used by intelligent algorithms embedded in 5G cell phones, to select
the best wireless connection based on QoS history and cost constraints.
5G Requirements and Timeline
The service provider initiatives into 5G mobile production have identified some key
technological requirements that 5G cell phones have to meet. These requirements are
specified from various perspectives. Hence it is difficult to envisage a new technology that
could meet all these requirements concurrently. The requirements are (Warren & Dewar,
2014):
 1-10Gbps connections to end points in the field

 1 millisecond end-to-end round trip delay (latency)
 1000x bandwidth per unit area
 10-100x amount of connected devices
 Perception of 99.999% availability
 Perception of 100% coverage
 90% decrease in network energy utilization
 Up to ten year battery life for low power, machine-type devices
Various vendors and mobile operators have been working on research and development
of 5G since 2012. A summary of key players, milestones, and targets are depicted in Figure 3.
KEY GOALS OF 5G
5G is still in its concept stage and hence no specific standards and guidelines have been
framed. Hence, vendors and researchers are targeting some key goals in 5G like (Vora, 2015)
and (Jain et al., 2014):
 Faster data speed – 4G networks can provide a peak network speed of 1 Gbit/sec
(Gbps) theoretically and with 5G, this is supposed to increase to 10 Gbit/sec
 Extremely low latency – Latency refers to the time taken by a device to send one
packet of data to another device. 5G expects to reduce latency to just one millisecond
or less
 “More Connected World” with “Internet of Things (IoT)” – IoT is expected to grow
numerous folds over the next 10 years and will need a network to connect all devices.
5G will provide the bandwidth and capacity for IoT appliances. The mobility rate is
estimated to be over 1Gbps with a huge broadcasting ability of 65,000 connections
simultaneously.
 Support for interactive multimedia, voice, video, internet (Worldwide wireless web),
and other broadband services
 Improved security features
 Several Artificial Intelligence aided applications and multiple sensors-enabled
mobile devices
 Higher system level spectral efficiency
 Hardware and Software Requirements of 5G
Figure 3. Timeline of Key events in 5G Development (Warren & Dewar, 2014).

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE OF 5G MOBILE

5G Hardware
Ultra-wideband networks (UWB): Wi-Fi and Wi-Max systems are long-range radio
technologies whereas 5G devices will require short-range radio technology due to their high
bandwidth requirement of around 4000 Mbps. These short-range radio waves are at low
energy levels called Ultra wideband networks (UWB), to relay data to devices in close range
of within 10 meters.
Smart antennae: Smart antennae are of two types. Switched beam antenna supports radio
positioning via angle of arrival. Adaptive array antenna aims at providing improved safely
through position- location capabilities (Vora, 2015).
CDMA technique: Code Division Multiple Access technique converts audio analog inputs
into digital signals, in combination with spread spectrum technology.
5G Software
5G will be a single integrated IP standard of various wireless networks and a faultless

grouping of broadband and wireless technologies like IEEE802.11, LAN, WAN, PAN and
WWWW. 5G will facilitate software-defined radio, packet layers, implementation of packets,
encryption flexibility, etc.
APPLICATIONS OF 5G
The applications from 5G implementation are unimaginable and numerous. Besides being
a milestone in communication technology, 5G helps the common man through many ways.
Some of the real time 5G applications are (Vora, 2015):
 Charge mobile using ones’ own heart beat and mobile rings based upon ones’ mood.
 Feel grandmother’s sugar level with a mobile
 Able to know the exact time of child birth in nano seconds.
 Able to visualize lively all the planets and universe
 Pay all bills in a single payment with 5G mobile.
 Sense Tsunami/Earthquake before it occurs
 Access office desktop, Laptop, car, bike using mobile phone
 Able to expand coverage using mobile phone
 Can fold the 5G mobile phone as desired
 Supports applications of IoT, like home appliances, cars, smart cities, and much more
SECURITY RISKS FOR IOT

Internet of Things is day to day physical objects being connected to the internet for
controlling and gathering information. According to the Gartner IoT report released in 2013,
we can expect twenty-six billion devices by the year 2020; the revenue will be exceeded by
$300 billion and an impact of $1.9 trillion on the global market. The goal of Internet of
Things includes establishing smart homes, cars, cities, governments, health care, agriculture
etc. This drastic increase in the market for IoT will also increase the cyber threats for the
consumer appliances as they are connected to the internet. There are several IoT fails because
of poor design principles and implementations where in some cases vendors could not release
a security update due to their poor design principle (Harrington, 2016). IoT architecture and
its working will be outlined along with a detailed analysis on some IoT products that have
vulnerabilities in them. In this paper, we are going to discuss on the type of most common
vulnerabilities in IoT, approaches to find these vulnerabilities, possible attack surfaces of IoT
(Daniel, 2016), design principles for IoT security and what can be done to mitigate the risks
of cyber threats in IoT. These IoT devices carry a huge amount personal information that if
not transmitted properly will result in abuse by the hackers. The vendors should implement
highly secured mechanisms in handling their user’s personal data which in turn increases their
investment.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is balanced for exponential development in the following
couple of years. Organizations that were making basic buyer items not very far in the past are
currently producing Smart devices that are conveying over the Web, cloud, and portable
systems. Shockingly, while the expectation of these interconnected Smart devices is to make
life simpler, they have additionally made new challenges for programmers. Also, as the sort
of information that these Smart devices store can now incorporate everything from
standardized savings numbers to keeping money data, their appeal as targets will just keep on
growing. With such difficulties, how do organizations start to secure the IoT and without
starting from scratch? Start by seeing how vulnerabilities in IoT Smart devices can be utilized
to adventure vulnerabilities in different segments like applications, cell phones, and even the
server because of their availability. At that point, connect with an accomplice who can deal
with the security testing process, reducing the need to do it in-house. Smart devices without
anyone else can contain a huge number of frailties. IoT security issues are intensified by
several interconnected focuses on one smart device. Two or three security worries on a
solitary Smart device can rapidly swing to endless concerns while considering different IoT
Smart devices in an interconnected framework. Considering the closeness of information that
IoT Smart devices have entry to, it’s vital to comprehend their security hazard and respond in
like manner. It is very critical to find a product security bug that comprehends the IoT
biological community, how to reveal vulnerabilities, and oversee potential protection issues
and dangers.
Whatever the usefulness, they all rely on upon a cell phone to go along that data to the
watch. In this situation, we are worried about the security of the smart devices like watches,
additionally the security of the door cell phone. Information gathered at first on the
smartwatch and went by an application is frequently sent to several hops (regularly including
outsiders) (Kolias 2016).
 Watches that incorporate cloud interfaces frequently utilized weak encryption keys,
making them more vulnerable to being exploited.
 Watch data transmissions are insignificantly captured in 90% of cases.
 70% of watch firmware was transmitted without encryption.
 50% of tried Smart devices offered the capacity to execute a screen lock (PIN or
Pattern), which could prevent get to if lost or stolen.
 The combination of record list, feeble passwords, and absence of record lockout
implies 30% of watches and their applications were defenseless against Account
Harvesting, permitting attackers to figure login combinations and access clients
account.
DRAWBACKS IN IOT SECURITY

Comparing IoT and Traditional Network
There are great explanations behind utilizing cloud administrations to increase the
performance of IoT, as far as general resourcing.
1) Cloud administrations are “dependably ON,” and open to the world, so “things” can
be found at anyplace, be versatile, can transmit diverse information at various times.
2) Cloud administrations are worked to scale quickly, which in a perfect world suits
IoT.
3) They oversee asset imperatives. Numerous “things” will be restricted regarding
computational power, battery, stockpiling limit, and so on.
Figure 4. IoT Security Architecture (Jing Qi, 2014).

The capacity to move some of this load to the cloud reduces problems related to limiting
resource consumption. Moreover, cloud administrations can be done without much of a
stretch work over a scope of “things.” Cloud administrations can be utilized to intervene
between various “things,” to empower:
 Boundless information sharing.

 To oversee and control a scope of various “things” as suitable.
Utilizing the cloud to bolster IoT will give cross-thing administration. It empowers
information and control streams (e.g., coordination arrangement) to move on a level plane,
working over an extensive variety of “things.” This is vital to the more extensive vision of
IoT, empowering inescapable figuring more by and large. This prompts to huge information
appropriate, by giving the way to personalization, customization, and mechanized/clever
activities over a scope of various applications, “things,” and physical situations.
IoT Security Fails
IoT Village: Results says that 66 zero-days that prompt to Privilege Escalation, Remote
Code Execution, Backdoors, runs as Root, Lack of Encryption, Key Exposure, Denial of
Service were revealed.
The outcomes depended on 27 Smart device sorts from 18 producers including Samsung,
Bose, D-Link, Fitbit, Philips, and so forth.
 10/10 security frameworks accept ‘123456’ as passwords.

 10/10 security frameworks with no lockout.
 10/10 security frameworks with count SSH audience members with root get to.
 6/10 web interfaces with XSS/SQLi.
 8/10 gathered individual data.
 9/10 had no two-calculate alternatives.
 Unauthenticated video spilling. (IoT Sec Foundation, 2015)
Table 3. Encryption and Decryption of Messages (Decuir, Joseph, 2015)

Figure 5. Simple encryption illustration (Decuir, Joseph, 2015).
Case Studies
Target’s Heating and Cooling System: Hackers got into through HVAC account, and
could introduce card skimming s/w on POS terminals (Stanislav, 2015).
Wink’s IoT Hubs: Consumers discovered their Smart devices bricked when the Hub
security certificate was expired.
Insteon associated home: Reporter ready to turn lights on and off while talking via
telephone.
Home routers: Open to man in the middle threats when individuals utilize default or
weak passwords.
Spammy fridges: Default passwords permitted hackers to utilize associated coolers as a
feature of a botnet.
TrendNet’s caretaker cams: The camera’s IP address is just enough to get access without
authentication.
Samsung’s savvy TVs: Easy to view individuals’ lounge rooms.
Settle indoor regulator: Easy to hack on the off chance that you can get physical access
for a minute.
Dropcam Pro Device: Has an uncovered Serial port. Application uses older adaptations
powerless against DLL capturing and no SSL Certificate sticking and decoded video
transmission in the cloud.
Withings Baby Monitor: Device has an SSH port open with default secret key. PC
Platform has no unified stage. The application has default username
wsandusr@withings.com. (Stanislav, 2015)
Ecobee Thermostat: Device’s serial port open PC Platform has no unified application.
The application has no SSL Certificate sticking. In Cloud, History has put away.
Focal point Peek-a-View: The Smart device ships with hard coded qualifications,
available from a UART interface, which gifts access to the fundamental working framework,
and by means of the neighborhood web benefit, giving nearby application get to by means of
the web UI.
Gynoii: The Smart device ships with hard coded certifications, available through the
neighborhood web benefit, giving nearby application get to by means of the web UI.
TRENDnet WiFi Baby Cam TV-IP743SIC: The Smart device ships with certificates that
are hard coded, available by means of a UART between face, giving nearby, root-level
working framework get to.
iBaby M3S: The Smart device ships with hard coded accreditations, open from a telnet
login provoke a UART interface, which allows access to the hidden working framework.
Those certifications are point by point beneath.
Working System (by means of Telnet or UART).
Username: administrator.
Password: administrator.
Philips Insight B120/37: The Smart device ships with hard coded and statically created
certifications which can concede access to both the neighborhood web server and working
framework.
Summer Baby Zoom Wi-Fi Monitor and Internet Viewing System: An authentication
bypass vulnerability leads the attacker to access any camera, without any password or
authentication keys. The web interface of MySnapCam8 is utilized for account administration
and supports camera functionality. A URL-retrievable by means of an HTTP GET can be
utilized to add another client to the camera. This URL does not require any of the camera’s
admins to have a substantial session to execute this query, permitting anybody requesting for
the URL with their newly created user ID against any camera ID to have an entry added to
that Smart device. After another client is effectively included, an email will then be sent to an
email address added by the intruder with complete authentication information of mobile and
web application for the MySnapCam site. Existing camera administrators are not told
regarding a new admin user creation.
Common Vulnerabilities
 Clear text Local API communications are not encrypted

 Clear text Cloud API communications are not encrypted
 Unencrypted Storage Data
 Remote Shell Access
 Unused open ports
 Backdoor Accounts: Default admin or maintenance accounts
 UART Access: Physically nearby assailants can modify the device
 Unencrypted Services
 Lack of 2-Factor Authentication mechanisms
 Poorly Implemented Encryption
 Denial of Service, Username Enumeration

 Weak Passwords
 Account Lockout mechanisms
 Removal of Storage Media
 No Manual update mechanism
 Missing update mechanism for outdated firmwares
 Updates released without encryption
 Update Location Writable
ATTACK SURFACES IN IOT

An attack surface is the collection of vulnerabilities in a device. Below listed attack
surfaces list the possible vulnerabilities in each attack surface.
1. Ecosystem: Data administration, System-wide monitoring, Stakeholder risks.

