Building in Hot and Humid Regions Historical Perspective and Technological Advances

Napoleon Enteria · Hazim Awbi ·
Mat Santamouris Editors
Building in Hot
and Humid
Regions
Historical Perspective and Technological
Advances
Building in Hot and Humid Regions
Napoleon Enteria Hazim Awbi
• •
Mat Santamouris
Editors
Building in Hot and Humid

Regions
Historical Perspective and Technological
Advances
123
Editors
Napoleon Enteria Hazim Awbi
Department of Mechanical Engineering and School of Construction Management
Technology, Iligan Institute of Technology and Engineering
Mindanao State University University of Reading
Iligan, Philippines Reading, UK
Mat Santamouris
School of Built Environment
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW, Australia
ISBN 978-981-13-7518-7 ISBN 978-981-13-7519-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019936288
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

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Preface
The rapid development and advancement of the economies of many countries

situated in hot and humid regions have contributed tremendously to an increase in
energy consumption in these countries. In turn, greenhouse gas emissions have also
increased alongside a rising demand for better living conditions. As the supply of
conventional energy sources is now a serious issue related to greenhouse gas
emissions, the design and construction of energy-efficient, healthy, and comfortable
buildings have become a trend in these regions.
This edition of this book presents a historical perspective of buildings in hot and
humid regions based on traditional and modern technologies. This edition discusses
results from extensive research and development efforts and practices by designers
and developers. Several experts in the fields of building sciences and architecture
from different countries were invited to contribute chapters to this book to provide
the reader with the latest developments in the areas covered in these chapters. The
contributions of these experts provide useful information regarding the advance-
ment of building sciences and architecture in hot and humid regions.
This book is valuable to students, designers, researchers, and policy-makers who
want to learn from researchers’ current knowledge of building design and perfor-
mance in hot and humid regions. The contents of this book will enhance the
knowledge of students who are studying architecture, building sciences, and
engineering by providing them with the latest developments in these fields.
Researchers and designers can benefit from this book by considering and evaluating
the advancements in building design and performance in hot and humid region that
are examined in this book. Policy-makers will benefit from the information in this
book through its evaluation of the latest developments in building design and by
implementing these evaluations into their plans to improve their policies.
The book discusses the historical perspective of the evolution of buildings in hot
and humid regions from traditional cooling methods to modern building designs. It
also highlights the external and internal factors that affect the performance and
operation of buildings and how these factors are considered when buildings are
designed. Different strategies can be implemented into buildings’ designs in dif-
ferent hot and humid regions to make them energy-efficient while providing their
v
vi Preface
occupants with comfort. Thus, the book’s contents provide guidelines for under-
standing the design and operation of energy-efficient buildings in these regions.
The editors are very thankful to the experts who made valuable contributions to
this book. The editors were pleased to provide the time and the expert knowledge
needed to complete this book. The editors are also very thankful to Springer for
publishing this book. The editors are thankful to the staff of Springer for their
support from the conceptualization stage up to the publication of the book. Lastly,
the editors are thankful to their families for their full support during the preparation
of this book.
Finally, the editors, contributors, and publishers are hoping that this book will
provide readers with a fundamental understanding of the subject and that, in turn,
further advancements in the fields of building sciences and architecture will become
a priority in hot and humid regions. This is crucial as the building sector is currently
one of the major consumers of conventional energy sources and contributors of
greenhouses gases. It is hoped that more research, developments, and policy
changes will be carried out based on the information presented in this book.
Iligan, Philippines Napoleon Enteria

Reading, UK Hazim Awbi
Sydney, Australia Mat Santamouris
Contents
Perspective and Advances of Houses and Buildings in Hot

and Humid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Napoleon Enteria, Hazim Awbi and Mat Santamouris
Countermeasures to Urban Heat Island Considering
Urban Energy Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Kazuki Yamaguchi and Tomohiko Ihara
Building Design for Hot and Humid Climate in a Changing
World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Maria Andrea Triana, Renata De Vecchi and Roberto Lamberts
Evaluation of Microclimatic Comfort Around Campus Buildings
at the Pedestrian Level by Means of Field Measurements and Survey
of Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Enes Yasa
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Consideration for the Design
of Buildings for Hot and Humid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
D. Kolokotsa, Junjing Yang and Alexandros Pantazaras
Tectonics in the Gulf Architecture: ‘Modernity of Tradition’
in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Mamun Rashid and Dilshad Ara
Advances in Wind Tunnel and CFD Analysis for Building Design
in Hot–Humid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Priyadarsini Rajagopalan
vii
viii Contents
Utilization of Natural Ventilation for Hot and Humid Singapore . . . . . . 165

Nyuk Hien Wong, Erna Tan and Ayu Sukma Adelia
Energy-Efficient and Renewable Energy-Supported Buildings
in Hot and Humid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Napoleon Enteria and Hiroshi Yoshino
Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems in Hot and Humid
Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Napoleon Enteria and Takao Sawachi
About the Editors
Napoleon Enteria is a Professor of Mechanical

Engineering at Mindanao State University–Iligan
Institute of Technology, Philippines. He has worked as
research specialist at Building Research Institute, a
research staff member at Tohoku University for industry
–government–academe collaboration, a scientist at the
Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore of the
National University of Singapore, and a global center of
excellence researcher at the Wind Engineering Research
Center of the Tokyo Polytechnic University. He founded
the Enteria Grün Energietechnik, a research and technol-
ogy consultancy for tropical climate. His scientific and
technical activities in renewable energy systems, HVACR
systems, building sciences, and built environment have led
to the production of several papers in books, journals,
conferences, and technical reports. He has participated in
collaborative projects with research institutes, universities,
and companies across several countries. He is an associate
editor with the Elsevier’s Solar Energy journal and
Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan’s
Applied Solar Energy journal. He is a guest editor for a
Solar Energy journal special issue on Net Zero Energy
Buildings (NZEB). He is a member of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE), and the International Solar Energy
Society (ISES).
ix
x About the Editors
Hazim Awbi is a Professor Emeritus of the University

of Reading, UK, where he was previously a Professor
of Building Environmental Science, Director of the
Technologies of Sustainable Built Environments
Centre, and Director of the Indoor Environment and
Energy Research Group. His research interests are room
air-flow analysis and modeling, computational fluid
dynamics, indoor air quality, air distribution systems,
low-energy building environmental control systems,
heat transfer, and energy storage. He is the author of
Ventilation of Buildings (Taylor and Francis), editor of
Ventilation Systems—Design and Performance (Taylor
& Francis), and of the CIBSE Application Manual
11: Building Performance Modelling, and co-author of
another four books. He has published more than 160
articles in journals and conference proceedings.
Professor Awbi is Chairman of the Building
Simulation Group of the Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers, London.
Mat Santamouris is a Scientia Professor and the Anita

Lawrence Chair of High Performance Architecture at
the University of New South Wales, Australia. He is
also a Professor at the University of Athens, Greece,
and a Visiting Professor at the Cyprus Institute, the
Metropolitan University of London, Tokyo Polytechnic
University, Bolzano University, Brunel University, and
the National University of Singapore. He has served as
the Director of the Laboratory of Building Energy
Research at the University of Athens and is a former
President of the National Center of Renewable and
Energy Savings of Greece. He works as the Editor in
Chief of Energy and Buildings, and is a former Editor
in Chief of the Journal of Advanced Building Energy
Research and Associate Editor for the Solar Energy
journal. He has been a member of the editorial board
of the International Journal of Solar Energy, Journal of
Buildings and Environment, Journal of Sustainable
Energy, Journal of Low Carbon Technologies, Journal
of Open Construction and Building Technology,
Sustainable Cities and Society, and the Journal of
Ventilation. He is the editor of the Buildings, Energy
and Solar Technologies series of books published by
Earthscan Science Publishers in London and of
About the Editors xi
14 international books on topics related to heat island,

solar energy, and energy conservation in buildings
published by Earthscan, Springer, etc. He has been a
guest editor for 12 special issues of various scientific
journals. He served as a scientific coordinator for many
international research programs and is the author of
almost 240 scientific papers published in peer-reviewed
international scientific journals. He has reviewed
research projects in 15 countries, including the USA,
the UK, France, Germany, Canada, and Sweden.
Finally, he is considered an expert by various interna-
tional research institutions.
Perspective and Advances of Houses
and Buildings in Hot and Humid
Regions
Napoleon Enteria, Hazim Awbi and Mat Santamouris
Abstract Globally, the building sector is a major consumer of primary energy

sources and a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. As a result of
modernization of civilizations coupled with urbanization and increasing living
standards, the building sector’s contribution to energy consumption and green-
houses gases emissions are expected to increase further. In hot and humid regions,
designing energy-efficient and thermally comfortable houses and buildings with
high-quality indoor air is a challenge. Most of the research and developments in this
sector are performed in advanced and industrialized countries; the majority of
which are in temperate regions of the world. With globalization, some concepts and
ideas that have been developed for temperate regions could be reengineered to suit
hot and humid regions. However, raw concepts, ideas, and technologies still need to
be refined for effective application in hot and humid regions, as these regions have
different ways of life, cultures, traditions, and economic standards than industrial-
ized regions. As awareness of the advantages of the energy-efficient and environ-
mentally friendly houses and buildings has grown in hot and humid regions, more
research and development efforts have been supported by government and non-
government organizations in these regions. Hence, the building and operational
technologies of houses and buildings in hot and humid regions are expected to
become more refined as research, developments, and applications of modern
architecture and building sciences become more prevalent in these regions.
Keywords Hot and humid regions, building sciences and technologies Energy

efficiency Renewable energy Indoor air quality
N. Enteria (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, College of Engineering
and Technology, Mindanao State University—Iligan Institute of Technology,
Tibanga, 9200 Iligan, Philippines
e-mail: napoleon.enteria@g.msuiit.edu.ph; enteria@enteria-ge.com
H. Awbi
University of Reading, Reading, UK
M. Santamouris
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

N. Enteria et al. (eds.), Building in Hot and Humid Regions,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_1
2 N. Enteria et al.
1 Introduction
Maintaining a comfortable and clean indoor environment that is responsive to its

occupants’ needs is an energy-intensive operation that can increase the energy
consumption of the building sector [1, 2]. As urbanization, industrialization, and
living standards increase across the globe, the demand for the building sector’s
energy consumption is expected to increase [3–5]. The expected increase of
building sector energy consumption will, in turn, result in an increase in greenhouse
gases emissions [3, 6].
Due to the increasing price of conventional energy sources coupled with the
demand for energy efficiency and conservation, several new concepts and technolo-
gies are being developed for use in the design, construction, and operation of houses
and buildings [7–11]. With these new concepts and technologies, people are able to
maintain comfortable, clean, and conducive indoor environments without using
excessive amounts of energy [12, 13]. The implementation of these new technologies
in actual houses and buildings has reduced the consumption of conventional energy
sources while promoting the application of alternative energy sources [14, 15].
The design of almost all the houses and buildings in hot and humid regions
follow the cultures and traditions of these regions [16–20]. House design in these
regions also depends much on the region’s climate [21]. In hot and dry regions,
such as parts of the Middle East, it is essential that houses minimize the effects of
direct sunlight and hot outdoor air [22, 23]. In tropical regions, houses need to
minimize the effects of hot and humid air [24–26]. The design and materials used in
a building’s construction are determined by what materials are available locally. For
example, bricks and stones are often used to construct buildings in Middle Eastern
countries [27], whereas organic materials tend to be used in tropical countries [28].
As serious concerns have arisen regarding the building sector’s negative impacts
on energy usage and the environment in hot and humid regions, several measures
have been taken to fully understand the situation through research, developments,
demonstrations, trials, and field evaluations. These efforts have also attempted to
determine which concepts and technologies need to be applied to which regions
[29–31]. The topics of recent research range from the development of basic
materials and construction methods intended for use in different regions [32, 33] to
new concepts and technologies that are being tested and adapted for construction,
and the gradual adaptation and application of technologies that promote
energy-efficient and sustainable houses and buildings [34–36].
2 Hot and Humid Regions
2.1 Tropical Region
The tropical region experiences hot and humid air, which results in the extensive
use of air-conditioning systems, leading to high electricity consumption [28, 37].
Perspective and Advances of Houses and Buildings … 3
As most of the region’s countries are struggling economically, building standards

regarding energy efficiency and conservation are not fully developed [38]. The
tropical region is expected to consume large amounts of energy as urbanization
increases [39, 40].
2.2 Middle Eastern Region
The Middle Eastern region experiences hot and dry air, particularly during the
summer and during daytime hours. As with the tropical region, the weather pattern
of the Middle Eastern region leads to the widespread use of air-conditioning sys-
tems and, thus, high electricity consumption in the region [41]. Because of their oil
and gas production, most of this region’s countries can afford the energy required
for the operation of these buildings. However, due to the rising awareness of energy
conservation and efficiency, minimizing energy consumption is now a primary
concern of several countries in this region [42, 43]. Spurred by recent advancements
in the building sciences and architecture in the region, several energy-efficient
concepts and technologies are now being developed to help the climatic situation of
the region [44–46].
2.3 Central Asian Region
The Central Asian region experiences hot and dry air during the summer and
daytime, which again raises the need for air-conditioning systems to be run often,
demanding a lot of electricity [47, 48]. Because some of the region’s countries are
still in the process of economic improvement [49], the energy requirement for
houses and buildings is in the developmental stage [48, 50]. Some new building
sciences and architectural concepts and technologies are currently being imple-
mented in the design and construction of new houses and buildings, particularly in
large urban areas [51–54].
2.4 North African Region
The North African region experiences hot and dry air, particularly during summer
and during the day. This also results in the extensive use of air-conditioning sys-
tems and high electricity consumption [55, 56]. Some of the region’s countries have
little oil and gas production and, thus, have relatively weak economies. Because of
this, many parts of this region cannot afford the energy needed for their houses and
buildings to be thermally comfortable. Hence, the provision of alternative systems
4 N. Enteria et al.
is essential in these countries [57]. Fortunately, new building sciences and archi-
tectural concepts and technologies are currently being implemented in the design
and construction of new houses and buildings in this region [58].
3 Houses and Buildings
3.1 Old Houses and Buildings
In tropical South and Southeast Asia, which experience hot and humid outdoor air
as well as cyclones and typhoons, houses are typically made from materials com-
monly found around in the surrounding area, such as wood bamboo, and palm
shrubs [59]. The utilization of these organic materials mitigates the effects of hot
outdoor conditions, as they absorb direct solar radiation [60]. The application of
conventional materials also creates natural ventilation throughout the standard
house, thus minimizing the effect of hot and humid air [61]. The typical South or
Central American building is made from local materials such as wood, mud, and
stones [62, 63].
Houses around the Mediterranean sea are usually designed to suit the climatic
conditions of the region through the utilization of locally available materials
[64–66].
The area of North Africa which contains a large part of the Sahara desert,
contains houses and buildings that tend to utilize stone, mud, and other organic
materials that are found in the region [67–70].
Houses in parts of Southern Europe that include southern Greece utilize a dif-
ferent design which makes advantage of the available local materials such as stones
and wood. Such houses are constructed with consideration given to the local cli-
mate [71].
In the Middle Eastern regions as far north as Central Asia, of which a significant
portion is desert, buildings are usually designed and constructed to mitigate the
effect of this region’s hot air [72]. Many houses and buildings are made of materials
that are common to the area, like mud and stone with some wood or palm [73, 74].
3.2 Modern Houses and Buildings
Modern houses and buildings in South and Southeast Asia are generally made of
concrete and glass, particularly in urban areas. These buildings are still associated
with high energy consumption from the use of air-conditioning systems [75]. This
is due to the application of building sciences, technology, and architecture devel-
opments which originated in developed countries [26, 28]. In large urban com-
mercial areas, modern buildings and houses made from concrete with large glass
windows are common [76, 77]. In rural areas, houses made from local materials are
still common [76].
Modern houses and buildings in the Mediterranean region, like those in Southern
Europe [78] and North Africa [79], are designed and constructed according to the
region’s countries’ capabilities. In large commercial urban areas, modern buildings
and houses are often made from concrete and other modern materials, with glass
windows [80], though in both rural and urban areas, houses made from local
materials are still common [81, 82]. Advanced technologies are applied to modern
buildings to minimize energy consumption [83, 84].
Modern buildings in South and Central America—particularly those in urban
areas—are ordinarily made of concrete, steel, and glass [85]. In low-income
communities, both urban and rural, houses are still constructed using local materials
[86]. The design and construction of such houses affect their indoor conditions [87].
The Middle East and Central Asia follow the trend of the modernization of
buildings and houses by using concrete and glass to construct buildings [88, 89].
Large urban centers with high-rise buildings were constructed after the oil boom
resulted in the rapid growth of the region’s economy [48, 88, 89]. This economic
boom also led to the adaptation of the design and construction of modern buildings,
houses, and cities [88, 89].
3.3 Synergized Old and Modern Building Technologies
As concerns about energy, the environment, and comfortable and healthy indoor
environments have grown, a few rich Southeast Asian countries have combined
traditional and modern building planning, construction, and management methods
[90, 91]. Moreover, buildings and houses are becoming more energy-efficient,
comfortable, and healthy [92–94]. Other countries in the region are trying to adapt
to the advancements in architecture and the building sciences that are intended for
use in the tropical regions of South and Southeast Asia [95, 96].
The countries around the Mediterranean Sea have upgraded the design and
construction of their buildings and houses by utilizing passive and active sources of
alternative energy [97]. They have done this while considering the condition of the
indoor environments of these buildings [98].
Countries in North Africa [67, 79, 99] and the Middle East [79] have combined
ancient and modern methods in terms of the design, technologies, and locality of
buildings [44, 79, 100, 101].
Countries in South and Central America with tropical climates are presently adapting
modern architecture and building sciences for the hot and humid climate of the tropics
[75]. There are several modern buildings and houses in the region that incorporate these
technologies and, as a result, lessen conventional energy consumption and make
buildings and houses passive, healthy, comfortable, and safe [102, 103].
Middle Eastern countries and countries in Central Asia are also adopting modern
and advanced architecture and building sciences in the construction of houses and
6 N. Enteria et al.
buildings [104–106]. Some new buildings and houses are constructed to lower
energy consumption while offering comfortable and healthy indoor environments
[48, 107].
3.4 Urban Environment Consideration
As rapid urbanization is taking place in many countries in hot and humid regions
[108–110], it is expected that the urban heat island phenomenon will become a serious
issue [111, 112]. In hot and humid regions, the overuse of air-conditioning systems
emits heats to the external environment [113]. The emission of heat by
air-conditioning systems increases the outdoor environment’s temperature, which
then increases the energy consumed by air-conditioning systems to keep the house’s
interior cool [114]. In addition, urbanization increases the use of concrete, asphalt, and
metal components used for infrastructure and buildings [115]. Moreover, improper
urban planning increases the urban temperature due to an increased and highly con-
centrated generation of heat from people, equipment, and other factors [116, 117].
Different methods can be applied to mitigate the urban heat island in hot and
humid regions. These methods have already been applied in different regions [118,
119]. Urban greening, by which parks are built in certain areas of urban centers and
trees are planted beside roads, can mitigate the effects of the urban heat island [120–
123]. Urban ventilation, which involves proper design of urban areas with con-
sideration of the wind passing through urban centers during high noon, minimizes
the stagnation of high-temperature air in these areas [124–127]. Another recent
advancement is urban cooling, by which an evaporative cooling method is applied
to reduce the temperature of the air in urban areas [109, 128, 129]. Another option
is to create infrastructure and buildings that use materials and colors that minimize
the absorption of solar heat. This is known as cool coating [130–132].
The proper design of buildings and houses is important to prevent large amounts
of heat from accumulating in urban areas. Proper design minimizes air-conditioning
usage [133], and the amount of solar heat that gets trapped in buildings [131, 134,
135]. This can be accomplished passively [76, 133]. One example of this is
appropriately positioning buildings and houses for urban ventilation [136].
Moreover, some countries in hot and humid regions are now giving considerations
on how the current design of houses and buildings can be adapted to reduce the
effects of the urban heat island [137–139].
4 Conclusions
Different countries in different hot and humid regions have different cultures, tra-
ditions, and ways of life. The ancient traditions, cultures, geographical locations,
and climatic conditions of different countries have affected the development and
application of building sciences, technologies, and architecture. Also, different

countries have utilized different advancements in architectural design, building
sciences, and technology in their attempts to gradually adopt the new developments
in the design and construction of buildings and houses. These countries also have
varying levels of economic statuses, research, development, and application of
building sciences and technology.
Research and development efforts in building sciences and technology are
ongoing. These can be incorporated in the architectural design of buildings and
houses to cater for the needs of individual countries and to the larger regions to
which they belong to according to each country’s local culture and traditions. The
growing concerns about energy consumption and the environment, coupled with the
increasing demand for comfortable and healthy indoor environments along with
considerations of the capital and operational costs of houses and buildings, will
ensure that the future of building sciences and technologies is bright. Countries in
hot and humid regions are investing capital and manpower into the building sector
while developing the necessary legislation to deal with these issues.
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Countermeasures to Urban Heat Island
Considering Urban Energy Usage
Kazuki Yamaguchi and Tomohiko Ihara
Abstract In this chapter, we focus on energy use in cities and consider measures to
combat the heat island effect, which is a warming factor characteristic of cities. In
the introduction, we discuss the general trend of increasing urban populations and
energy consumption in developing countries within tropical and subtropical
regions, and define the heat island effect, which will intensify in these regions in
future. Next, we explain the characteristics, causes, impacts, and countermeasures
of this phenomenon, using the severe heat island in Tokyo as an example, with the
aim of developing guidelines for tackling this issue in developing countries. In
addition, we use several evaluation case studies to discuss heat island mitigation
measures incorporating life-cycle assessments. Finally, we consider high-efficiency
energy utilization technology that contributes toward both climate change mitiga-
tion (CO2 reduction) and adaptation (improvement of the thermal environment),
and determine the characteristics of each effect through a comparison with general
heat island countermeasures such as greening.

Keywords Global climate change Urban heat island Mitigation Adaptation

Cool roof Air conditioner Heat pump Electric vehicle Life-cycle assessment
1 Introduction
According to the IPCC report [1], the impacts of climate change are already
apparent and unavoidable, even employing maximum mitigation measures; there-
fore, adaptation measures represent a vital immediate response. The mitigation
K. Yamaguchi (&)
Energy & Environment Division, R&D Department, TEPCO Research Institute (TRI),
Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings, Inc., Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: yamaguchi.ka@tepco.co.jp
T. Ihara
Department of Environment Systems, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences,
The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_2
16 K. Yamaguchi and T. Ihara
measures referred to in this chapter are those that either reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases that cause global warming (or that increase the amount of these
gases absorbed by, for example, afforestation). Adaptation measures avoid or
reduce damage by adjusting natural and human systems according to the impacts of
climate change (rising sea levels, extreme weather, drought, etc.). When consid-
ering the structure of environmental problems including global warming, the pro-
cess can be broken down into three stages: a “cause” that triggers a problematic
“phenomenon”, which in turn causes an “impact”. Measures that reduce the flow
from “cause” to “phenomenon” are referred to as mitigation measures, whereas
those that reduce the flow from “phenomenon” to “impact” are referred to as
adaptation measures.
If we consider that, the cause of global warming is energy consumption and the
recipient of the impact is the population, and then urban areas are key to developing
countermeasures from the aspect of both mitigation and adaptation. Today, urban
areas cover only 1% of the Earth’s surface [2] but are home to over 50% of the
global population, who consume nearly 80% of the world’s energy [3, 4].
The global population has consistently increased since World War II and is
projected to reach up to 16.5 billion by 2100 [5]. However, Fig. 1 shows that the
population remains almost constant in developed countries, indicating that popu-
lation growth in developing countries is the main driver of the global increase.
Rural populations have increased gradually until recent years yet are expected to
remain almost constant in the future, while urban populations are expected to
continue growing. The urban population of developing countries was 42% of the
world’s population in 2017, but is expected to reach 57% in 2050 [6].
Considering energy consumption, while global final consumption in 2015 was
9.4 Gtoe (ton of oil equivalent), population rise and economic growth in the pre-
dominantly developing regions of Asia, Africa, and Central and South America
(CSA) are expected to push this to 13.7 Gtoe in 2050 (Fig. 2). Because the final
energy consumption of developed countries such as the United States and EU
12
Rural (developing world)
10 Rural (developed world)
Urban (developing world)
8 Urban (developed world)
Billions
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Fig. 1 Forecast of urban and rural populations [6]

Countermeasures to Urban Heat Island Considering … 17
14
China
12
India
10 ASEAN
Other Asia
8
Gtoe
CSA
6 Africa
Middle East
4
EU
2 USA
Other
0
1990 2000 2015 2030 2040 2050
Fig. 2 Forecast of final energy consumption by region. From 2030 onward is a “reference
scenario” whereby past trends continue against the background of current energy and
environmental policies [7]
countries is expected to remain almost unchanged, it is the proportion of worldwide

energy consumption by developing countries that will increase. Given the growth of
urban population, it is clear that energy consumption in the cities of developing
countries will boost worldwide energy consumption.
Thus, as factors related to the “impact” and “cause” of global warming, urban
population and energy consumption are increasing; however, urban areas also
display a city-specific “phenomenon” of global warming, i.e., the heat island effect.
In the future, urban areas will be impacted by both global warming and heat island
effects. Damage caused by the warming that can be described as the product of
“exposure population” and “severity of the phenomena” is to be most significant in
the urban areas.
According to the IPCC’s high-level reference scenario (RCP 8.5), the change in
global average temperature by the end of this century is likely to fall within the
range of 2.6–4.8 °C [8], but in large cities, the heat island effect will further
increase this temperature rise by more than 2 °C. Consequently, it is estimated that
the cost of measures against global warming in urban areas will increase by 2.6
times [9]. Looking at the current top 20 urban area populations (Table 1), 16 are
located in developing countries, most of which correspond to high-temperature and/
or humid areas. In this chapter, we aim to determine the problems that will arise in
cities located in already hot tropical or subtropical areas due to intensification of the
heat island effect.
The Tokyo metropolitan area (Tokyo–Yokohama area) boasts the world’s largest
urban population and has the most severe heat island effect. Section 2.2 outlines the
characteristics of the heat island effect, its impacts, and relevant countermeasures,
and uses Tokyo as an example to inform developing cities about the heat island
effect.
Table 1 Largest built-up urban areas (urban agglomerations) in the world [10]
Rank Urban area (Country) Population Köppen climate classification
1 Tokyo–Yokohama (Japan) 38,050,000 Cfa (Humid subtropical)
2 Jakarta (Indonesia) 32,275,000 Am (Tropical monsoon)
3 Delhi (India) 27,280,000 Cwa (Humid subtropical)
4 Manila (Philippines) 24,650,000 Am (Tropical monsoon)
5 Seoul–Incheon (South Korea) 24,210,000 Cwa (Humid subtropical)
6 Shanghai (China) 24,115,000 Cfa (Humid subtropical)
7 Mumbai (India) 23,265,000 Aw (Savanna)
8 New York (USA) 21,575,000 Cfa (Humid subtropical)
9 Beijing (China) 21,250,000 Dwa (Humid continental)
10 Sao Paulo (Brazil) 21,100,000 Cfa (Humid subtropical)
11 Mexico City (Mexico) 20,565,000 Cwb (Subtropical highland)
12 Guangzhou–Foshan (China) 19,965,000 Cwa (Humid subtropical)
13 Dhaka (Bangladesh) 17,425,000 Aw (Savanna)
14 Osaka–Kobe–Kyoto (Japan) 17,165,000 Cfa (Humid subtropical)
15 Moscow (Russia) 16,855,000 Dfb (Humid continental)
16 Cairo (Egypt) 15,600,000 BW (Desert)
17 Bangkok (Thailand) 15,975,000 Aw (Savanna)
18 Los Angeles–Riverside (USA) 15,620,000 Csb (Mediterranean)
19 Buenos Aires (Argentina) 15,520,000 Cfa (Humid subtropical)
20 Kolkata (India) 15,095,000 Aw (Savanna)
2 Heat Island Effect
2.1 Characteristics of the Heat Island Effect
Figure 3a shows the distribution of land use in the Japanese capital, Tokyo, and
surrounding areas. The urban area of Tokyo–Yokohama is distributed along the
western bank of Tokyo Bay, forming a large metropolis. Figure 3b is the distri-
bution of mean temperatures (1981–2010) for the same area in August (summer).
The distribution of urban areas and high-temperature zones shows good agreement,
with the highest temperature in the central part of the west bank of Tokyo Bay.
Temperatures inside urban areas are known to be higher than in surrounding
areas (suburbs). As shown in Fig. 3b, the distribution of surface air temperature
around the urban area manifests as an island-shaped contour line on the map; hence,
this phenomenon is called the heat island effect.
Figure 4 shows the average annual temperatures of major cities around the world
and the changing trend of global average temperature. Cities such as New York,
Paris, and Berlin also show a high rate of increase compared to the average global
temperature, but in Tokyo, temperature is increasing at an exceptional rate of
approximately 3 °C per 100 years. Of this 3 °C temperature rise, 1 °C is estimated
Fig. 3 Maps of Tokyo and surrounding areas showing a land use distribution [11] and
b distribution of average August temperatures (1981–2010) [12]. Average temperature values are
based on observation values at the meteorological stations shown in the figure, estimated according
to a 1-km mesh considering topography and land use
18 12
16 10
Global Temperature Anomaly [°C]

