Applied Chemistry

Course Code: CH-101

Dr. Asad Mumtaz

School of Natural Science (SNS),
NUST, Islamabad
Mixture is a homogenous or uniform physical combination without
chemical changes of two or more substances.
Solute: Substance which is smaller in amount in a solution i.e.
minor component.
Solvent: Substance which is larger in amount in a solution i.e.
major component / dominated component.
 Solution Colloids Suspension
Diffusion of solute at Diffusion of solute Diffusion of solute
Molecular level at microscopic level at macroscopic level
Solute 1-10 A◦ 10-10,000 A◦ > 10,000 A◦
Solute particles are 1- 103 – 109 atoms > 109 atoms
103 atoms aggregate
Solute particles do not Do not settle down Do settle down by
settle down by gravity by gravity gravity
Beam of light passed but light scattered like Beam of light do not
remain unscattered cone Tyandal effect pass.
e.g. Salt in water Starch in water Sand in water
 SOLUTE + SOLVENT SOLUTION
• Gas + Gas Air

• Gas + Liquid Aerated water, coke

• Gas + Solid H2 in Pd

• Liquid + Gas Vapors in air

• Liquid + Liquid Alcohol in water (vodka)

• Liquid + Solid Hg in Na or Ag

• Solid + Gas Carbon in air (black smoke)

• Solid + Liquid Glucose in water

• Solid + Solid Alloys e.g (14-karat gold)

It express the amount of solute present in
specific amount of solution/solvent

I. Percentage composition
II. Molarity (M)
III. Molality (m)
IV. Normality (N)
V. Mole Fraction (x)
VI. Parts per Million (ppm)
Percentage quantity of solute with respect to solution

Percentage composition = Quantity of Solute x 100

Quantity of Solution

i. Weight – Weight percentage or (w/w %)

ii. Weight – Volume percentage or (w/v %)
iii. Volume – Weight percentage or (v/w %)
iv. Volume – Volume percentage or (v/v %)
 = No. of Moles of solute
Volume of solution in liter

No. of moles of solute = Amount of solute in gm

1 gm mol. w.t of solute

1 gm mol. w.t of solute = Sum of Atomic mass of all atoms present in

molecule

Units: Molar or moles /liter

 = No. of moles of solute
Mass of solvent in kg

Units : Molal or moles/kg

• Molarity changes with temperature but molality does not

change.
• Molarity decreases as temperature increases.
Why?
 = No. of gm equivalent of solute
Volume of solution in liter/dm3

No. of gm equivalent of solute = Amount of solute in gm

1 gm eq. w.t of solute

1 gm eq. w.t of solute = Molecular w.t of solute

Acidity / Basicity / e- loss or gain

Units: Normal or gm equivalent per liter

Mole ratio of a component with whole solution.
e.g. A solution composed of solute ‘A’ & solvent ‘B’

Mole fraction of solute XA = nA

nA + nB

Mole fraction of solvent XB = nB

nA + nB

• XA + XB = 1 , no unit

• To obtain mole percent we simply multiply mole fraction by 100.

It is number of parts of solute which are present in a million
parts of solution
ppm = Amount of solute in mg
Volume of solution in liter

ppm = Amount of solute in g

Volume of solution in ml

ppm = Molarity x Molecular w.t x 1000

ppm = Normality x gm eq. w.t x 1000

ppm = Molarity x Molecular w.t x 1000

 Molarity = NO. of moles

Volume of solution in liter

 NO. of moles = Amount in g

Molecular w.t

ppm = NO. of moles x Amount in g x 1000

Volume in liter NO. of moles

ppm = Amount in g x 1000

Volume in liter

ppm = Amount in mg
Volume in liter
ppm = Normality x gm eq. w.t x 1000

 Normality = NO. of gm eq. w.t

Volume of solution in liter

 NO. of gm eq. w.t = Amount in g

gm eq. w.t

ppm = NO. of gm eq w.t x Amount in g x 1000

Volume in liter NO. of gm eq w.t

ppm = Amount in g x 1000

Volume in liter

ppm = Amount in mg
Volume in liter
 ?
Which concentration expression is used when we need
temperature independent criteria?
Question:
If 24.5 g of H2SO4 has been dissolved in 250 g of water resulted 300
ml of solution. Write down names of solute & solvent and calculate
Molarity, Molality, Normality, Mole fraction of solute, w/w %, w/v %
and concentration of solution in ppm?
Data:

• Amount of H2SO4 = 24.5 g (solute)

• Amount of water = 250 g = 0.25 kg (solvent)
• Volume of solution = 300ml =0.3 liter
• 1 gm Mol w.t of H2SO4 = 98 g
• 1 gm Eq. w.t of H2SO4 = 98 g = 49 g
2
Solution:

NO. of mole of H2SO4 = 24.5 = 0.25 moles

98

NO. of mole of water = 250 = 13.88 moles

18

• Molarity = 0.25 moles = 0.83 M or Molar

0.3 liter

• Molality = 0.25 moles = 1 m or Molal

0.25 kg
Normality
NO. of Eq w.t of H2SO4 = 24.5 = 0.5 equivalent
49
Normality = 0.5 equivalent = 1.66 N or Normal
0.3 liter

• Mole fraction of H2SO4

XH2SO4 = 0.25 = 0.017
0.25 + 13.88

• w/w % = 24.5 x 100 = 8.92 w/w %

24.5 + 250 g

• w/v % = 24.5 g x 100 = 8.16 w/v %

300 ml
ppm

• ppm = 24.5 g x 1000 = 81666 ppm

0.3 liter

• ppm = 0.83 x 98 x 1000 = 81666 ppm

• ppm = 1.66 x 49 x 1000 = 81666 ppm

• Properties of a substance depend upon the
intermolecular forces, which depends upon
internal structure. These properties do not
involve chemical changes.

• Additive property: When a property of a

molecule is equal to sum of that property of
constituent atoms. e.g. molecular mass.

• Constitutive property: When a property of a

molecule depends on the arrangement of atoms
and bond structure in molecule. e.g M.P, B.P,
Optical activity, Heat of vaporization, density etc.

• Additive & constitutive property: An additive

property which also depends upon the
intermolecular structure e.g Surface tension,
Viscosity and vapour pressure
 “SURFACE TENSION”
• It is the measure of force per unit length acting at a tangent to the
meniscus surface.
• Surface tension is the amount of work required to extend / stretch /
break unit length of liquid surface to a unit distance.
• Symbol = 
• Units: In CGS system dyne/cm
In SI system N/m
(i) Capillary – rise Method:
 acting along the inner circumference of the tube exactly
Supports the weight of liquid column.

Upward force = Downward force

2  r  Cosθ = mg
 θ = 0, Cosθ = 1
2 r   = v  d  g

 =  r2  h  d  g
2 r

 = rhdg
2
(ii) Drop formation method: (By stalagmometer)
Drop supported by the upward force of surface tension acting
at outer circumference of the tube
Upward force = Downward force
2 r   = mg

A. Drop weight method:

For sample liquid 2  r   = mg
For water 2  r  w = mwg

Divide equations 2  r   = mg
2  r  w mwg
 = m
w mw
 = m  w
mw
 w = 72.0 dynes/cm
B. Drop – number method:
Volume of one drop of liquid = v
n
Mass of one drop of liquid = m = v  d
n
 = m
w mw

 = (v/n) d
w (v/nw)dw

 = nw d
w n dw

 = nw d   w
n dw
 “VISCOSITY”
It is internal frictional resistance force to flow

F α A dV
dx
F = η  A dV
dx
η = F  dx
A dV
Force of resistance per unit area, which will cause unit velocity difference
b/w two adjacent layers of a liquid at a unit distance from each other.

Units : η = mass  length x time -2  length = mass x length-1 x time-1

length2 length  time-1
In CGS System gcm-1S-1 = poise
In SI System Kgm-1S-1
η α dt

η = kdt
ηw = k  dw  tw

η = kdt
ηw k  dw  tw

η = dt
ηw dw  tw

η = d  t  ηw
dw  tw
 ηw = 0.0101 poise
 “VAPOUR PRESSURE”
Liquid Vaporization Gaseous
Condensation
At equilibrium,
Rate of vaporization = Rate of condensation
“The pressure exerted by the vapours
in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid at
a specified temperature called vapour
pressure at that temperature”.
It is the measure of tendency of a substance to evaporate.
Vapour pressure α 1 At 60 OC Ethanol = 350 torr
Intermolecular force Water = 150 torr
Vapour pressure α Temperature At 80 OC Ethanol =730 torr, Water = 410 torr
Boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure
So Boiling point α Atmospheric pressure
 ?
Q. Why at high altitude hilly areas, rate of cooking is slow?