2. Ecosystem access control: Certain trusted ports, Decommissioning system,
Enrollment security.
3. Memory: Plain text usernames and passwords, Encryption keys, Third-party
authentications.
4. Physical Interface: Admin CLI, Privilege separation, Firmware extraction, User CLI,
Reset to unreliable state, Removal of storage devices, Device ID/Serial number
exposure, Tamper data, Debug port.
5. Smart device Web Interface: SQL injection, XSS, CSRF, Usernames guessing, Weak
and default passwords, Account locking.
6. API: Hardcoded certifications, Private data revelation, Sensitive links exposure,
Encryption keys, Encryption, Vulnerable administrations (the web, ssh, FTP, etc.),
Backdoor accounts, functional API leakage.
7. Neighborhood Data Storage: Lack of encryption in data storage, Encrypted data with
known keys, lack of information integrity checks, Use of static same enc/dec key.
8. Web Interface on Cloud: SQL injection, XSS, CSRF, Username count, Weak
passwords, Account lockout, Known default passwords, Transport encryption, 2-
Factor Authentication.
9. Untrusted Backend API: Decoded PII sent, Location spilled, Encrypted PII sent,
Device data leak.
10. Upgrade Mechanism: Upgrade sent without encryption, Updates are not digitally
signed, Update area writable, Update authentication, Update verification, Malicious
update, lack of update mechanism, no manual updates, Mobile Application,
implicitly trusted by Smart device or cloud, Username list, Account lockout, Known
default certifications, Weak passwords, Insecure information stockpiling, Transport
encryption, Insecure secret word recuperation component, Two-figure verification.
11. Merchant Backend APIs: The Innate trust of cloud or portable application, Weak
confirmation, Weak get to controls, Injection intruders, Hidden administrations.
12. Biological system Communication: Wellbeing checks, Heartbeats, Ecosystem
charges, DE provisioning, Pushing upgrades.
13. Validation/Authorization: Validation/Authorization related qualities (session key,

token, treat, and so forth.) revelation, Recycling of the session key, and token, and so
forth. Device to cloud framework confirmation, Mobile app to cloud framework
authentication, a Web application to cloud framework confirmation.
14. Security: Client information revelation, User/Smart device area exposure.
15. Equipment (Sensors): Detecting Environment Manipulation, Tampering (Physically),
Damaging (Physically).
Figure 6. Evil Twin Attack Demo (Beginner Guide to IoT Security, 2015).
SUMMARY OF ATTACKS
Figure 7. Summary of threats and countermeasures in IoT (IOT Security, 2014).

The rise of the IoT worldview in the most recent decade has driven (and will keep on
leading) to a few dangers and huge attacks against security or protection of things or people.
Lamentably, the security dangers are not all around perceived in the space of IoT. This
overview endeavored to outline a few IoT security intruders or concerns and countermeasures
against them in a level-by-level form. Given the wide materialism of IoT, these dangers ought
to be tended to proactively and forcefully by modern/scholarly research groups and
additionally producers.
IOT SECURITY REFINEMENT

IoT Security Considerations
Information security in distributed computing is as of now a huge threat for open cloud
administrations for various areas and associations. Lawful and administrative issues are
likewise developing, for example, the information and recognizing the categories under which
they fall. Cloud security can unmistakably hold and process the information of “things,” and
segments that oversee “things” and consolidate information streams from “things” are very
manageable to being facilitated inside the cloud. Cloud and IoT possibly exhibit tremendous
degree for considering security. Here let’s have a look over distinguished and portrayed
security-related issues inside the accompanying wide scope of concerns:
1. Issues of information transport to/from cloud services.

2. Issues connected with identity management.
3. Issues connected with the size of IoT.
4. Issues emerging from malicious “things.”
5. Issues of trust, and consistency with directions and legally binding commitments.
6. Issues emerging from further decentralization into various mists, haze
administrations etc. (Singh, 2016)
We see information sharing as a natural part of the IoT, yielding numerous advantages.
Obviously, sharing must be controlled by, which must be educated by the unexpected
outcomes of unconsidered information sharing. Cloud services have been planned with
security as the overwhelming worry, with far less thought given to sharing. IFC, for example,
can avoid information leakage while unwinding the solid isolation that right now preventing
information sharing between applications.
IoT Security Tests
The IoT testbed consists a list of scope for security tests, each focusing on an alternate
security viewpoint (Siboni, 2016). The testbed ought to identify different vulnerabilities that
IoT Smart devices can be inclined to and give examination and confirmation of idea to these
vulnerabilities. In like manner, a security testbed ought to consider a portion of the
vulnerabilities from OWASP, including Broken Authentication, Session Management etc.
IoT Smart devices are effectively bargained with usage imperfection, for example, passwords,
session tokens, and so on.
Figure 8. Testbed modules (Security testbed of IoT, 2016).
XSS (Cross-site Scripting): When untrusted information is got by an IoT Smart device
and sent to a program, XSS attacks can happen.
Security Misconfiguration: Secure configurations must be considered for the IoT Smart
devices and secure settings ought to be executed and kept up, especially in cases, for example,
smart homes which might be associated with an assortment of IoT Smart devices. (OWASP,
2014).
Sensitive Data Exposure: While transmitting data with IoT Smart devices or when at
least two IoT Smart devices exchange data with each other, the information should be secured
and the correspondence layer requires additional assurance, for example, encrypted data being
transmitted.
For creating a testing scenario for the testbed, first an object for a scenario should be
developed with the help of test manager component. The scenario object is a specific test case
in the testbed, and it’s defined as the complete combination of testing objects. A scenario
object must be created only once, later it can be saved as a template for future use. A test
object does only a specific test in a system. When a test object is created, it may be saved as a
test template for future use. An action object does a testing operation that needs to be
performed. The action object has a starting point, which is the responsible element for starting
the action. An action is processed by one of the elements of the system, by an individual
element of the system. Additionally, each action object creates a log that traces action in the
system. Each and every object including tests, scenarios, and actions are building blocks in
creating a testing scenario. With the help of this testing methodology, tests are structured and
processed in a sequential manner.
BUSINESS IMPACT
The rate of representatives and temporary workers who are telecommuting on no less
than low maintenance premise keeps on ascending over each present-day economy.
Unseasoned parents are customarily at the center of this pattern; however, it is progressively
basic overall sexes, ages, and family statuses. These representatives are, as an issue of need,
interfacing with their work put for all intents and purposes, either through VPN associations
or using cloud administrations shared by partners the nearness of Smart devices that are shaky
as a matter of course, hard to fix, and difficult to specifically screen by today’s standard
corporate IT security holes constitutes not just a danger to the IoT Smart device and its
information, additionally to the system to which it’s associated. As the IoT is comprised of
universally useful PCs, aggressors might have the capacity to influence a presentation or
powerlessness to pick up and keep up relentless access to an IoT Smart device. That Smart
device can then be utilized to rotate to different Smart devices and conventional PCs by
exploiting the unsegmented, completely trusted nature of a run of the mill home system.
Today, workers’ home systems are occasionally, if at any point, “in extension” for
hierarchical infiltration testing works out, nor are they subject to unified helplessness
scanners. Another worry is the crude processing power accessible to assailants as millions to
billions of IoT Smart devices. Altogether, the teraflops of handling force might be
successfully bridged by pernicious performing artists to dispatch effectively circulated dissent
of administration (DDoS) intruders against discretionary Internet targets. Given the absence
of home system and onboard checking, remediating such intruders may demonstrate to a great
degree troublesome once in progress, and fleeting arrangements will tend to refuse assistance
to vast pieces of private system space. This, thus, can thump sizable rates of the previously
mentioned stay-at-home workforce disconnected, with little plan of action for businesses not
set up to offer option working environment housing.
5G BUSINESS MODELS
The vision for business and 5G is a marriage of telecom and IT with “high capacity and
flexible 5G ubiquitous infrastructure, with seamless integration of heterogeneous wired and
wireless capabilities.” The range of services that 5G networks will have to offer will need to
address increasing user terminals, an extremely diverse covenant of connected machines,
provide for cloud-based service and support the idea of “Anything” as a service instead of a
client-server model. The whole idea of elements within the network will be crowdsourcing
programmable resources, and addressing virtual technologies. The new architecture will face
the challenge of scarce resources and trying to optimize cost.
Considering business tied to 5G, the technology will incorporate wireless access with
architecture of radio network. These technologies will sufficiently support a heterogeneous
set of requirements for low rate sensors including but not limited to M2M communications
and high rate 3D HDtv. The infrastructure comprises multi antenna transceiver techniques
such as massive MIMO beam-forming; standardized performance coverage and capacity.
Speed access will derive from using frequency bands above 6GHz. A range of topologies will
work with this technology as it is fully distributed and completely centralized. This will
reduce the complexity of management and shrink signaling overhead. WiFi will also be
integrated, supporting 5G services and using machine-type communication services. There
still be unified connection, plenty of professional security, mobility, multicast/broadcast, as
well as routing/forwarding adaptable to any virtual network architecture. Businesses can
streamline operations because the object with this technology is to support very high traffic
and increasing capacity, have increasing speed improvement and be more flexible and
adaptive. 5G is just not an evolution of mobile generation. It will be a key enabling
technology for the future digital world, provider of ultra-high broadband infrastructure to
support process transformation in all economic sectors to meet growing consumer market
demand. 5G is poised to create business opportunities in many sectors and services, which are
discussed below.
An Opportunity to Commence New Services
5G will bring new service capabilities to consumers and also for new stakeholders. It will
ensure continuity of user experience like HD video or teleworking. 5G has to provide user
access anywhere anytime using the best performing access by selecting from technologies
like 4G, Wi-Fi and any others, using QoS history. The best performing access will be selected
based on latency and throughput (Experts from 5G Infrastructure Association, 2015).
5G provides a platform for IOT to connect huge number of things to Internet. IoT will be
used and enabled by devices like future smart phones, drones, robots, wearable devices and
other smart objects. They will create their local networks using different access methods. 5G
will allow all these objects to connect independently from a specific available network
infrastructure. 5G will also cover mission critical services like public safety, vehicle-to-
vehicle, and vehicle-to-road services.
Unified Telecom and IT Infrastructure
European Union envisions that in another ten years, telecom and IT (Information
technology) will be integrated towards a common high capacity omnipresent infrastructure.
5G is poised to integrate compute, telecom, and storage infrastructure into one unified and
programmable infrastructure to allow optimized utilization of all resources. The unified 5G
infrastructure will have the potential to converge facilities of fixed and mobile accesses and
broadcast and broadband networks. This infrastructure will be ready for multi-tenancy.
Operators can add up to their services using this infrastructure and act as integrators (Experts
from 5G Infrastructure Association, 2015).
A Sustainable and Scalable Technology
5G systems have to face the challenges of dramatic increase in the growth of terminal
devices, growth of network traffics, and heterogeneous network layouts increasing power
consumption and management complexity. Users and the society as a whole are much more
sensitive to sustainability of telecom services. Hence 5G has to be designed as a sustainable
and scalable technology (Experts from 5G Infrastructure Association, 2015).
Analyzing 5G architecture, it is understood that 5G will bring energy efficiency
improvement for networks and terminal devices. It also brings in sustainable business models
as it will bring cost reduction through human tasks automation and hardware usage
optimization.
Larger Ecosystem Open to New Players and Other Sectors
5G will open the ecosystem for business and technical innovation, bringing in new
business models on innovation. Innovation is further boosted by introducing cloud computing
capabilities into telecom domain bringing in new business players into the market. Network
services will largely rely on software in 5G. Large IT providers will enter software market
and target cloud computing and virtualization domains for telecom sector.
In 5G, infrastructure assets, network functions, and connectivity are offered as services.
These will lead to partnership-based business models. Partnerships can be established in
sharing infrastructure, networks, and integrating partner’s services into 5G (Experts from 5G
Infrastructure Association, 2015).
5G DISRUPTIVE CAPABILITIES
The disruptive capabilities of 5G will offer unique opportunities for a large number of
applications and services. These will be provided by 5G with increased flexibility, continuity,
and high resource efficiency, along with an added advantage of decreased energy
consumption.
Security and privacy are also protected. All these requirements bring in unique business
opportunities in partnerships and Business to Business to Customers (B2B2C) at the levels of
assets, connectivity, and enablers. The radar diagram of 5G disruptive capabilities shown in
Figure 9, presents an idea about the 5G requirements and potential business avenues. (Experts
from 5G Infrastructure Association, 2015).
Figure 9. Radar Diagram of 5G Disruptive Capabilities (Experts from 5G Infrastructure Association,

2015).
INFRASTRUCTURE SHARING
The economic costs to move to 5G are substantial and hence infrastructure sharing could
be a new business model, where the owners of infrastructure and operators are different. The
infrastructure could be shared in four ways namely active sharing, passive sharing,
offloading, and mobile virtual network operators (Andrews et al., 2014).
Active sharing is where active infrastructure like core networks, antennas, base stations,
and radio access networks are shared. Passive sharing is where the passive elements of the
network like the physical site, backhaul connection, power supplies, and air-conditioning are
shared. Traffic may be offloaded due to spatial and temporal demand fluctuations in
offloading scenarios. A mobile virtual operator will just own a small cell but will share the
resources of the spectrum with another operator (Andrews et al., 2014).
CHALLENGES FACING 5G
There are many challenges facing 5G in its development.
 Integration of Multiple Standards