14 8
Temperature [°C]
12 6
10 4
8 2
6 0
4 -2
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Tokyo New York Paris Berlin Global Average (Land)
Fig. 4 Long-term changes in the average annual temperature for different cities in the world and
the global average. Global temperature is expressed as the difference from the mean for 1971–
2000. (Reproduced from JMA [13])
to be due to global warming and 2 °C is estimated to represent the heat island

effect [14].
Heat island (HI) intensity, which is defined as the temperature difference
between urban and rural areas, is larger at night and in the winter on diurnal and
annual timescales, respectively. For the area shown in Fig. 3b, the decadal average
temperature trends (2001–2010) in January (winter) and August (summer) at the
10 32
(a) January (b) August
8 30
Temperature [°C]
Temperature [°C]
6 28
4 26
2 24
0 22
Tokyo Oume Tokyo Oume
-2 20
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Hour Hour
Fig. 5 Decadal average hourly temperature (2001–2010) in a January and b August for Tokyo
(city center) and Oume (suburban area)
Tokyo observation station, located in the city center, and the Oume observation
station, located in a suburban area, are shown in Fig. 5. HI intensity at 14:00, when
the temperature is highest, does not differ substantially from 1.1 °C in February to
1.0 °C in August; however, between 21:00 and 06:00, HI intensity is 4.7 °C in
January and only 2.6 °C in August. The diurnal variations (temperature rise in the
morning and temperature drop at night) are moderate compared to suburban areas;
thus, urban areas appear to be difficult to warm and difficult to cool.
The heat island effect is therefore most prominently manifested as a rise in the
minimum daily temperature. In contrast to rural areas, the temperature in urban
areas does not typically drop, even at night, and morning and evening temperatures
are high. Hence, urban dwellers are exposed to very hot environments over a longer
period of time. Figure 6, showing the annual number of days in which the minimum
temperature in Tokyo is 25 °C or higher and the annual number of hours in which
the air temperature is 30 °C or higher, clearly illustrates the deterioration of the
thermal environment during both day and night due to increased urbanization.
60 600
No. of Days with Tmin ≥ 25°C
50 500
No. of Hours with T ≥ 30°C
40 400
No. of Hours
No. of Days
30 300
20 200
10 100
0 0
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Fig. 6 Annual number of days where the minimum day temperature in Tokyo is over 25 °C
(circles) and annual number of hours where the air temperature is over 30 °C (squares). Straight
lines indicate linear trends
50
(a) Tokyo (b) Jakarta (c) New Delhi
Precipitation [cm]
40
Temperature [°C]
30
20
10
0
Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct
P Tmax Tmin
Fig. 7 Monthly climatic normal values of average daily maximum temperature, average daily
minimum temperature, and precipitation for major cities in the world (1981–2010): a Tokyo
(Japan Meteorological Agency), b Jakarta (Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology, and
Geophysics), and c New Delhi (India Meteorological Department)
Figure 7 shows the climatic normal values for the average daily maximum
temperature, average daily minimum temperature, and precipitation for each month
in Tokyo, Jakarta, and New Delhi, the top three urban areas in terms of population.
Compared with the temperature in Tokyo, which has large seasonal fluctuations, the
temperature in Jakarta barely fluctuates, maintaining the same level as Tokyo’s
hottest period throughout the year. Meanwhile, the temperature of New Delhi
shows large seasonal fluctuations and is hotter than Tokyo throughout the year, with
a maximum daily temperature in the hot season of approximately 40 °C. In addi-
tion, both Jakarta and New Delhi have a rainy season that is hotter and more humid
than Tokyo. Thus, large cities at low latitudes experience a more severe initial
thermal environment than Tokyo, which is located at mid-latitudes. Many of these
cities are still developing, and damage caused by the heat island effect is likely to
become more obvious with continued urbanization in the future.
Figure 8 shows the decadal average of August average hourly temperatures in
Tokyo (1986–1995 and 2006–2015) and Jakarta (2006–2015). Comparing 1986–
1995 and 2006–2015 for Tokyo, the maximum and minimum temperatures rose by
approximately 0.6 and 0.9 °C, respectively, over the 20 years. For Jakarta in 2006–
2015, the maximum temperature is approximately halfway between the two Tokyo
periods, but the minimum temperature is approximately 0.7 °C lower than Tokyo in
1986–1995. Thus, the nighttime temperature is lower than Tokyo even in cities
located in the tropics, enabling heat island effects to progress significantly in the
future.
2.2 Causes of the Heat Island Effect
There are three main factors that increase the temperature in urban areas: artificial
ground surface coatings, urban morphology, and anthropogenic heat.
32
31
30
29
Temperature [°C]
28
27
26
25
Tokyo (1986-1995)
24
Tokyo (2006-2015)
23
Jakarta (2006-2015)
22
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Hour
Fig. 8 Decadal average of August average hourly temperatures in Tokyo (1986–1995 and 2006–
2015) and Jakarta (2006–2015)
2.2.1 Artificial Ground Surface Coatings
Due to the effects of plant transpiration and soil water evaporation, part of the solar
energy absorbed by the natural ground surface is released to the atmosphere as
latent heat; therefore, it does not lead to a temperature rise. Also, trees suppress the
rise in ground surface temperature by blocking solar radiation. Meanwhile, in urban
areas, the surface of the ground is covered by asphalt, concrete, and other artificial
surfaces, so the moisture content of the ground is small and the amount of direct
heating of the atmosphere by the ground surface increases, elevating the temper-
ature. In addition, because artificial surfaces can hold heat accumulated during the
day due to their large heat capacity, they also prevent the temperature from drop-
ping at night.
2.2.2 Urban Morphology (Buildings)
Ground surfaces and buildings that absorb solar radiation and become hot in the
daytime cool down at night by infrared radiation toward the sky. However, in urban
areas crowded with mid- to high-rise buildings, the sky view factor drops, nocturnal
radiative cooling is blunted, and heat accumulated during the day can easily be
retained until dawn. Furthermore, because wind speeds near the ground surface are
weakened by the presence of buildings, the heat of the Earth’s surface tends not to
diffuse to the sky, and airflow between the urban area and outside is also hindered,
resulting in an increase in the temperature near the ground.
2.2.3 Anthropogenic Heat
Anthropogenic heat discharged by various industrial and social activities in an

urban area directly warms the atmosphere of that area, forming locally high tem-
perature in areas of concentrated population. Air conditioning exhaust heat from
buildings and vehicle exhaust heat are particularly large anthropogenic heat sources
that drive the heat island effect.
The degree to which these factors contribute to urban temperature rise depends
on time and location. It is difficult to estimate the contribution of each factor from
temperature observations, but numerical simulation using an urban climate model
can calculate air temperature both with and without a specific factor, and the
difference between them can be regarded as the temperature effect due to that factor.
Here, we introduce the results of heat island factor analysis for a model city block in
summer with the average urban morphology and traffic volume of the Tokyo office
area [15] using an urban canopy-building energy model (CM-BEM) [16, 17] (de-
tailed in Sect. 2.5.1).
The evaluation method employs a standard state where the ground surface is
entirely covered by green space and there are no buildings or exhaust heat.
Calculations were then conducted by adding the factors in stages in the order of
buildings, artificial ground surface, vehicle exhaust heat, and air-conditioning
exhaust heat; the temperature increase at each stage was regarded as the contribution
of each factor (Fig. 9a). Buildings contribute to a large temperature rise at night and
a temperature drop during the day. This is because they increase and decrease the
thermal capacity of the entire urban area and the sky factor, respectively, so the
temperature is less likely to rise during the day nor drop during the night. Artificial
ground surfaces exhibit a large contribution to temperature rise during the day
because of the lack of cooling effect by evapotranspiration. Because anthropogenic
heat emissions are higher during the day than at night (Fig. 9b), their contribution to
temperature rise is large during the day. As a result, the net temperature rise pro-
duced by aggregating all the contributions is larger at night than in the day.
As the evaluation block was defined as an average office block area in Tokyo,
anthropogenic heat emissions are approximately 35 W/m2 during the day (Fig. 9b),
but can reach 100 W/m2 in urban centers where the traffic volume is high. Looking
at the anthropogenic heat emissions in more detail, exhaust heat is approximately the
same at around 9:00 in the morning and 18:00 in the evening, but the temperature
rise in the evening is small compared to that in the morning. This is because, when
the ground surface is heated by solar radiation during the day, convection becomes
active near the ground, promoting upward diffusion of exhaust heat.
In addition, even though the exhaust heat of air conditioners is approximately 2.5
times larger than the exhaust heat of vehicles during the day, their contribution to
the rise in temperature is almost the same. There are two main reasons for this. The
first is the difference in exhaust heat altitude. Exhaust heat from vehicles is dis-
charged from vehicles traveling on roads near the ground, whereas air conditioning
exhaust heat is discharged from outdoor units installed on each floor of the building.
Generally, the higher the level of exhaust heat from the ground surface, the lower
3.0 40
2.5
(a) Net
35
(b)
Heat Amount [W/m2]

Temperature Rise [°C]
2.0 30
1.5 25
1.0
20
0.5
15
0.0
-0.5 10
-1.0 5
-1.5 0
0 3 6 9
12 15 18 21 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Hour Hour
Artificial surface Building Traffic exhaust heat
Traffic exhaust heat A/C exhaust heat A/C exhaust heat
Fig. 9 a Contribution to temperature rise in an average Tokyo office area by factor and
b breakdown of anthropogenic heat emissions (sensible heat). August mean values estimated by
the urban canopy-building energy model. The air conditioning unit is an air cooling type unit with
heat exhausted on each floor. Urban Morphology and traffic heat amount are based on GIS data
[18] and road traffic census [19], respectively
the influence on air temperature in the vicinity of the ground surface. The second
reason is the cooling effect of the building itself due to air conditioning operation.
Heat loads in buildings processed by air conditioning units are broadly divided into
internal heat generation (heat generated by the human body and lighting/appliance)
and invasive heat load from the outside. In the case of electric heat pump air
conditioning, a heat quantity equivalent to the power consumption of the air con-
ditioning unit itself is added to the processed heat load and discharged as exhaust
heat outside the building. Looking at a breakdown by time and the contribution to
the rise in temperature (Fig. 10), most air conditioning exhaust heat during the day
originates from the invasive heat load, but its contribution to the rise in temperature
is limited. Although the invasive heat load entering the building is discharged
outside the building by the air conditioning unit, the building is similarly cooled, so
30 0.30
(a) 0.25
(b)
25
Temperature Rise [°C]
Heat Amount [W/m2]
Net
0.20
20
0.15
15
0.10
10
0.05
5 0.00
0 -0.05
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Hour Hour
A/C power Human body A/C power Human body
Lighting/appliance Invasive heat Lighting/appliance Invasive heat
Fig. 10 a Breakdown of heat load included in exhaust heat from air conditioning in Fig. 9 and
b contribution to temperature rise from each factor
heat transfer from the building surface to the atmosphere decreases, and the con-
tribution to the rise in temperature is small. Also, because heat stored by the
building itself is reduced by air conditioning, it contributes to a fall in temperature
at night.
2.3 Impact of the Heat Island Effect
The heat island effect is thought to affect various aspects of urban areas including
the weather, air quality, and ecosystems. The impact on human health and air
conditioning energy consumption has a particularly strong relationship to human
activities in cities.
2.3.1 Human Health
Heat disorders have attracted significant research attention as a direct health hazard
of heat. Heat disorder is a generic term for various symptoms due to heat-related
illness, which are categorized as mild heat syncope, heat exhaustion, moderate heat
cramps, and severe heatstroke [20]. In severe cases, aftereffects can remain or
patients may die. High air temperature, high humidity, weak wind, and strong solar
radiation are some climatic factors that are likely to cause heat disorders. Under a
high humidity environment, the body temperature tends to rise because perspiration
cannot evaporate, and the risk of heat disorder increases, even if the temperature is
low. Also, in addition to direct solar radiation, radiation heat from the surfaces of
high-temperature roads and buildings is also a factor that increases the risk of heat
disorders in urban areas.
The wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) [21, 22] is internationally standardized
by ISO as a heat index for the prevention of heat disorders. WBGT considers
temperature, humidity, airflow, and radiant heat (solar and infrared radiation) as
environmental factors and is calculated by the following formula:
Outdoor ðwith solar loadÞ : WBGT ¼ 0:7Tw þ 0:2Tg þ 0:1Td
Indoor ðwithout solar loadÞ : WBGT ¼ 0:7Tw þ 0:3Tg
where Tw = natural wet-bulb temperature, Tg = globe temperature, and Td = dry

bulb temperature.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the number of heat disorder patients
(emergency hospitalizations) and deaths with respect to the daily maximum WBGT
in central Tokyo in 2010–2014 [23, 24]. It is clear that the number of emergency
patients rapidly increases from a WBGT of approximately 28 °C.
Because statistical data exist for heat disorders such as the number of emergency
hospitalizations, we can observe many research cases; however, mild health
16
14
Patients
Cases/106 Population 12
Deaths
10
8
6
4
2
0
15 20 25 30 35
Daily maximum WBGT [°C]
Fig. 11 Relationship between number of heat disorder patients (emergency hospitalizations) and
deaths per 1 million people with respect to daily maximum WBGT in the center of Tokyo (2010–
2014). Solid line is the smoothed spline regression curve
0.7
0.6
Incidence Rate [-]
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
15 20 25 30 35
Temperature at midnight [°C]
Fig. 12 Relationship between air temperature at 00:00 and prevalence of sleep disorders,
illustrated by epidemiological study results for 420 adult males and females in central Tokyo in the
summer of 2006. Solid line is the smoothed spline regression curve [25]
disorders with no statistical data are less noticeable. Sleep disorder is cited as a
typical example. Figure 12 shows the relationship between the prevalence of sleep
disorders and temperature at 00:00, based on an epidemiological survey conducted
in central Tokyo. Although it is more ambiguous than the relationship between heat
disorders and WBGT (Fig. 11), the approximate curve reveals that prevalence
increases when the temperature at 00:00 exceeds 23 °C. It is also worth noting that
the prevalence reaches an average of 32% in the 00:00 temperature range of
approximately 20–29 °C. That is, although sleep disorders are less severe than other
heat disorders, the prevalence rate is extremely high, and may cause not only health
damage but also a substantial loss to society, including a decline in labor
productivity.
As direct effects on human health caused by the heat island effect, it is also
important to consider the positive aspect of “reduction of cold stress” as well as the
negative aspect of “increase in heat stress” [26]. In tropical areas with high tem-
peratures all year round, the negative impact due to heat stress is overwhelmingly
large, but in temperate areas with cold weather in winter due to seasonal changes,
the effect of cold stress mitigation increases, possibly resulting in a net positive.
As an indirect effect, when a heat island develops in urban areas located in
temperate regions, the rise of the minimum temperature in winter makes it possible
for pathogen (bacteria, viruses) vectors to overwinter, causing concern that epi-
demics of infectious tropical diseases could increase. For example, only nine
countries experienced a serious dengue fever epidemic prior to 1970, but now the
epidemic area has expanded to more than 100 countries [27]. In Japan, the first
domestic infection of dengue fever since World War II was confirmed in Tokyo in
2014 [28].
2.3.2 Air Conditioning Energy Consumption
The first influence of the heat island effect on energy consumption is the increase of
air conditioning energy consumption in the summer. Figure 13 is a scatter plot of
the outdoor temperature and amount of electricity consumption per unit floor area in
an office area in central Tokyo at 11:00. It is possible to approximate the rela-
tionship between the two using a segmented linear regression of three sections. The
section where the outdoor air temperature ranges from 14 to 19 °C corresponds to
an intermediate period in which air conditioning is not in operation and power
consumption is almost constant. The sections of 19 °C or higher and 14 °C or lower
correspond to the cooling period and heating period, respectively. When the
Fig. 13 Relationship 50
Electricity Consumption [W/m2]
between outdoor temperature 45

and the amount of electricity
consumption per unit floor 40
area at 11:00 in an office area 35
in central Tokyo. The period 30
extends from 1 February to 24 Cooling
25
October 2007 (weekdays Period
20
only). Solid line is the linear Heating
regression line for each 15 Period
temperature zone 10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Outdoor Temperature [°C]
Fig. 14 Sensitivity of 1
electricity consumption to air
Sensitivity [W/m2/°C]
temperature over time during 0.8
the cooling period in an office
area and a residential area in 0.6
central Tokyo
0.4
0.2
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Hour
Office Area Residential Area
temperature rises or falls, power consumption increases at a fixed rate. The slope of
the regression line indicates the change in power consumption per 1 °C and is
called the sensitivity of electricity consumption to air temperature [29].
As shown in Fig. 14, a general feature of the sensitivity of electricity con-
sumption to air temperature during the cooling period is a large value in the day and
a small value at night in the office area, while the residential area displays little
variation in the day or night but shows a larger value at night. This indicates that
many air conditioners are in operation in residences, even during the night (in
Japanese houses it is estimated that the usage rate of air conditioning during sleep is
as high as 90% [30]). Because the rise in temperature due to the heat island effect is
most striking at night, the impact is predominantly manifested as an increased
demand for nighttime air conditioning in residential areas. As seen in Fig. 8, even
tropical cities such as Jakarta are cooler than Tokyo at night and the nighttime air
conditioning usage rate is as low as approximately 15% [31]; however, due to the
development of heat islands, this usage rate will rise sharply, leading to concerns
that power consumption will increase.
Another important point regarding the sensitivity of electricity consumption to
air temperature is that factors other than temperature also act in the background,
such as solar radiation and humidity. The invasive heat load from outside of the
building is broadly divided into solar radiation transfer through the windows, heat
transfer through the walls, and ventilation heat. Taking an average office building in
Tokyo as an example (Fig. 15), approximately one-third of the heat load during the
day is solar radiation transfer through the windows. In addition, approximately half
of the heat load during the day comprises heat transfer through the walls, but most
of this is due to solar heat absorbed by the outer wall. More than half of the heat
load due to ventilation is latent heat load caused by the humidity of the outside air.
The higher the amount of solar radiation, the higher the air temperature, and the
higher the air temperature, the greater the increase in water vapor in the air, which
raises the absolute humidity (specific humidity). For this reason, the correlation
between temperature and electric power appears to be high, but solar radiation and
Fig. 15 Breakdown of the 140

average August invasive heat Transfer through windows
load with time for an average 120 Transfer through walls
Heat Load [W/floor-m2]

office building in Tokyo. Air Ventilation (Sensible)
100
conditioning operation time is
Ventilation (Latent)
09:00–17:00. Values are 80
calculated by the urban
canopy-building energy 60
model [16, 17]
40
20
0
-20
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Hour
humidity contribute to the increase in air conditioning load, so the contribution of

air temperature is actually not that large. This is important for estimating the effect
of measures for combatting heat islands. It should also be highlighted that measures
that only decrease temperature (or decrease temperature but increase humidity) will
not lead to a reduction in the electricity demand corresponding to the sensitivity of
electricity consumption to temperature.
Similar to the relationship between heat and cold stress and health impacts, it
should be noted that, as well as the negative aspect of increased cooling demand,
there is also the positive aspect of a decline in heating demand. In tropical areas, the
increase in cooling demand will be overwhelmingly large, but in temperate areas,
the effect of declining heating demand will be greater, which may result in net
energy savings [32].
2.4 Measures Combatting the Heat Island Effect
As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter (Sect. 2.1), measures against all
environmental problems can be divided into mitigation measures and adaptation
measures. If global climate change is the issue, energy saving measures to reduce
CO2 emissions are referred to as “mitigation measures”, and measures combatting
heat islands that improve the local thermal environment in areas of high population
are referred to as “adaptation measures”. However, if the heat island effect is the
issue, measures to lower the temperature of the entire city are “mitigation mea-
sures”, and air conditioning measures that improve the thermal environment of the
local space used by humans are “adaptation measures”.
Measures to mitigate the heat island effect can be broadly divided into three
categories those corresponding to the three factors mentioned in Sect. 2.2, i.e.,
artificial ground surfaces, urban morphology, and anthropogenic heat.
2.4.1 Ground Surface Coating Measures (Cool Roofs)
Ground surface coating measures are generally called “cool roofs” and many
studies have been conducted to evaluate their effects [33–36].
Latent Heat Measures
“Greening” of the urban ground surface is the most direct countermeasure against
the increase in “artificial ground surfaces”, or the reduction of green space. Part of
absorbed sunlight energy is released to the atmosphere as latent heat by the action
of evapotranspiration from the green ground surface, which suppresses temperature
rise. As artificial surfaces contribute to a temperature rise during the day (Fig. 9a),
the temperature decrease due to greening will be substantial during the day.
In an urban center where the greenable area is limited, the greening of building
surfaces (rooftop greening or wall greening) is adopted instead. There are two types
of commonly used rooftop greening systems: intensive green roofs and extensive
green roofs (Fig. 16). There are also various types of wall surface greening, typi-
cally comprising unit-type green walls and green curtains (Fig. 17).
(a) Intensive Green Roof (b) Extensive Green Roof
Fig. 16 Example of rooftop greening (green roof). a an intensive green roof using turf and b an
extensive green roof using succulent plants (sedum)
(a) Unit-type Green Wall (b) Green Curtain
Greening Unit
Planter
Fig. 17 Example of sidewall greening. a a unit-type green wall using evergreen vine plants
(Hedera) and b a green curtain using annual plants (goya, gourd, and morning glory)
Intensive Green Roof: A system requiring frequent maintenance such as irri-

gation and fertilization. In addition to turf and grasses, it is possible to adopt a wide
variety of plants including shrubs. The soil thickness is approximately 20 cm or
more, which increases the load.
Extensive Green Roof: A low-management system with little need for artificial
irrigation. Potential plants are limited to sedum and other succulent plants. The soil
thickness is approximately 10 cm and the load is small.
Unit-type Green Wall: A type of wall surface greening whereby panel units set
with soil bags for planting are set side by side on a framework installed on the side
of the building. Evergreen vine plants such as Hedera are often used. As it almost
completely shields solar radiation, it is used on sections other than the window
surface.
Green Curtain: A greening method of covering the walls of a building,
including window surfaces, with plants that climb up a polyethylene net. By using
an annual plant such as morning glory, gourd, or goya, it is possible to shade solar
radiation during only the cooling period of the summer and take in solar radiation
from the window during the winter.
Water-retentive pavements are a potential measure for road surfaces that cannot
be greened. The water-retentive pavement has a structure with many voids that
accumulate rainwater, thereby exhibiting an effect equivalent to green space.
Because measures that use the latent heat of evaporation have the effect of
significantly lowering the temperature on the surface where they are introduced,
they can also be expected to reduce heat stress on the human body due to infrared
radiation. Regarding the reduction of air conditioning demand, rooftop greening
and wall greening are relatively effective because they directly reduce the heat load
due to solar radiation on the building, but ground greening and water-retentive
pavements have an indirect influence according to the air temperature; hence, their
effectiveness is limited.
High Reflectivity Measures
Another approach to artificial ground surfaces is to suppress the solar radiation
absorption of the surface by high reflectivity. “Solar-reflective paint” using a special
pigment with high reflectivity in the infrared wavelength range can be used on
buildings. Similarly, heat-insulating pavements coated with a high infrared reflec-
tivity resin are also used for road surfaces. Using these reflective materials, building
and pavement albedos can be increased by about 0.25 and 0.15, respectively [37].
As with measures for latent heat, these also greatly demonstrate the effect of
decreasing the temperature of the surface on which they are introduced during the
day. However, it should be noted that when solar radiation is strong, the amount of
reflected solar radiation exceeds the reduction of infrared radiation, and the net
radiation amount increases. Generally, when introduced on a sidewalk or wall
surface, the heat stress received by pedestrians is increased due to the reflected light.
When introduced on the rooftop of a building, the air conditioning demand
reduction is relatively large, but when introduced on a wall surface, the thermal load
of surrounding buildings receiving the reflected light increases. For this reason,
when employing high-reflectivity measures, it is necessary to carefully consider the

location so that reflected light does not adversely affect surrounding people and
buildings.
2.4.2 Urban Morphology Measures
In order to dissipate heat accumulated in an urban area due to the high density of
urban morphology, measures at an urban planning level are required. One method
promotes airflow between the urban and the exterior using local circulation winds
such as land–sea breezes and mountain–valley winds. The basic idea is to introduce
cold air from outside the urban area by securing a “ventilation corridor” inside it,
with streets arranged along the prevailing wind direction and connected to rivers,
canals, green spaces, etc. The first practical example is the city of Stuttgart in
Germany, which is famous for relieving air pollution and the heat island effect using
the cold mountain breeze that flows from the mountains to the lowlands at night
[38]. Following this example, plans to utilize the cool sea breeze that blows from
the sea to the land during the day are being studied in coastal cities such as Tokyo
and Yokohama in Japan. Continued urban development in these cities without
considering heat treatment has contributed to deterioration of the thermal envi-
ronment in Tokyo due to the heat island effect. From this perspective, urban
planning incorporating the idea of ventilation corridors is key in developing
countries.
2.4.3 Anthropogenic Heat Measures
Measures Against Air Conditioning Exhaust Heat