Q. Why cooking is so fast in pressure cooker?

 “BUFFER SOLUTION”
“A solution which has tendency to reserve its pH”

1) Acid buffer: Mixture of weak acid and its salts e.g.

(CH3COOH + CH3COONa), (HCOOH + HCOONa),( C2H5COOH + C2H5COONa)

Mechanism:
-
Addition of OH H2O
___________________________________________________________

Acidic partially dissociated CH COO- + H+

CH3COOH 3
Buffer
completely dissociated -
CH3COONa CH3COO + Na+
___________________________________________________________

Addition of H+ CH3COOH
Case I : Addition of small amount of base (OH-)
Case II : Addition of small amount of acid (H+)
 CH3COOH Ka CH3COO- + H+

Ka = [H+] [CH3COO-]
pH = pKa + log [Salt]
[CH3COOH] [Acid]
pH α [Salt]
[H+] = Ka  [CH3COOH]
[Acid]
[CH3COO-]

If [Salt] = [Acid]
[H+] = Ka  [Acid]
[Salt]
then log [Salt] = log 1 = 0
[Acid]
– log [H+] = – log Ka – log [Acid]
[Salt]
So pH = pka
pH = pKa – log [Acid]
[Salt]
 “BUFFER SOLUTION”
2) Basic buffer : Mixture of weak base and its salt
e.g. (NH4OH + NH4Cl), (Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2)

Mechanism:
Addition of H+ H2O
___________________________________________________________

partially dissociated -
Basic NH4OH NH4+ + OH
Buffer
NH4Cl completely dissociated -
NH4+ + Cl
___________________________________________________________
-
Addition of OH NH4OH
Case I : Addition of small amount of base (OH-)
Case II : Addition of small amount of acid (H+)
 NH4OH Kb NH4+ + OH-

Kb = [NH4+] [OH-] pOH = pKb - log [Base]

[NH4OH] [Salt]
pOH = pKb + log [Salt]
[OH-] = Kb  [NH4OH] [Base]
[NH4+]
pOH α [Salt]
[OH-] = Kb  [Base] [Base]
[Salt] If [Salt] = [Base]
then log [Salt] = log 1= 0
-log [OH-] = -log Kb - log [Base] [Base]
[Salt] So pOH = pKb
Question:
Find out the pH of a 200 ml buffer solution containing 2.88
g of CH3COONa and 1.8 g of CH3COOH while Ka for
acetic acid is 1.8 x 10-5 ?
Solution:
Volume of solution = 200 ml = 0.2 liter
A. Sodium Acetate
Amount of CH3COONa = 2.88 g
NO. of mole of CH3COONa = 2.88 g = 0.035 mole
82 g/mole
Molarity of CH3COONa = 0.035 mole = 0.175 M
0.2 liter
B. Acetic Acid
Amount of CH3COOH = 1.8 g
NO. of mole of CH3COOH = 1.8 g = 0.03 mole
60 g/mole
Molarity of CH3COOH = 0.03 mole = 0.15 M
0.2 liter
pH = pka + log [Salt]
[Acid]

pH = pka + log [CH3COONa]

[CH3COOH]

pH = - log(1.8  10-5) + log 0.175

0.15

pH = 4.74 + log 0.175 – log 0.15

pH = 4.74 – 0.69 + 0.82
pH = 4.87
Question:
A chemist desired to prepare 300 ml of a buffer solution
at pH = 9. How many grams of NH4Cl have to be added
to 0.20 M NH3 to make such a buffer? pKb value of
ammonia is 4.75.
Solution:
pH = 9
pOH = 14 - pH = 14 – 9 = 5

pOH = pKb + log [Salt]

[Base]

5 = 4.75 + log [NH4Cl]

[NH3]

5 - 4.75 = log [NH4Cl] – log [NH3]

0.25 = log [NH4Cl] – log 0.20
log [NH4Cl] = 0.25 – 0.698
log [NH4Cl] = – 0.448
[NH4Cl] = Antilog (- 0.448)

[NH4Cl] = 0.356 M

Amount = Molarity  Mol w.t  Volume (liter)

Amount of [NH4Cl] = 0.356  53.5  300

1000

Amount of [NH4Cl] = 5.71 g