As it is in evolutionary stage, there are many standards governing 5G which are to be

standardized into a single one. The standards on interoperability, backward compatibility with
older technologies like 3G and 4G are the key areas that are being standardized.
 Common Platform
One common platform is necessary for 5G for creating common engineering practices to
regulate interconnectivity issues and knowledge sharing.
 Building Infrastructure
5G is likely to work in high-frequency band but the high-frequency signals cannot travel
very far and hence connection will be poor. Issues with high frequency, spectrum, and
antenna installation are some of the key issues in building 5G infrastructures.
 Natural Barriers
Buildings, tall trees, and bad weather cause signal interference. To overcome these
obstacles, operators will have to install more base stations to ensure better coverage and use
MIMO technologies.
FUTURE WORK IN 5G
The United States can capitalize on industrial opportunities to gain better competitiveness
within our world position and help with development and growth of our economy. Personal
wireless communication will go beyond 5G. Spectrum and reliability will develop into
unrecognizable facets providing remarkable service. The development of wired to wireless
integration will disappear, with most connection becoming wireless. The aggregate of these
innovative ideals will certainly be involved in 5G. Some of the future works that will be
carried out in 5G are (Warren & Dewar, 2014):
 Identify and develop commercially viable 5G applications

 Integrating and collaborating research and development work carried out by industry
groups like 3GPP, NGMN, and ITU-R.
 Identifying requirements in roaming and interconnection arenas
 Identifying suitable spectrum brands for 5G operation, underlying regulatory
framework for it, and bringing international alignment for these spectrum bands
 Creating forums and discussion bodies for 5G discussions and knowledge sharing
CONCLUSION
Mobile technology is one of the areas which have seen unprecedented growth over the
past few decades. The evolution of mobile generations with advanced communication
features and user applications is one of the foremost reasons for this exponential growth. The
latest evolution in mobile generation is 5G. This research paper discussed the evolution of
mobile generations from 1 G to 5G and threw more light on 5G, with regards to its
architecture, features, and hardware and software requirements. As “Internet of Things” is
seen as the future, the manner in which 5G can support IoT was also discussed. 5G business
plans were also discussed. Finally, the challenges and future work for 5G were also defined
briefly.
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2016.
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In: 5G Mobile ISBN: 978-1-53610-941-2
Chapter 13
5G INFRASTRUCTURES:
SENSORS AND INTERNET OF THINGS
Abdulrahman Yarali and Abhishek S. Bhagat

Telecommunications Systems Management, Institute of Engineering,
Murray State University, KY, US
ABSTRACT
The telecommunication revolution and the 2020 vision of the Fifth Generation of
networks (5G) have opened the doorway for making telecom industry a powerhouse of
the future. The industry level standards for data transmissions rates are getting changed
from nanoseconds to picoseconds and companies are clubbing different applications with
5G resulting in the most advanced systems of Internet of Things (IoT) and Cloud of
Things (CoT) that will help various industries based on logistics, healthcare, agriculture,
automobile, and consumer, in addition to unifying the data and designing new-from
factors. Sensors will play a fundamental role in these advanced systems with their ability
to sense a change in the environment, convert it into digital signals and provide feedback
to the network, thereby enabling machine learning, while 5G will play a vital role in the
data transmission between the sensors and the advanced systems, thereby achieving zero
latency. The biggest challenge to be faced here is the embedding of Sensors and Internet
of Things in 5G and making them in tandem. This paper will outline and explicate the 5G
network and its capabilities with respect to the connection of the Sensors to the advanced
networks, the integration of Internet of Things in 5G, the advantages of 5G and the
challenges faced by it, while at the same time providing a general perspective of the
Sensors and Internet of Things in the fifth generation of wireless network, relevant past
researches, recent published contributions and challenges to be overcome in future. This
chapter will discuss the technical, economical and business aspects of the Wireless
Sensor Network (WSN), Internet of Things (IoT) and Cloud of Things (CoT) in 5G
networks.
Keywords: 5G, sensor, cloud of things, internet of things, infrastructure, application, business
model
252 Abdulrahman Yarali and Abhishek S. Bhagat
INTRODUCTION
An era of ubiquitous, ultra-reliable mobile networks is beginning, thanks to the
transformation force of 5G, a highly scalable, user-centric, unified platform accommodating
all bands and spectrums, envisioned to be commercialized by 2020.
The first generation of mobile networks, 1G, originally designed solely for voice
application, developed into 2G in the 1990s which digitized voice, voice channel and
introduced text messaging services; its subordinate data rate lead the way to 3G, an
integration of voice and mobile internet channels with the provision of high-speed data rate
and voice capacity, while the recent 4G LTE evolved to provide the highest ever data rate and
capacity for mobile computing. Thus, the question arises is that what does 5G offer more in
mobile communications systems despite having 4G with its high-quality features. The answer
is that 5G is defined by its three characteristics that essentially unify the additions to 4G.
These characteristics are:
 Scalability and adaptability: 5G will provide ultra-high reliability at an ultra-low cost

with its ability to scale and adapt to a variety of new services, empower new user
experiences and connect new industries, as a consequence of which, customers will
be provided with Enhanced Mobile Broadband, Mission Critical Services, etc.
 Unified platform: 5G will use a holistic approach, the central focus of which will be a
user application, thereby bringing connectivity, computing and content to the user.
 User-centric design: The basic designing principle of 5G is to enable the concept of
unified air interface which can scale and adapt to all spectrums and bands, enabling
various new models such as service sharing, business development, subscription,
etc., thereby transforming business and industries.
5G will be combined with a number of sensors and embedded systems to make a network
called Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), which will provide the ability to sense, compute and
communicate to systems connected to 5G. Two approaches will be used to increase the
utilization of WSN resources:
 To use individual sensor for multiple applications,

 To allow various applications to gather data from a single sensor for data analytics.
WSN will connect smart devices to IoT, and it will sense and control the environment
and increase the human-computer and surrounding-computer interactions. WSN consists of
Sensor nodes, Gateways and Cloud.
The sensor nodes will sense the surroundings and monitor the collected data which will
reach the management node that will be connected to the Gateway after transmission via
multi-hop routing. The Gateway will connect the sensor node to Internet. The cloud server
will act as a management node and store the monitored data collected from the sensor nodes.
New technologies like Big Data Analytics will be incorporated into the cloud platform, which
will help in managing the huge amount of data that will be received from the sensor networks.
5G Infrastructures 253
Figure 1. 5G Characteristics
Figure 2. Wireless Sensor Network Nodes.
The sensor nodes will be made into small clusters, which will either be battery operated
or will be connected to uninterrupted power supply and will comprise of Sensors, Radio and
DSP which will diversify the functionality. Three things will be considered while designing
WSN to promote energy preservation: sensor nodes, communication, and computation. The
new sensors will include new IC, network protocols and a signal processing algorithm
(Yinbiao, 2015).
A sensor node called Wireless Sensor, and Actuator Network (WSAN) will be used in
applications where the decision is to be taken in situations when a change is sensed in the
environment. WSAN and 5G will make Internet of Things the most advanced decision-
making network. In addition, applications like smart cities, smart grid, and M2M
communication will also be connected to 5G networks, and these applications will be called
IoT.
The Internet of Things will provide ubiquitous connectivity by connecting all the devices
actively and passively, thereby acting as a kernel between the virtual world and real life.
Active connectivity will involve the devices or objects to be connected to the sensor nodes or
embedded systems actively connected to the internet, while passive connectivity will require
the devices or objects to carry some sort of an identification tag, for example an RFID chip
the data of which will get published on the internet with the help of a chip-reader.
The applications will be categorized into Classes One and Two. Class One will comprise
applications that collect data from the sensing end nodes and help in data mining, big data
analytics, and machine learning, thereby generating market trend and public behavior, which
is the focus in designing and marketing of consumer industry products. Class Two, on the
other hand, will comprise applications that will be aware of the environment and will
interconnect the devices. These applications will be about decision-making, rather than data
mining (Atkinson, 2014).
Figure 4 shows four major sectors of IoT currently undergoing a tremendous
development.
 Smart city: The public services will be made smart by installing sensors to collect
information about the lifestyle of the community, thereby improving the quality of
life in the city.
 Automotive industry: Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) communication and connecting
vehicles to IoT will ensure secure road transportation. The work on smart vehicles
has already commenced with Tesla Motors their futuristic car and Google initiating
work on an autopilot car.
 Manufacturing industry: IoT will help in managing the inventory by tracking its
parts, ensuring efficiency and a fast line-up of production. Companies like Ford use
passive connectivity during production line-up to assist in determining the essential
parts, thereby resulting in a quick and efficient production line-up.
 Energy sector: IoT will monitor and regulate energy consumptions, simultaneously
saving energy and satisfying end user needs. The sensors will play a strategic role in
this area for sensing and controlling the environment.
Figure 3. IoT Classes.
Figure 4. IoT Sector.

Figure 5. IoT Enablers.
Figure 6. CoT Services.
Smart devices, Users, 5G Network, and Cloud of Things are the main enablers of IoT.
 Smart devices: Smart devices, interconnected and carrying a bunch of sensors, will
make a WSN, thereby playing a crucial role in IoT.
 Users: In IoT networks, the users will be the focus as the machines will learn user
behavior and decision-making. The more the number of users, the more the data.
 5G network: Connecting IoT with 5G will make the network highly adaptable and
scalable, unifying all the different platforms in one platform, thereby expanding the
spectrum of the applications.
 Cloud of Things: CoT will help in a number of applications by providing cloud
storage infrastructure and also by providing Interaction as a Service for different
applications.
Cloud of Things (CoT) began with the concept of Internet of Things: combining WSAN
and IoT results in CoT. Figure 6 shows companies will provide three different services of
CoT based on the requirements of the client.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS): A kind of open source platform model that will
provide basic resources to the clients to develop web-based applications.
 Software as a Service (Saas): The clients will be given a license by the company to
use the company’s software. For applications like analytics, logistics, etc. this model
will be utilized.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): In this service, companies will provide computing
capacity which is vital to the client’s application. Companies will lend their server
farm to customers for different applications. For applications like Smart home, smart
city, etc. this model will be used.
CoT will be utilized for applications that require either Scalable Computing (Example
Big Data Analytics, Machine Learning, etc.) or Computing Capacity (Example Smart Grid,
Smart home, Smart cities, etc.
PREVIOUS WORK
Advancement of the wireless broadband services has increased the customer’s
expectations for the speed, global access, and bandwidth. The greed for speed began with the
commercial launching of the 3rd generation of wireless networks (3G/UMTS) in 2001. As 3G
made the most of its prosperity, the development of the radio and core network proceeded
with the Evolved Packet System (EPS) and the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) driving the path
foreword to the innovation of 4G.
The 3G/UMTS systems utilized the 5MHz carrier channel width to deliver data at a
higher data rate capacity than 2G networks, providing integration between voice channel, a
data channel, and wide area connectivity, ensuring voice and data transmission on a single
channel simultaneously to long distances (Yarali, 2008).
Capacities of 3G/UMTS improved significantly with the introduction of HSPA (High-
Speed Packet Access), which revolutionized the air interface by offering the high speed
versatile mobile broadband experience. These advancements enabled a broad range of high
bandwidth consuming multimedia services as a fast download of large multimedia files, HD
video streaming, online gaming, etc. (3G/UMTS: Towards mobile broadband and personal
Internet white paper, 2005).
The 3G packet architecture was composed of a packet switch (PS), Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS), the Serving GPRS Support Nodes (SGSN), and the
Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSN). These components constituted the interface between
the radio framework and settled systems for packet-switched services. The GSN played out
every single vital function to handle the packet transmission to and from the mobile stations.
The SGSN assisted in functions of link mobility management in the network and required a
system capable of high computing for signal processing to process control protocol and to
provide support to other network components, while GGSN handled the data channeling and
accurate packet processing for the network (Bhalero, 2010).
3G unified the three services of small cell I/O network, packet processing, and general-
purpose processing by dividing the network into nodes. This unification of services gave
greater control over the network, due to which it could perform three functions:
 Signal processing: To handle incoming/outgoing calls, establish sessions and register