The reduction of air conditioning exhaust heat is achieved by reducing the elements
of air conditioning power, lighting/appliance heat generation, and invasive heat
load shown in Fig. 10. As the amount of each element that can be reduced is
limited, comprehensive implementation is desirable. Air conditioning and lighting/
appliance heat generation can be reduced by using higher efficiency models. As for
the invasive heat load, measures to reduce the heat load due to solar radiation are
highly effective, such as insulating the rooftop surface and shielding window sur-
faces. Although these measures have a limited impact on air temperature, they
should also be employed as climate change mitigation measures with the aim of
CO2 reduction.
Increasing the height of the exhaust and water-cooling are potential methods for
mitigating the impact of air conditioning exhaust heat on air temperature, as well as
reducing the amount of air conditioning exhaust heat. For commercial buildings, if
central air conditioning is adopted and the outdoor unit is installed on the rooftop,
the exhaust heat is emitted at a high location away from the street space, so the
impact on the surface air temperature is small. If water-cooled air conditioning is
adopted, most of the exhaust heat is released as latent heat (water vapor) from the
cooling tower, so it does not contribute to temperature rise.
Measures Against Vehicle Exhaust Heat
Currently, chronic traffic congestion is a serious social problem in cities of devel-
oping countries such as Jakarta and Delhi. In such cases, it is vital to eliminate
traffic congestion by introducing public transportation such as railroads.
Elimination of traffic congestion leads to improved transportation efficiency
throughout the urban area and greatly reduces the quantity of vehicle exhaust
emissions.
Vehicle exhaust heat is also reduced by popularizing high-efficiency vehicles.
The efficiency of next-generation hybrid and electric vehicles (also known as
e-mobility vehicles) is much higher than that of conventional gasoline vehicles, so
exhaust heat is also greatly reduced. In particular, a high-efficiency electric vehicle
emits 20% or less the amount of exhaust heat of a conventional gasoline vehicle.
Also, gasoline vehicles decrease in efficiency at low speeds during traffic conges-
tion, so the exhaust heat quantity increases, but EVs have the advantage of not
decreasing their efficiency even at low speeds. Reduction of exhaust heat from
vehicles leads to CO2 reduction and improvement of the thermal environment in
urban centers where traffic volume is high, so it is effective as both a climate change
mitigation and adaptation measure.
2.5 Heat Island Evaluation Model
2.5.1 City/Block Scale
Numerical weather models used in weather forecasting and local weather research
deal with mesoscale weather phenomena of several hundred kilometers in the
horizontal direction and several tens of kilometers in the vertical direction.
Meanwhile, it is necessary for urban climate models used in the evaluation of heat
islands to handle meteorological phenomena influenced by urban morphology,
artificial surface coverings, anthropogenic heat, etc. on a city/block scale of several
kilometers to several tens of kilometers in the horizontal direction and a few
hundreds of meters in the vertical direction. As an example of such an urban climate
model, Fig. 18 shows an outline of the CM-BEM mentioned in Sect. 2.2. CM-BEM
is a coupled model consisting of a one-dimensional urban canopy model (CM) [39]
for calculating urban weather, and a building energy model (BEM) [40] for cal-
culating energy consumption in buildings. In the CM, the urban morphology is
parameterized by the average building width, the building interval, and the prob-
ability of buildings existing in each vertical layer in the target area; the temperature,
humidity, and wind direction/wind speed in the urban canopy, which are affected by
1-D Urban Canopy Model (CM)

b w
Temperature
P(zn)
b ..
.. Humidity
.
w P(z2)
P(z1) Wind speed
(u; v)
Horizontal Morphology Vertical Morphology
b : mean building width P(z) : building existence
w : mean building interval ratio at height z
Feedback
Building Energy Model (BEM)
Solar heat gain

Cooling loads Air-conditioning Exhaust heat
through windows
Heat conduction
through walls Traffic
Electricity
Ventilation
Internal heat & Gas
Fig. 18 Overview of CM-BEM [16, 17]
these parameters, are calculated. In the BEM, air conditioning energy inside the
building is calculated based on weather conditions, which are an output of the CM.
In turn, the exhaust heat quantity from the BEM becomes an input of the CM. By
performing such two-way calculations, it is possible to perform quantitative eval-
uations of the positive feedback whereby the air temperature rises due to the
contribution of air conditioning exhaust heat, and the air conditioning demand
further increases due to the rise in air temperature. According to our evaluation
using CM-BEM, estimated air conditioning demand will increase by up to 10% due
to this positive feedback in urban centers [41].
As the resolution of the urban climate model is at most several hundred meters in
the horizontal direction and several meters in the vertical direction, the results
cannot reflect the actual three-dimensional structure of buildings and streets.
Nonetheless, it is an effective tool for determining the influence of heat islands and
the spatial characteristics of countermeasures on a citywide scale.
2.5.2 Street/Building Scale
In order to obtain detailed results reflecting the actual three-dimensional structure of

buildings and streets, an analysis method with high spatial resolution utilizing 3D
building data is used. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are often
used as a method of predicting airflow around buildings. CFD is an effective tool,
particularly for evaluating the effect of ventilation corridor designs and the impact
of anthropogenic heat, which relate to airflow.
Simulation tools have also been developed to calculate the heat balance for all
surfaces constituting the urban space based on weather conditions such as solar
radiation and air temperature, representing a method for predicting the surface
temperatures of buildings and roads, which greatly contribute to the formation of
heat islands. Surface temperature simulation is effective for evaluating ground
surface covering measures.
Figures 19 and 20 show examples of CFD and surface temperature simulation
results. Calculation results on a street or building scale are easy to visualize and
useful for intuitively understanding the distribution of airflow and/or temperature
around buildings.
Fig. 19 Example of vehicle exhaust heat diffusion simulation results by CFD
[℃]
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
Fig. 20 Example of surface temperature simulation results. Comparison between a case where PV
panels are installed on the roofs of all houses in a residential area (left) and a case where rooftop
greening is introduced (right)
3 Balance Between Mitigation and Adaptation
Various types of heat island countermeasures require energy for their introduction
and operation, generating CO2. Therefore, from the viewpoint of mitigating climate
change, heat island countermeasures have a trade-off between mitigation and
adaptation. For example, in the case of rooftop greening, if the amount of energy
necessary for introduction, maintenance, and management exceeds the reduction in
air conditioning energy usage, it cannot be considered “a mitigation measure”. The
use of air conditioning is recommended as an adaptation measure to reduce damage
to human health from heat, but from the viewpoint of mitigation measures, since it
leads to increased CO2 emissions, its use should be limited. To consider the balance
between mitigation and adaptation in planning heat island countermeasures, an
examination that incorporates a life-cycle assessment (LCA) method is effective.
3.1 LCA of Heat Island Countermeasures
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) refers to a method that quantitatively evaluates envi-

ronmental load by the overall life cycle of a product/service (resource mining, raw
material production, product manufacturing, distribution, consumption, disposal, and
recycling). In this section, we assume the introduction of the rooftop/sidewall
greening discussed in Sect. 2.4.1 (intensive green roof, extensive green roof, unit-type
green wall, and green curtain) and solar-reflective paint in an urban section of central
Tokyo, and introduce a case in which two-axis evaluation was performed, with life
cycle CO2 (LCCO2) and the temperature change as indexes [42].
The method used in this section is called inventory analysis, which calculates the
input of energy and materials and the accompanying CO2 emission at each stage of
material production, maintenance/management, product use for each countermea-
sure, and evaluates the LCCO2 by summarizing the result. The CO2 emissions
accompanying air conditioning use are calculated by the urban canopy-building
energy model [16, 17], and impact on thermal environment is also evaluated.
3.1.1 Inventory Analysis
CO2 Emission Accompanying Material Production

First, a list of the materials and their quantity used for each measure were created,
allowing the direct and indirect CO2 emissions per unit area to be calculated using
the environmental load database [43]. The total CO2 emissions were then divided
by service life, giving the CO2 emissions per year. In this analytical example
(Fig. 21), the unit-type green wall, which uses heavy metallic materials, had the
highest CO2 emission, while solar-reflective paint and green curtain with light
materials had similarly low values. As for the green roof, the emissions from the
Intensive Green Roof

Extensive Green Roof
Unit-type Green Wall
Green Curtain
Solar-reflective Paint Synthetic Resin Metal Soil
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

CO2 Emission [kg/m2/year]
Fig. 21 Analytical example of annual CO2 emissions accompanying material production. The
main materials were as follows: green roof: synthetic resin (filter fabric, drainage/storage layer,
root barrier, etc.), unit-type green wall: stainless steel (panel) and steel (framework), and green
curtain: synthetic resin (net and planters)
extensive green roof with the lower material weight were about half that of the
intensive green roof.
CO2 Emission Accompanying Maintenance/Management
It is assumed that the solar-reflective paint does not emit CO2 emission during
maintenance and management, and the annual CO2 emissions from the production
of water necessary for irrigation and powering the pump per unit area in greening
were analyzed. The result (Fig. 22) showed that, excluding the extensive green roof
that does not require irrigation, other greening methods had similar values. The lack
of CO2 emissions from powering the pump for the green curtain is because it was
assumed that planters were installed on the ground surface.
Reduction in CO2 Emissions Accompanying Air Conditioning
The countermeasures against the heat island effect, which is a city-scale phe-
nomenon, requires introduction across the entire area; therefore, a numerical sim-
ulation was performed through a year, assuming that a countermeasure was
introduced to all buildings in the target area. In cities located in a temperature zone
with a large seasonal temperature difference, the ratio of cooling during the summer
and heating during the winter varies greatly depending on the use of a building.

Green Curtain
Solar-reflective Paint Water Electricity (Pump Power)
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

CO2 Emission [kg/m2/year]
Fig. 22 An analytical example of annual CO2 emissions (per unit area of introduced measure) due
to maintenance and management (irrigation). It was assumed that these measures were introduced
to an 18-m high building, and electric power (pump power) was calculated by the pump head in
response to the height of the green building installations and the amount of irrigation
(a) Non-Insulated Office (b) Highly Insulated Office

Green Curtain
Solar-reflective Roof
Solar-reflective Wall
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 Cooling -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
CO2 Emission [kg/m2/year] Heating CO2 Emission [kg/m2/year]
Fig. 23 An analytical example of the change in annual CO2 emissions (per unit area of introduced
measure) from air conditioning after introducing measures in the office area, with a no thermal
insulation and b high insulation. The red symbol shows the net change. The locations of the
introduced measures are as follows: green roof: 50% of the roof surface; green wall: up to 18 m on
the south-facing wall (excluding the window surfaces for the unit-type); and solar-reflective paint:
the whole rooftop/wall surface excluding windows
Thus, even if the same heat island countermeasure is introduced, its effect would
not be uniform. In Tokyo, office areas with large daytime population have a higher
ratio of cooling compared to heating. In contrast, residential areas with large
nighttime population have high heating ratio. In addition, the impact of the coun-
termeasure on the air conditioning load depends on the heat-insulating performance
of a building. Therefore, as the evaluation target area, both an office area and an
apartment area were selected. In regard to the heat insulation performance of
buildings, cases with no heat insulation and high heat insulation were considered.
The result for the office area is shown in Fig. 23.
Intensive green roof: Due to the thermal insulation effect of the soil layer, both
the cooling and heating demand decreases. Thus, the annual CO2 emission was
reduced regardless of the building use or heat insulation conditions.
Extensive green roof: The cooling effect of latent heat was minimal, and the
heat storage effect of the soil exceeded the cooling effect. Therefore, the cooling
demand increased while the heating demand decreased. As such, the annual CO2
emission increased in offices due to the high impact of the increase in cooling
demand, while it was reduced in residences where the impact of the reduction in the
heating demand was large.
Unit-type green wall and solar-reflective paint (roof/wall): For the counter-
measures, the cooling demand decreased, but the heating demand increased. When
a solar-reflective paints is introduced to a wall surface, some reflected solar radi-
ation became incident on the surrounding buildings again; thus, the cooling of the
whole city was low. As such, the annual CO2 emission was reduced in offices where
impact of the cooling demand reduction was large, but increased in residences
where the impact of the heating demand increase was large.
Green curtain: There was no impact on the heating demand since annual plants
are used. In addition, since the impact of solar radiation shielding through windows
is large, the cooling demand is greatly reduced regardless of the thermal insulation
conditions, which is characteristic of this measure, compared to other measures that

Green Curtain
-1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0

Changes in Air Temperature [10-3°C/m2]
Fig. 24 Mean air temperature change per unit area of introduced measure, relative to the mean for
August. These measurements were taken at 14:00. The evaluation target area was an office area
with dimensions 500 m 500 m (high thermal insulation). The mean building height was 18 m
have a small impact under high thermal insulation conditions. As such, the annual
CO2 emissions were dramatically reduced, regardless of building usage and thermal
insulation conditions.
3.1.2 Evaluation of the Impact on the Thermal Environment
Since the introduction area varies by each measure, the mean temperature change in
the target area per unit area of introduced measure was evaluated. Using the values at
14:00 in August as the index (Fig. 24), the temperature decrease caused by the
intensive green roof was the largest, followed by the unit-type green wall, solar-
reflective paint (roof), green curtain, extensive green roof, and solar-reflective paint
(wall).
The intensive green roofs maintain a certain level of evapotranspiration through
daily irrigation, which is predominantly higher than extensive green roofs without
irrigation. With green walls, the impact of the unit-type green wall, which completely
blocks sunlight, is larger than the green curtain that lets some sunlight through. With
solar-reflective paint, introduction to a rooftop with a high amount of incident sunlight
has higher impact than introduction to a wall. When introduced to the sidewall, a high
ratio of the reflected solar radiation becomes incident on building walls and the ground
surface in the surrounding area, which decreases its impact. In this case, medium-rise
buildings (mean height of 18 m) were studied; impact of the measure on the rooftop is
relatively large, but it should be noted that when the target is high-rise buildings, their
impact on the ground temperature becomes even smaller.
3.1.3 Two-Axis Evaluation with LCCO2 and Thermal Environment

Impact
The reduction in CO2 emission from material production, maintenance/

management, and air conditioning examined above were summarized, the
(a) Non-Insulated Office (b) Highly Insulated Office

Green Curtain
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 Production -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Maintenance
CO2 Emission [kg/m2/year] A/C CO2 Emission [kg/m2/year]
Fig. 25 An example of evaluating the LCCO2 of heat island countermeasure in an office area
when building has a no thermal insulation and b high thermal insulation. Red symbols show the
net LCCO2
LCCO2 was calculated (Fig. 25), and a comprehensive evaluation, with the results
of the outdoor thermal environmental impact assessment, was performed in this
section. Here, from the perspective of climate change countermeasures, the
reduction in LCCO2 is equated to the impact of the mitigation measure and the
temperature decrease is equal to the impact of the adaptation measure.
Intensive green roof: While this is the most effective adaptation measure, its effec-
tiveness as a mitigation measure depends on the thermal insulation of the building.
Both offices and residences saw a reduction in the LCCO2, since air conditioning
demand was greatly reduced in non-insulated buildings. However, when the buildings
were sufficiently insulated, the reduction in air conditioning demand was small, and
LCCO2 increased. The thermal insulation effect of the soil layer is favorable in terms
of reducing heat demand in the winter, but when introduced to new buildings with
significant thermal insulation, careful consideration must be made so that the CO2
emission accompanying the production, maintenance, and management does not
exceed the reduction in air conditioning load.
Extensive green roof: The effectiveness of this countermeasure in terms of
adaptation was low, while its utility as a mitigation measure is difficult to specify.
LCCO2 was only reduced in residences with no insulation, and increased under
other conditions. The main reason for this was that there was no cooling effect on
the rooftop surface due to evapotranspiration.
Unit-type green wall: While relatively effective as an adaptation measure, it is not
functional as a mitigation measure. The LCCO2 increased under all building uses
and thermal insulation conditions due to the high CO2 emissions accompanying
production, the lack of cooling demand reduction since it cannot be applied to
windows, and an increased heating demand due to the use of evergreen plants.
Green curtain: Although moderately effective as an adaptation measure, green
curtains are most effective as mitigation measures. The LCCO2 decreased for all
building uses and thermal insulation conditions, and its effect was large even with
significant thermal insulation. This was due to the relatively low CO2 emissions
accompanying production, maintenance and management, large reduction in

cooling demand due to the shielding of incident light on windows, and annual
plants not increasing the heating demand.
Solar-reflective paint (roof): Relatively effective as an adaptation measure, but its
effectiveness as a mitigation measure depends on the use of buildings. The LCCO2
was decreased in offices, but increased in residences.
Solar-reflective paint (wall): The effectiveness of this countermeasure in terms of
adaptation was low, while its utility as a mitigation measure is difficult to specify.
The LCCO2 was only decreased in the office with no thermal insulation, while it
increased in all other conditions. The paint structure itself is the same as normal
paint, and as a replacement, there are no additional CO2 emissions; thus, this
measure should be introduced to new buildings or during the renovation of highly
thermally insulated office buildings.
The cases introduced here are evaluations of specific technology under given
conditions, and are not applicable to all similar technologies under arbitrary con-
ditions. For example, it was indicated that the introduction of solar-reflective paint
to the roof cannot be considered as a mitigation measure since it increases the
heating demand in residences during winter. But, if it is applied to residences in
tropical regions where the heating demand does not exist throughout the year, it
would be sufficiently effective as a mitigation measure. If the target area is different,
the CO2 emission rates of the material, power demands, and water demands are
different, and the energy usage pattern will reflect the climate conditions and life-
style of the population. It is important to examine a plan for heat island counter-
measures that balances mitigation and adaptation to climate change while fully
considering the difference in the effects by such regional conditions.
3.2 Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) of Heat Island

Countermeasures
In Sect. 2.3.1, a two-axis evaluation of heat island countermeasures was performed,

with LCCO2 and temperature change as indexes, and the effectiveness of climate
change mitigation and adaptation measures was discussed. However, the impact of
heat island countermeasures often has a trade-off between adaptation and mitiga-
tion, and under such a relationship, further examination is necessary. For example,
use of air conditioning is effective as an adaptation measure to a hot environment,
but there is environmental load: CO2 emission. In this case, both the benefit from
the use of air conditioning (reduced health damage) and increased risk (CO2
emission) are integrated with a single index, such as monetary value, and the
effectiveness as a climate change countermeasure can be comprehensively evalu-
ated. In this section, the effectiveness of air conditioning use in urban areas is
evaluated with this manner of thinking [44].
The evaluation target area is the urban area around Jakarta, Indonesia, in a
hypothetical situation in the 2050s, when climate change and urbanization have
progressed. First, the amount of energy and materials invested was calculated,
followed by the emission of pollutants, such as CO2 and NOx, at each stage of
production, distribution, operation, disposal, and recycling of air conditioning units
(inventory analysis). In addition, the health impact (sleep disorders and fatigue) [45]
and environmental load associated with the operation of air conditioning were
analyzed through numerical simulations, and the result was converted into a
monetary value (US$) using the life-cycle impact assessment method based on
endpoint modeling [46, 47] (Fig. 26).
3.2.1 Evaluation of Impact on Human Health
When evaluating health damage, such as sleep disorders and fatigue due to heat,
without statistical data, a damage function must be prepared, with temperature as an
explanatory variable, based on field epidemiological surveys. By separating air
conditioning use and nonuse in the damage function, the reduction in health
Cause Impact Category Category Endpoint Safeguard Subjects Single Index

Air Conditioner Fatigue Human Society
Production Urban Heat Island Human Health
Distribution Sleep Disorder [DALY]
Usage Social Assets
Disposal Infection
Global Warming [US$]
CO2 HCFCs Respiratory Disease
Ecosystem US$
Air Pollution
SOx NOx Farm Products Biodiversity
Oil Gas Resource [EINES]
Consumption Terrestrial Species
etc. Primary Production
Plant Growth [NPP]
Inventory Analysis Impact Assessment Damage Assessment Integration
Fig. 26 An example of analysis flow within the life-cycle impact assessment based on endpoint
modeling [45–47]
Fig. 27 The relationship 0.30

between the temperature at without A/C (Feb)
22:00 and incidences of sleep 0.25 without A/C (Oct)
Incidence Rate [-]
disorders, based on the results with A/C (Feb)

of epidemiological survey 0.20 with A/C (Oct)
conducted in Jakarta in
February (rain season) and 0.15
October (dry season), 2016.
0.10
The solid line shows the
damage function prepared by 0.05
a smoothing spline regression
[28] 0.00
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Temperature at 22:00 [ C]
damage by use of air conditioning can be estimated. As an example, Fig. 27 shows

the relationship between the temperature at 22:00 and incidences of sleep disorders,
which confirms that the use of air conditioning lowers the incidence on days with
high temperatures. As for fatigue, a damage function can be prepared, with the
highest daily temperature as the explanatory variable, in a similar manner.
3.2.2 Evaluation of Damage to Human Health
Disability-adjusted life year (DALY) [48] is often used to quantify health damage.
DALY is the sum of the years lost from the ideal mean life expectancy by an early
death (Years of Life Lost; YLL) and years spent with a nonideal health condition
due to disease (Years Lived with Disability; YLD). The YLL and YLD are cal-
culated as shown below:
YLL ¼ N L1
YLD ¼ I DW L2
where N = number of deaths, L1 = standard life expectancy at age of death [years],

I = number of incident cases, DW = disability weight, and L2 = average duration
of the case [years].
By calculating DALY using incidents estimated from the damage function,
health damage due to temperature can be shown quantitatively. As shown in
Fig. 28, in the 2050s, warming and the increased population in urban area increase
sleep disorders by 85% if the use of air conditioning remains the same as present
status (15%). However, if the use in residences is increased to 60%, this increase in
sleep disorders can be suppressed to 13%.
Fig. 28 Distribution of damage from sleep disorders per month in an urban area around Jakarta
[DALY]. a 15% air conditioning usage in the present day b 15% usage in the 2050s, and c 60%
usage in the 2050s. For the advancement in temperatures and urbanization, a representative
concentration pathway scenario RCP8.5 and a shared socioeconomic pathway scenario SSP3 were
assumed. The calculations used DW = 0.01 and L2 = 1/365 [years] [44]
Adaptation AC Usage
AC Production
Sleep Disorder
Adaptation
Fatigue
+
Mitigation Total
-100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50

Damage [million US$/month]
Fig. 29 An example of a comprehensive evaluation of the environmental impacts of adaptation

and mitigation measures related to air conditioning in the urban area of Jakarta in 2050s. Negative
values mean avoided damage. Adaptation measure: improve the air conditioning use in residences
from 15 to 60%. Mitigation measure: improve rating COP of air conditioning from 3.35 to 5.7 [44]
Similarly, if the impact of an increase in air conditioning use on fatigue is

evaluated, the reduction in damage is limited to 7% of the reduced damage of sleep
disorders. This is because fatigue has strong relationship to the daytime tempera-
ture, while office areas, which have a large daytime population, use air conditioning
almost 100% as of present day (so there is no room for improvement), residential
areas have a small daytime population (so the damage is small). As such, the health
damage comparison between the day and night hints at the impact of future tem-
perature rises at night, which is a characteristic of the heat island phenomenon.
3.2.3 Integration
By compiling the health impact and environmental load obtained in this manner, the
results can be integrated into a single index. As shown in Fig. 29, the health
improvement when air conditioning use is increased as an adaptation measure is
about 2.3 times the generated environmental load, with a net reduction (avoided
damage) of US $50 million/month. In addition, if it is assumed that inverter air
conditioners are introduced as a mitigation measure (rating COP improved from 3.35
to 5.7), reducing the environmental load; thus, the net effect increased to about US$
70 million/month. Therefore, the benefit is possible to exceed the environmental load
by promoting air conditioning distribution through adaptation measures.
4 Balancing Mitigation and Adaptation by Improving

Energy Efficiency
Anthropogenic heat in urban areas is a factor contributing to the heat island effect.
Therefore, highly efficient technology with little heat generation can mitigate this
effect, and can function as an adaptation measure. If widely distributed existing
technology can be replaced by highly efficient technology, mitigation and adapta-

tion do not have a trade-off relationship, and both effects increase as the replace-
ment technology advances. Furthermore, practical impacts of adaptation measures
are expected, such as electrification of transportation through the distribution of
trains and electric vehicles and the use of heat pump technology in the thermal
sector.
4.1 Electrification in the Transportation Sector
The pillar of electrification in the transportation sector is the distribution of

next-generation vehicles, such as hybrid vehicles, fuel cell vehicles, and electric
vehicles (EVs), also known as e-mobility. E-mobility is expected to play a role not
only as a climate change mitigation measure, but also as part of the future urban
energy system by controlling electric power supply and demand by linking with
buildings and the electric power grid [49].
The performance of e-mobility as a climate change mitigation measure is
evaluated by well-to-wheel integral efficiency consisting of two parts, well-to-tank
(energy supply) and tank-to-wheel (vehicle) efficiencies. Since the well-to-tank
efficiency depends on the power generation method used by the energy supply, CO2
reduction by the use of e-mobility varies by area [50]. For example, if conventional
gasoline-powered vehicles are replaced by EVs in France, where the rate of nuclear
power generation is high, CO2 emissions can be reduced by around 90%. However,
in China, where the rate of coal power generation is high, the reduction is limited to
around 15%. Overall, by increasing the ratio of natural energy generation, such as
solar power, in the future, the CO2 reduction effect by the introduction of EVs will
increase.
On the other hand, the performance of e-mobility as a climate change adaptation
measure needs to be evaluated using vehicle efficiency. The energy input during the
operation of a vehicle is ultimately lost to atmosphere as heat; the higher the vehicle
efficiency, the lower the exhaust heat. If the efficiencies of hybrid vehicles, fuel cell
vehicles, and EVs are assumed to be 32, 46, and 80%, respectively, the amount of
exhaust heat becomes 50, 38, and 20% compared to that of gasoline-powered
vehicle with efficiency of 16%. Since the heat emission from EVs is notably lower,
it has greatest potential as an adaptation measure.
Figure 30 compares a CFD simulation of the ground level temperature of
high-traffic roads in central Tokyo, on a summer day with weak wind, with and
without the widespread distribution of EVs. As EVs become widely distributed,
heat exhaust is reduced to 1/5th that of gasoline-powered vehicles, and as a result,
the temperature decreases by 3–4 °C along major streets.
Fig. 30 Comparison of influence on temperature of exhaust heat from different vehicles:

a gasoline-powered vehicles (vehicle efficiency of 16%) and b EVs (vehicle efficiency of 80%).
The target area is office area in central Tokyo. Vehicle exhaust heat was estimated based on traffic
census data [19]. This is the result of a CFD simulation assuming a calm summer day with a wind
speed of less 0.3 m/s
4.1.1 Spatial and Temporal Structure of the Effect of Heat Island

Countermeasures
According to past evaluation studies, a further spread of EV has considerable

impact on urban scale thermal environment to lower the air temperature 0.4 °C in
Tokyo [51] and 0.9 °C Beijing [52]. When considering EVs as a heat island
countermeasure, since its principle is fundamentally different from surface cooling
measures (cool roofs) such as greening and solar-reflective material, it is important
to understand the spatial and temporal structure of these effects.
Since the heat exhaust from vehicles peaks during the rush hours in the morning
and the evening, the amount by which EVs decrease the temperature also peaks at
these time. Figure 31 assumes a scenario in which the distribution of EVs and three
surface cooling measures (ground greening, green roof, and solar-reflective roof)
are implemented as heat island countermeasures, and the geographical distribution
of the effect at 18:00 in the whole of Tokyo was compared [53, 54]. In the EV
scenario, the temperature decreases peak on the eastern side of the urban center,
which has the densest traffic, was about 0.25 °C, which is significant.
Because surface cooling measures are effective during times when sunlight is
strong, their peak effectiveness has already passed by about 18:00, when the sun is
low in the sky. In the ground greening scenario, the relative effect continues, and
there is temperature decrease of over 0.2 °C in a wide range of suburban areas. As
for the green roof and the solar-reflective roof scenarios, the temperature decrease in
the suburban areas surrounding the eastern urban area was relatively large, with
maximum values of about 0.2 and 0.1 °C, respectively. Focusing on the geo-
graphical distribution, all surface cooling measure scenarios saw a relatively small
effect in the traffic-dense urban center, whereas the EV scenario dramatically
affected this area.
The effect of surface cooling measures is limited in the city center because
high-rise buildings are concentrated in these areas. Since the sky view factor is
Fig. 31 Mean temperature deviation (DT) [°C] at 18:00 by introducing heat island countermea-
sures in Tokyo. a EV scenario: all passenger vehicles and light trucks are substituted with EVs,
b ground greening (GG) scenario: 30% of the artificial ground surface is greened, c green roof
(GR) scenario: introduce intensive green roofs to 50% of the rooftop surface, and d solar-reflective
roof (RR) scenario: cover all rooftops with solar-reflective paint. Simulation results are taken from
an urban climate model (mesh size of 500 m). The evaluation period was 13 days in August
(summer) [53, 54]
small for areas with a high concentration of buildings, the ratio of the ground
surface in shade is high, and so it does not easily reach high temperatures in the first
place. When buildings are high rise, the elevation of the rooftop is high, and so the
impact of surface cooling measures on the ground temperature is limited. Therefore,
compared to the distribution of urban morphology (Fig. 32), the areas poorly
affected by ground greening correspond to areas with small sky view factors, and
the areas with a low-temperature change caused by green roofs correspond well to
areas with high buildings.
Next, the diurnal variation in the effects of each scenario was investigated in the
urban section that showed the maximum temperature decrease in the EV scenario
(Fig. 33). The EV scenario had temperature decrease peaks in the morning and the
Fig. 32 Distribution of urban morphology in Tokyo (mesh size of 500 m). a Sky view factor and
b mean building height, calculated based on GIS data [18]
Fig. 33 Diurnal variation of Time [h]

mean temperature deviation
after introducing different heat 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0
island countermeasures. The 0.00
target area was a mesh with
the maximum temperature -0.05
decrease in the EV scenario
-0.10
[53, 54]
ΔT [°C]
-0.15
-0.20
-0.25 EV-Base GG-Base
GR-Base RR-Base
-0.30
afternoon, but with three surface cooling measures, there is a common diurnal
variation pattern with a temperature decrease peak around 14:00. After sunset, in
contrast to the greening effect which lasts longer due to the latent heat of vapor-
ization, the effect of reflection drops rapidly. Comparing the results of the EV
scenario and the surface cooling measures, it can be seen that, because the times at
which their effects grow larger are different, the two diurnal variation patterns
complement each other. While surface cooling measures mitigate the thermal
environment during the early afternoon when the temperature reaches its peak, EVs
improve the thermal environment during the morning and evening rush hours. This
diurnal pattern of EV has an important meaning in terms of reducing the risk caused
by urban hot environment, because air temperatures during morning and evening
are more susceptible to heat island effects, with larger exposure population of
commuting time.
The comparison between EVs and surface cooling measures revealed that their
effects have spatial and temporal differences, and that they have a complimentary
relationship.
4.1.2 Potential in Developing Countries
The improvement to the thermal environment due to EV distribution would be

striking in Asian megacities, where chronic traffic congestion, due to a dramatic
increase in the number of vehicles, is a major problem.
As an example, the amount of exhaust heat generated by different vehicle types
in a section of Jakarta with maximum traffic volume is shown (Fig. 34), compared
to a section of Tokyo with maximum traffic volume. Compared to Tokyo, Jakarta
doubled the total daily accumulated value, while the peak value in Jakarta was
thrice as much. There is a peak during the morning and evening rush hours in both
cities, but since Jakarta lacks public transit such as trains, the evening traffic jam is
extended, creating a large peak around 20:00. Since there is an extremely large
Fig. 34 Mean exhaust heat 140

(sensible heat) by vehicle type Motorcycle
Heat Amount [W/m2]

120 Truck
over time in the urban section
Bus Jakarta
with the highest traffic volume 100
Passenger vehicle
in Jakarta (mesh size of 80
1.2 km). Estimated value for
2017 based on a field traffic 60
survey [55] and transportation 40
statistics [56]. The blue dotted Tokyo
line shows the same values 20
for a section of Tokyo with 0
highest traffic volume 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0
Time [h]
number of motorcycles in Jakarta, they alone contribute around 20% of the overall
daily accumulation of exhaust heat.
Using an urban area around Jakarta and its present-day estimate of traffic exhaust
heat as a reference, the urban climate was simulated in a scenario in which vehicle
exhaust heat was reduced down to 20% by EV distribution and the introduction of a
subway system by the 2050s. The results show that in the urban area, there is
remarkable improvement in the thermal environment [57]. Compared to the case of
Tokyo (Fig. 31), the effect of the distribution of EV is more extensive, and at 14:00,
the maximum temperature decrease notably exceeds the effect of ground greening
(Fig. 35). In addition, while the effect of ground greening decreases at 20:00,
the effect of EV peaks, and the temperature decrease in the urban area reaches about
1 °C (Fig. 36).
Fig. 35 Simulation of the mean temperature deviation [°C] at 14:00 after the introduction of heat
island effect countermeasure in an urban area around Jakarta in the 2050s. The simulation ran for
the month of August (dry period) and covered a mesh size of 1.2 km. a EV scenario: Vehicle
exhaust heat is reduced to 20%, b ground greening (GG) scenario: 30% of the artificial ground
surface is replaced with green surface. For the advancement of the climate conditions and
urbanization, a representative concentration pathway scenario RCP2.6 and shared socioeconomic
pathway scenario SSP1 were assumed [57]
Fig. 36 Same as in Fig. 36, except for at 20:00 [57]
4.2 Use of Heat Pump Technology in the Thermal Sector
Devices which obtain heat from combustion energy cannot be perfectly fuel effi-
cient. In contrast, heat pumps can use external thermal energy, beyond the input
energy, by absorbing heat from water or air. For example, a heat pump thermal
device with a coefficient of performance (COP) of four gains four times the input
energy.
From heat pump technologies, as a heat adaptation measure, a practical effect is
expected from air source heat pump water heaters. During hot water storage in a
heat pump water heater, heat is removed from the atmosphere, and cold exhaust is
emitted from the outdoor device (Fig. 37a). This cold exhaust does not diffuse
easily as it is several degrees colder than the air, and compared to high-temperature
Fig. 37 Impact on temperature by the cold exhaust from heat pump water heaters, simulated using
CFD. a Vertical cross section along the cold exhaust outlet, b top view of the buildings in which
heat pump water heaters are installed (shaded) and the surrounding urban area [60]
Fig. 38 Same as in Fig. 31, except for at 05:00. a Heat pump water heater (HP) scenario: all hot
water supply systems are changed from a gas combustion to a heat pump style, b ground greening
(GG) scenario [53]
exhaust, the temperature impact near the ground is notably higher. Generally, hot
water storage is performed at night; thus, heat pump water heaters strongly con-
tribute to temperature decrease at night. In other words, these can be an effective
adaptation measure to reduce nighttime temperature increases, which is character-
istic of the heat island phenomenon, in residential areas with large population at
night.
This has been shown using numerical simulations [58, 59]. Meteorological
observations of actual residences in central Tokyo verified that the temperature of
the property decreases by about 1 °C during heat pump water heater operation [60]
(Fig. 38b). There are some apartments designed to use this effect by storing cold
exhaust in the courtyard.
4.2.1 Synergy Effect of Heat Island Countermeasures
Since heat pump water heaters usually operate between 04:00 and 06:00, the
decrease in temperature due to heat absorption peaks at this time. Figure 38
assumes a scenario in which heat pump water heaters are installed in all buildings,
with Tokyo as the target, and compares the temperature change at 05:00 with the
ground greening scenario. In this scenario, the temperature decrease in apartment
areas surrounding the eastern side of the urban center is large (0.3–0.4 °C). On the
other hand, in the ground greening scenario, the temperature decrease effect is at its
minimum at 05:00, and so the temperature decrease in the eastern urban center
remains at about 0.1 °C.
Next, the diurnal variations in the effects of both scenarios in the urban area that
showed the maximum temperature decrease in the heat pump hot water scenario
were examined (Fig. 39). The temperature decrease in the ground greening scenario
remained at around 0.2 °C during the day and around 0.1 °C at night. In the heat
pump water heater scenario, the temperature decrease is limited to the timing of the
water storage operation, 04:00–06:00, but during this time it exceeds 0.5 °C.
A composite scenario, in which ground greening and air source heat pump water
heater are introduced at the same time (GGHP), is now discussed. The linear sum of
the temperature decrease of each scenario at 05:00 is about 0.6 °C, but in a
Fig. 39 Mean temperature Time [h]

deviation over time after 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0
introducing heat island
countermeasures. The target
0
area is the mesh that showed -0.1
the maximum temperature -0.2
decrease in the EV scenario -0.3
ΔT [°C]
[53]
-0.4
-0.5
HP-Base
-0.6
GG-Base
-0.7
(HP-Base)+(GG-Base)
-0.8 GGHP-Base
-0.9
composite scenario, it reaches 0.8 °C. This indicates that the combination of
technologies—surface cooling measures to lower the ground surface temperatures
in urban area, such as ground greening and air source heat pump water heaters
which emit cold air—may have potential to significantly decrease the temperature
through synergetic effect.
This synergetic effect can be explained by the mechanism shown in Fig. 40,
when the ground surface temperature in urban areas is high, convection occurs,
diffusing the cold exhaust in the vertical direction, weakening the cooling effect. On
the other hand, when the ground surface in urban areas is cooled through surface
cooling countermeasures, convection becomes inactive, so cold exhaust remains
near the ground surface, strengthening the cooling effect.
Fig. 40 Synergetic effect of cold exhaust and surface cooling measures. The result of a CFD
simulation. a When the ground surface of an urban area has high temperature, convection becomes
active, and cold exhaust is diffused in the vertical direction, weakening the cooling effect, b when
the ground surface in an urban area is cool, convection becomes inactive, and the cold exhaust
remains near the ground surface, strengthening the cooling effect
4.2.2 Potential in Developing Countries
Presently, the conventional gas combustion style hot water supply system is the
most common in typical Tokyo residences. The reduction in CO2 emitted by
replacing gas water heaters with electric heat pump water heaters depends on the
method of power generation. If the combustion efficiency of a gas water heater is
0.8, and the COP of the heat pump water heater is 4, the efficiency is five times
higher; the energy consumption on the user’s end is reduced by 80%. However,
since the CO2 emission coefficients [kg-CO2/kWh] of gas and electric power in
Tokyo are 0.2 and 0.5, respectively, the CO2 reduction remains at 50%. In contrast,
if electric water heaters, with an efficiency of 0.8, are replaced by electric heat pump
water heaters, an 80% reduction in CO2 emissions is obtained, regardless of the
power generation method.
In Asian megacities located in developing countries, gas is often not distributed
throughout the city. For example, in Jakarta, electric water heaters comprised more
than 90% of the residential hot water supply system. Therefore, replacing the
conventional hot water supply system with highly efficient heat pump water heaters
is considered extremely effective as a climate change mitigation measure. In resi-
dential areas with a high population density, this will also aid adaptation to the
thermal environment at night, which is expected to deteriorate in the future.
Figure 41 shows the evaluation of the mean temperature decrease in the early
morning when the conventional hot water supply system is replaced by heat pump
water heaters in the urban area around Jakarta in the 2050s [61]. It confirms that
there is practical temperature decrease in the residential areas surrounding the urban
office areas.
The heat pump water heater operation time is set to the early morning to min-
imize the heat loss by hot water storage. However, if it is set according when
residents are asleep, it could reduce damage to health by sleep disorders. In
Fig. 41 Mean temperature

deviation [°C] at 05:00 by
introducing heat pump water
heaters in the urban area
around Jakarta in the 2050s.
The evaluation conditions are
the same as in Fig. 35 [61]
addition, from the viewpoint of maximizing the potential thermal environment

improvement by utilizing cold exhaust air, the operation time and building
arrangement of the overall city should be examined.
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Building Design for Hot and Humid
Climate in a Changing World
Maria Andrea Triana, Renata De Vecchi and Roberto Lamberts
Abstract Places with hot and humid climate throughout the year exist in various
parts of the world. The building design requires clear criteria to avoid overcooling
and energy wastage, at the same time that guarantee optimal thermal comfort
conditions delivered to its occupants. In this scenario, bioclimatic strategies such as
the use of natural ventilation and shading, as well as the choice of appropriate
construction components, are decisive to reduce the building energy consumption
and the heat island effect. Designer decisions are fundamental in the future per-
formance of the building. Therefore, it is very important to know the special
characteristics of climates and microclimates around the building to properly to
choose the best choice during the design process. In regions of hot and humid
climate, the adoption of passive strategies and design that encourage the occupants’
adaptation to local temperature variations is essential to achieve thermal comfort in
different ways, as is the deep understanding of its implications as an inducer of
design guidelines for both residential and commercial buildings. In a scenario of
climate change, we need to think in new strategies that provide greater adaptation
and resilience, also considering the local culture and not simply importing models
from other climatic regions and cultures. This chapter discusses design criteria for
buildings in hot and humid climates from two specific points of view: the design
project and the user.
Keywords Bioclimatic architecture Hot and humid climate Thermal comfort
Regions with hot and humid climates throughout the year are found in multiple
areas of the world, specifically lying between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
This type of climate is mainly observed in those countries located near the Equator
(see Fig. 1). According to the Köppen–Geiger classification [1], equatorial climates
M. A. Triana (&) R. De Vecchi R. Lamberts

Department of Civil Engineering (PPGEC), Laboratory of Energy Efficiency in Buildings
(LabEEE), Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Campus Universitário Reitor João
David Ferreira Lima Trindade, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
e-mail: mandreat@hotmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_3
60 M. A. Triana et al.
Fig. 1 World map of Köppen climate classification for 1901–2010. Adapted from [2]
present averages of air temperatures between 24 and 27 °C, low daily amplitudes
and high levels of relative humidity and rainfall.
The predominantly hot and humid condition is characterized by similar solar
radiation throughout the year that affects all orientations of a building, especially
those in the east and west directions. From a building design point of view, this
characteristic added to high values of air temperature and relative humidity makes it
necessary to focus on suitable bioclimatic strategies such as wall and openings
shading and cross-ventilation optimization. On the other hand, buildings that are
only exposed to this climatic characteristic during part of the year (i.e. subtropical
or temperate), must consider not only strategies for the hot and humid periods, but
also need to be able to respond to winter and intermediate conditions.
In the specific case of hot and humid predominance, the slight variation of air
temperatures and humidity during the year leads the local people to adapt and live
with these conditions to feeling comfortable. Thus, designers must properly strive
towards human thermal comfort limits without, however, nourishing the overde-
pendence on traditional air-conditioning systems. Understanding local thermal
comfort conditions focusing on occupants’ subjectivity and behaviour will also
result in thermally satisfactory environments from the users’ approach, promoting
their physical and psychological well-being. In other words, providing enriched
thermal environments in conjunction with reducing the energy use in buildings is an
ideal situation, which must be encouraged by designers.
Building Design for Hot and Humid Climate in a Changing World 61
The incorporation of bioclimatic strategies into design, with knowledge of the

user´s adaptation process, becomes even more important in the current world
scenario where the predictions of climate change and short-term earth global
warming are happening [3]. Buildings are designed for a lifetime of at least
50 years, which makes their life cycle affected by changes in the climate. Although
data about these future changes would be considered essential for designers, few
countries have this information, especially developing ones. Nevertheless, in gen-
eral, design strategies suitable for hot–humid climates in the current scenario show
a tendency to be appropriate for future scenarios considering the prediction of
increases in temperature [4]. The knowledge about specific issues of these places is
essential to avoid the use of architectural models not adapted to the context intrinsic
conditions. Climatic characteristics inherently affect performance and energy con-
sumption of buildings as well as users’ comfort, hence the importance of consid-
ering them as an initial premise in the project design [5]. Thus, this chapter seeks to
broaden the discussion about buildings in the context of hot and humid climates
from two specific parameters: the design project and the user. In order to do so,
context-appropriate bioclimatic strategies are initially approached and, in the sec-
ond part, concepts of users’ thermal comfort in these climatic conditions are
discussed.
1 Passive Design Strategies for Buildings in Hot

and Humid Climates
In hot and humid places such as Malaysia, commercial high-rise buildings use
approximately 46% of their energy for cooling [6], while in India this use amounts
to 56% of the energy [7]. The necessity for buildings to respond appropriately to the
climate is in evidence, giving designers opportunities to strongly influence the
creation of more sustainable cities by integrating design criteria adequate for cli-
mate constraints. With such a goal in mind, knowledge of the local climate should
be the starting point.
The analysis of annual weather data on an hourly basis1 allows for the under-
standing of appropriate design strategies and provides subsidies for the project
development. Software such as Climate Consultant,2 Data View and Weather Data
1
Weather data on hourly basis are available at https://energyplus.net/weather for many regions in
the world.
2
Climate Consultant is available for free download at http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.
edu/climate-consultant/. Climate consultant is a graphic-based computer program that helps
understand local climate using EPW (Energy Plus Weather File) format climate data with all 8.
760 h for a year, containing data for many weather stations in the world. The purpose is to
represent information in an easy way showing the climate related to buildings.
applications developed by [8],3 among others, can help visualize this information.
In addition, software that uses BIM technology such as Green Building Studio with
Revit, Ecodesigner Star from Archicad, among others, already integrates climate
databases to help in understanding the project´s context. Other software or plugins
are available for analysis of design strategies and thermal and energy performance
of buildings, varying according to the need for more specific knowledge on part of
the designers. Among them, Sefaira, IES, Design Builder, Open Studio, AECOsim,
Insight 360, LadyBug and Honeybee; some of them have interface with Energy
Plus software. All of these tools can help integrate passive design strategies into
building design, although the basic concepts of bioclimatic design related to the
project´s context are fundamental. Furthermore, building a simulation starting from
the early design phase is crucial for maximum energy efficiency.
The local climate data should be evaluated considering the annual characteristics
of air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, availability of ventilation,
cloud cover and precipitation, also taking into account microclimatic conditions [9].
Locations in the hot–humid climate show high constant temperature peaks
throughout the year with a low mean annual oscillation. The difference between the
maximum daytime and minimum night-time temperatures also present a low
variation depending on the ventilation conditions and precipitation of the site. The
condition of high annual relative humidity is also a constant, presenting variations
throughout the day with values oscillating in inverse proportion to the temperature.
Precipitation conditions are usually high and constant throughout the year, thus
affecting the high relative humidity observed, possibly with differentiated periods of
higher precipitation. On the other hand, the cloud cover condition is directly linked
to the amount of incident direct solar radiation. The availability, direction, intensity
and speed of the wind are also of great importance for a project in hot and humid
climate conditions, as its use is one of the main design strategies to foster users’
comfort; therefore, knowledge of the periods of availability is important.
Thus, locations that are in a hot–humid climate have common characteristics, but
also their specificities, which give indications regarding the possibility and the
degree of effectiveness of passive strategies in the projects. In a context with a need
for refrigeration, the main bioclimatic design strategies should be focused mainly
on the reduction of solar gain and external heat loads, while allowing for natural
lighting and ventilation [10].
The psychometric chart4 indicates the percentages and hours of both the adaptive
comfort zone and the passive strategies required to achieve comfort in each loca-
tion. For many cities with hot and humid climate condition, the main strategies are
natural ventilation, dehumidification, windows solar shading, and finally the need
3
Available at http://andrewmarsh.com/software/. A number of tools are available at this link for the
practical visualization of weather data in various locations around the world.
4
The psychometric chart adapted by Givoni is a tool in which temperature and humidity data are
plotted, usually throughout the year, but monthly data can also be plotted. The chart shows the
main passive strategies of design to achieve comfort. Programs such as Climate Consultant may be
used to obtain this chart.
for cooling in some hours of the year. Although the main strategies are similar in
many cities, their degree of application presents differences.
The goal for designers should be the greatest possible application of passive
strategies in design to reduce the need for air conditioning. Hence, criteria for
passive strategies for building design in this climate are related to:
• solar orientation of buildings;
• shape and proportions of exterior and interior spaces;
• strategies to reduce direct solar radiation through the design of openings and sun
protection;
• improvement and increase of natural ventilation and;
• choice of suitable building components.
Some available tools show strategies in bioclimatic design and its form of
assumption in the project. The 2030 Palette5 [11] is worth noting, as it makes it
possible to find project strategies at various scales, including some appropriate to
the hot–humid climate. This tool was intended to provide information to designers
for the development of more adapted, resilient projects that seek to be Zero Net
Carbon. The information presented shows strategies related to the reduction of
energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the scales from regional planning to the
building, also containing indications of resources, tools, software and specific
bibliography on each strategy. Authors such as [9, 12], among others, show tools
for conducting more in-depth climate analyses and the application of various bio-
climatic strategies including those for hot and humid climates.
In order to consider the application of strategies in building design, the typology
should be considered, since each strategy presents its own characteristics in relation
to end uses of energy, users’ comfort needs, the opportunity of greater or lesser user
intervention and adaptation to bioclimatic strategies. In commercial buildings, the
main end uses of energy are air conditioning, artificial lighting and equipment,
generally presenting less adaptation capabilities on part of the user. Still within the
commercial typology, high-rise buildings present different characteristics to
low-rise buildings. In general, residential and commercial low-rise buildings show
greater potential for the implementation of bioclimatic strategies. On the other hand,
in residential buildings, the largest energy end uses are hot water and air condi-
tioning. In both typologies, the air conditioning consumption is directly associated
to the architectural design performance, therefore placing greater importance on the
role of professionals.
The location adequate solar orientation of the main room and windows in the
project is very important to reduce incident solar radiation during the periods of
high external temperature. Studies indicate an influence on energy consumption in
relation to the building shape [13]. Thus, the orientation should preferably have the
largest dimension in the East-West axis favouring the North–South orientation for
the main rooms; however, more specific local behavioural data such as winds, and
5
Available at http://2030palette.org/.
the microclimate should also be considered. Additionally, the shape and distribution
of spaces should seek to favour increased the cross-ventilation and air movement
within the building. In low-rise commercial buildings, narrower, open-office type
plants are important to improve the air velocity [7]; higher floor height of the
buildings can aid in stratification of the interior temperature. Also, regarding solar
orientation, it is important to consider the urban densification, as recent studies have
shown that a good urban strategy can reduce the thermal load of commercial
buildings with daytime working hours.
Strategies to reduce direct solar radiation through shading are also essential for
projects in this context. Simplified volumetric studies in which it is possible to
evaluate shading at different times of the day and months of the year can aid in
decision-making. Shading is fundamental in the hot–humid climate, however it is
perceived at present lack of it in the buildings and increase in glazing, indiscrim-
inately. For glazing specification, the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) and the
visible transmittance are of particular importance for designers. Usually, glass with
low SHGC has lower visible transmittance and higher external reflection; the for-
mer is not very adequate for user visual comfort, and the latter may influence the
external air temperature of the surroundings. In that case, advanced or selective
glass will be more appropriate, looking for lower SHGC with higher visible
transmittance and lower external reflection. On the other hand, the use of shading
associated with glazing may permit the use of lower performance glazing. The
study by [6] concluded that shading is more effective in reducing cooling con-
sumption compared to the use of high-performance glasses for Malaysia’s hot–
humid climate. To that end, they recommend the use of shading on all façades,
mainly east-west, associated with low-performance and single glazing as opposed
to double glazing. Also, in the analysis of several types of shading, the authors
identified egg-crated shading as reaching the greatest savings, an alternative also
found in review studies by [14].
Shading in the building can be achieved through the building’s own geometry,
balconies, porches, pergolas, vegetation or through sunscreens, blinds and shutters,
among others. For windows, external protections have a much superior perfor-
mance when compared to internal ones, for they block solar radiation before it
crosses the window. Also, in the external windows, the opening condition and the
possibility of adapting to the climatic differences of the place and the users’ needs
are important. [14] point at important factors to be considered for shading systems
on the tropics based on reviews of studies, such as consideration of design
approach, energy for the system operation and moveable elements, among others.
Shading is important in periods of high temperature, avoiding direct radiation to
the interior of the environment, and ideally, window opening must be associated
with external ventilation conditions when the outside air temperature is lower than
internal air temperature. In general, elements of sun control and shading devices
present greater development in the commercial sector, and, in turn, the use of
shutters as external protection on the frames is of importance in the residential
sector. Shutters, when incorporated into the frames, must allow for regulation of the
airflow and adaptation to the different climatic conditions, providing shading when
necessary. For the residential sector, it is important for the window and shade
system to ensure safety, possibility of day and night ventilation, water tightness,
good acoustic performance, opening potential of ventilation greater than 50%, and
protection against insects.
Natural ventilation is also one of the main strategies for places with hot and
humid climate where ventilation is available. Ventilation is important as a regula-
tion of humidity and for the user´s comfort. Ventilation occurs due to pressure or
temperature difference. The location of the buildings, their geometry, positioning of
the windows, ventilation area and speed and angle of wind incidence are important
factors for the performance of this strategy, considering the positive pressure
incident on the building face (windward), and the leeward face negative pressure.
Passive techniques can be used in projects such as cross-ventilation, stack effect
ventilation, ventilation under the building, ventilation through the roof, ventilation
through intermediate spaces, among others [15]. In addition, strategies can be used
in internal and external openings to allow an increase in cross-ventilation (i.e. use of
internal doors with shutters on the upper part, use of window louvres that ensure
ventilation, even during night or rainy periods, among others). Night ventilation can
also be enhanced with the specification of windows as ventilated sill. Projects in the
Brazilian northeast have proven to be a good strategy for both daytime and
night-time ventilation with safety [16]. Night ventilation uses the cold air at night as
a passive cooling technique for buildings and can be natural (wind pressure or stack
effect difference) or assisted by mechanical equipment such as small fans. It less
effective by itself in places with warmer nights, being very important simulation
techniques on the design phase for evaluation of this strategy [17]. [18] conducted a
review on buildings’ night ventilation strategies collecting evidence on the effec-
tiveness of this strategy across most climate types, including tropical zones. The
review points to some important aspects, such as optimization of the strategy’s
effectiveness, which depends on microclimatic conditions including urban mor-
phology and heat island effect. Furthermore, although it can be used in different
building types, it has been associated primarily to commercial buildings due to their
occupancy time. The review also emphasized the importance of coupling with other
passive or active systems for optimization; later studies have approached thermal
energy storage coupled with night ventilation, thus increasing the interest in the use
of phase change materials associated with night ventilation. The authors carried out
an extensive review on night ventilation as a passive cooling technique considering
experimental and simulation cases, indicating its effectiveness and constraints in
various building types and locations. [18] found that in hot and humid climates,
night ventilation can be of help even for buildings with heavy thermal mass. For the
authors, natural ventilation coupled with strategies such as ventilated internal
double walls, Solar Thermosyphonic Systems, Earth to Air Heat Exchange
(EAHEs), atriums, and solar chimneys aims to be more effective for warm and
humid climates and in low thermal inertia buildings.
Shading and natural ventilation should be sought as premises by the building´s
envelope. The envelope of the building determines the appropriation of bioclimatic
strategies and users’ thermal comfort, having a strong relation to the specification of
components such as shading, external walls, roofing, openings, glass type and
insulation level [13]. The envelope promotes the exchange between the interior and
exterior of environments, providing greater or lesser resistance to the outside cli-
mate, with the concept of thermal resistance being important for walls and roofs.
The increase in thermal resistance depends on the properties of the materials used.
Higher thermal resistance can be obtained with the use of insulation and radiant
barriers made either of materials that have high thermal capacity (heavier materials)
or materials that have low thermal capacity (lighter materials). The choice of
components such as roof and walls should be based on the thermal properties of its
components, especially considering solar absorption6 of the external surfaces.
In general, for hot and humid climates, external surfaces need to have lower solar
absorption (i.e. surfaces with light colours). In this way, the concept of cool
materials or cool surfaces becomes important for envelope performance. In cool
surfaces, materials very effectively reflect the sun’s energy from the surface. In the
past, white colours were used, but now different colours with high solar reflectance
(SR) of the solar radiation and high infrared emittance, releasing the absorbed heat
as infrared radiation [19], are obtained, with this a possibility for the building´s
envelope. Many researchers have studied cool surfaces as an important strategy to
reduce heat island effect [19–22].
In this climatic context, and especially in low-rise residential and commercial
buildings, the roof specification becomes very important because it is responsible for
the main thermal gain of the building. In general, for high-rise buildings, the top
floor is the one that presents the worst thermal performance because it is more
exposed to contact with the external environment. On the other hand, the ground
floor presents the best performance, due to the earth’s thermal inertia. In this way, for
hot–humid climates, the use of roofs with greater thermal resistance is of particular
importance and could be obtained, as stated before, through the association with air
gaps, radiant barriers, insulation and ceilings. Research has shown the importance of
using these materials and low thermal absorptance in the roof for projects in the
context of hot and humid weather [4, 7]. The consideration of cool roofs is
important, since it will reduce roof surface temperature by reducing the heat trans-
ferred to the interior of the building, helping to reduce energy consumption and
improve user comfort. Also, in Latin American countries, inherited from the Spanish
and Portuguese cultures, the use of clay tile in buildings is very common, especially
in residential buildings. This material in its natural state exhibits a very suitable
performance for the hot and humid climate because it is porous, being associated
with the adsorption and desorption of moisture and water evaporation with associ-
ated heat gain reduction [23]. On the other hand, in the case of roofs with concrete
slab, as seen nowadays in many high-rise buildings, shading with an associated air
gap decreases the effect of direct solar radiation on the component [24].
In the context of predominance of hot and humid climate throughout the year,
walls are less preponderant, and may be made of lighter materials, provided that
a: dimensionless value that ranges from 0 to 1.