the device to the network.
 Self-management: To perform health check-up of the network and performance
statistical analysis.
 Application Control: To control the network core functionality by controlling the
different protocols.
In today’s telecom market, the end user is at the focal point of everything, and the
products and the services are driven by clients’ requests. Initially, the market was focused on
multimedia message service (MMS), short message service (SMS) and data download. 3G
raised the user market level by introducing more services like IPTV, mobile video, video
sharing, etc.
The recent 4G/LTE development brought up gradation to the services by increasing the
data speed and reducing the latency by adopting new methods for data transmission such as
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) antenna, Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) in air interface, etc. The 4G wireless network is based on the TCP/IP
protocol, i.e., the Internet model, which provides broadband mobile connections to the
customers, thereby delivering new high-level services such as live HD video streaming, live
HD video conferencing, etc. (Bhalero, 2010).
Figure 7. Features of LTE.
4G/LTE has impacted business in many ways such as on business-specific services and
applications, which require in-office connectivity such as video conferencing, enabling
executives working on-the-go, etc. Organizations are searching for better approaches to being
more proficient and accomplishing more with the assets they have, and hence 4G/ LTE is
going in the following ways shown below (Yarali, 2015).
 Unified Technology Platform: Today’s clients require the capacity to convey lead
business and move the world over as efficiently and flawlessly as possible.
 Versatile Use: As the telecom companies are increasing the standards by providing
better services such as security, high speed, low latency, etc. different applications
are getting clubbed with the 4G network, as a result of which, bandwidth demand is
increasing which makes the network more versatile for various applications.
 Productivity: LTE availability is more generally accessible: executives use cell
phones to check email while traveling to the workplace, to overhaul spreadsheets at
home or even contact customers while in the midst of some recreational activities.
 Remote Management: To address the problems caused by the business expansion
across the world, IT groups can implement a remote checking framework which is
equipped with 4G/LTE, which in turn, is able to monitor proactively, regardless of
the possibility that fiber or Ethernet associations can be traded off.
Currently, LTE is providing some obvious benefits over other wireless technologies,
such as:
 High uplink and downlink speeds in both indoor and outdoor conditions - 100
Mbps downlink, 50 Mbps uplink.
 Low Latency for small IP packets - <5 for small IP packets.
 More support to phone calls in every 5 MHz bandwidth - it can support 200
active calls.
 Scalable bandwidth capacity - It provides 4X more bandwidth than 3G wireless
technology.
 Cell edge data rates are improved - It provides 3X better cell edge over 3G
system.
 Enhanced QoS - Call drop rates are reduced due by lowering the handover time.
 Spectrum efficiency is improved - Now 2X to 4X times more information can be
sent over the same spectrum(Verizon Wireless).
MARKET ANALYSIS
The wireless broadband industry is fast developing, with successful implementation of
LTE in specific areas. 4G/LTE has been established by the mobile operators in two distinctive
ways- CDMA and GSM- depending on the availability of the frequency spectrum. Both 5G
and 4G are based on the Internet model, IP packet based system. 3rd Partnership Project
(3GPP) is governing the 4G/LTE networks, whereas 5G is will be governed by 5G Public-
Private Partnership (5GPPP).
5G and LTE are bifurcated on the basis of the spectrum, geography, and released
versions. The spectrum division incorporates Frequency Division Duplex LTE (FDD-LTE)
and Time Division Duplex LTE (TDD-LTE), while the geography division includes
implementation of the spectrum. For instance, countries like Hong Kong, India, China are
TDD-LTE, whereas rest of the world uses the FDD-LTE technology; the market, on the other
hand, can be subdivided into Asia pacific, North America, Latin America, Japan, Africa, the
Middle East. The released versions include ver. 8, ver. 9, ver. 10, ver. 11, ver. 12, ver. 13.
Though 5G has not been standardized, sellers are forcibly investing in 5G improvement
endeavors, focusing on the new air interface transmission plans, advanced antennas, and high-
frequency bandwidth. With the vast scale business arrangements anticipated to commence in
2020, the 5G systems are appraised to produce about $250 Billion in annual administration
income by 2025. Driven by local, national government, portable administrator, and merchant
activities, it is expected that over $6 Billion will be spent on 5G R&D and trial ventures from
2015 to 2020. 5G systems are relied upon to use an assortment of range groups for different
applications, running from built up sub-6 GHz cell groups to millimeter wave frequencies.
Telecom market is undergoing massive change with some of the major software solution
providing companies entering into the telecom industry. Figure 8 shows the market analysis
of the major companies of IoT in 5G who are segmenting investments into four categories of
R&D, infrastructure, operations and market.
 R&D Investments: Millions are being invested in R&D for the implementation of
latest technologies like MIMO, Beamforming Antennas, mmWave Radio Access,
Spectrum Interference Management, Network Virtualization. Following are the top
companies investing in research and development of IoT and 5G networks.
 Infrastructural Investments: Due to the requirements of 5G, major companies are
investing into vending business of telecom infrastructure equipment’s, currently
working on the mobile core front haul and backhaul networks, small cell networks,
macro cell base stations, etc. Following are the top companies investing in
infrastructure equipment.
 Operational Investments: All of the major telecom service providers in the world are
making new effective business models to profit more from 5G, including some of the
old players like Alphabet. Following figure shows the top telecom companies
currently investing in 5G network.
 Market Expansion: Major telecom companies like Verizon and AT&T are coming
together to connect different regions of the mobile market (segmented as North
America, Latin and Central America, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Asia-Pacific,
Africa), implementing even 4G/LTE and providing QoS in the regions that require it.
Figure 8. Investments in 5G.

Figure 9. Top-5 companies investing in 5G.
Figure 10. 5G vendors market share.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Cloud of Things (CoT) Market Forecast
The merchants involved in the Internet of Things (IoT) market are developing their
solutions in a supply-driven market that are on the brink of turning into a demand-driven
market. Organizations are growing their comprehension of the efficiencies, business handle
changes, and income suggestions that IoT arrangements can produce. Customers are being
introduced to ideas like associated home, car, etc. in addition to which other creative ideas are
springing up, changing the way day to day exercises and the surroundings, in general, can be
comprehended.
Figure 11. Top-5 telecom companies investing in 5G infrastructure.
Table 1. IoT Market Forecast
Market Market Assumption

Force
Economy With the economy being lethargic in 2016, the delayed GDP was shut down by the US government
in the final quarter; China recorded its slowest development rate in 14 years and the recuperations
in Europe and Japan seemed to lose some steam. However, a more grounded development is
estimated for the following year in developed economies, including the United States, despite the
markets being powerless against capital flight and therefore being prone to instability.
Cloud The IT expenditure- the intellectual advancement called “dynamic IT” will be determined
throughout the following year by Cloud. It involves shared access to virtualized assets over the
Internet. The expenditure of the Cloud administration will grow at a double-digit rate for the
following two years, a slow representation of the bigger extent of all IT expenditure. In the short
term, this will negatively affect some IT merchants, compelling net revenues and expanding rivalry
while permitting some end clients to bring down their general spending on specific arrangements,
while in the long haul, Cloud will have a generally positive effect on industry developments as
more clients embrace more propelled registering arrangements at a speedier rate.
Policy The policy moves of the US Central bank to decrease the QE jolt program has brought forth a time
of instability and coin hypothesis in developing markets. Therefore, most of the policy measures in
2016 will be responsive, with the governments trying to shore up coin valuations and forestall
capital flight. The European Central Bank will endeavor to “finish what has been started,” while
Japan may quicken its approaches focused on accomplishing 2% expansion before the end of the
current year.
Table 2. Market revenue growth ($ billion) from year 2016-2020
Market/Years 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Growth (%) 17 8.9 21 23.2 25.3
Revenue ($B) 3180 786 4595 5650 72066
Table 3. Expected growth of regional market ($ billion) in IoT
Region/Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Asia/Pacific 1057.0 1288.7 1606.1 2028.1 603.1
Central and Eastern Europe 96.6 116.0 141.0 173.0 218.0
Western Europe 881.0 1070.1 1326.2 1668.3 2034.3
North America 1017.0 1169.2 1364.3 1609.3 1922.3
Middle East/Africa 78.1 86.0 95.1 104.9 114.9
Latin America 51.9 57.3 63.3 70.2 77.1
From the current market scenario, a number of assumptions can be made regarding the
three factors governing the implementation of IoT in consumer markets: technology trends,
economic conditions, and regulating policies. The following table provides the forecast
assumptions for Internet of Things market from 2016-2020.
The expectations from IoT have increased four times as compared to 2013 in terms of
technology and service revenue. IoT will be pricing different services differently: services
that require high computation will be charged more, while services that require only data
exchange will be charged less. The market is expected to increase by 25.1% by the year 2020,
and more than 25 billion devices are expected to be connected to IoT. The following table
represents the market revenue growth ($ billion) from the year 2016-2020.
Developed markets are expected to lead the IoT implementations by 2020, while the
chances of investments in traditional IT markets can be increased to see IoT in developing
markets. Table 3 shows the expected growth of regional market ($ billion) in IoT, the year
2016-2020.
IoT is supposed to be an ecosystem of ultra-high speed smart network, which will lead to
the evolution of the worldwide market from being demand-driven to being supply-driven.
Through the estimations of higher-end IoT arrangements demonstrated through trials,
business, shopper awareness and instruction battles, the Internet of Things market is expected
to turn into a reality.
TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 5G

Noteworthy advancements will drive 5G to meet the different rates, close wireline
latencies, universal network with consistent QoS, and the capacity to associate huge measures
of gadgets with each other, all working in tandem to give the client an exceptional experience.
New outlines to support remote limit using new frequency bands, propelled spectrum
efficiency improvement strategies in the legacy band, and logical combination of authorized
and unlicensed bands will be included in the future 5G frameworks, with its key enabling
technologies being mmWave, Multi-Rat, MIMO, and Small Cell.
mmWave: The mmWave bands provide 10 times more data transfer capacity, thereby
bolstering the higher information rates required in future mobile broadband to get to systems.
The bands below 6 GHz in mmWave, have to carefully consider environmental conditions
such as fogs, rainfall, and snow. But still, the path loss is low, which helps in beam forming.
Multi-Rat: An upgrade from 4G to the imagined services of 5G can be accomplished
through cutting edge PHY/MAC/arrange advanced and proficient strategies for cell
organization and range administration. Using a bigger measure of framework data transfer
capacity ensures an expansion in the limit by dispensing more recurrence assets to every
client in the framework. The multi-rat (Multi-Radio Access Technology) helps in utilizing
full, fragmented spectrums efficiently and balancing and coordinating the load between
different RATs (Rachid El Hattachi, 2015).
MIMO: MIMO sending utilizes various reception antennas situated at both the transmitter
and receiver, connected keeping in mind the receiver end to minimize error and increment
proficiency of a system. Massive MIMO will scale the MIMO innovation up to an infinite
number of reception antennas and base terminals. These antennas, connected to a base station
will center the transmission and gather flag vitality into small districts of space, giving new
levels of proficiency and throughput. The more antennas that are utilized, the better the spatial
centering, can be.
Small Cell: It is a term used for low power radio channel node that provides connectivity
in both indoor and outdoor conditions, using both unlicensed and licensed bands. The purpose
of using small cells is to increase the data handling capacity in dense urban regions.
The implementation of MIMO and Multi-Rat technologies has already commenced while
the testing of mmWave and Small cells technology is underway. The combination, and
working in tandem with these technologies will result in the advanced 5G network and its
efficiency.
The next section will discuss the business model required for successfully implement 5G
technologies in the consumer market.
Figure 12. Business for IoT.

BUSINESS MODEL
Companies are striving hard to make 5G and IoT a commercial success by collaborating
on different levels for sharing network framework. The following diagram (Figure 12) shows
the business model supported by IoT and 5G.
Framework Provider: Network infrastructure, commonly used for consumer and business
applications is the main asset of the Mobile Network Operator (MNO) companies. Operators
will provide IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service), PaaS (Platform as a Service), NaaS (Network
as a Service) and XaaS (Anything or X as a Service) to the consumers. For the corporate
services, operators will integrate their mobile network statically and dynamically with their
party service providers.
Network Provider: Companies will provide basic connectivity services such Internet,
mobile network to the consumer market and advanced services categorized as QoS, low
latency, mobility, etc. to the corporate market. Moreover, different configurations will also be
available for the customers of both the markets.
Assistance Provider: An MNO can pay the role of an accomplice benefit supplier with
two variations:
 Straightforwardly addressing the end client with the operator giving incorporated
administration offerings in view of operator abilities;
 Enabling accomplices to specifically third party service providers, making offers
improve by the operator arrangement or other esteem creation capacities to the end
clients.
 As an impression of the above business setting, the estimating models will likewise
advance and adjust to speaking to various sorts of administrations and client profiles,
for instance,
 Advanced use based valuing, which mirrors the throughput information utilization,
latency.
 Real time events which require continuous charging which may cover e.g., transfer
speed expanding administrations.
 Layered offers in view of different client profiles and administrations.
APPLICATIONS OF 5G
With a variety of applications and their subsequent execution, ranging from video and
entertainment applications to effort applications, many use-cases will be bolstered by 5G. The
division of applications is detailed in the following diagram of Figure 13.
Internet of Things (IoT): Incorporating high-range/low-cost IoT devices and a few
additional broadband IoT devices with human-like communication, the use cases will be
smart wearables, wireless sensor network, cloud of things, smart homes, etc.
Broadband Access: With the aim of providing service accessibility in densely populated
areas, augmented reality, multi-client connection, three-dimensional services will be provided
in 2020+ time-span. With the valuable perspective of context recognition guaranteeing
conveyance of regular and customized services, Cloud services, HD video sharing, low-cost
network, 50+mbps, etc. will be provided.
Mobile Connectivity: Portable automobile services such as remote computing,
connectivity in high-speed trains, etc. will be provided on request, with upgraded network,
relying on the level of versatility, for the provision of in-vehicle connectivity, improved route
through movement and vehicle diagnostics, autonomous driving and security.
Real-Time Connection: Utilize cases with solid, case-specific requests with respect to an
on-going association, and requiring particular qualities such as accurate and reliable
communication will be provided. For instance, services such self-ruling driving use case
requiring ultra-solid correspondence to forestall street mishaps, or, remote figuring requiring
hearty correspondence with high accessibility with stringent inertness prerequisite, etc. will
be provided.
Figure 13. Applications of 5G.
Ultra-Reliable Communication: By 2020, diverse areas of health, automobiles, smart

home applications, etc. are expected to rely on reliable IoT network, while remote
applications such as the remote operations performed by the doctors will require low latency
ultra-reliable networks.
SERVICES
The term IoT is used to describe a wide array of applications, while equally noteworthy is
the CoT, or Cloud of Things, a result of numerous companies acquiring Cloud connection due
to improvements in technological innovations. CoT will be offered in three distinct kinds of
services:
Software as a Service (SaaS): A subscription service where the software will be deployed
over the cloud. It will offer the following applications, the usage of which will require
payment from the customer:
 Applications requiring high mobility to access the web.