6
they allow access to natural ventilation while avoiding the passing of insects [24].
On other cases, especially with hot and humid climate during part of the year, the
use of materials with some thermal capacity (thermal inertia) may be desirable,
particularly in the inner walls, in order to reduce fluctuations of the external tem-
perature, even more so when the average external temperature is inside the comfort
zone. In cases with the external mean average outside the comfort zone, but with
night temperatures inside the comfort zone, selective ventilation will be appropriate,
associated with night ventilation. However, studies on the use of thermal inertia for
hot and humid climate are not conclusive. [25] conducted a review of thermal
inertia studies in buildings across different climates and building uses. For the
authors, the literature shows divergences concerning the impact of thermal mass, as
some studies on warm climate indicate that cooling demand could increase with
thermal inertia. On the other hand, some conclusions of the literature review point
out that the effect of thermal inertia depends on the building operation including
strategies for solar shading and ventilation. [26] carried out an experiment for the
hot and humid season of Florianópolis, Brazil, regarding the use of natural venti-
lation in an energy-efficient house with high thermal inertia and insulation. Results
indicated a good performance on the house’s interior temperature when exterior
shading with blinds was in use; it was non-occupied and there was no ventilation
during the day. At night, with colder air temperatures, mechanical ventilation with
outside air was used. Under these conditions and the effect of thermal inertia,
internal temperature tends to stay near the average outside temperature, remaining
in the comfort zone. Conversely, when ventilation was admitted during the day,
internal temperatures were high and above 29 °C. Therefore, care must be taken
with the association of insulation, especially in walls with materials with higher
inertia. In this case, the user’s behaviour regarding openings is extremely important.
If the outside air temperature is greater than the inside air temperature, heat will
enter the building, with its removal being difficult. It must also be taken into
account that Florianópolis presents other climatic conditions throughout the year.
A tendency towards lighter construction is observed in the present, due to reduction
on consumption resources, faster time of construction and lower weight of buildings.
For greater thermal resistance in a lighter component (wall or roof) an association with
air gaps between the layers of the components increases their thermal resistance and
the use of insulation and radiant barriers increases even more. Lower thermal inertia
walls with insulation could also increase the temperature of the building, considering
the greenhouse effect. Ventilation and shading are essential in this case.
In both cases, the user´s behaviour is very important. In this way, [27] conducted
a review on occupant behaviour regarding energy performance based on studies,
estimating the potential of energy saving from occupant behaviour in residential
buildings, which was around 10–25%, with that number being 5–30% in com-
mercial buildings.
Still considering the envelope’s influence, [10] reviewed several studies evalu-
ating façade designs for performance in hot and humid climates. The authors
highlighted the incorporation of phase change materials—PCMs into the façades as
something promising. Phase change materials can be integrated in the building
envelope in components such as walls, ceilings and floors [28] being capable of
functioning as thermal mass, absorbing and releasing latent heat during phase
transition [29]. They can be integrated to lighter envelopes to provide some inertia
when needed. Recent studies are addressing the potential of PCMs to improve
indoor comfort and decrease cooling energy demand [30]. The research of [29]
shows an effective reduction of heat gains through building envelope on the tropics.
The authors found the selection of PCMs with suitable phase change temperature
(around comfort temperature) very important and the application on the exterior
surface of walls to yield better results. The research showed that a thicker layer of
PCM reduces heat gains through the building envelope, but thinner PCM layers are
more cost-effective and more efficient. According to [29], some studies have
demonstrated heat gain reductions with the use of PCMs in envelopes, in a range of
21–32% throughout the year.
The application of bioclimatic strategies to projects located in hot–humid climate
regions can result in major benefits associated with energy savings and user
comfort, and should be further considered in a context of climate change. The
research of [4] showed the effectiveness of energy efficiency measures applied to a
typical social housing project in the city of Salvador, Brazil, with hot–humid cli-
mate. The analysis considered the current climate scenario and two climate change
scenarios (2020 and 2050, with the A2 emission scenario taken from the 3rd report
of IPCC [31]. The evaluation considered the dwelling operation with exclusive use
of natural ventilation (with the indicator of degree-hours of discomfort) and mixed
use (with foreseen air conditioning in occupation periods considering kWh/m2/year
as an indicator). Results demonstrated a tendency in the future scenarios for hours
of discomfort due to heat to increase in 56% comparing the scenario of 2050 with
the current one. The adaptation measures that had the best performance, considering
the natural ventilation and mixed use operations in the three proposed scenarios,
were those related to lower solar absorptivity of the walls; insulated roofs and lower
solar absorptivity of the roof; and shading of all windows in the main spaces of the
house. Measures related to windows, both in the increase of dimensions and in the
ventilation factor, were shown to be effective for the operation with natural ven-
tilation; however, they are always associated with shadowing. The insulation
applied on the roof works as a very effective measure. However, for roofs with low
solar absorptivity (0.3), the insulation thickness7 did not showed a significant dif-
ference between the evaluated indicators. The wall types analysed showed, at times,
very different behaviours according to the evaluated indicator, but did not prevail
over the other strategies. Lightweight walls (wood double-wall with air or insula-
tion) had inferior or similar performance (depending on the scenario) to the base
case (simple masonry brick with six holes, internal and external plaster) for per-
formance with natural ventilation. However, the energy consumption indicator
showed a performance superior to the base case. Insulation in walls with higher
thermal mass (masonry or concrete) showed no significant improvement in
7
The research tested rock wool as insulation with thickness of 2.5, 5, and 7.5 cm.
performance related to the base case. For the natural ventilation operation, the
largest reductions with the measures proposed as standalone were 25% for the
current climate scenario and 17% for that of 2050. The research tested later some of
the measures applied at the same time. Results showed potential to improve the
base case performance. For the natural ventilation indicator the reductions with
respect to the base case varied between 27 and 68% depending on the climate
scenario. For energy consumption for refrigeration, the maximum reductions
observed were around 40% and the minimum around 12%.
Finally, for a better understanding of bioclimatic strategies in a hot and humid
context, it is essential to know the basic principles of comfort and the behaviour of
the specific user in these locations. This information can help in the quest for more
efficient, resilient and comfortable designs for buildings in places with hot–humid
climate.
2 Thermal Comfort in Hot and Humid Climates
Thermal comfort can be defined as a condition in which a person does not prefer to
feel either hot or cold; i.e. it is a state of total physical and mental well-being that
expresses satisfaction with the surrounding thermal environment. This state may be
associated with the individuality of each person; so, a mild environment can be
comfortable for one at the same time that is uncomfortable for another. Thus,
different views of thermal comfort may, in practice, result in different combinations
of technologies and behaviour.
Thermal comfort assessment is traditionally based on a model that uses heat
transfer equations to predict a group thermal sensation, the PMV/PPD model [32].
This approach represents an analytical point of view that considers man as a simple
passive receptor of the thermal environment, which restricts the possibility of wide
indoor temperature ranges (and consequently, the air movement oscillation). After the
adoption of the model in international thermal comfort standards, a large number of
buildings that rely completely on air-conditioning systems were observed worldwide.
Later, the rise (and incorporation) of a new model specific for naturally ventilated
environments, in which occupants adapt themselves to indoor conditions according to
outdoor fluctuations [33] changed the scenario. This is particularly interesting in hot
and humid climates, where a small increase in air speed values may be sufficient to
achieve thermal comfort, eliminating the need for indiscriminate air-conditioning in
some periods of the year. Some authors argue that the contribution of air movement to
heat removal varies according to air temperature and relative humidity, allowing the
temperature tolerance to increase 4 °C [34]. When combined with the use of ceiling
fans, this temperature tolerance may extend up to 2 °C.
When air velocity alone is not good enough to improve thermal comfort levels, it
can also be combined with the use of air-conditioning units to reduce energy
consumption without, however, reducing the occupants’ thermal acceptability. This
could be done by adjusting set points according to the outdoor condition. [35]
Fig. 2 Personal control systems, expansion in the limits of thermal comfort and energy saving in
different climates [36]
verified good conditions of comfort and thermal acceptability (above 80% of

acceptability) in spaces where ceiling fans and air conditioning were operating
together, stating that air speed values above 0.90 m/s can be well accepted when
operating temperature ranges from 25 to 28 °C. According to [36], the
air-conditioning set point adjustment can generate savings that vary according to
the local culture, climate and season (Fig. 2).
In order to maintain higher set points values in buildings with central
air-conditioning systems, individual occupants’ strategies for adjustment are
desirable (also known as PCS—Personal Comfort Systems). According to [37], an
active user opens and closes the windows, moves shading elements, turns heating
and cooling on and off, and makes use of portable devices for local temperature
control. When used in a complementary way to the current thermal condition of an
environment, PCS can further expand the comfort limits without necessarily
resorting to artificial air conditioning (see Fig. 3).
The individual systems can be classified as small table fans, cooled chairs,
portable cooling cubes and so on. The main objective of PCS is to enable users to
remain comfortable in an environment with broader temperature ranges, which is
particularly interesting as an individual thermal satisfaction tool focused on occu-
pants from different age groups, genders, body mass, clothing, metabolic rate and
thermal adaptation (characteristics that directly influence thermal comfort). Thus, it
is possible to maintain a comfortable environment in a scenario where different
Fig. 3 Acceptable temperature limits according to the adopted ventilation system [38]
groups of people exist and there is a small number of air-conditioning units, which
often makes their autonomy limited.
Avoiding unrestrained—and often unnecessary—use of air conditioning systems
has become an important task not only because of energy consumption, but also
because of occupants’ satisfaction. Recent studies pointed that climatic changes and
the gradual increase in the frequency and severity of hotter days (or even hot waves)
during the year have created a group of people dependent on artificial conditioning
[39–41]. Thus, the more a person enters refrigerated environments, the greater is
their desire to stay in these spaces, and consequently their intolerance to higher
temperatures [42]. Researchers in the human physiology area have also studied
other implications of prolonged exposure to HVAC systems, such as weight gain
and increased numbers of diabetes cases [43, 44].
3 Conclusions
Hot and humid climates have intrinsic characteristics that are prominent because of
the extreme hot discomfort situation when they are not correctly treated through
building design; consequently, a large amount of energy may be consumed by using
artificial air-conditioning systems, which, in addition to energy consumption, may
have other implications, as discussed before. Taking advantage of bioclimatic
project strategies, designers should focus on the building’s solar orientation,
number and dimensions of openings (together with their orientation and sun pro-
tection), cross-ventilation, as well as the form of indoor and outdoor spaces. In
addition to the high energy consumption that inefficient buildings can represent for
a large urban centre, it is important to note that, in the future, with global warming
and higher temperatures, the requirements for indoor comfort will dramatically
change. Thus, designers must look for innovative ways to deal with architectural
projects, giving special attention to the sustainability and life cycle of buildings and
materials, besides occupants’ thermal satisfaction.
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Evaluation of Microclimatic Comfort
Around Campus Buildings
at the Pedestrian Level by Means
of Field Measurements and Survey
of Satisfaction
Enes Yasa
Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between

microclimatic conditions around campus buildings and the perception of biocli-
matic comfort. This study consisted of conducting simultaneous questionnaire
surveys of satisfaction and microclimatic measurements around campus building in
an open around campus buildings area in Konya, Turkey. During this research
project; the meteorological data, which is acquired from the temporary education
buildings of the university campus located in an area that is at a higher elevation
than Konya centre and has a topography that is subject to high wind speeds and
intensity, were used for measuring year-long pedestrian-level microclimatic con-
ditions along with comfort conditions at the peripherals of the newly constructed
education buildings using CFD FloEFD program and Delta OHM device, while
providing a study on the currently existing buildings and conceptual architectural
projects suggested by authoring architects in the light of present climatic and
topographical conditions. For detailed evaluation, January was selected for the
winter and heating period, while July was selected for summer and cooling period.
Surveys in peripherals of present buildings were conducted on January 21 and July
21. In addition, an exterior comfort satisfaction survey was conducted on the
campus. However, only Delta OHM (microclimatic measurement device) mea-
surement results and the results of the comfort satisfaction survey were evaluated in
this study.

Keywords Thermal comfort Building energy performance Campus buildings

Natural ventilation, microclimatic air movements Wind effect FloEFD CFD
Questionnaire survey
E. Yasa (&)
Graduated Univ: Physical Environment Control Unit, Faculty of Architecture,
Department of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Taşkışla-Taksim,
34437 Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: enesyasa@yahoo.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_4
76 E. Yasa
1 Introduction
The effects on local microclimate can be positive or negative, depending on various

factors such as building structure, dimensions, surrounding buildings or interactions
with obstacles. High-speed winds at heights may be directed to pedestrian level by
high buildings, therefore causing dangerous conditions for people. Moving around
and between buildings or through streets as canals, winds can gain speed at
pedestrian level and therefore increased the discomfort of people. On the other
hand, properly organized high buildings can form sheltered areas for pedestrians.
However, this situation may also cause traffic smoke and/or other pollutants if there
is insufficient air circulation (wind speed) [1–3].
This outdoor thermal comfort study is a multidisciplinary study in that it
involves various concepts such as meteorology, urban design, and physiology.
(Building exterior microclimate status) The microclimatic parameters forming
comfort conditions of exterior pedestrian level can be addressed as physical and
environmental factors which affect climatic comfort and play significant roles in the
process of energy preservation. These are solar radiation, exterior temperature,
exterior humidity, and wind. A set of precautions, regarding design parameters,
should be taken in order to be able to provide interior climatic comfort conditions
expected by taking advantage of present exterior climatic conditions. In order to
take these precautions, the values of external climatic elements should be deter-
mined and then rendered usable. In other words, climatic data should be compiled.
For this reason, values such as solar radiation, exterior temperature, exterior
humidity and wind, which are of exterior climate elements and upon which designs
are based, should be determined according to absolute atmospheric conditions for
characteristic days or periods. In order to leave the least need for additional energy
systems within the interior surrounded by any front, in terms of the effect of climate
elements in the outer environment of the building, the variables that are controlled
by the designer should have suitable values. In building design, the elements
affecting human comfort at a pedestrian level outside the buildings should be
covered as well as elements regarding building envelope which provides good
interior comfort, while also considering all microclimatic parameters during the
designing stage.
In addition, construction areas are qualitatively different from rural areas in terms
of their surface topographies, geometric features and the materials they contain.
These physical characteristics can greatly affect absorption and reflection of solar
radiation, thermal storage capacity, absorption of long-wave radiation emission,
changes in winds and the rate of evapotranspiration. Besides, anthropogenic heat
due to traffic and industrial production, together with heating and cooling of
buildings, also have effects on city climate. However, such factors are not included
in the scope of our study.
The number of studies on pedestrian-level comfort conditions at peripherals of
buildings has been increasing in recent years. Organization of buildings sur-
rounding areas is a matter of inquiry due to possible negative comfort and security
Evaluation of Microclimatic Comfort Around Campus Buildings … 77
conditions at pedestrian level [4]. Wind movement fundamentally manifests in two

ways at pedestrian level: it is felt like the speed of wind which affects the rate of
heat exchange between humans and the environment, or it stems from a pressure
area that affects human body [5]. The stream of wind has outcomes such as heat
transfer through convection, rain penetration, dilution of pollutants, audial noise,
and dust. The most obvious effects on pedestrians are mechanic and thermodynamic
effects. This study only handles these mechanic effects and emphasizes that
according to the Lopes et al. study, the thermal comfort threshold is possible with
wind speeds at 4.50 m/s [6].
Pedestrian comfort, on the other hand, can depend on various factors such as
wind speed (and critical burst speeds), local climate and season, environment
temperature, rainfall, humidity, human activities in public areas, clothing, human
age, and physiological status. A pre-assessment to be conducted on wind behavior
at ground level and building peripherals may prevent excessive wind speeds. In this
context, both demolition and construction of buildings may change optimum wind
conditions. When evaluating the discomfort at the pedestrian level due to the wind,
the situations occurring under 2 m and the average speed acquired between 10 min
and 1 h should be examined. According to Bottema, at a point where the effects of
the wind are at a level that impels humans to shelter, it can be said that these effects
manifest very strongly and frequently (a frequency under 1 h) [7].
There are significant spatial and temporal changes in microclimate conditions
[8]; however, environment settings are generally only evaluated based on temper-
ature (Ta) [9]. This may prevent understanding of other important parameters. Six
typical parameters, which were first examined by [10] in their book titled
“Thermal Comfort”, include: [10] (1) Ta; (2) vapor pressure (e); (3) airspeed (vw);
(4) solar and thermal radiation (R); (5) material exchange temperature (M); and
clothing insulation (Icl). Under the light of these parameters, researchers attempted
to predict the thermal environment that determines human comfort, and the effects
of deviations that will occur in these comfortable conditions. In order to accurately
model human comfort, physical environment, human physiology, as well as related
physiologic responses, need to be taken into account [9, 11, 12]. The focus point,
which gravitates toward energy balance during exercise and under changing
environmental conditions, bears pivotal importance in terms of validating models
and improving the environmental recreational design.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Campus Building Exterior Microclimate Conditions

and Exterior Thermal Comfort
The topographical features of a designed building, to be applied, will inevitably

alter the pedestrian-level comfort conditions within and at peripherals of its
topography, and also in interiors. Wind, one of the fundamental physical climate
78 E. Yasa
parameters, causes the formation of significantly dangerous environments if its

character is not well analyzed and taken into consideration in design. Air pollution
due to wind speed, wind direction and incorrect utilization of winds may cause
health-threatening environments. Establishing a settlement that is in line with the
topography surrounding the building depends on the variability of parameters such
as the form of the building, openings above its size and its harmony with the
environment, as well as other parameters such as correct utilization of landscaping
elements. These parameters can make for suitable and comfortable environments, if
correctly evaluated and implemented. Otherwise, unsuitable and uncomfortable
environments can be created.
Thermal comfort is an interdisciplinary field which covers quite many disci-
plines such as meteorology, physiology, and psychology, which cover the subjects
of environment and human beings. Compared to thermal comfort, which is widely
studied in interiors, outdoor thermal comfort, and its determiner factors are less
understood by researchers and practitioners.
Thermal comfort has been described in various ways based on the purposes and
assumptions of people who described it. One of these descriptions links thermal
comfort to the rates of energy gain and energy loss in the human body, while
explaining comfort as the state of satisfaction experienced when all heat that goes
into and comes out of the human body is in balance [10]. This “rational” model
considers environmental conditions and physiologic regulation of human body
temperature, within a certain range. Another frequently used thermal comfort for-
mulation describes thermal comfort as “the state of being satisfied with the envi-
ronment,” emphasizing its subjective and physiologic dimension [13]. It is accepted
that due to expected variations among individuals within a population, such a
mental state will vary among all individuals.
The first comfort evaluation methods used in exteriors were generally derived
from methods developed for interiors and in these methods, it is assumed that the
traditional thermal comfort theory, which is developed for interior applications, can
be generalized in line with exterior conditions without any modifications. However,
this approach was proven to be wrong [14–17]. People expect different climate
conditions outdoors and generally select their clothes according to the weather.
Additionally, people in outdoors can be subject to intense solar radiation and winds,
which will greatly vary their reaction to their environments [18]. Based on expe-
riences and expectations of the people in outdoors, the theory that the comfort
range, which is acceptable in outdoors, can be wider than the range which is
acceptable in indoors, is adopted [17–19]. The subject of outdoor thermal comfort
has been gradually attracting more interest and field studies, wind tunnel experi-
ments and computer simulations were conducted in this subject in recent years.
Thermal comfort of a person is defined in three parameters:
(a) Body’s thermal balance; (b) The rate of perspiration being within comfort
range; (c) Average skin temperature being within comfort range. These three
conditions cannot be realized by only keeping ambient temperature within a certain
range. According to [10], the interaction between six fundamental factors define the
thermal environment and comfort perception of a human being: [10]
(a) Ambient temperature (Ta), (b) Radiant temperature (Tmrt): a 1 °C change here
can be balanced with a 1 °C change in Ta (c) Wind speed: 0.1 m/s change rate (until
1.5 °C) for every 0.5 °C change in Ta. (d) Humidity: a 10% change in relative
humidity can be balanced with a 0.3 °C change in Ta. (e) Metabolic speed: here
(above the fixed level) an increase of 17.5 W is equivalent to a 1 °C increase in Ta
value. (f) Clothing isolation (clo): A change of 1 clo will provide, in Ta, an increase
of 5 °C in standstill, and an increase of 10 °C in movement [20].
2.2 Parameters of Outdoor Comfort
There are many parameters of outdoors for human beings. Many variables affect
human comfort: there are air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, air flow,
humidity, clothing level, and acoustics among these variables [2, 18, 21, 22]. The
comfort in open urban areas is provided through environmental harmony of human
beings. This comfort can be provided by precautions such as limiting exposure,
changing settlement location, changing clothing, etc., which decrease the need for
accommodating oneself. In order to exhibit this important effect, increasing the
climate temperature during the day will prevent people from staying outdoors and
lead them to accommodate themselves with the environment by wearing less or
going to shaded areas [23]. For this reason, general guide information is also needed
in order to provide the desired outdoor conditions. Human comfort, which has been
intensely studied, can be divided into two, namely “indoor human comfort” and
“outdoor human comfort”. In many studies, pedestrians are studied under various
outdoor climate and microclimate conditions in terms of wind comfort, thermal
comfort, city, environment quality, and human comfort. As for wind, thermal
comfort and the effects of these on human comfort, these factors are effective on
one another but they still deserve to be compared; all these discoveries focus on a
single subject. No studies have ever been made on the general wind and thermal
comfort conditions in the city of Konya in Turkey, and the effects of these con-
ditions on the local climate. In this study, I have assembled many contexts and
much guiding information for architects, city planners, and designers for the pur-
pose of creating new design concepts, through an interdisciplinary examination of
the literature. The study concludes with recommendations for possible further
studies in the field.
2.3 Thermal Comfort
2.3.1 The Importance of Thermal Comfort
While thermal comfort is the most important category among the categories of
parameters that contribute to human comfort, it also determines the quality of
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outdoor environments [24, 25]. Thermal comfort is a state, in which people will not
prefer hotter or colder temperatures, which therefore provides the ideal temperature
[26]. The studies in this regard indicate a direct relationship between temperature
and human activities in an urban area [25]. Pedestrians are often subject to exterior
conditions and variations in these conditions such as sunlight to shade. In general,
environmental conditions can determine whether a person stays in or leaves an
environment.
Outdoor thermal comfort, on the other hand, is a sophisticated situation.
Microclimate and environmental conditions are of pivotal importance in terms of
thermal comfort evaluation [24, 25]. In many parts of the world, many studies were
carried out in order to compare the conditions between different climate conditions
and urban areas [24, 27–29]. Many examinations were conducted on fundamental
perception and its effects on human comfort and human activities. In these exam-
inations, personal, environmental, psychological (habit or expectation) and physi-
ological variables (genetic adaptation or getting used to the climate) are considered
and from this point on, it was aimed to discover various ways to adapt to thermal
comfort. These variables affect thermal comfort, while identifying thermal comfort
adaptation types [25, 26, 29]. Some studies focus on such distinctive features of
thermal comfort [25, 27].
2.4 Parameters Affecting Thermal Comfort
There are four fundamental environmental parameters which affect general thermal
comfort: air temperature, radiation, air humidity, and wind speed. In addition, two
personal variables affect thermal comfort: clothes and activity level. All these
factors work together towards attaining thermal comfort. Air temperature is a
dominant environmental factor, as it determines convective temperature distribu-
tion. Air movement speeds up convection and increases evaporation from the skin,
therefore creating a physiological cooling effect. Changes in humid air content or
air humidity can affect the speed of evaporation; while high humidity may restrict
discharging of heat from the body through perspiration and respiration, very low
humidity levels because drying in mucous membranes and skin, therefore creating
discomfort. The situation varies in terms of radiation and this subject should be
considered in relation to the other climate variables. Radiation can make people feel
even hotter in hot climates. On the contrary, radiation can soften the discomfort
created by cold air in cold climates. Metabolic speed is related to activity level;
since heat will be more easily distributed at high levels, cooler environments will be
preferred. While clothes provide thermal isolation to the body, they affect energy
transmission speeds through radiation and convection. If the cloths can be chosen
freely, they can become an important adaptation mechanism.
While studying on the thermal comfort problem, wind and comfort parameters
on wind should be considered foremost. In this sense, since wind plays quite a vital
role in terms of comfort feeling, the wind is, therefore, closely related to comfort
parameters. In addition, outdoor thermal comfort is managed through direct and

diffused solar radiation, air temperature and humidity, as well as long wavelength
radiation exchange between humans and the environment.
Since some of the comfort parameters related to outdoor air conditions contin-
uously vary and environmental conditions change for pedestrians as they roam
within urban areas, outdoor thermal comfort conditions should be continuously
evaluated in order to understand the dynamic response people exhibit. Humans not
only choose their clothing style and adjust their level of activity according to
environmental conditions, but also they adapt their psychological levels according
to present options, environmental drives and stimulants, thermal history and
expectations [16, 30]. For this reason, outdoor thermal comfort is directed by many
factors.
Thorough understanding of the relationship between microclimatic environ-
mental conditions, determining the relationship between people and thermal com-
fort, the perception of climatic risk factors and purposes of studies made towards
these aims are described below:
(1) Evaluating requirements for and conditions of human comfort in various out-
door open area conditions;
(2) Determination of climatic comfort thresholds and limits in outdoors based on
atmospheric conditions, types of activity and individual traits,
(3) Analyzing the relationship between climatic comfort and perception of
microclimatic conditions in different urban open areas.
One of the most important factors in thermal comfort evaluation is one person
developing a comfort index, which reflects their feeling of comfort, in a suitable
way and specific situation. Many such indexes are suggested in the literature.
Preferred Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) were
developed by [10] based on experimental laboratory comfort studies and under
steady-state conditions [10, 31]. PMV and PPD are calculated based on the average
among air temperature, radiation temperature, and air speed, and humidity princi-
ple. Calculations are applied in many closed thermal comfort standards such as ISO
7730 (2005) and ASHRAE Standard 55 (2010) [32–34].
Standard Effective Temperature (SET) Ference environment is defined as “the
air temperature where a person has the same average skin temperature and skin
moisture in the real situation [23]. It is divided as SETn and OUT-SET scales for
outdoor applications. Physiological equivalent temperature (PET) is defined as the
Ference environment air temperature wherein temperature total of the human body,
which body is balanced with the same core and skin temperature under sophisti-
cated external conditions. Wet bulb globe temperature is a scale for temperature
emphasis and it is defined in ISO 7243 (2003) standard [33, 34]. The urban
microclimate physical parameters, which the comfort indexes are based on, can be
acquired from measurements or model calculation [35–37]. The simplest approach
is based on radiation modeling of the exterior environment [38]. The examples are
SOLWEIG and the RayMan models [39, 40]. More sophisticated models take into
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account more factors. These are; ENVI-met non-3D simple dimension ground
model, radiation heat transfer model, plant cover model, and hydrostatic micro-
climate models which include air flow model [41]. The most sophisticated models
can include different types of heat exchange, an energy balance or different types of
heat exchanges (radiation, perspiration from body, evaporation of sweat, dry and
latent respiration, etc.) [42].
As a requirement of the transient nature of the outdoor thermal comfort in open
areas, comfort values can be evaluated by integrating these on time and space using
techniques developed for indoor applications [43]. Estimated comfort values can be
compared to results to be acquired from on-site pedestrian surveys [15].
Outdoor climatic comfort; its perception and detection and therefore the uti-
lization of open areas are affected by microclimatic conditions and especially air
temperature, air humidity, wind speed and radiation flows (especially solar radia-
tion), physical activity, clothing and age and also psychological factors such as
motivation, individual preferences and cultural habits [15, 30, 44].
2.4.1 Thermal Adaptation
Validity of thermal comfort indices in outdoor conditions have been gradually

questioned more and more; because acquired evidence suggests that human thermal
perceptions are different from the perceptions predicted by thermal indices, and that
there are important variances between the conditions of perceiving thermal comfort
indoors and conditions determining outdoor thermal comfort [11, 15–17, 44–48].
Human beings generally accept more thermal stimulants in outdoors than indoors,
due to quite different expectations. For this reason, studies on outdoor comfort
include both subjective and environmental parameters which are not encountered in
indoor comfort. Outdoor climate conditions exhibit important temporal and spatial
variations, therefore indicating that the energy of a body is rarely in balance. The
result of this is the ability to better control a body’s energy balance indoors.
Humanistic evaluation of thermal environment is determined by many other factors
which are connected in fundamentals to short-term and mid-term thermal adapta-
tions of human beings.
The expression “adaptation” can generally be defined as the gradual decrease in
the organism’s response to repeated exposure to stimulants. Activities that adapt
organisms to survival in such environments are also included in this scope [16].
Within the thermal comfort context, all processes applied to increase the harmony
between one’s needs and the environment is related to this subject. The existence of
adaptation reflects a “giving and taking” relationship between the environment and
the user; an important progenitor of this relationship is that that person is not
anymore a passive receiver in that environment, but they are an active agent which
enters into interaction with a person–environment system through various feedback
cycles and adapts this system to themselves [18, 49–51]. There are three types of
adaptation: behavioral adaptations (personal, environmental, technological and
cultural), physiological (genetic, adaptation or acclimatization) and psychological

(familiarizing or expectation) [52–54].
2.4.2 Physical Adaptation
Physical adaptation includes all physical changes people do in order to adapt

themselves to their environment and adjust their environment to their needs. For
this reason, two types of physical adaptations, namely reactive and interactive, can
be mentioned [16, 44]. Changes in reactive adaptation are only individual (changes
in clothing level, stance, position or even consumption of warm and cold drinks,
therefore changing metabolic temperature). On the other hand, in interactive
adaptations, people do environments changes such as opening windows, switching
on air conditioners or heaters, etc. in interactive adaptations. Since the ability of
pedestrians to change their environments is limited, it is not possible to attain
thermal comfort through interactive adaptation in general outdoors. In this context,
reactions of people to outdoor microclimate conditions can be more passive com-
pared to their reactions to climate conditions indoors. However, as some researchers
discovered, reactions given outdoors can result in different utilization of these
outdoors [53, 54].
2.4.3 Psychological Adaptation
Humans’ perception of outdoors is individual and subjective; in parallel, reactions

of people against physical stimulants depends on their information on their current
situation. Physiological factors may affect the perception of space and spatial
changes in terms of below factors.
Naturalness describes an environment that is independent of artificiality [50].
Exterior climate conditions are generally more variable compared to stable indoor
climate conditions. For this reason, people can tolerate wide thermal fluctuations in
outdoors. Some studies have shown that the thermal comfort interval in the outdoor
conditions that vary between thermal comfort level and “very stressful environ-
mental conditions” is wider [17, 55].
Expectation is what the environmental conditions should be, rather than what
they are, and this greatly affects human perception. In outdoors, this situation is
connected to people’s ideas such as “It will be cold since it is the winter season” or
“The weather should be hotter in this time of year” in various times of the year. If
thermal conditions vary from the conditions expected by people, this can change
emotional reactions or even lead people to complain; because environmental con-
ditions are not as they expected [30].
For this reason, experience directly affects people’s expectations. These effects
can be divided into two as short-term and long-term effects. Short-term effects
depend on memory and they cause people expectations to change in a day, as
follows. This situation also explains that in outdoor conditions, thermal “neutrality”
84 E. Yasa
changes between 7.5 °C in winter and 27 °C in summer, and goes in parallel to

average weather temperature [15]. Because physical adaptation partly compensates
for this temperature interval. Long-term experience is related to schemas people
make up in their minds. People living in different geographical/climatic conditions
can have reactions against exposure to sun and outdoors [56]. Differences in cul-
tural features though, can be related to geographical/climatic regions to a certain
degree. In this context, culture can be described as “an information system which
defines the way the people in an organized group, society or nation interacts with
their social and physical environment”. A member of a culture learns the rules and
regulations of this culture and then relays these to the other members of the
“system”. “These rules earn…” … standards of perception, beliefs, evaluation,
communication, and movements among people who share a language, history, and/
or a specific geography [53]. Under the light of our long-term experience, we chose
different actions under different conditions and we adapted ourselves to varying
thermal conditions.
The length of exposure to thermal discomfort is also important, in that when
stressful conditions are experienced for very short periods they will not be nega-
tively reacted to (i.e., getting off an air-conditioned vehicle and entering a building
in summer). This is a critical factor for open areas where people do optional actions
such as resting, rather than responsibilities which necessitate exposure to stressful
conditions for long periods. The lengths of time which people prefer to spend
outdoor can greatly vary according to people’s perception of their surroundings.
People can alter their decisions according to levels of stress perceived from out-
doors (i.e., opting to go to a location using an air-conditioned vehicle, rather than
walking). However, in principle, as long as the exposure to such discomfort is not
threatening to the living organism, people can tolerate a very wide range of thermal
conditions
It is accepted that perceived control generally affects thermal sensations. The
higher an individual’s control over a discomfort, the wider the range of thermal
changes they can tolerate; therefore lowering their negative emotional responses
that much. For example, it is hard for people to directly control their surroundings
outdoors; however, they can subdue this discomfort through indirect solutions such
as staying in the sun or in the shade. The existence of options is believed to be
critical, even though the person does not change their position. In addition, the
reason why an individual is at a specific place can also affect thermal perception. If
the individual has to be at a certain location—while waiting for somebody or going
to their workplace—they can be expected to show less tolerance to their environ-
ment. Because their existence at the location is due to external factors rather than
individual desire. On the other hand, people become more tolerant when they are at
a place, which contains certain conditions, by their own will (such as playing
outside). Because they are in control of the situation and they are evaluating their
present options.
Environmental stimulation is shaped by various outdoor thermal conditions.
Comfortable conditions are accepted as “neutral” conditions where no person is hot
or cold in an environment [54]. Comfort zone is generally expressed as the range of
temperature that surrounds neutral temperature. However, the belief that humans
prefer dynamic environmental conditions rather than static neutrality has been
increasingly adopted. Environmental stimulation is a subject of primary concern
when the environment exhibits little thermal restriction. This is a feature of such
areas and is one of the reasons why people use such areas [16]. The most logical
reason for this subject is that people love outdoors because of clean air, sun, and
wind, because they feel refreshed in outdoors and therefore want to spend more
time there.
2.5 Microclimatic Parameters in Human Comfort Modeling
A model can only be as accurate as its inputs. In four meteorological input

parameters, namely Ta, RH, vw, and R, TC is specifically affected by R or average
radiant temperature (Tmrt) [40, 48, 57]. Sunlight is the basic component of envi-
ronmental temperature load [58]. Tmrt is defined as the uniform temperature of an
imaginary closed area where radiant heat transfer is equal to the radiant heat transfer
in an irregular closed area, or as the total of all short-wave and long-wave radiation
fluxes required for human-energy equilibrium equation [9, 31, 39, 40, 48, 59]. It
was said that a radiant change applied on a human subject is the main indicator of
TC [9, 12, 38, 40, 60, 61] and this suggestion was supported by Gulyas et al. (2006),
who, by using Rayman model (physiological equivalent temperature, in other
words, PET) (Hoppe 1999) discovered a strong relationship between the heat load
on the body and Tmrt [45, 51]. Hodder and Parsons (2007) studied the effects of
direct solar radiation on inert people especially within vehicles [61]. In this study,
the Ramanathan Tsk formula was used to calculate the Tsk value under four radiant
conditions: All parameters fixed; 0, 200, 400 and 600 Wm2. When ATS values
indicated an increase in discomfort due to radiation, Tsk values displayed signifi-
cant differences between controls (P 0.01) in every comparison to radiation.
However, no significant differences were observed between 400 and 600 Wm2
(P = 0.12). In the Gulyas et al. (2006) study, it is suggested that the Rayman model
will be useful for planners, decision makers, and practitioners in new urban areas
[51]. When street valleys are compared in their wooded and unwooded conditions,
the average difference between Tmrt and PET was found 7.0 and 4.6 °C; the higher
temperature was obtained from the unwooded scenario. According to Lin et al.
(2010) study, shades are an important component of outdoor TC value, especially in
urban valleys [62–64]. Ali-Toudert and Mayer 2007 and Lin et al. (2010) studies
were completed with 10-year data from Taiwan, which is a hot and humid location
with a high thermal index [48]. In Lin et al. (2010) study, which also used the
Rayman model as primary TC index PET, modeled Tmrt and measured Tmrt values
were discovered to have a strong relation when there is no high Tmrt (R2 = 0.85,
P < 0.001) [64]. With the use of a three dimensional ENVI-Met microclimate
model, (Bruse 1998, 2004) the urban design features brought in by the Ali-Toudert
and Mayer (2007) were mapped with PET patterns. The designs, which included
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solutions such as trees and sunshades, improved the climate quality in urban
streets [65].
In the Emmanuel et al. (2007) study, the processes of forming shades in Sri Lanka
cities using the ENVI-Met model were studied; however, the model was discovered
to have certain shortcomings [55]. These shortcomings are: (1) the buildings not
having thermal mass; (2) fixed indoor temperatures and building albedos; and (3) all
buildings having the same thermal transmittance in walls and roofs. ENVI-MET
cannot simulate sea breezes into the model. However, sea breezes are an important
component in urban ventilation (Emmanuel et al. 2007) [55]. Other environmental
parameters, with a capacity large enough to affect thermal load are vapor pressure
(e) and vw and they are very closely related to perspiration. Addition of activity
speeds (va) to the TC model may increase sensitivity together with the increase of
convective heat loss and local air movements, therefore a relative speed (vr) can be
incorporated into the process by taking average of the geometric va and vr given by
Holmer, I. and Parsons, K. C. (1999) and used by Kenny et al. (2009b) [12, 66, 57].
The rate of perspiring during active sweating is determined by airflow over the skin
and vapor pressure, rather than RH [58]. The vapor pressure on the skin surface is
accepted as 100% RH during sweating; for this reason, humidity is used. Due to the
vapor gradient forming over the skin surface, the vaporization in the air over the skin
surface helps better estimate the vaporization demand. Metje et al. (2008), completed
their work in conditions changing from August 2004 until February 2005 [58]. In
this study, data were gathered from pedestrian levels at five European countries and
vw and Ta values were found to be clearly effective on human comfort (respectively,
R2 = 0.87 and R2 = 0.88). However, the temperature index (linear RH, vw, and Ta
combination) and comfort values (R2 = 0.3125) observed in the Metje et al.
(2008) study demonstrated a weaker link. This confirms that meteorological values
cannot predict a person’s comfort alone and that subjective reactions play an
important role in this regard [67].
Many correctly defined temperature budget models (i.e. [10]) were developed
from non-complex indoor (still) laboratory works [11, 18, 46]. These models are
not always suitable for measuring temperature stress and human comfort, since
outdoor cannot be sampled in their exact form [58] and there are differences
between perception of indoors and outdoors [11]. Indoor experiments enable human
body to balance with the environment in a short time [11, 46], however, the body
may not be able to attain this during short outdoor exercises [11]. According to the
ACSM (2006) study, a transition period of 10–20 min is required in order to reach a
state of exercise and relatively stable metabolic activity speed (Ma), which is the
accepted sufficient norm for mid-level exercise (60–69% HRmax, here
HRmax = 220 − age) [68]. Here, fixing the Tc value in order to attain balance may
take an additional 10–20 min [69]. For a higher intensity exercise, if one aims to
preserve a higher intensity of balance, the time required in order to reach continuous
Ma and stabilized Tc values from resting state will be longer [70].
2.6 Research Project of Methodology
During this research project; the meteorological data, which is acquired from the
temporary education buildings of the university campus located in an area that is at
a higher elevation than Konya centre and has a topography that is subject to high
wind speeds and intensity, were used for measuring year-long pedestrian-level
microclimatic conditions along with comfort conditions at the peripherals of the
newly constructed education buildings using CFD FloEFD program and
Delta OHM device, while providing a study on the currently existing buildings and
conceptual architectural projects suggested by authoring architects in the light of
present climatic and topographical conditions. For detailed evaluation, January was
selected for the winter and heating period, while July was selected for summer and
cooling period. In addition, an outdoor environment satisfaction survey was
conducted.
In this direction, in the study area which, on the same topography, involves
layout orientation of a different architectural project that is finished in terms of
construction, which is a different project than the design of the authoring architect, a
prescheduled thermal comfort satisfaction survey was conducted with resident
subjects on the topics of thermal balance for human body and thermal comfort
conditions.
In addition, the comfort values of the layout orientation of a different architec-
tural project that is finished in terms of construction, which is a different project
than the design of the authoring architect, around the buildings, together with
measurements of outdoor pedestrian-level comfort conditions related to education
buildings and the measurements of Delta OHM HD 32.3 Microclimatic on all
comfort conditions regarding classrooms, and prescheduled measurements of
microclimatic comfort values at three different measurement points that are at
pedestrian levels around the buildings, and outdoor meteorological measurements,
were measured.
Additionally, in line with these concurrent studies, outdoor-pedestrian-level
comfort conditions of the architectural project options that were suggested by the
authoring architect and not implemented and layout architectural projects of
implemented buildings, and all comfort conditions and building energy perfor-
mance digital simulation analysis studies for building classrooms were conducted
using CFD FloEFD. In CFD external flow analysis for Necmettin Erbakan
University campus buildings,
• Analysis of present building layouts resulting, despite all warnings of the project
author, from the whole architectural implementation project, starting with the
layout plan, and subprojects such as mechanical-installment project, the static
project being drawn by TOKİ at the request of the University management,
• The building layout closed wall model previously planned and suggested by the
project author,
• The building layout open wall model previously planned and suggested by the
project author,
88 E. Yasa
• Layout plan which contains implementations of a different layout option than

the layout plan suggested by the project author.
were studied. CFD analyses of pedestrian-level comfort conditions around the
building/buildings were conducted on January 21 for the heating period, and on 21
July for cooling period and during the hours 13.00–16.00–19.00; the analyses of air
flow at pedestrian level were conducted at the same dates, but during 07.00–14.00–
21.00. In the design of the buildings suggested but not implemented; the effect of
replacing external flow with the wall structure, which is suggested to add to
buildings, on comfort conditions in the indoor amphitheaters was examined. While
this study examines external flow conditions in the continuous regime in terms of
full wall, clearance wall and non-wall scenarios, indoor was temporarily analyzed in
terms of comfort [71, 72].
The microclimatic comfort area measurements at the pedestrian level around the
education buildings, of which the constructions are complete, were conducted
throughout the year and January was selected for representing winter conditions,
and July was selected for representing summer conditions for detailed evaluation.
Measurements were conducted in three separate days in three different locations.
Measurements were conducted for 24 h on 21 January, 22 January, 23 January; and
21 July, 22 July, 23 July. (Fig. 4) Surveys around present buildings were only
conducted during 21 January and 21 July.
Below values were measured with the DELTA OHM HD32.1 Microclimatic
Comfort Device (Fig. 1), which is used to measure the comfort conditions around
buildings in a layout plan orientation for an architectural project, which is different
from the author architect’s design and of which the construction is about to
complete;
Globe temperature, Natural Wet Bulb temperature (WBGT), Mean Dry Bulb
Temperature, Mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), Ambient temperature, Atmospheric
Fig. 1 Locations of outdoors pedestrian level microclimatic measurements using Delta OHM
device [71, 72]
Fig. 2 Time dependence of

the mean dry bulb
temperature of air (Td) and the
corresponding mean radiant
temperature (Tmrt), and
clothing temperature (Tcl)
estimated in the outdoor
campus environment
conditions on January 21,
2014 [72]
pressure, Relative Humidity, Air velocity, Air temperature at the height of the head
(1.7 m subject standing; 1.1 m subject sitting). Air temperature at the height of the
abdomen (1.7 m subject standing; 1.1 m subject sitting). Net radiation temperature.
Net radiation. PMV, PPD, and Tr (Radiant temperature) values were also calculated.
The studies around the campus buildings, which are the subject of measurement,
were conducted as “sitting”, “sitting and standing occasionally”, or “standing”.
Average summer and winter clothes within the study area were accepted as trousers,
shirts, or t-shirts. In thermal pressure calculation, clothes of construction workers in
the construction area were modeled as underwear and sleeveless undershirt, trou-
sers, blouse, shoes, and socks (0.75 clo) and metabolic rate was modeled as 100 W/
m2 (1.72 m). Measurements were conducted for 24-h periods in the normal working
plan and evaluation period was implemented at 1.7 m of height from ground level
for every point (A-B-C) (Fig. 2).
A moveable mini-weather station named Delta OHM data logger (HD32.1
device) was positioned in 1.7 m above the ground in order to save the values of air
temperature (Ta), clothing temperature (Tcl) relative humidity (RH), wind velocity
(v) and mean radiant temperature (Tmrt). The measurement procedure and the
instrument were in agreement with ISO 7726 (International Standard ISO 7726,
1998) and it was set to record data at 10-min for all 24 h.
January and July, which is the middle of the summer season, were chosen for
area measurements and survey. Measurements were conducted in three separate
days in three different locations. Measurements were conducted at point A on 21
January, point B on 22 January, point C on 23 January; and point A on 21 July,
point B on 22 July, point C on 23 July for 24 h. Evaluations were conducted for
typical working hours.
Campus building environmental conditions during the monitoring period of the
field measurement, the weather conditions vary with time on different days of
months. Statistical summaries of measured physical thermal comfort parameters of
indoor and outdoor climatic data are provided in Table 1.
PMV, PPD, and Tr (Radiant temperature) values were also calculated together
with wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) (Internal), wet bulb globe temperature
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Table 1 Statistical summaries of measured physical thermal comfort parameters of indoor and
outdoor climatic data [71, 72]
Month Descriptive statistic To (°C) RHo (%) Ta (°C) RH (%)
Jan Mean −0.2 46.69 33.9 51.16
Max 4.8 85.53 31.5 79
Min −4.0 20.36 27.2 33.7
July Mean 23.6 51.34 34.3 40.48
Max 30.2 88.02 30 56.3
Min 16.2 30.19 29.5 33.8
(WBGT) (External) were also calculated during the measurements. There are points
to consider in comfort measurements, as required by the related standard.
For WBGT measurement, globe temperature, wet bulb temperature, and tempera-
ture–humidity measurements should be conducted and recorded concurrently. For
thermal comfort measurement, the parameters that need to be measured concur-
rently are temperature—humidity, globe temperature, and air flowing speed. These
parameters are the minimum requirements for thermal comfort measurement and all
kinds of complementary measurements and values will be additionally useful.
When homogeneity is obtained in the environment (thermal difference in the
vertical plane being less than 5%), the measurements were conducted at the
abdomen section of the body. When such homogeneity could not be obtained
(vertical thermal difference in a heterogeneous environment exceeding 5%) the
measurements must be conducted at head, abdomen and ankle levels, therefore
outdoor measurements in this study were accepted as a heterogeneous environment.
For a person who is working standing up, the measurement levels are 0.1 m
height for ankle, 1.1 m for the abdomen, and 1.7 m for the head. For a person who
is sitting down, these levels are 0.1, 0.6, and 1.1 m. This study has been conducted
for a model with the human standing up along with the corresponding height levels.
The areas which are selected as measurement points should not be too near
obstacles such as walls, etc. In addition, equipment such as air conditioners, ven-
tilation, radiator, and other similar devices which can affect the measurement results
must be kept as far as possible. Furthermore, the Prevailing conditions in the
environment during the measurements must be also checked and their contribution
to the measurement results must be evaluated (Table 2).
Thermal comfort measurement is not just the measurement of the temperature,
rather it is a parameter directly related to heavy duty work performed around the
campus building and the clothes worn by the employees. Thus, during the mea-
surement or before the measurement the general worker uniforms and the work
conducted must also be analyzed.
For the measurements conducted around the campus buildings, it is observed
that some people are in a sitting position, while some are in a standing position and
furthermore some people work standing or sitting. There are usually summer and
winter clothes in the work area and in general trousers, shirt and t-shirt have been
Table 2 Reference value chart of WBGT (Wet Bulb Globe Temperature) heat printing index [71,
72]
Metabolic Metabolic rate, M Reference value of wet bulb globe temperature
rate class (WBGT)
About unit skin Total (for an Person acclimated to Person who is not
surface area average) 1.8 m2 the heat (°C) acclimated to heat (°C)
W/m2 skin surface
area) W
0 M < 62 M < 114 32 32
(Resting)
1 62 < M < 128 114 < M < 230 30 29
2 128 < M < 200 230 < M < 350 28 26
3 196 < M < 256 350 < M < 460 Not felt Felt air Not felt Felt air
air movement air movement
movement movement
25 26 22 23
4 M > 256 M > 468 23 25 18 20
Note Given value is determined by taking into account a rectal temperature of 38 °C for the related
people
taken into account. In the thermal pressure calculations, the workers who work in
the construction are taken with undergarments, trousers, blouse, shoes, and socks
(0.75 clo) and the metabolic rate has been modeled as 100 W/m2 (1.72 m). The
measurements have been conducted under normal working conditions in a 24 h
period, the evaluation period has been taken for each point at 1.1 m of height for
working hours.
3 Results and Discussions About Microclimatic Physical

Comfort Measurements with DELTA OHM HD 32.1
Radiation exchange depends on the difference between the mean radiant tempera-
ture (Tmrt) and clothing surface temperature (Tcl); and the convection exchange
depends on the difference between Tcl and the dry bulb temperature (Td) of air.
During the day time, Tmrt was much higher than Tcl except for short periods around
sunrise and sunset. Therefore, human’s body always experiences a positive heat
radiation load (i.e., heat gain). During the night time, Tmrt was lower than Tcl
causing a negative radiation heat load (released from the body). On the other hand,
Tcl was relatively higher than Td during the day time, causing a negative convective
heat released from the body. However, the convection exchange is minor during the
night time. Radiation heat load has the prevailing effect because the temperature
difference (Tmrt − Tcl) is much higher than (Td − Tcl) (Fig. 3).
92 E. Yasa
Fig. 3 Age and gender rates

of the participants of the
microclimatic comfort
evaluation survey for the
location of education
buildings, along with
participant rates
3.1 Relation of Humidity and Temperature

in Pedestrian-Level Zone Around the Campus
Temporary Education Buildings
The measurement values which are recorded through DELTA OHM HD 32.3
Microclimatic device in the city center region where the educational buildings are
located have been compared with the long-term data obtained from Konya
Meteorology Station. Especially the temperature, relative humidity, water vapor
pressure values have been compared with the wind velocity values.
In order to obtain the change in the humidity, the data for the time periods of
07:00, 14:00, 21:00 and the data for daily average have been taken into consid-
eration. As per the meteorological data, it has been observed that in all months for
07:00 and 21:00 as well as for daily average; the change has been negative and in
noon hours it has been observed as positive. The positive difference is due to the
negative city heat island which is observed during noon hours in the city. The water
vapor pressure differences are not as definite as the relative humidity difference.
Besides the noon hours, the city is more humid in the winter months, while it is
drier in the summer season. For all the months, during noon time, the city region is
more humid. The reason for more humidity in the city is due to the irrigation
conducted for the parks in the Konya city center and in the Meram region. The
increasing concretization due to urbanization and the heat island value related to
this decreases the relative humidity amount in the Konya city center.
When the measurement results are compared with long-term temperature, rela-
tive humidity, water vapor pressure values which have been obtained from Konya
meteorological station, and then when the temperature difference (DT), water vapor
pressure difference (De), relative humidity difference (DRH) values are investi-
gated, then it is clearly observed that more humidity amount is observed for
especially September and January compared to the other months. April and August
contain less moisture. Noon hours are the time where De and DT have the smallest
values. Hidden and sensible heat transfer De and DT values developing good in
noon hours are caused to decrease (results obtained as a result of the analysis made
in CFD). Thus, urban area where the educational buildings are located becomes a
little more humid whole year according to the topography properties where the
campus is located.
3.2 Thermal Comfort Survey Around Campus Education