 Applications with a sudden hike in the demand of the application itself.
 Applications with an interplay between the customers and the service providers.
The benefits of using SaaS will be:
 Central managing of the software.

 Customers have access to administer the software updates and glitch personally.
 Provision of Application Programming Interfaces (API) with the software, making it
adaptable to every application.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): A parallel service to the SaaS, the PaaS will provide the
customers with the developer tools to develop application-specific software and will be used
for the following applications:
 Testing and deploying different user interfaces (UI).

 Organizations requiring high scalability.
 Organizations requiring multi-scale architecture.
The benefits of using PaaS will be:
 Provision of different levels of scalability to developers.

 Provision of incremental and iterative development.
 Testing and deployment of new services.
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): A third-party service provider with the companies

providing network infrastructure to third party companies, who provide the users with
services that will be suitable for following applications:
 Organizations providing web services like analytics, etc.

 Companies providing data warehousing.
 Companies providing measured and controlled services like active user account
monitoring, bandwidth allocation.
The benefits of using IaaS will be:
 Conservation of funds for the businesses that cannot afford to invest in their own
network infrastructure.
 Provision of broad network access for the promotion of thin and thick client services
usage.
 Distribution of resources.
The 5G will be provided by the operators in the form of different segments to different
clients, who will include more than just consumers and enterprise, thereby broadening the
scope of the term.
Figure 14 shows possible services which can be provided by 5G technology.
Identity: The operator being a trusted partner will provide secure and hassle-free single
user profile to fit all communication accounts.
Privacy: The operator will ensure safe and secure handling of sensitive data.
The quality of Service (QoS): The reliability and connectivity levels of the network will
be guaranteed to the customer by the operator.
Figure 14. 5G Services.
Real-Time Connectivity: Real-time connectivity will be provided to allow for the

instantaneous exchange of data between systems.
Security: Security will be provided by the operators for communications and cloud
storage services.
Responsiveness: A lifetime connection with a defined perimeter will be ensured by the
operators to activate service-related exchanges effectively.
CHALLENGES AND ISSUES

The resultant of its very wide scope, IoT and 5G are being challenged by five major
problems:
Security: The security of the device is directly proportional to the trust of the user on IoT
environment. With more and more devices getting connected to IoT, a potential threat is
presented in the form of poorly secured devices, bringing about the critical issues of
trafficking and traffic control, especially with the increasing dependency on the devices
(Patrice Beaudou).
Privacy: With every device being connected to the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), the
companies will aggregate the user data and habits, making the user vulnerable to hackers, as a
consequence of the data being collected and handled by the service providers. Tracking
machine activity, while posing no threat to the informed user, will make vulnerable the
uninformed user, thereby breaching on the core human rights and the aggregate capacity to
believe the internet.
Standardization: A set of standard network protocols is essential due to a wide range of
devices being connected to the same platform, to ensure easy interoperability and to make an
interconnected ecosystem. Standardization encourages innovation and is beneficial to the
economy, in addition to encouraging the capacity to pick gadgets with best features and
affordability and coordinating to make them work together.
Regulatory Policy: A legal issue is raised with the IoT gadgets collecting information in
one preview and transmitting it beyond the jurisdictional limits, especially with the gadgets
having the capacity to consequently exchange data with a variety of gadgets and frameworks
and transmitting the data over the network, regardless of the client. In such a scenario of
customer ignorance, the client might be obligated to cross the border for information stream
prerequisites.
Emerging Economies: With its potential for developing the economy, provide better
benefits and opportunities to developing nations, the potential utilization of IoT to battle
hunger and advance supportable rural has received specific consideration, over other
improvement issues, such as speculation of agricultural production, disaster management,
logistics, quality checking to improve the food resources for the population, etc.
The numerous challenges in the way of IoT, the weighting or the outweighing of
advantages and disadvantages will be solved and answered, not by enraptured open
discussion that pits the guarantees of IoT against its conceivable hazards, but rather by an
educated engagement, discourse, and coordinated effort over a scope of partners to plot the
best route foreword.
CONCLUSION
Despite the commencement of the new era of wireless, the vision for 5G is still
optimistic, yet profoundly established in the aggregate knowledge accumulated through
numerous years of advancements in innovation and commercialization. The unusual varieties
of foreseen requirements for the cutting edge are managing its improvement. The vision is to
procreate another era of innovation that is versatile and versatile enough to bolster new sorts
(and levels) of administrations and utilize cases extending from associating basic sensors to
mission-basic applications like remote control therapeutic techniques to complex robots. The
objective is to provide uniform, “fiber-like” broadband globally rather than just quicker and
better portable broadband. Through its basic single center system, 5G will bolster 4G and Wi-
Fi accesses and concurrent 5G, 4G, and Wi-Fi networks with multimode gadgets empowering
consistent presentation of 5G administrations, and ensuring administrators’ speculations. The
vision for 5G is to introduce another period in which availability, figuring, and substance are
same parts of each “body” and each “thing,” enabling undetectable enchantment. These new
5G mobile systems intend to be an absolute transformational path for empowering new
administrations, associating new enterprises, and enabling new client encounters of the
existing and the future ones.
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Yarali, A., Rahman, S., Mbulaa, B., WiMAX: The Innovative Broadband Wireless Access
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ABOUT THE EDITOR
Abdulrahman Yarali
Professor of Telecommunications System Management
Professor Yarali received his BS, MS and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from
University of Florida, George Washington University and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University respectively. Following his graduation he has worked chiefly in the field of
wireless mobile communications technology as a technical advisor, engineering director, and
now as a professor at Murray State University (MSU), Murray, KY. While in wireless
industry, Dr. Yarali has led research teams working on location, completing numerous
contracts in wireless mobile communications systems design implementation and
optimization for leading telecommunications companies such as AT&T, NORTEL, and Sprint
PCS in the U.S. He has been a faculty member at Institute of Engineering and
Telecommunications Systems Management (TSM) program at MSU since 2003 where he
has developed a wireless option program for undergraduate students. His interest continues to
be focused in the field of higher generations of wireless mobile communications, space small
satellites and smart grid infrastructures. Dr. Yarali has presented articles, lectures, and
keynote presentation in mobile communications networking in North America, Asia, the
Middle East, Australia and Europe. In addition, he has served as a participant, panelist, chair
and organizer for workshops and conferences on the integration of teaching and research,
particularly in the area of wireless communications and small satellites. Dr. Yarali has been
editor of journal, magazine and book in wireless communications industry.
INDEX
accommodation, 132
# activity level, 187, 189
actuators, 22, 49, 51, 52, 85, 176
3G, 2, 8, 11, 15, 21, 23, 24, 40, 47, 61, 62, 63, 64, adaptability, 32, 165, 252
65, 66, 71, 72, 87, 104, 148, 156, 157, 160, 162, adaptation, viii, 26, 31, 37, 41, 46, 204, 237
164, 170, 171, 172, 174, 178, 180, 224, 226, 227, administrators, 169, 217, 238, 268
228, 229, 247, 248, 252, 256, 257, 258, 268, 269 Africa, 75, 97, 169, 180, 258, 259, 262
3GPP, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 69, 148, 154, 155, 160, aggregation, viii, 27, 50, 85, 92, 142, 217
161, 163, 172, 173, 174, 179, 180, 181, 227, 247, agility, 5, 10, 164
258 agriculture, 234, 251
4G, vii, x, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, algorithm, 67, 150, 151, 159, 160, 253
27, 28, 36, 37, 40, 42, 47, 48, 49, 61, 62, 64, 65, Alphabet, 259
66, 69, 71, 72, 76, 87, 104, 109, 142, 143, 147, amplitude, 129, 166, 206
148, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 170, AMTS, 225
171, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184, analytical framework, 198
202,203, 206, 207, 216, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, anonymity, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154
227, 228, 229, 232, 244, 247, 248, 252, 256, 257, Anything as a Service (AaaS), 47, 67
258, 259, 263, 268, 269 application, 8, 24, 25, 33, 34, 50, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59,
4G LTE-A, vii, 202, 206, 207 64, 67, 69, 77, 78, 79, 80, 86, 87, 88, 102, 103,
5G networking, viii, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 110, 111, 126, 127, 151, 156, 157, 158, 164, 168,
42, 43 202, 208, 212, 215, 216, 231, 234, 237, 238, 239,
5GPPP, 258 240, 251, 252, 256, 257, 265, 266
60GHZ, 88 architecture, ix, xi, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 33, 34, 37, 40,
802.11ac, 121, 122, 166, 167, 168, 169, 203 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 67, 68,
71, 72, 81, 84, 89, 104, 105, 108, 127, 141, 142,
A 143, 147, 157, 158, 162, 172, 174, 176, 181, 184,
216, 217, 220, 223, 224, 229, 230, 234, 235, 244,
abuse, 234 245, 248, 256, 266
access, vii, viii, ix, x, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, architecture design, 44
16, 19, 26, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 44, 47, 52, Arias, 78, 89
55, 71, 79, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, ASA, 93
95, 96, 97, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, Asia, 73, 97, 100, 258, 259, 262
119, 120, 121, 141, 142, 147, 150, 152, 153, 154, assault, 79, 81
156, 157, 161, 166, 167, 169, 172, 173, 174, 178, assets, 51, 245, 257, 261, 263
181, 191, 192, 198, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, AT&T, 259
207, 211, 212, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 226, 227, atmosphere, 32, 124, 218
228, 229, 230, 235, 237, 238, 239, 243, 244, 246, attacker, 149, 150, 151, 152, 178, 179, 238
256, 261, 264, 265, 266
274 Index
authentication, 16, 151, 157, 160, 161, 173, 237,