Buildings
The survey that was conducted in the study area of this research project was
performed with randomly selected people from construction workers of the build-
ings completed, pedestrians from pavements or resting at recreational areas. For
example, in order to form a reasonably homogeneous group, the only people
approached were young and adults doing low or medium levels of physical activity.
The youngest person was 17 years old, while the oldest was 62. The survey was
designed in a Q and A format using a simple language, and took 2 min to answer.
The participation rate is provided in Fig. 3. A total of 78 people participated in the
survey. Since most of the participants were the personnel from the education
buildings under construction, the majority were male participants. Female partici-
pants were chosen from the residents of the area.
For the survey and area measurement activities, January was selected for rep-
resenting winter conditions with heating, and July was selected for representing
summer conditions with cooling. Measurements were conducted in three separate
days in three different locations. For each point, the measurements were conducted
during 21, 22, 23 January and 21, 22, 23 July for 24 h. The evaluations, which were
conducted for the research project report and this article, were conducted for typical
working hours.
3.3 Demographic Characteristics and Perception of Comfort

of the Pedestrian Environment
A total of 78 pedestrians, including 71 males (91.02%) and 7 females (8.98%)

participated in the survey. The majority were aged below 26–35 and 17–25. Only
12% were aged above 56. Most respondents had a walking trip and working around
buildings (72.5%) (Fig. 3).
The survey was conducted in two parts. The first part was developed for the
purpose of portraying personal characteristics of participants, while the second part
aims to question the perception of comfort related to the participants and climatic
parameters and exhibit their comfort perception during the survey. Selection and
structure of the questions are based on the satisfaction surveys conducted by
Nikolopoulou et al. and Knes et al. (Statopulos et al. 2004; Nikolopoulou and
94 E. Yasa
Steemers 2003; KnesveThorsson 2006), who proved that individual features and
comfort perception of a person exhibit the importance of psychological factors in
their nature [15, 16, 73, 74].
Gender, age, type of clothes, along with activity type and level affect the per-
ception and level of comfort. Psychological differences, which are more closely
related to age, may be the most effective factor in various perceptions of envi-
ronmental conditions. In addition, this feature affects the basal metabolism speed of
temperature generation according to the ISO 1990 standard and the study conducted
by Parsons. This speed also decreases by age. Kalkstein [76], in their study,
reported that older people are generally more sensitive to temperature, while
Penwarden [75] reported that high wind speed could be more dangerous for people
with older age or disability, compared to people with active lifestyles [75, 76].
Previous similar studies demonstrated that males and females have different thermal
comfort reactions, and that women are more sensitive against temperature than men
(Kysely 2004) [9]. Clothes are a barrier between the human body and the envi-
ronment. As a requirement of their environments, people use different clothes
according to seasons and the choices of clothing can vary among individuals within
the same season [18].
The survey that was conducted in the study area of this research project was also
considered in terms of its ability to incorporate other types of clothes that may be
encountered within the context of potential clothing variations. As an example for
this sensitivity, Penwarden et al. (1978) study claimed that it is possible to establish
a cooperation between the level of mechanical comfort perceived by individuals
and the type of clothing used, while exclusively demonstrating that women wearing
skirts are more prone to discomfort due to winds than the women wearing pants
(based on wind tunnel experiments) [75].
Despite the fact that quantitative evaluation is not the most important target to be
achieved in this study, a general relation was established among the “Clo” units,
which are expressed as clothing thermal resistance values, based on the scale
suggested in the Parsons study. Exposure type (direct exposure to solar radiation
rather than staying in shade, body position, i.e., sitting, standing, leaning, laying)
and radiative input lead to changes within the interaction area between human body
and atmosphere, therefore affecting the way every individual encounters the thermal
environment within the atmosphere. Subjects’ positions greatly affect the heat
exchange between the human body and the environment. It also constitutes a form
of behavioral adaptation to climate conditions.
In order to calculate the metabolic speed, which indicates the heat generation of
the human body, it is required to determine the activity level of the individual
during the survey. Physical activities were accepted to be at different levels, based
on the assumption that surveyed participants only did low or medium level physical
activities; the average value of metabolic heat generation was estimated based on
the Auliciems (1997) study [77].
A person’s place of birth and residence affect their expectations and personal
comfort perceptions, therefore constituting and important factor in an individual’s
perception of climate conditions in the study area. For example, in a survey
conducted in Italy, it was proved that people born in hot climates had a higher
tolerance to high temperature, while people born in cold climates had lower tol-
erance and high temperature Vigotti et al. (2006) [78]. People’s occupations may
also affect their experiences of special climate conditions in their working areas,
therefore directing the level of tolerance to various open-air conditions. The length
of time spent at such location will also affect the comfort level. Because a certain
amount of time is needed before the human body adjusts to environmental condi-
tions. Expectations of individuals are also affected by environmental conditions
such as whether they are alone or together with friends, or short-term thermal
comfort history [27, 79, 80].
One of the survey questions in this study contains important parameters that are
not covered by the other questions. These parameters are skin color, which can
affect heat absorption capacity and body weight, which can affect thermoregulatory
processes. These features were only recorded when they were considered prominent
(very dark or very light skin, overweight or very thin). Subjective evaluations and
psychological expectations, which expectations may affect satisfaction, may orig-
inate from the reasons for using the study area [27, 77]. People are aware of the lack
of control related to comfort in outdoors, therefore they consider “Satisfactory”
conditions within a range that is wider than that of indoors [17].
In addition, recent evaluations point out to a relation between the mental state of
a person and their evaluation of environmental factors [56]. Gained experience
directly affects people’s expectations in and adaptation to an environment, therefore
influencing their subjective evaluations [15, 16].
Climate and microclimatic parameters factor; this factor affects human health
both directly and indirectly and it may render individuals with specific health
problems more vulnerable or sensitive against a variety of climate conditions [81,
82]. For this reason, specific diseases were listed in the atmospheric and climatic
conditions survey. The list includes the most widely encountered diseases, such as
respiratory diseases [81, 82]. The recent increase in the respiratory tract infections
can be more prominently observed in certain climate conditions [37, 40].
Allergy, which is another widespread ailment and state of discomfort where
climate and microclimatic parameters directly affect human health and comfort, is
most frequently observed during spring, when wind can easily scatter allergic
particles during pollination [83]. Diabetic patients have a very low metabolism
speed due to increased insulin demand caused by increasing blood sugar. Other
diseases such as diabetes were also considered and since metabolism levels of the
people in this group are often at low levels, these people are more defenseless to
lower temperatures in comparison to the people in the other groups [9, 84].
Rheumatic diseases and other bone diseases are generally in direct relationship with
humidity and cold, while in heart and cardiovascular diseases overexposure to
thermal conditions is among the main parameters that affect diseases [82, 85]. These
diseases, which lead to discomfort, are therefore included in the survey.
Smoking habit is also included in the survey questions, since it leads to shortness
of breath and other respiratory diseases, therefore directly affecting respiratory
quality. The purpose of a certain group of questions in this survey is to find out how
96 E. Yasa
climate and microclimatic parameters affect human health and comfort, human
health in the outdoor environment and determine the extent of these effects and
people’s awareness of this subject.
4 Results and Discussions About Surveying Perception

of Comfort of the Pedestrian Environment
4.1 Microclimatic Comfort Perception in and Around

the Campus Area
The second part of the survey aims to measure the perception of each individual
who has experienced external climatic comfort and microclimate parameters for that
time, and also measure the total effect of external climate comfort and microclimate
perception of each individual on air conditions’ comfort state, using symbolic
four-point comfort scale.
All conditions and the differences between specific parameters of these condi-
tions were introduced since microclimate parameters can individually vary in an
environment where general comfort or discomfort can be ignored.
The questions of the survey involve sophisticated problems although they seem
simple. For example, the importance of psychological factors which strongly
influence the perception of comfort and the influence of temperature appear tech-
nically simple. However, as demonstrated in previous studies, the human body is
not capable of distinguishing these influences. In the determination of general
comfort level, some microclimatic parameters are nested within other subparame-
ters. For example, an average person has a limited ability to perceive every
meteorological element.
Other questions of the survey were prepared in order to determine which par-
ticipants perceived the microclimatic as uncomfortable, and how the participants
tended to change the climate conditions in order to increase comfort level. Since
“perception” and “preference” have different meanings, the questions were prepared
in a way to emphasize this difference. While preference refers to a desire for ideal
conditions in normal conditions, perception indicates what is currently being felt by
the human being.
4.2 Survey Data Analysis in and Around the Campus Area
In the survey, the people living in the area, the parameters related to these people,
the relations between the survey questions and the answers within the content were
evaluated in terms of parameters within three groups. These three groups of
parameters are
(1) Characteristic individual traits of people interviewed,

(2) The final full comfort perception portrayed by people interviewed,
(3) Atmospheric parameters measured during and throughout the interviews,
analyzed in three groups. The main focus point is the relationship between recorded
atmospheric conditions and the level of comfort portrayed by the person. ANOVA
procedure was implemented in order to study this relationship [86]. The thermal
effect due to the combination of various atmospheric parameters was analyzed using
the PET method [37, 40, 87]. Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET): PET is
defined to be the physiological equivalent temperature at any given place (outdoors
or indoors). It is equivalent to the air temperature at which, in a typical indoor
setting, the heat balance of the human body (work metabolism 80 W of light
activity, added to basic metabolism; heat resistance of clothing 0.9 clo) is main-
tained with core and skin temperatures equal to those under the conditions being
assessed [87, 88].
In order, to calculate PET, it is necessary to determine the meteorological
parameters which are important for the human-energy balance at a
human-biometeorologically significant height, e.g., 1.1–1.7 m above ground (av-
erage height of a standing person’s gravity center in Europe). Dominant meteoro-
logical parameters influencing the human-energy balance include air temperature,
vapor pressure, wind velocity, and mean radiant temperature of the surroundings.
Depending on the objectives of the evaluation, these meteorological parameters can
be measured or calculated in a grid-net by numerical models [37, 40].
4.3 Survey Conducted in and Around the Campus Area

and Measurement Evaluation Results
Under the light of real meteorological data from university campus temporary
education buildings located in the topography which is subject to high wind speeds
and intensity, and also is in a higher topography compared to Konya city center; it
was observed in the interviews made with survey participants, who were randomly
selected from workers employed at the construction of newly completed education
buildings, pedestrians walking at pavements, people resting in recreation areas and
residents at the location, that people feel quite uncomfortable during times of high
wind speeds prominent in the area, and during times of much higher temperatures.
However, it was also stated by surveyors that the high-speed winds were generally a
comforting factor in the semi-closed, sheltered areas during July–August, when the
weather is very hot. Critical complaints increased when microclimatic parameters
greatly restricted comfort conditions.
It was found that individuals interviewed under these specific environmental
conditions could feel comfortable with much higher temperature values than those
considered by traditional thermal comfort models. People are generally aware of the
98 E. Yasa
lack of control over the outdoor environment and they expect greater variability in
the case of the atmospheric conditions than in that of an indoor environment.
In addition, a “spontaneous” adaptation of clothing to the overall thermal con-
ditions (as conveyed by the PET) was also observed: with PET values higher than
approximately 35–36 °C, the predominant type of clothing changes and clo values
are reduced. It was also found that air temperature is difficult to perceive, because
its perception is often confounded with that of the overall thermal environment and
is modified by other parameters, particularly wind speed, for the examined
conditions.
The findings of this research project of experiments are consistent with the
conclusions reached in previous studies. It has also become evident that there are
specific methodological problems inherent in work of this kind: the capacity to
distinguish between the several aspects that influence the perception of outdoor
comfort; people find it difficult to unravel the thermal and mechanical effects of the
wind, and the degree of influence of several atmospheric parameters on the general
conditions of comfort (Fig. 4).
It was found that individuals interviewed under the specific windy campus
environmental conditions could feel comfortable with much higher temperature and
windy values than those considered by traditional thermal comfort models. People
are generally aware of the lack of control over the outdoor environment and they
expect greater variability in the case of the atmospheric conditions than in that of an
indoor environment. It was also found that air temperature is difficult to perceive,
because its perception is often confounded with that of the overall thermal envi-
ronment and is modified by other parameters, particularly wind speed, for the
examined conditions.
The perception of RH was also somewhat doubtful, taking into consideration
that people are not easily capable of perceiving changes in humidity. The level of
solar radiation perceived by the interviewees was not significantly related to the
global solar radiation measured on a horizontal surface; on the other hand, it was
Fig. 4 Microclimatic
satisfaction values for
participants of the survey for
microclimatic comfort
evaluation around education
buildings
found that the values of solar radiation that took into account the coefficients of
incidence upon the human body, depending on the direction, were significantly
related to the perception of this variable. The wind was found to be the most
intensely perceived variable, usually in a negative way. The majority of intervie-
wees claimed to feel comfortable. The relationship between the percentage of
individuals that regarded the wind as “uncomfortable” (because it was too windy
around campus buildings environment) and the values of the wind speed was more
significant when the extreme values and the variability of the wind were taken into
account than when only average wind speed values were considered (Fig. 4).
A relationship of dependency was found between the perception of the wind and
the air temperature: when the air temperature was perceived as cooler, the wind was
more frequently considered “strong” or “too strong”; on the other hand, when the
air temperature was regarded as “hot”, the wind was usually perceived as “com-
fortable”. Wind, among microclimatic variables, was found to be the most nega-
tively and intensively perceived variable, directly affecting the level and perception
of comfort (Fig. 4).
Whenever the physiological equivalent temperature limit of 30–33 °C was
exceeded, an auto-adaptation is observed in terms of clothing. No differences are
observed in terms of perceiving the thermal environment, when the perception of
actual air temperature is affected by other parameters such as wind and humidity.
Since the perception of solar radiation is related to the intensity of heat flows (to
vertical and horizontal surfaces) in various perspectives, a weighted coefficient was
calculated for the human body using random coefficients. Wind, which is generally
the most intensely perceived variable parameter, was observed to have a negative
effect. Perception of wind greatly depends on peak values of wind speed and wind
variables. Compared to men, women exhibited more intense negative reactions to
high wind speed.
A thorough understanding of the relationship between microclimatic environ-
mental conditions can contribute better use of human metabolic features,
improvement of pedestrian-level open areas around buildings and designing of new
spaces that are more attractive.
This research project and field study have proven that microclimatic area mea-
surements conducted at pedestrian-level around present education buildings, CFD
comfort, and energy performance analyses and the concurrent survey, together, are
very suitable in order to achieve the objectives envisaged, and that they are also
applicable in other seasons.
5 Conclusion
The results provided here demonstrate relationships between outdoors, climate

comfort, atmospheric parameters and personal characters of individuals. The effect
of every variable on this situation depends on specific conditions, which require
more in-depth analyses, more samples, and field verification. The experiment
100 E. Yasa
presented in this study constitutes a basis for further studies in this area, however,
the specific characteristics of the study area and the season of the study might
require more fine adjustments within the model.
Understanding human physiology, and in this sense, understanding skin tem-
perature, perspiration rate, and core temperature plays an important role in under-
standing thermoregulation of the human body in terms of implementing human
comfort models; however urban planners and designers are often not acquainted
with comfort models and physiological information on humans.
Urban planners and architects should take into account the bioclimatic resear-
ches and the information acquired by human biometeorologists in order to create
sustainable and comfortable urban areas. The studies conducted in this area, as
exhibited by the new developments reported in this review, enabled important
advancement during recent years. More studies are needed in order to fill in the
information gaps in terms of human comfort, such as estimation of skin and core
temperature, physiological factors and clothing factors.
The open areas in campus buildings’ complex designs have important contri-
butions to human participation, the quality of life and physical activities on the
campus. In order to create positive changes in people in the campus area, it is
required to encourage the utilization of open areas. It is an accepted fact that
creating comfort zones for people in complex exteriors of campus is quite difficult
for designers. This is the reason why the design has an important role in improving
building shapes and open areas. In addition, a successful open area is an area which
treats people well and encourages them to gather and interact with each other.
The survey conducted within the research project discussed in this study eval-
uated the exterior microclimatic comfort around the campus faculty classroom
buildings, located in an open urban area in Konya and of which the constructions
have recently been completed, supporting this evaluation with pedestrian-level
microclimatic measurements and CFD digital simulation analyses along with a
comfort satisfaction survey performed with the users around the buildings. The data
acquired during these processes were compared and discussed. Comparative results
of this methodology were also reported and evaluated. This method, which can be
explained as “concurrent microclimatic measurement, survey and CFD analyses in
the study area”, implemented in this research project study, was proven to be useful
in order to fulfill the requirements projected, while also proving that measurements,
CFD analyses, and the survey interviews are applicable, easy to implement and
complete and the acquired results are consistent with each other. Presented results
are not only based on the calculation of comfort indexes in terms of the potential
relationship among various factors affecting outdoor climatic comfort; therefore
they clarify evaluation of subjective parameters.
Comfort conditions of the conceptual architectural project suggestions, which
were made by the authoring architect in light of present climatic and topographic
conditions but were not implemented, were evaluated using the CFD FloEFD
software, area measurements were conducted around present buildings using
Delta OHM device and evaluations of the results obtained in these procedures can
be summarized as;
Providing airflow to the surrounded buildings by optimum building form design

and settled area; moreover using open spaces, corridors can have better air con-
dition especially in dense, hot summer days. Providing the orientation of the cor-
ridors between buildings to a line, to the prevailing wind direction and using open
spaces, it causes penetration of prevailing wind through the area. Linking open
spaces in such a way to form the corridors that cause airflow between buildings,
people can feel comfortable during hot summer days. Providing feasible, sufficient,
and wide gaps on the wall between building blocks can increase the air movement.
A set of precautions, regarding design parameters, should be taken in order to be
able to provide interior climatic conditions (climatic comfort conditions) expected
by taking advantage of present exterior climatic conditions. In order to take these
precautions, values of external climatic elements should be determined first, and
then rendered usable. In other words, climatic data should be compiled. For this
reason, values such as solar radiation, exterior temperature, exterior humidity, and
wind, which are of exterior climate elements should be determined according to
absolute atmospheric conditions for characteristic days or periods. In order to leave
the least need for additional energy systems within the interior surrounded by any
front, in terms of the effect of climate elements in the outer environment of the
building, the variables that are controlled by the designer should have suitable
values.
Since the topography surrounding the university campus can have very high or
very low temperature and wind speed values in terms of climate, climatic comfort
problems are observed in the area. These are thermal discomfort problems occur-
ring due to reasons, some of which are listed below.
• Inability to correctly utilize climatic parameters,
• Inability to correctly set building directions,
• Inability to correctly select thermal properties of the materials used in buildings,
which then lead to thermal discomfort in the present building layout.
In the architectural designs for campus buildings suggested by the author, the
configuration with collapsible clearances over the walls between the buildings
closed yields very low thermal comfort values in open areas outside of the build-
ings, since there is very little wind flow in the atrium on July 21. However, the
values obtained on January 21 were observed to be just the contrary. Since there is a
sheltered area this time, outdoor comfort values between the buildings are higher.
When indoor comfort values of the same day were compared with the option where
all clearances are open, it was observed that comfort values were inferior according
to PMV value. However, it was observed that the configuration with all
over-the-wall clearances open was higher than the 21 July outdoor comfort values
configuration where all clearances are open.
It was specifically observed that the people working close to the construction of
the temporary education buildings were exposed to intensive winds and turbulent
air flows during the evening and night hours. The people are generally aware of the
lack of control around the buildings and outdoors and compared to indoors, they
expect more variability in atmospheric conditions. According to the layout plan,
102 E. Yasa
which includes three faculty buildings placed arbitrarily and randomly, it is

observed that the channels, which create a “Venturi Effect”, cause sudden wind
speed increases, and therefore discomfort.
Since present campus layout buildings were placed while overlooking the
intensive wind conditions and climatic values in the field, the 21 January and 21
July analyses demonstrated that wind flow almost reached indoors of the buildings
at building separation points. The speed limit given here is 2.1 m/s at 5.00 m height
in locations between buildings. It was observed that moving the separation point
into the atrium (court) increased the speed level from 2.1 to 3.5 m/s. When these
values were evaluated according to the Beauport scale, uncomfortable values were
observed specifically at building heights more than 5.00 m. Therefore, it was
observed that the present campus layout reaches quite uncomfortable values around
the buildings, inside the amphitheaters and classrooms.
The findings obtained in these area measurements and satisfaction survey are in
parallel to the results obtained in the previous studies. At the same time, specific
methodological problems were discovered in the nature of these studies in terms of
the capacity to differentiate among various elements which affect outdoor comfort
perception. People have difficulties in understanding thermal and mechanical effects
of winds, and the effects of specific atmospheric parameters on general comfort
conditions.
Acknowledgements This research project is supported by Necmettin Erbakan University,

Scientific and Technological Research Projects Funding Program, Grant No.131219001.
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Energy Efficiency and Conservation
Consideration for the Design
of Buildings for Hot and Humid Regions
D. Kolokotsa, Junjing Yang and Alexandros Pantazaras
Abstract Buildings are the dominant end users of energy, as well as the largest
contributors to CO2 emissions due to fossil fuels. As an investment, buildings
possess the slowest turnover of capital stock, but also comprise the majority of any
country’s capital assets. Energy efficiency is thus extremely important in buildings,
since it can offer expanding instead of diminishing returns, rendering the adoption
of novel technologies imperative for the building & construction (B&C) industry.
Designing low energy or zero energy buildings for hot and humid regions is a great
challenge. Under climatic conditions of increased rainfall and humidity coupled
with high ambient temperatures, typical energy efficiency technologies are not
always sufficient. The aim of the present chapter is to focus on the most promising
building energy technologies for hot and humid regions. The chapter is divided into
three sections. The first section focuses on the building envelope technologies and
more specifically to the incorporation of greenery in walls, facades and roofs as well
as reflective technologies. The second section is dedicated to the active energy
systems for hot and humid regions with specific focus on the desiccant
air-conditioning systems. Finally, a series of case studies are presented in the third
section.

Keywords Green roofs Reflective materials Liquid desiccants Vertical

greenery HVAC and advanced dehumidification
D. Kolokotsa (&)
Energy Management in the Built Environment Laboratory,
Technical University of Crete Kounoupidiana, GR 73100 Chania, Greece
e-mail: dkolokotsa@enveng.tuc.gr
J. Yang A. Pantazaras
Department of Building, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: bdgyj@nue.edu.sg

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_5
108 D. Kolokotsa et al.
1 Introduction
Buildings are a major end-user of worldwide energy representing 40% of energy

consumption as well as the largest contributors to CO2 emissions due to fossil fuels.
As an investment, buildings possess the slowest turnover of capital stock, but also
comprise the majority of any country’s capital assets. Energy efficiency is thus
extremely important in buildings since it can offer expanding instead of diminishing
returns, rendering the adoption of novel technologies imperative for the building &
construction industry.
Hot and humid regions are characterized by annual precipitation greater than
50 cm and mean temperatures in the warmest period around 22 °C or higher.
Rainfall often shows a summer peak, especially where monsoons are well devel-
oped [1]. In hot and humid climates, three different conditions are encountered [2]:
1. In April to early May outdoor temperature is usually lower than 25 °C resulting
to low sensible loads and higher latent loads. Therefore air-conditioning oper-
ation is dominated by dehumidification.
2. From May to September both outdoor air temperature and moisture content are
high, and therefore both sensible cooling and dehumidification are required.
3. In mid-September to October outdoor air temperature may still be high, but
outdoor air is drier and space air-conditioning is dominated by sensible loads.
Comfort conditions are influenced by the human body heat balance together with
psychological, thermophysiological factors. Mainly thermal comfort can be esti-
mated by the activity level, clothing, air temperature, mean radiant temperature,
relative air velocity, and the water vapor pressure in ambient air while the sub-
jective aspect of thermal comfort is addressed by the Predicted Mean Vote—
Percentage of People Dissatisfied (PMV-PPD) model [3].
The PMV-PPD model introduced a classification of various conditioned and
moderate thermal environments according to the occupant’s subjective sensation.
For hot and humid climatic conditions, variations of the PMV-PPD model are
proposed. The PMVe model [4] is a modified approach for thermal sensation where
an appropriate expectancy factor (e) is used, ranging from 0.5 to 1, depending on
the climate context and building air-conditioned percentage occurrence [5]. A set of
thermal comfort adaptation methods for hot and humid regions are tabulated in
Table 1.
The increased cooling and dehumidification requirements mainly dominate the
energy efficiency of buildings in hot and humid regions. The available energy
technologies for the improvement of the energy performance in buildings for hot
and humid climatic conditions are mainly focusing on building envelope and
building services. To this end, the aim of the present chapter is to analyze the
various energy efficiency technologies for buildings in hot and humid climatic
conditions with special emphasis on the building envelope and on the heating,
ventilation and air-conditioning. The chapter is structured in three more sections.
Section 2 presents innovative technologies for the building envelope while Sect. 3
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Consideration for the Design … 109
Table 1 Adaptive thermal Equation Sources

comfort equations for hot and
humid climatic conditions [5] Tcomfop ¼ 0:31Toutmon þ 17:8 [6, 7]
Tcomfop ¼ 0:33Toutmon þ 18:8 [8]
Tcomfop is indoor air comfort temperature in °C and Toutmon the
outdoor mean air temperature in °C
analyses the cooling and dehumidification techniques for building services.