238, 239, 240, 242
C
authenticity, 158
cables, 75, 177, 206, 225
authorities, 57
caching, 53, 55, 142, 152
automation, 7, 36, 52, 77, 165, 177, 245
calibration, 128
automobiles, 177, 265
candidates, 78
awareness, 46, 53, 154, 262
capacity, vii, ix, 1, 8, 9, 10, 26, 32, 35, 36, 46, 48,
55, 71, 72, 73, 76, 79, 87, 101, 102, 110, 111,
B 113, 116, 120, 121, 123, 130, 132, 133, 140, 142,
143, 144, 155, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 176, 177,
background noise, 186 179, 183, 202, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 219, 225,
bandwidth, ix, 6, 9, 10, 20, 21, 36, 55, 59, 65, 67, 69, 226, 232, 235, 236, 243, 244, 252, 256, 257, 258,
74, 75, 77, 91, 93, 98, 100, 101, 102, 110, 115, 262, 263, 267, 268
116, 122, 124, 126, 131, 132, 134, 135, 139, 140, CapEX, 164
141, 143, 158, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 176, 177, capital flight, 261
202, 203, 204, 207, 212, 216, 217, 226, 227, 228, carbon dioxide, 10
231, 232,233, 256, 258, 259, 266 CDMA, 9, 33, 170, 172, 173, 174, 226, 233, 258
bandwidth allocation, 21, 266 cell organization, 263
bandwidth resources, 55 cell phones, 10, 75, 80, 224, 226, 231, 234, 258
banking, 34, 75 cell size, 207, 213, 218
barriers, 216 cellular communications, 155, 173
base, 2, 9, 20, 37, 53, 71, 97, 108, 110, 121, 126, channel interference, 120
129, 130, 133, 134, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 156, children, 124
167, 170, 174, 175, 177, 183, 184, 186, 198, 202, China, 172, 258, 261
203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, 218, cities, 36, 49, 77, 85, 175, 179, 207, 233, 234, 253,
219, 225, 246, 247, 259, 263 256
basic research, 41 citizens, 148, 154, 169
basic services, 19 clarity, 226, 228
beamforming, ix, 69, 109, 110, 118, 119, 121, 127, classes, 21, 22
132, 133, 134, 136, 140, 176, 179, 181, 201, 202, classification, 26, 80, 124
206, 208, 217, 218, 259 classroom, 169
beams, 127, 133 clients, 51, 53, 55, 79, 167, 169, 179, 235, 256, 257,
blind spot, 22 261, 264, 266
blood pressure, 85 clothing, 85
Bluetooth, 55, 58, 211, 224, 226 cloud, ix, 7, 25, 26, 34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47,
bonding, 121 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,
breathing rate, 85 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86,
broadband, vii, 9, 33, 34, 50, 75, 76, 83, 84, 87, 88, 87, 89, 147, 155, 157, 162, 165, 227, 228, 230,
98, 101, 108, 123, 155, 156, 180, 191, 221, 227, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 245,
229, 232, 233, 244, 252, 256, 257, 258, 263, 264, 249, 251, 252, 255, 260, 261, 264, 265, 267
268, 269 cloud computing, 45, 46, 51, 55, 57, 59, 60, 66, 67,
browser, 149, 150, 153, 154 77, 86, 87, 157, 227, 228, 230, 245
browsing, 6, 21, 123, 203 cloud of things, 251, 264
building blocks, 243 Cloud RAN, 41
business function, 5 clubbing, 251
business model, viii, x, xi, 13, 18, 21, 83, 88, 91, clustering, 6
163, 224, 225, 245, 246, 251, 259, 263, 264 clusters, 42, 253
businesses, ix, 2, 5, 32, 50, 52, 71, 73, 75, 78, 83, coding, 28, 64, 113, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 139
110, 157, 161, 165, 169, 171, 176, 178, 179, 180, coffee, 150
204, 207, 216, 219, 243, 266 coherence, 135
buyer, 123, 234 collaboration, 43, 154, 178
collateral, 89
commerce, 75
Index 275
commercial, 10, 88, 92, 112, 124, 127, 203, 216, corporate sector, 32
224, 225, 256, 264 corruption, 148
commodity, 114 cost, vii, 2, 7, 8, 10, 41, 42, 43, 48, 59, 78, 84, 85,
common rule, 114 100, 109, 110, 115, 119, 123, 126, 127, 130, 131,
communication, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 32, 132, 153, 157, 165, 172, 177, 184, 191, 203, 207,
34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 42, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 212, 219, 227, 231, 244, 245, 252, 264, 265
71, 78, 84, 86, 87, 88, 92, 93, 101, 112, 113, 115, cost constraints, 231
119, 122, 125, 127, 128, 141, 145, 147, 148, 149, cost effectiveness, 41, 43
150, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 164, 178, 184, 195, cost saving, 78, 165
209, 210, 211, 213, 216, 217, 223, 224, 225, 227, CoT, 251, 255, 256, 260, 265
228, 230, 233, 244, 247, 248, 253, 254, 265, 266 covering, 117, 174, 184, 224
communication systems, 92, 93, 125, 145 CPU, 59, 152, 158
communication technologies, 16, 184 creativity, 219
community, viii, 4, 5, 24, 42, 130, 148, 154, 165m credentials, 159
234, 254 creep, 216
compatibility, 7, 9, 74, 98, 100, 109, 213, 247 crowds, 169
competition, 178, 216, 223 Cryptographic, 151, 159
competitiveness, 247 cryptography, x, 147, 148, 151, 159
complex behaviors, 37 current limit, 123
compliance, 16 customer relations, 2
compression, 126 customer service, 3
computation, 46, 53, 253, 262 customers, 2, 3, 7, 11, 18, 21, 27, 77, 83, 87, 164,
computer, 16, 49, 123, 148, 153, 158, 230, 252 167, 168, 169, 178, 180, 191, 216, 219, 227, 252,
computer systems, 230 256, 257, 258, 264, 265, 266
computer use, 149 cyber-attack, 157
computing, ix, 10, 22, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, cycles, 97, 107
56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 66, 67, 68, 71, 86, 87, 125, Cyprus, 68
157, 227, 228, 230, 245, 252, 256, 265
conditioning, 246
conduction, 41 D
conference, 69, 221
D2D, x, 22, 36, 37, 42, 49, 69, 84, 86, 147, 163, 176,
confidentiality, 157, 160
177, 181, 184, 201, 202, 209, 210, 211, 218, 219
configuration, 17, 25, 52, 131, 139, 166
danger, 81, 149, 243
connectivity, vii, viii, x, 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 32, 35, 36, 37,
DAS, 174
42, 48, 49, 56, 59, 71, 73, 78, 88, 101, 109, 142,
data center, 52, 57, 124
147, 155, 156, 159, 163, 165, 168, 169, 170, 175,
data mining, 47, 253
176, 178, 204, 209, 213, 229, 245, 252, 253, 254,
data processing, ix, 45, 46, 60, 78
256, 257, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267
data rates, ix, 7, 9, 10, 20, 22, 36, 71, 86, 123, 127,
consensus, 98
156, 167, 176, 183, 184, 203, 206, 208, 215, 258
construction, 217
data transfer, 21, 168, 203, 227, 263
consumer markets, 262
database, 15, 104, 231
consumers, 2, 5, 13, 16, 17, 77, 164, 166, 169, 170,
DDoS, 158, 178, 179, 243
171, 172, 175, 176, 177, 179, 216, 244, 264, 266
decay, 132
consumption, vii, x, 19, 66, 130, 133, 140, 141, 183,
decentralization, 241
184, 185, 186, 188, 192, 196, 197, 198, 236, 245
decoupling, 142
contamination, 128, 135, 136, 140, 218
deflation, 198
convention, 80
degradation, 112, 206
convergence, 14, 47, 50, 140, 228, 230
delegates, 98
conversion rate, 3
democracy, 154
cooling, 184, 188
dense areas, 83
cooperation, x, 33, 51, 57, 96, 97, 130, 152, 189, 202
deployments, 104, 184, 206, 218
coordination, 37, 52, 105, 202, 212, 217, 236
designers, 75, 142, 152
copper, 126
developed countries, 157
276 Index
developing nations, 3, 268 environmental conditions, 263

distributed computing, 241 environmental degradation, 184
diversification, 35 environmental effects, 133
diversity, 88, 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 125 environmental factors, 208
domain service orchestrator (DSO), 57, 61 EPS, 256
downlink, 42, 92, 120, 122, 129, 130, 132, 141, 184, equality, 190
186, 189, 198, 203, 258 equipment, 15, 16, 17, 22, 34, 37, 62, 63, 64, 78, 86,
DSM, 103, 104 98, 126, 127, 134, 166, 168, 176, 177, 203, 205,
209, 211, 212, 213, 217, 219, 227, 259
ESB, 78, 88
E ETL, 78, 88
Europe, 73, 75, 94, 97, 102, 168, 261
E2E, 15, 21
European Central Bank, 261
early warning, 145
European Commission, 92, 93, 155
Eastern Europe, 259, 262
European Parliament, 108
eavesdropping, 151
European Union, 92, 244
ECA, 93, 108
everyday life, 150, 163, 166, 215
economics, viii, ix, 1, 20, 49, 50, 51, 71, 75, 77, 82,
evolution, viii, x, 2, 4, 14, 15, 21, 22, 34, 46, 67, 78,
87, 109, 169, 171, 174, 219, 220, 244, 246, 262
141, 142, 147, 156, 164, 201, 207, 215, 219, 220,
ecosystem, 43, 245, 262, 267
223, 225, 228, 244, 247, 249, 262
EDGE, 154, 172, 226, 227
execution, 32, 45, 46, 56, 67, 81, 86, 87, 264
education, 169
exercises, 261
election, 59
exploitation, 49, 59, 128
electricity, 224
extraction, 47, 69, 239
electromagnetic waves, 224, 225
eye movement, 77
electronic communications, 108
emergency, 22, 86, 202, 211, 217
emergency communications, 22 F
emergency response, 217
emission, 10 Facebook, 2, 51, 74
employment, 9, 97, 216, 255 families, 101, 215
encryption, 80, 150, 151, 152, 159, 160, 211, 233, fear, 86
235, 237, 239 Federal Communications Commission, 156
end-users, 22, 52 federated service orchestrator (FSO), 57, 61
energy, vii, ix, x, 1, 6, 10, 17, 36, 40, 41, 45, 46, 47, fiber, 6, 35, 177, 206, 258, 268
48, 61, 64, 66, 67, 78, 109, 128, 130, 131, 133, fiber optics, 206
140, 141, 164, 176, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, filters, 213
191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 205, 206, financial system, 17
208, 209, 213, 219, 220, 224, 231, 233, 245, 253, Finland, 68, 89, 226
254 first generation, 156, 170, 224, 225, 252
energy consumption, 66, 133, 183, 184, 191, 197, flexibility, vii, 7, 24, 35, 42, 43, 96, 164, 165, 178,
208, 219, 220, 245, 254 225, 233, 245
energy efficiency, ix, x, 1, 36, 40, 41, 45, 46, 61, 64, flooding, 158
66, 67, 128, 130, 133, 176, 183, 184, 185, 186, fog, viii, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 59, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 124
213, 245 fog computing, 45, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,
energy efficiency per user, 61, 66, 67 66, 67, 68
energy expenditure, 109 fog networking, viii, 45
engineering, 247 Fog-RAN, 55
environment, vii, x, 3, 24, 25, 32, 36, 46, 47, 49, 50, France, 145
51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 63, 67, 73, 74, 76, 88, 113, free energy, 41
122, 129, 133, 137, 152, 156, 167, 170, 201, 206, freedom, 120, 128, 134, 135, 154
207, 209, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 243, 249, funds, 266
251, 252, 253, 254, 267 fusion, 127
Index 277
high performance computing, 57

G higher education, 168
historical data, 55
GBR, 20, 21, 24
history, ix, 2, 109, 110, 116, 128, 141, 180, 231, 244
GDP, 169, 171, 261
hologram, 10
geography, 258
homes, 49, 132, 142, 155, 166, 171, 192, 215, 216,
geolocation, 97
234, 242, 264
geometry, x, 183, 184, 187, 192
Hong Kong, 258
GERAN, 172
host, 16, 52, 179
GLDB, 94, 97
hotels, 169
global economy, 174
hotspots, 102, 121, 142, 203, 216
global village, 32
housing, 243
globalization, 31
HPE, 79, 80, 89
goods and services, 2, 3
HSPA, 9, 14, 154, 173, 202, 227, 256
Google, 148, 154, 254
human rights, 267
governments, 43, 78, 234, 261
human security, 81
GPRS, 15, 154, 160, 173, 226, 256
humidity, 124
GPS, 217, 224
hunting, 150
greed, 256
hybrid, 46, 47, 93
grids, 49
hybrid environment service orchestration (HESO),
grounding, 136
47, 56, 57
grouping, 233
hypothesis, 261
growth, vii, 1, 2, 3, 19, 21, 27, 32, 34, 73, 75, 76, 77,
78, 109, 144, 154, 171, 177, 180, 184, 202, 203,
207, 209, 216, 245, 247, 262 I
growth rate, 171
GSA, 68 IaaS, 256, 264, 266
GSI, 49 identification, 49, 79, 98, 100, 108, 159, 223, 253
GSM, 9, 12, 22, 147, 154, 156, 159, 160, 162, 170, identity, 28, 83, 147, 149, 151, 153, 155, 159, 160,
172, 173, 174, 226, 227, 258 241
imagination, 127
IMO, 176
H IMT-2020, 156, 157
IMT-Advanced, 155, 156, 221, 227
hacking, 148
income, 219, 259, 261
handheld devices, x, 156
incumbents, ix, 91, 93, 105
handoff, 203, 204, 208
India, 172, 248, 258
harvesting, 36, 40, 41, 217
individuality, 37
hazards, 268
individuals, ix, 2, 5, 34, 50, 77, 81, 83, 84, 88, 109,
haze, 241
157, 215, 219, 237
healing, 48
industry, vii, viii, 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 19, 20, 32, 78,
health, vii, 8, 16, 34, 51, 73, 78, 83, 147, 234, 257,
86, 113, 115, 122, 126, 143, 149, 154, 155, 156,
265
157, 163, 164, 165, 167, 178, 184, 217, 220, 223,
health care, 73, 234
225, 247, 251, 252, 254, 258, 259, 261
health status, 51
infancy, 1, 120, 123, 128
heart rate, 85
information communication technology, 184
helplessness, 243
information exchange, 27
heterogeneity, 24, 52
information sharing, 236, 241
heterogeneous, vii, ix, x, 24, 25, 36, 37, 41, 47, 50,
information technology, 28, 43, 149, 154
51, 55, 71, 77, 81, 110, 142, 143, 163, 174, 175,
infrastructure, vii, viii, xi, 1, 11, 13, 16, 17, 24, 25,
176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 192, 198,
28, 34, 36, 42, 43, 48, 49, 50, 67, 75, 82, 86, 89,
201, 204, 205, 207, 208, 217, 243, 244, 245
94, 127, 128, 158, 169, 176, 216, 225, 227, 243,
heterogeneous systems, 81
244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 251, 255, 256, 259, 261,
HetNets, 24, 69, 162, 221
264, 266
278 Index
integration, viii, xi, 20, 47, 49, 50, 78, 88, 109, 154, Latin America, 258, 262
202, 203, 214, 215, 220, 223, 243, 247, 251, 252, laws, 116
256 layered architecture, 81
integrators, 245 layering, 157
integrity, 147, 150, 151, 157, 158, 160, 239 lead, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 20, 88, 149, 156, 164,
intelligence, ix, 10, 45, 46, 50, 109, 172 202, 245, 252, 257, 262
interface, 22, 28, 33, 42, 52, 67, 79, 104, 134, 192, leakage, 239, 241
231, 238, 252, 256, 257, 259 learning, 34, 112, 127, 136, 169
interference, vii, 11, 27, 37, 41, 42, 92, 94, 95, 105, LED, 159
115, 118, 120, 126, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, legislation, 207
136, 139, 140, 167, 168, 176, 183, 184, 187, 195, lifetime, 2, 220, 267
197, 198, 202, 204, 207, 208, 211, 216, 217, 218, light, viii, 85, 154, 248
247 linear programming, 198
international trade, 43 lithium, 10
internet of computers (IoC), 49 livestock, 74
internet of everything (IoE), vii, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, location information, 208
51, 52, 55, 67, 69, 71 logging, 149
internet of things (IoT), vii, viii, ix, x, xi, 1, 10, 35, logistics, 251, 256, 268
36, 45, 46, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 66, longevity, 184
67, 69, 72, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 87, 88, low power radio, 263
89, 128, 155, 162, 163, 176, 177, 178, 179, 223, loyalty, 2
224, 225, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, LSA, ix, 27, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 102, 103, 104,
241, 242, 243, 244, 248, 249, 251, 252, 253, 254, 105, 106, 107, 108
255, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, LTE-A, vii, 69, 92, 174, 180, 181, 202, 203, 206,
269 207, 212, 213, 220, 221
interoperability, vii, 167, 247, 267 Luo, 198
intervention, 51, 142 lying, 154
investment, vii, xi, 43, 94, 177, 223, 234, 259, 262
IP address, 33, 34, 49, 237
IPTV, 257 M
IPv6, 34, 50, 73, 74, 230
M2M, x, 19, 20, 24, 26, 28, 36, 42, 48, 49, 69, 72,
isolation, 25, 41, 241
74, 79, 89, 103, 147, 163, 176, 177, 202, 203,
244, 253
J Macedonia, 45
machine learning, 251, 254
Japan, 73, 170, 172, 225, 258, 261 magazines, 33
management, viii, ix, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19,
20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42,
K 45, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 69, 77, 78, 85,
88, 93, 104, 105, 147, 159, 160, 164, 165, 198,
KASUMI, 160, 162
219, 231, 241, 244, 245, 252, 256, 257, 268
Korea, 28, 73, 172, 183, 197
manufacturing, viii, 3, 86, 147
mapping, 217
L market share, 174, 260
marketing, 254
LAA, ix, 91 marketplace, 112
Lagrange multipliers, 190 marriage, 243
landscape, 32 massive machine-type communications (mMTC),
latency, viii, x, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 21, 22, 36, 45, 46, viii, 13, 101, 102, 103
48, 49, 52, 53, 56, 57, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69, massive MIMO, viii, ix, 8, 12, 42, 109, 110, 125,
77, 86, 101, 134, 155, 158, 159, 161, 164, 170, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137,
176, 178, 184, 201, 207, 208, 209, 215, 217, 220, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 201, 206, 207,
225, 231, 232, 244, 251, 257, 258, 264, 265 208, 216, 217, 218, 219, 244, 263
Index 279
materialism, 241 multiplexing, ix, 9, 42, 47, 109, 110, 112, 113, 116,
mathematics, 127 117, 119, 121, 127, 129, 130, 132, 134, 140, 202,
matrix, 3, 117, 118, 134, 138, 142, 193 206, 227, 257
matter, 32, 87, 133, 149, 243 multiplier, 190
media, 2, 75, 77, 118, 180, 203, 228, 269 MU-MIMO, ix, 9, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 119, 120,
medical care, 86 121, 122, 123, 128, 141, 144, 145, 167, 203
medicine, 3, 74 music, 203
Mediterranean, 68
memory, 194, 228
messages, 3, 76, 149, 151 N
meter, 218
nanotechnology, 228, 230
metropolitan areas, 125, 207, 208, 218
NAS, 15
Microsoft, 152
natural evolution, 84
Middle East, 258, 262
neglect, 216
migration, 22, 44, 47, 147, 269
network congestion, 169, 206, 220
military, 134
network elements, 165
millimeter, ix, 6, 9, 29, 42, 86, 91, 98, 100, 102, 104,
network operators, 5, 95, 97, 246
109, 111, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 132, 144, 145,
networking, viii, ix, 25, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
201, 202, 207, 208, 212, 218, 220, 259
40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54,
MIMO, viii, ix, 8, 9, 12, 36, 37, 41, 42, 78, 87, 109,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 66, 67, 74, 78, 89, 161,
110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119,
184, 228, 248
120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131,
new media, 202
132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142,
next generation, viii, x, 11, 31, 34, 86, 126, 148, 155,
143, 144, 145, 166, 167, 176, 179, 201, 202, 203,
170, 173, 176, 201, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 223,
206, 207, 208, 216, 217, 218, 219, 227, 244, 247,
248
257, 259, 263
NFV, viii, 8, 13, 15
mission, 148, 244, 268
nodes, 15, 24, 25, 37, 41, 51, 52, 125, 127, 141, 149,
MMS, 156, 226, 257
151, 153, 159, 192, 212, 216, 252, 253, 256
mobile cloud computing, 45, 71
Non-GBR, 20, 21
mobile communication, ix, xi, 1, 8, 11, 16, 21, 23,
non-repudiation, 157
28, 31, 51, 86, 98, 147, 148, 154, 155, 156, 157,
North America, 73, 168, 258, 259, 262
160, 161, 177, 179, 216, 217, 220, 223, 224, 252
NRF, 197
mobile device, 2, 24, 35, 48, 55, 74, 75, 115, 164,
166, 175, 177, 179, 202, 203, 216, 227, 232
mobile phone, 1, 5, 75, 114, 165, 171, 223, 225, 226, O
227, 228, 231, 233
mobile telecommunication, 47, 226 obstacles, x, 163, 166, 177, 179, 208, 218, 247
mobility, 1, 6, 32, 41, 45, 46, 48, 49, 52, 56, 67, 83, offloading, 26, 142, 191, 203, 246
84, 86, 87, 88, 129, 155, 156, 165, 175, 176, 208, openness, 165
216, 218, 225, 227, 232, 244, 256, 264, 265 operating costs, 183
modelling, 199 operating system, 34, 149, 171
models, viii, x, 2, 14, 15, 19, 25, 44, 49, 92, 96, 97, operations, 3, 32, 40, 41, 75, 77, 83, 87, 124, 142,
105, 160, 161, 189, 191, 252, 264 152, 158, 165, 166, 244, 259, 265
modern society, 163 OpEX, 164
modules, 41, 242 optimal performance, 168
moisture, 85 optimization, x, 41, 44, 48, 116, 144, 183, 185, 189,
momentum, 180, 181, 184 191, 198, 245
Moon, 12, 183 orchestration, viii, 10, 25, 45, 46, 50, 56, 66, 67
Moscow, 13, 91 organizational guidelines, 172
motivation, 9, 94 orthogonality, 141
MTS, 225 ownership, 10
multimedia, 35, 142, 176, 226, 232, 256, 257 oxygen, 124
280 Index
protection, 22, 80, 100, 104, 159, 165, 234, 241

P prototype, 4, 5
PTT, 225
PaaS, 256, 264, 266
public safety, 17, 88, 244
Pacific, 100, 259, 262
public service, 254
pairing, 127
publishing, 28
PAN, 33, 233
parallel, 15, 266
parents, 243 Q
Pareto, 190
password, 152, 179, 238 QAM, 166, 167, 180
pathways, 40 QoE, 13, 18, 22, 24, 46, 52, 56, 101
PDB, 21, 49 QoS, vii, viii, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
peer review, 33 25, 26, 27, 46, 48, 49, 52, 56, 68, 93, 102, 105,
peer-to-peer mobile cloud, 59, 60 107, 184, 198, 227, 230, 231, 244, 258, 259, 262,
performance rate, 134 264, 266
performing artists, 243 quality assurance, 21, 23, 48
permit, 79, 116, 207, 220 quality of life, 254
picocells, 191, 205 quality of service, 13, 15, 16, 21, 24, 27, 33, 35, 107,
planets, 233 164
platform, vii, viii, ix, xi, 5, 32, 56, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76,
77, 78, 84, 86, 87, 223, 228, 230, 244, 247, 252,
255, 256, 267 R
Poland, 28
police, 134 radar, 245
policy, 27, 77, 148, 154, 165, 183, 192, 197, 261 radio, vii, viii, ix, 9, 11, 19, 20, 26, 27, 32, 34, 37,
policy makers, 148, 154 40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 55, 86, 89, 92, 93, 104, 105,
pollution, 208 106, 107, 108, 111, 113, 115, 119, 121, 124, 125,
population, 2, 32, 47, 59, 165, 203, 268 130, 134, 136, 140, 141, 142, 145, 147, 154, 159,
PPP, x, 155, 173, 185 172, 178, 181, 191, 192, 201, 202, 204, 206, 207,
preservation, 253 212,219, 223, 224, 227, 228, 230, 233, 244, 246,
primary cells, 204 256
principles, viii, ix, 11, 13, 14, 21, 27, 28, 91, 92, 93, radio access technology, 37, 178
170, 234 radius, 132, 193
privacy, vii, x, 47, 49, 53, 55, 89, 147, 148, 150, 153, rainfall, 125, 263
154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 245, 248, 266, 267 reading, 127, 143
private information, 150 real time, 2, 3, 10, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 55, 56, 57, 66,
private sector, 43 119, 212, 233
probability, 113, 125, 135, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190, reality, 4, 22, 31, 50, 53, 57, 66, 67, 77, 117, 126,
192, 193, 194, 195 135, 144, 176, 221, 262, 264
probability density function, 185 reception, 10, 192, 206, 263
process control, 256 recession, 71
producers, 236, 241 recovery, 94, 127
product latency – throughput, ix, 45, 46, 61 recreational, 258
profit, 2, 3, 259 recurrence, 263
profit margin, 2 redundancy, 115
programmability, 165 regional service orchestrator (RSO), 57, 61
programming, 37, 80 regulations, 3, 33, 97, 207
project, 11, 22, 23, 95, 96, 97, 101, 104, 105, 108, regulatory framework, 94, 247
152, 153, 162 regulatory requirements, 16, 157
proliferation, 35, 46, 48, 53, 77 reliability, vii, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 17, 22, 35, 36, 53, 55,
propagation, x, 40, 41, 100, 104, 110, 112, 121, 124, 71, 77, 78, 86, 87, 88, 101, 102, 109, 110, 111,
136, 140, 159, 201, 207, 218, 219 113, 117, 118, 125, 155, 162, 202, 206, 212, 216,
prosperity, 256 231, 247, 252, 266
Index 281
remote radio heads, 37, 192 sellers, 259

renaissance, 223 sensation, 178
repair, 213 sensing, 53, 55, 56, 97, 253, 254
reputation, 179 sensitivity, 125, 126
resistance, 17, 134 sensor network, 47, 49, 85, 87, 88, 252, 264
resolution, 18, 137, 140, 164, 218 sensor nodes, 252, 253
resource allocation, 25, 27, 41, 56, 106 sensors, 8, 10, 22, 36, 47, 49, 51, 52, 59, 77, 78, 80,
resource management, vii, 41, 42, 46, 108 83, 85, 87, 88, 176, 217, 232, 244, 251, 252, 253,
resources, viii, ix, 13, 15, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33, 40, 254, 255, 264, 267, 268, 269
42, 47, 50, 53, 59, 60, 61, 67, 91, 94, 106, 107, servers, 6, 32, 54, 55, 57, 58, 76, 153, 165, 177, 179
108, 129, 142, 143, 158, 159, 165, 213, 230, 244, service provider, vii, 2, 5, 6, 25, 52, 78, 87, 160, 161,
246, 252, 256, 266, 268 165, 216, 231, 259, 264, 265, 266, 267
response, ix, 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 16, 46, 48, 61, 71, 127, 176 service quality, 14, 16, 21, 26
response time, ix, 7, 71, 176 services, vii, viii, ix, xi, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14,
restructuring, 219 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34,
retirement, 165 35, 36, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56,
revenue, viii, 20, 78, 234, 262 61, 67, 69, 71, 72, 75, 77, 84, 85, 87, 88, 95, 98,
RFID, 49, 80, 253 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 108, 109, 147, 148, 156,
rights, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 157, 161, 164, 169, 172, 174, 176, 178, 184, 202,
rings, 233 213, 223, 226, 227, 228, 230, 232, 241, 243, 244,
risks, x, 152, 163, 178, 234, 239 245, 248, 252, 255, 256, 257, 262, 263, 264, 265,
robotics, 202 266, 267
root, 236, 238 shame, 152
RSPG, 93, 94, 108 shameer, 80, 89, 248
RTT latency, 61, 62, 63 signals, 86, 97, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119,
rules, 93, 94, 96, 97, 116, 152 120, 122, 124, 125, 126, 130, 132, 133, 135, 141,
rural areas, 171 168, 176, 204, 206, 208, 209, 216, 218, 224, 226,
233, 247, 251
silicon, 127
S simulation, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 139, 160
Singapore, 198
SaaS, 256, 265, 266
SISO, 114, 115, 119
safety, 8, 17, 22, 76, 83, 86, 102, 145
skimming, 237
Samsung, 69, 156, 236, 237
skin, 85
SAS, 106, 107, 108
SLA, 25, 26, 87
saturation, 165
smart devices, 1, 59, 60, 77, 78, 79, 80, 213, 234,
savings, 206, 208, 219, 234
235, 237, 241, 242, 243, 252, 255
scaling, 26, 53, 135, 139, 142, 165
SMS, 156, 226, 257
scarce resources, 244
social benefits, 51
scattering, 124, 139
social life, 83
scope, 26, 31, 78, 93, 104, 236, 241, 266, 267, 268
social network, 47, 51, 74
SDMA, 9, 119, 120
social security, 149, 150, 152
SDN, 8, 24, 25, 29, 40, 44, 164, 165
society, vii, 3, 22, 32, 33, 47, 49, 83, 128, 148, 169,
second generation, 122, 156, 173, 224
170, 223, 245
secure communication, 150, 152
software, xi, 10, 15, 17, 24, 34, 48, 49, 56, 128, 130,
security, x, xi, 5, 7, 8, 13, 16, 17, 18, 26, 27, 28, 35,
134, 136, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 165, 176,
45, 46, 52, 53, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 109,
223, 224, 228, 229, 233, 245, 248, 256, 259, 265,
112, 134, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
266
154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,
solution, x, 4, 9, 10, 57, 92, 98, 103, 130, 131, 149,
165, 173, 178, 179, 211, 216, 218, 223, 227, 232,
165, 177, 190, 201, 208, 211, 212, 217, 259
234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244,
solution space, 190
245, 248, 249, 257, 265, 267, 269
South Korea, 73, 156
security threats, 76
space-time, 113
self-organizing, 36, 37, 142, 213
282 Index
spam, 3 techniques, ix, 37, 47, 77, 86, 104, 120, 126, 133,
spatial, ix, 40, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 136, 147, 148, 151, 154, 161, 211, 213, 217, 244,
119, 121, 127, 129, 130, 140, 167, 185, 191, 198, 268
206, 246, 263 technological advancement, viii, 4, 5, 21, 31, 32, 34,
specialists, 18 41, 43, 73, 83, 87, 215, 219, 225, 249
specifications, 9, 41, 56, 125, 149, 172, 174 technological change, 3
spectrum allocation, 98, 99, 100, 101, 126, 202, 207, technology, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
208, 212, 213, 219 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 24, 28, 32, 33, 34,
spectrum management, viii, 13, 27, 91, 93, 95, 96, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52,
97, 104, 105, 208 57, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 82, 86, 88, 89, 92, 97,
spectrum toolbox, 26, 91, 105 104, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117,
St. Petersburg, 29 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
stakeholders, 161, 244 130, 133, 134, 136, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145,
standardization, 7, 14, 16, 42, 78, 98, 109, 157, 174, 148, 149, 150, 152, 157, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166,
179, 202 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,
standards, 12, 24, 28, 33, 41, 47, 49, 50, 78, 81, 86, 179, 180, 183, 184, 198, 201, 202, 203, 206, 207,
88, 141, 142, 154, 156, 157, 160, 166, 172, 174, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219,
176, 180, 204, 220, 221, 225, 226, 232, 246, 247, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231,
251, 257 233, 244, 245, 247, 249, 252, 258, 259, 262, 263,
state, x, 16, 55, 88, 120, 127, 131, 133, 157, 170, 266
185, 193, 194, 197, 202, 203, 239 telecommunications, ix, 1, 13, 16, 28, 31, 50, 71,
stimulus, 19 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125,
stock, 177, 181 130, 135, 143, 144, 148, 154, 155, 165
stockpiling, 80, 235, 239 telephones, 226, 237
storage, 17, 20, 24, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, temperature, 85
59, 69, 71, 155, 156, 159, 165, 239, 244, 255, 267 tension, vii, 8
stoves, 166 terminals, 15, 22, 47, 54, 67, 119, 121, 128, 129,
stress testing, 41 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, 237, 243, 263
structure, 32, 48, 110, 136, 142, 157, 184, 219 territory, 119, 212
subscribers, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 93, 174, 216, 223, testing, 36, 40, 41, 123, 124, 125, 127, 143, 212,
226 228, 234, 242, 243, 263
substitution, 17 text messaging, 252
success rate, 218 theft, 149, 226
succession, 167 thoughts, 35, 122
SU-MIMO, 111, 112, 114, 121, 122, 123, 167 threats, ix, 147, 148, 157, 161, 234, 237, 240
sun, 69, 220 throughput, viii, ix, 22, 36, 45, 46, 48, 55, 61, 62, 63,
supplier, 264 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 84, 101, 111, 113, 115, 116,
support services, 47 117, 120, 132, 155, 159, 166, 168, 175, 177, 183,
surveillance, 19, 73, 85, 87, 88, 179 184, 185, 186, 189, 204, 209, 217, 218, 220, 244,
sustainability, 37, 245 263, 264
sustained development, viii time use, 122
Sweden, 134 topology, 59, 175, 207
synchronization, 97 total energy, 183, 184
synchronize, 56 trade, 80, 130
trafficking, 267
traits, 32, 110
T transactions, x, 5, 147, 149, 216
transformation, x, 4, 78, 163, 244, 252
tall trees, 247
transmission, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 34, 37,
target, 158, 178, 185, 186, 189, 193, 245
41, 81, 98, 111, 113, 115, 117, 120, 126, 127,
TCP/IP, 148, 257
132, 141, 157, 166, 168, 170, 175, 176, 184, 186,
TDD, 128, 130, 132, 170, 172, 258
188, 212, 216, 217, 219, 225, 227, 237, 251, 252,
TDMA, 226, 227
256, 257, 259, 263
teams, 3, 154
Index 283
transport, 5, 150, 151, 205, 217, 241 wearables, 83, 85, 87, 88, 264
transportation, 5, 49, 52, 73, 147, 254 web, 22, 44, 49, 50, 53, 76, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154,
trial, 188, 259 156, 203, 227, 232, 236, 238, 239, 256, 265, 266
trustworthiness, 16, 56 web browser, 149, 154
web of things (WoT), 45, 46, 49, 50
web pages, 150
U web service, 266
websites, 152
ultra-reliable machine-type communications
wellness, 78
(uMTC), viii, 13, 101, 102, 103
Western Europe, 259, 262
unification, 256
White Paper, 68, 69, 162, 220, 269
uniform, 268
Wi-Fi, x, 6, 9, 42, 73, 76, 97, 104, 111, 112, 121,
United Nations, 4
122, 123, 144, 162, 163, 166, 167, 169, 170, 173,
United States (USA), 12, 68, 73, 124, 145, 156, 172,
174, 179, 180, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 211,
247, 261
213, 215, 216, 217, 224, 227, 233, 238, 244, 268
universe, 233
WiMAX, 47, 160, 173, 221, 227, 269
universities, 43, 155
windows, 107, 155, 216
uplink, 10, 42, 120, 122, 129, 132, 135, 203, 258
wireless connectivity, 53, 101
urban, 22, 83, 84, 85, 86, 102, 142, 207, 216, 218,
wireless devices, 21, 225
263
wireless networks, 1, 6, 10, 35, 41, 43, 44, 67, 69,
user data, 9, 11, 17, 48, 53, 148, 184, 267
126, 160, 162, 173, 183, 184, 191, 192, 198, 203,
UWB, 233
207, 233, 256
wireless sensor networks, 269
V wireless systems, 34, 78, 110, 126, 134, 184
wireless technology, 11, 33, 116, 176, 224, 225, 226,
V2V, 102, 254 230, 249, 258
validation, 79, 81 wires, 126, 207, 208, 224
vector, 117 wool, 148
vehicles, 84, 86, 176, 177, 202, 216, 254 work environment, 165
vein, 219 workers, 243
Verizon, 170, 171, 178, 259, 269 workflow, 203
versatility, 265 workload, 59
video games, 5 workplace, 258
videos, 73, 74, 75, 76, 84, 126, 155 World Wide Web, 4, 33, 228
virtualization, viii, ix, 10, 13, 26, 27, 36, 37, 41, 43, worldview, 204, 241
45, 46, 157, 165, 245, 259 WoT, 45, 46, 49, 50
vision, viii, 6, 7, 11, 12, 31, 32, 41, 43, 89, 162, 177, WRC-15, ix, 91, 98, 99, 100, 108
178, 236, 243, 251, 268 WRC-19, ix, 91, 98, 99, 100, 101
VoIP, 22, 49 WSAN, 253, 255
volunteers, 153 WSN, 80, 251, 252, 253, 255, 267
vulnerability, 178, 238 WWW, 4, 228
W X
walking, 170 xMBB, viii, 13, 101, 102, 103

waste, 142 x-rays, 224
watches, 234, 235
water, 177
Z
wavelengths, 127, 170, 207, 208, 218
weakness, 160
Zetabyte, vii, ix, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77
wearable devices, 89, 244

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ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH

Additional books in this series can be found on Nova’s website

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NOTICE TO THE READER

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN:  H%RRN

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Chapter 12 5G Mobile: Infrastructures, Internet of Things

5G MOBILE: TECHNOLOGIES, APPLICATIONS,

Keywords: mobility, connectivity, quality, energy efficiency, IoT, small innovations

Even though the fourth generation (4G) telecommunication system is undergoing

MOTIVATIONS AND KEY DRIVERS OF 5G

When Will the Next Higher Generation (5G) of Wireless Network

Proposed Solutions to Key Technologies to Be Considered

Is 5G Wireless Mobile Network an Evolution or a Revolution?

Business Opportunities from the Deployment of the 5G Network

MOTIVATIONS AND KEY DRIVERS OF 5G

In a nutshell, 5G technology should be developed as early as possible because of

Any innovation is a product of a vision. The innovation of the 5G Technology is driven

1. High efficiency: The efficiency of the 5G Technology is taken as a main parameter

The main goals of the innovation of 5G technologies can be broadly classified in to

1. Flexibility: 5G technology should be employable in diverse applications and

Inference to the Customers

1. Faster speeds for data

1. Pervasive Video and high quality content

1. Ultra-high capacity and Massive MIMO

technology for 5g systems deployment. In order to provide services with variety of

1. Higher number of connected devices

QUALITY OF SERVICE IN THE 5G NETWORK

Valery Tikhvinskiy* and Grigory Bochechka†

Keywords: QoS, QoE, 5G, NFV

QOS MANAGEMENT MODEL EVOLUTION IN MOBILE NETWORKS

 operator provides services management;

Temporary borders of further development of QoS management principles at the network

Figure 1. Тwo QoS management models in Mobile networks.

QOS AS A FACTOR OF TRUST TO 5G NETWORKS

According to Kaspersky Internet Security company definition [3], Trusted Network is a

Figure 2. Domains of trust to mobile networks.

Table 1. The main factors affecting the trust of the subscriber

Figure 3. Quality and security levels of trust to mobile network.

Quality parameters of 5G networks can be divided into three levels: Network

SERVICES AND TRAFFIC IN 5G NETWORKS

Figure 5. Number of M2M connections in mobile networks (Source: Machina Research).

According to forecasts, shown in Figure 5, in 2018 the number of M2M connections in

QUALITY REQUIREMENTS IN 5G NETWORKS

Figure 6. Evolution QoS classes in mobile networks.

Table 2. QoE performance requirements for 5G networks

QoE indicators Requirements

Table 3. Requirements for delay in 3G/4G/5G networks

QoS terms Packet Delay Budget, ms

QoS terms Packet Error Loss Rate

QOS PROVISIONING AND MANAGEMENT IN 5G NETWORKS

QoS terms Packet Error Loss Rate

Figure 8. Reference Architecture of Software-Defined Networking [17].

Figure 9. Virtualization of control and management functions in 5G network.

Licensed shared access (LSA) is based on dynamic assignments combined with

Abdulrahman Yarali and Michael Ramage†

Keywords: 5G networking system, technological advancement, innovation, architecture

THE FUTURE 5G NETWORKING VISION

Adaptability and Immediacy of 5G Networking System

Requirements for 5G Network Building

Challenges and Prospects

Table 1. Features and Trends of 5G networks

ISBN: H%RRN