Section 4 includes three case studies while Sect. 5 integrates the conclusions of the
chapter.
2 Energy Efficiency Technologies for the Building

Envelope
2.1 Green Wall and Green Roof
Green roof and green wall are basically roofs or walls planted with different kind of
vegetation/plants. This concept was adopted to provide numerous social, environ-
mental and economic benefits.
In low latitudes with hot and humid climate, the cooling load consumes a large
portion of energy. The main factor leading to the increase of building cooling load
is solar radiation. Green wall and green roof have been developed as a way to
reduce the cooling load and the heat flux.
The net radiation (Q*) may be defined as:
Q þ QF ¼ QH þ QE þ DQS þ DQA
where QH , QE and DQS are the sensible, latent and conduction/storage heat fluxes,
respectively. QF is the anthropogenic heat which depends on energy consumption
within buildings as well as transportation. DQA is the net heat flux by horizontal
advection which is close to zero and negligible. When the net radiation is assumed
as steady, green roofs and green walls increase the latent heat flux compared to the
sensible heat flux and the heat storage into the buildings and therefore lead to lower
cooling demand of the building.
2.1.1 Green Roof
Green roofs reduce a building’s energy use more efficiently in hot climate through
the process of evapotranspiration which further reduces air-conditioning needs. In
addition, it can reduce the heat flux as well as the heat transfer through the roof from
exterior to interior by acting as an insulating layer. It performs well in hot climates
also because it reduces ambient air temperature directly above a building. In
summary, the energy-efficient benefits of green roofs in hot and humid climate
include the following:
Lower building roof temperatures and the ambient air temperature above them.
Reduced building energy consumption through cooling effect of plant respiration
and the insulation, shading effect and thermal mass of the plant layer and soil layer.
As shown in Fig. 1, roof surface heat fluxes are determined by several factors
including incoming solar and longwave radiation. All these meteorological
parameters can affect stomatal resistance and consequently latent heat released back
in the atmosphere. Sensible heat flux is directly proportional to the difference in air
and surface temperatures; whereas latent heat flux is directly proportional to the
difference in vapor pressure of air and the saturated vapor pressure of the surface. In
hot and humid climate, the frequent rainfall can provide adequate irrigation for
Fig. 1 List of parameters affecting the investigated heat fluxes

green roofs and the majority of the net radiation is dissipated as latent heat for
well-watered green roofs.
There are three types of green roofs in practice categorized according to the
substrate thickness: intensive green roof, semi-intensive green roof, and extensive
green roof [14]. Intensive green roofs have a substrate thickness of more than 12 in.,
which is heavy and is able to hold more water, providing a wider variety of plants.
However, higher capital cost, more frequent maintenance on the irrigation, and
higher building structure bearing capability is required for this type of green roof.
Semi-intensive green roofs are those with 6–12 in. substrate thickness and
single-course extensive roofs are the roofs with three to four inches substrate.
Extensive roofs have a thin soil layer. It usually uses sedum which does not require
much irrigation.
2.1.2 Green Wall
A green wall is a wall covered by greenery and its growing medium, and sometimes
with an integrated water delivery system. In urban environment, green walls energy
efficiency impacts are as important as those of green roofs, especially in cities with
high density where the narrow street canyons may trap the radiation to further
increase the air temperatures [15].
The mechanisms underlying green walls work similarly to green roofs. Apart
from acting as shading and insulation, green surfaces are able to change the
emissivity and albedo of the building surface, normally concrete or bricks, together
with acting as evaporative cooling surface. Greenery is able to provide cooling
energy saving potential for buildings by having the day time temperature of the
surface under the green wall be significantly lower in hot and humid climate.
2.1.3 Reflective Materials
Roofs with reflective materials can have high solar reflectance and high infrared
emittance, which help reduce the building envelope solar radiation absorption and
facilitate the heat dissipation to the outside environment. Unlike other climate zones
where the reflective material is only seasonally effective, it could be effective
throughout the entire year due to the climatic condition throughout the year in
tropics. According to the studies in tropics, cool and reflective materials are the
most favorable strategy to reduce building energy consumptions for tropical climate
[16].
Cool paint, characterized by easier retrofit techniques since many of them are
applied in the same way as a common paint, is one of cool material applied
popularly on roof surfaces. The lower temperature kept at the roof is able to bring a
series of benefits both for the building and at the urban scale. At the building level,
the electricity demand for cooling in the tropical climate can be reduced [17]. At the
urban level, the deployment of reflective roofs can mitigate the heat-island effect
[18], which also reduces peak energy demand. The cooling energy savings can go
up to 44%, with an average saving of about 20% [19].
There are different types of reflective materials: white reflective materials, col-
ored reflective materials, and retroreflective materials. Normal white reflective
material can reflect most of the solar energy in the visible spectrum (0.4–0.7 µm)
while recent developed white reflective materials are able to reflect solar radiation in
both the visible and the infrared spectrum (0.25–2.4 µm) so a high value of solar
reflectance (up to 0.9) can be achieved. However, there were glare issues reported
for white reflective roof/wall cases, hence, colored reflective roofs/walls were
developed to mitigate the visual discomfort or aesthetics preference [20]. Since the
near infrared spectrum contains more than 50% of the sun energy, the colored
reflective materials would have the same reflectance in the visible spectrum but a
higher reflectance in the near-infrared (NIR) spectrum to achieve the energy saving
and energy efficiency. Another weak point of conventional white or colored
reflective roof is the reflected energy on higher buildings caused by them [21]. To
overcome this, retroreflective materials were developed to reflect incident energy
back towards its source regardless of the direction of incidence [22].
While reflective materials are able to reduce the solar radiative heat absorbed by
building envelopes, the heat transfer through building roofs/walls cannot be effec-
tively prevented. In recent years, the application of phase change material (PCM) at
the building envelope would complement the cooling performance of the reflective
material for energy savings [23]. In order to apply PCM at the building envelope, the
melting temperature should be carefully selected to ensure it can be fully discharged
during the night in tropical climate [19]. For example, for tropical climate Singapore,
28 °C is normally selected. As long as the proper melting temperature is selected, the
two complementary cooling strategies are an ideal solution which could be used
concurrently in tropical climate. In this situation, the cool paint functions as the first
layer to reflect solar radiation and the second layer of PCM is able to absorb the
conductive heat which cannot be prevented by the reflective material.
3 Energy Efficiency in Building Services
Building services for hot and humid climates have been extensively studied by
various researchers. The present section aims to analyze and discuss innovative
air-conditioning technologies suitable to be applied in hot and humid climatic
conditions.
Based on the above, in tropical hot and humid climatic conditions, latent cooling
load is the dominant one. The outdoor conditions range from 27 to 30 °C for air
temperature while relative humidity is higher than 70% on yearly basis. Indoor
comfort requirements imply that indoor temperature is 24 °C while relative
humidity is 50%. Therefore air-conditioning systems in hot and humid regions need
to reduce relative humidity from over 70 to 50%, which requires significant
amounts of energy for dehumidification and reheating.
Air Compressor Systems

with advanced
dehumidificaƟon
Radiant Chilled Ceiling

AcƟve Cooling Systems
Panels
Dessicant Cooling Systems

Buidling Services in hot
and humid climate
Night VenƟlaƟon
Passive Cooling Techniques
Ground Cooling
Fig. 2 Air-conditioning in hot and humid climatic conditions
The available approaches for air-conditioning in hot and humid climates are
depicted in Fig. 2 and analyzed in the next sections.
3.1 Active Cooling Systems
3.1.1 Mechanical Vapor Compression Systems and Dehumidification
Mechanical vapor compression systems are widely used under various climatic
conditions including tropical, due to their reliability and controllability. Split
air-conditioners are popular in residential buildings due to their easy installation and
maintenance, while commercial buildings use centralized water chiller [24].
In hot and humid climates, warm outside air with rich moisture content is used
to meet indoor air quality and ventilation requirements. In order to maintain indoor
relative humidity at the desired level, dehumidification is usually required [25].
This is typically done by cooling the air to almost 13 °C. However, if the cooling
load is low then inefficient reheat is necessary to maintain the indoor temperature
setpoint within acceptable limits. Other options can be to use an additional stan-
dalone dehumidifier. An innovative isothermal dehumidifier suitable for tropical
climate conditions is proposed by [26]. The humidifier operates in two modes, i.e.
cooling and isothermal dehumidification. The system incorporates an indoor reheat
coil which is used as evaporator in the cooling mode. The dehumidification EER of
the humidifier reaches 1.13–2.5, and the outlet temperature of the unit is 0–2.4 °C
lower than the inlet temperature. Another approach is to use separate compression
cycles, one for sensible and one for latent cooling to enhance the dehumidification
capacity. This configuration though significantly increases costs [27].
Different types and configurations are tested by [28]. The first configuration
includes a cooling coil that is used to cool the indoor air and 30% of outdoor air is
mixed to 70% of return air with no heat recovery. The second configuration
included the use of a heat exchanger to cool the outdoor air before the dehumidi-
fication. The air then is passed again through the second passage of the heat
exchanger for preheating. The third configuration uses return air for precooling
outdoor air that passes through the cooling coil, thus decreasing the coil’s load and
improving performance. Finally, the fourth configuration uses an extra heat
exchanger to recover the return air for cooling outdoor air that passes through the
second heat exchanger. All four configurations are tested in hot and humid climatic
conditions. The fourth configuration with the extra heat exchanger consumes 32%
less energy compared to the third approach in hot and humid regions.
Another option is to use a direct expansion (DX) air-conditioning system suit-
ably adjusted at different cooling load requirements. As mentioned by [2], the
conventional DX systems have smaller moisture removal capacity in order to
increase the Energy Efficiency Rating (EER) and Coefficient of Performance
(COP). Moreover, if a single speed compressor and supply fan is used, humidity is
not controlled directly but only through temperature. During the various outdoor
conditions mentioned in Sect. 1 different operating modes are required which if are
covered with a conventional DX air-conditioning, results to poor indoor thermal
comfort or increase of the energy consumption due to reheating. A multi-evaporator
air-conditioning technology is presented by [2] to assist the development of an
enhanced dehumidification air-conditioning system that provides improved
year-round indoor humidity level. This system incorporates two parallel evapora-
tors (Fig. 3) that are signed as HX1 and HX2 and two expansion valves connected
to the corresponding evaporators. Moreover three valves are connected with the
refrigerant’s flow to allow different flow rates and arrangements when needed.
A two-speed compressor and supply fan were used to reduce costs. The specific
system operates either as Air dehumidification only (ADO) or as Enhanced dehu-
midification air-conditioning (EDAC) performing humidity control under different
weather conditions and with improved efficiency.
Another approach is proposed by [25] and is called Chain Recooling System.
The specific system as described in [25] incorporates two parallel recooling chains.
The outdoor air is first passed through a preheat coil that increases the temperature
of the outdoor air if it is lower than the required supply air temperature. Then the
outdoor air is split and 50% goes to mix with the return air and is supplied to the 1st
zone of the supply chain and the other 50% goes to the supply of the second supply
chain. Each flow of the chain is entering the 1st with or without additional cooling
depending on the cooling requirements and air temperature. The power terminal
box as well as the fan are positioned to ensure a constant base flow pulled from the
1st zone to the next one. The supply flow rate ranges between 1700 m3/h when
supplementary air is pulled in by the previous zone and 850 m3/h with the sup-
plementary airflow damper fully closed. When the system operates in cooling
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of enhanced dehumidification air-conditioning system [2]
model, the operational characteristics are the same as a Variable Air Volume with
minimum 50% air flow setpoint. When the minimum air flow is reached the
recooling coil water valves are modulated to control the supply air temperature such
as to reduce reheating. The specific system is tested under hot and humid conditions
showing a 15% reduction of energy consumption.
3.1.2 Radiant Ceiling Panels
Radiant ceiling panels are also analyzed for the hot and humid climatic conditions.
Radiant ceiling panels are construction elements that incorporate pipes where
cooled water runs between the metal ceiling wall and the ceiling surface. The main
advantages of the radiant ceiling panels are [29, 30] given as follows:
1. The space requirements are considerably low compared to all-air Heating,
Ventilation and Air-conditioning (HVAC) systems.
2. They do not require increased fan loads to support the air circulation through the
ducts.
3. The increase of the evaporation temperature reduces the energy consumption for
the chiller.
4. They create better thermal conditions.
5. They reduce acoustic discomfort.
6. One of the major disadvantages of radiant ceiling panels is the possibility of
water condensation and development of mold growth in the construction
7. Different technologies and solutions are applied to overcome this problem:
1. Radiant ceiling panels are connected with displacement ventilation systems
in [31]. The radiant ceiling panels are utilized to cover the energy demand for
the sensible cooling loads of the buildings while the displacement ventilation
supplies chilled fresh air. The chilled fresh air by the displacement ventila-
tion reduces the water vapor of the supplied air. Another approach that
combines displacement ventilation with radiant ceiling panels is proposed by
[32]. The specific system targets to cover the sensible loads and the venti-
lation requirements of the buildings in hot and humid climatic conditions and
reduce the moisture risk of the radiant ceiling panels. A diagram of the
installation of the proposed system is depicted in Fig. 4. In the specific
installation, when the sensible cooling load of the building is below a
specific threshold, the required fresh air supplied by the displacement ven-
tilation system satisfies both latent and sensible loads. When the sensible
loads are increased the conditioned air of the displacement ventilation is not
sufficient. In this case, the radiant ceiling panel is activated to cover the
increased sensible loads.
2. A combination of chilled ceiling panels with desiccant cooling is proposed
by various researchers. Desiccant cooling for hot and humid climatic con-
ditions is also analyzed in the next section. A combination of chilled ceiling
with desiccants is proposed by [29]. In the proposed system, temperature and
humidity control are decoupled by using desiccant wheel for moisture
removal and ceiling panels for temperature control. The results of the
analysis show that chilled ceiling combined with desiccant cooling could
save up to 44% of primary energy consumption, in comparison with a
conventional constant volume all-air system.
Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of Decentralized Dedicated Outdoor Air System (DDOAS) installed in
Singapore [32]
3.1.3 Desiccant Cooling Systems
Air dehumidification is the major load in hot and humid climates. Desiccant cooling
system can be used instead of the vapor compression systems. The desiccant
technology can be either a standalone service or can be combined with other
building services such as evaporative technologies or conventional heating venti-
lation and air-conditioning [33].
The desiccant system is using a hydrophilic surface to adsorb water. The air
moisture content is reduced without changing the air temperature or cooling the air.
It relies on the ability of hygroscopic adsorption of water on to the desiccant’s
surface. In the process of adsorption, a thin layer of molecules of water vapor
adheres to the substrate surface of the desiccant material. Eventually, the desiccant
material becomes saturated with water and has to be regenerated through a drying
process [34].
Desiccant cooling/heating systems are classified into solid desiccant systems and
liquid desiccant systems [35]. A solid desiccant system includes a rotary wheel with
an integrated desiccant material allowing = the adsorption and latent load removal.
The liquid desiccant systems are usually composed by strong liquid desiccant which
performs dehumidification. The regeneration of the liquid desiccant can be per-
formed by a heat input. Solid desiccant is a more developed technology where
liquid desiccant cooling systems are still in the research and development phase
with very few products finding their way to the commercial market. Liquid
desiccant-based systems have higher operation flexibility and mobility, lower
temperatures for regeneration and lower pressure drop on the air side therefore are
considered more promising [35, 36].
Fig. 5 The desiccant wheel process [34]
Figure 5 illustrates the operation of a rotary desiccant wheel [34]. The supply air
at position 1 is passed through the desiccant wheel. The water is adsorbed by the
surface of the desiccant wheel leading to an increase of its temperature. A warmer
and dry air exits at position 2. This dry air is then cooled when passing from
position 2 to position 3. Moreover, a finned evaporator coil from is used in position
4 to further cool the air. In the regeneration stage, the ambient air is first passed
through heat recovery wheel to recover heat (position 6 to position 7) from warm
and dry air and it is further heated by an electric heater (position 7 to position 8).
The regeneration temperature is reached at position 8. In the last stage, hot
regeneration air extracts the moisture from the desiccant wheel (position 8 to
position 9) and releases it to the ambient at point 9.
Desiccant dehumidification systems are quite popular in hot and humid climatic
conditions. Significant effort is put by various researchers to apply and optimize the
desiccants ‘operation under these conditions. One of the most common ways to use
desiccant systems in an effective way is to precool the incoming fresh air by the
exhaust air. In this configuration the process air is the fresh air and the regenerative
air is the exhaust air and both sensible and latent load can be recovered by the
desiccant wheel. Various applications show that 75% of the ventilation load and
25% of the chiller capacity can be reduced in this manner [37].
An example of a solid desiccant dehumidification system applied to hot and
humid climate can be found in Malaysia. The specific system combines a rotating
desiccant wheel with chilled ceiling panels leading to a reduction of the relative
humidity by 40% with an air flow rate of 243 kg/h. Chilled ceiling surface reached
14–18 °C by varying the chilled water inlet temperature from 6–10 °C [38].
Another application combines a hybrid air-conditioning system that uses 100%
fresh air and integrates a solid desiccant dehumidification system with a two-stage
evaporative cooling system to optimize the system operation with respect to energy
and water consumption while maintaining occupant thermal comfort. This config-
uration showed a 16% reduction in energy consumption and a 27% reduction in
water consumption compared to a single-stage evaporative cooling system at the
same thermal comfort level in a building in Beirut [33].
3.2 Passive Cooling for Hot and Humid Climate
3.2.1 Ground Cooling
Air is cooled by its circulation at a soil’s depth i.e. 3 m within ground heat
exchangers and then is diffused into ambient air reducing this way the ambient
temperature. The relatively low temperature of soil cools down the air in under-
ground tubes. It is well known that the temperature of the ground at a depth of about
2.5–3 m remains fairly constant and low around the year [39, 40]. Ground cooling
in the built environment is performed by the use of earth to air heat exchangers
where underground air channels are utilized to cool the air [41]. The air is forced
through the tunnels via a circulation system and after it is cooled it is then for-
warded to the building.
The performance of the ground cooling systems depends upon the air tunnels’
dimensions and material, i.e. length, diameter, conductivity, etc. as well as the
underground depth. Moreover, the efficiency of the earth to air heat exchanger
varies with the air flow rate and the soil’s characteristics [42–44].
Numerous studies have been performed in order to develop models able to
predict the efficiency of the earth to air heat exchangers, to analyze the experimental
performance of pilot applications and to report the global performance of real scale
case studies. Evaluation of many real case studies described has shown that for
moderate climates the seasonal energy performance of the ground cooling systems
is close to 8–10 kWh/m2 of ground coupling area, while the peak cooling capacity
at air temperature close to 32 °C is estimated at 45 W/m2 of ground coupling
area [45].
Earth to air heat exchangers can be a viable solution for hot and humid climatic
conditions.
The application of ground cooling systems in hot and humid climates is limited.
In an experimental work performed by [28] polyethylene pipes are buries at 1 m
underground in Malaysia. The soil temperature is 6 and 9 °C lower than the
maximum ambient temperature during wet and hot and dry season, respectively.
The temperature drop was up to 6.4 and 6.9 °C depending on the season of the year.
Another study performed by [46] presented the cooling energy reductions from
the application of a closed-loop earth–air heat exchanger at residential houses in
Texas compared to a residential air-source heat pump. The simulation showed
annual cooling energy savings of 9.6% for Houston and 13.8% for Dallas.
3.2.2 Ventilative Cooling
Night ventilation exploits the cold night air to cool down the building and remove
the absorbed heat during daytime. Nocturnal cooling can be very effective to reduce
the indoor air temperature. Night ventilation can either be driven by natural forces
—i.e. stack or wind pressure difference, or maybe sometimes supported by a small
fan power to provide sufficient airflow at times when the natural forces are weak.
The efficiency of the technique is mainly based on the relative difference between
the outdoor and indoor temperatures during the night period. However, for a given
place, the cooling potential of night ventilation techniques depends on the airflow
rate, the thermal capacity of the building and the appropriate coupling of the
thermal mass and the air flow. The effectiveness of night ventilation techniques is
determined by the prevailing climatic conditions, the microclimate, the building
characteristics, and the location. The outdoor temperature, the relative humidity,
and the wind speed are the environmental parameters that influence the successful
application of night ventilation techniques [47, 48].
In hot and humid climatic conditions, ventilative cooling is not the first option
due to the low-temperature differences between indoor and outdoor conditions of a
building [49]. Further measures to lower indoor humidity such as by dehumidifi-
cation or to increase indoor air velocity such as by fan are usually required [50].
3.2.3 Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative cooling is extensively used as a passive cooling technique in the built

environment. The air movement over a wetted surface causes some of the water to
evaporate. This evaporation results in a reduced temperature and an increased vapor
content in the air. The increase of the surface area increases the evaporation,
resulting in a significant cooling effect.
There are two basic types of evaporative air cooling techniques, which are given
as follows:
1. The direct evaporative coolers that are commonly used for residential buildings.
In this type of evaporative cooling, the reduction of temperature is followed by
an increase in moisture content.
2. The indirect systems where the evaporative cooling is delivered across a heat
exchanger, which keeps the cool moist air separated from the room. This system
does not cause an increase of the air humidity.
For hot humid climates, the indoor temperature conditions should be kept lower
than outdoors. In these regions where usually the outdoor temperature fluctuations
are small and the humidity is considerably high throughout the whole day, direct
evaporative cooling is not effective. The indirect evaporative coolers (IEC) can be
an alternative option.
IEC usually incorporates air to air heat exchanger to remove heat from the air
without adding moisture. In IEC the hot outside air is passed through a series of
horizontal tubes that are wetted on the outside. A secondary air stream blows over
the outside of the coils and exhausts the warm, moist air to the outdoors. The
outside air is cooled without adding moisture as it passes through the tubes. Indirect
evaporative cooling typically has an effectiveness of almost 75%. There are various
configurations that can increase effectiveness even higher than 100%, i.e. cooling
the supply air to a level below the wet-bulb temperature [33].
An evolution of the simple DEC is the so-called two-stage evaporative cooling
[51]. The two-stage evaporative coolers precool the air before it goes through the
evaporative pad. The overall system has 70% effectiveness for its indirect part and
90% effectiveness for the direct part [52] while the relative humidity of the cool air
is between 50 and 70%. Two-stage evaporative coolers can reduce energy con-
sumption by 60–75%.
4 Case Studies
4.1 Case Study 1: Liquid Desiccant System in an Office

Building in Shenzen, China
This Temperature- and Humidity-Independent Control (THIC) system has been

applied to an office building in Shenzen, China since 2008 [53]. Shenzen has a
humid, subtropical climate, with mild, relatively dry winters and hot, humid
summers. Humidity is high throughout the year, with relative humidity levels of
80% and above for a large part of the year. Effectively the building requires cooling
and dehumidification over a significant portion of the year, while it does not require
any heating at all. The two subsystems (temperature and humidity control) can be
operated separately according to requirement. Both subsystems are operational in
hot and humid conditions, while only humidity control is used during cool and
humid conditions.
The office building has five floors, with a total floor area of 21,960 m2. The
offices are located on the second to fourth floors, while a meeting room is situated
on the fifth floor. The first floor is divided among a restaurant, an archive space, and
a carpark. There is a vestibule extending from the second to the fourth floor on
the north side of the building, fitted with a curtain wall and ventilation shutters
(Figs. 6, 7 and 8).
Fig. 6 Office building and schematic of the THIC system [53]
Fig. 7 Liquid desiccant air handling unit [53]
The THIC system provides air-conditioning to the first four floors, serving a total
area of 13,180 m2. It is comprised of nine liquid desiccant fresh air handling units
that provide sufficient dry fresh air to satisfy the ventilation requirements of the
occupants. The liquid desiccant air processors are composed of a two-stage heat
recovery and a two-stage air handling part coupled with refrigeration cycles. The
desiccant itself is an aqueous solution of lithium bromide (LiBr). The heat recovery
stage is used to lower the energy consumption of the fresh air-conditioning by
recovering energy from the return air. After removing water content from the
supply air in the dehumidification module, the diluted desiccant solution is reheated
by the condenser heat, transferred and concentrated in the regeneration module and
Fig. 8 Indoor environmental conditions in the office building [53]
finally cooled by the heat exchanger and evaporator before returning to the dehu-
midification module to repeat the process.
The liquid desiccant air handling units employ heat recovery to exploit the
exhaust air heat; utilize the cooling capacity of the evaporator as well as the exhaust
heat of the condenser; and benefit from a higher efficiency heat pump due to the
elevated evaporating temperature compared to a conventional system. Thus, their
COP can get as high as 5. Furthermore, the supply air temperature is still lower than
the indoor air temperature, so some sensible load is also alleviated in addition to the
latent load. The rest of the sensible load is handled by the temperature control
subsystem, which consists of a high-temperature, centrifugal chiller, a cooling
tower, a condenser water pump, a chilled water pump, as well as radiant floor/
ceiling panels and fan coil units situated in the interior spaces. The chiller has a
rated COP of 8.3, which is much higher than a conventional chiller. The design
conditions use an inlet/outlet temperature of 17.5/20.5 and 30.0/35.0 °C for the
chilled and condenser water loop, respectively, while the chilled water loop of a
conventional chiller is operating at 7.0/12.0 °C. The FCUs serve the restaurant,
archive and parts of the offices and handle about 81% of the sensible cooling load,
while the radiant floor and ceiling panels are located in the vestibule and certain
office rooms and handle the remaining 19%. In the vestibule specifically, a strategy
of stratified air-conditioning is employed, which focuses on keeping just the
occupied zone, i.e. the space within the first two meter of height, cool. This is
achieved via the use of chilled radiant floor panels and the introduction of dry,
conditioned air at the bottom of the space, which also prevents condensation at the
floor. The exhaust air is removed in the middle of the space. Further up, solar
radiation is blocked by ornamental decorations, the heat from which is removed by
the natural ventilation shutters at the top.
The ability of the system to provide a comfortable thermal environment was
tested during a day with ambient conditions of 34.9 °C and 61% relative humidity
(absolute humidity 21.6 g/kg). The system managed to keep the indoor temperature
between 24 and 27 °C for most of the time, with only a few cases of the temper-
ature going either below 24 or above 27 °C. The humidity ratio was kept between
9.5 and 12.5 g/kg, while the CO2 concentration never rose above 750 ppm. The
thermal environment was thus deemed to be acceptable and the indoor air quality on
a good level.
The energy efficiency of the THIC system was tested both on the above,
demanding conditions (design load), as well as during a partial load case where the
ambient temperature was 29.3 °C and the relative humidity at 79% (absolute
humidity 20.3 g/kg).
The performance of the humidity control subsystem was evaluated by testing the
liquid desiccant AHUs according to air inlet/outlet conditions and flow rates
(cooling capacity Qair) and the input power of fans (Pfan), compressors and desic-
cant solution pumps (Pair). The performance metrics are the COP of seven (out of
nine) fresh air units (COPair) and the COP of the entire humidity removal process
(COPhum), where:
Qair
COPair ¼
Pair
and
Qair
COPhum ¼
Pair þ Pfan
The results are summarized in Table 2.
As shown in the table, the COPair of the fresh air units lies in the range of
4.4–4.9, while the COPhum of the entire process is in the range of 4.0–4.4.
Generally, the lower the humidity ratio of the supplied air, the lower the COPair will
be. According to the data for this specific day of testing, the cooling capacity of the
entire humidity control subsystem is 773 kW, while the total input power of fans
and compressors is 186.9 kW, which gives an overall COPhum of 4.1. For the
design load tested day, the corresponding findings are a cooling capacity of
915 kW and total fan and compressor input power of 219.5 kW, which gives a
COPhum of 4.1.
Table 2 Performance of fresh air handling units at partial load conditions of 29.3 °C and 20.3 g/
kg humidity (adapted from [53])
Location Supplied fresh air Cooling Input power (kW) COPair COPhum
Flow Temperature Humidity capacity Compressors Fans
rate (°C) ratio (kW) and pumps
(m3/h) (g/kg)
2nd 5059 17.1 6.2 82.6 17.8 2.2 4.7 4.1
floor
(east)
2nd 5195 16.7 6.1 86.0 17.6 2.3 4.9 4.3
floor
(west)
3rd floor 4972 16.8 6.5 80.4 18.2 2.2 4.4 4.0
(east)
3rd floor 5215 16.6 6.2 86.4 17.6 2.2 4.9 4.4
(west)
4th floor 4261 16.7 6.4 69.5 15.0 1.7 4.6 4.2
(east)
4th floor 1940 16.5 6.2 32.1 7.1 0.9 4.5 4.0
(middle)
4th floor 4307 16.3 6.1 72.0 15.3 1.8 4.7 4.2
(west)
For the temperature control subsystem, the performance was estimated according
to measured flow rates and inlet/outlet parameters (cooling capacity QCH), as well
as the input power of the chiller, cooling tower. chilled/condenser water pumps and
FCUs. The findings are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3 Performance of the temperature control subsystem (adapted from [53])

QCH Component Power Parameters
(kW) (kW)
Partial 446.1 Chiller 52.5 Ambient: 29.3 °C, 20.3 g/kg
load Cooling tower 3.7 Chilled water flow rate: 239 m3/h
Condenser water flow rate:
Chilled water 14.6
180 m3/h
pump
Chilled water temperatures: 17.5/
Condenser water 30.6 19.1 °C
pump Condenser water temperatures:
FCUs 19.4 31.0/33.3 °C
Design 543.4 Chiller 63.8 Ambient: 34.9°C, 21.6 g/kg
load Cooling tower 3.7 Chilled water flow rate: 260 m3/h
Condenser water flow rate:
Chilled water 14.4
180 m3/h
pump
Chilled water temperatures: 17.5/
Condenser water 29.4 19.3 °C
pump Condenser water temperatures:
FCUs 22.3 32.9/35.7 °C
The COPtemp of the temperature control subsystem is defined as the chiller

cooling capacity QCH divided by the sum of the input power of all components.
Thus, for the partial load conditions, where the total input power is 120.8 kW, the
COPtemp is 3.7. For the design load conditions, where the total input power is 133.6,
the COPtemp is 4.1. Consequently, the COPSYS of the entire THIC air-conditioning
system, which is a combination of COPhum and COPtemp is 4.0 and 4.1 for the
partial and design load conditions, respectively. This is a significant improvement
compared to the system-wide COP of a conventional air-conditioning system,
which is lower than 3.0 [54].
4.2 Case Study 2: Experimental Setup of Vertical Greenery

in the National University of Singapore
In this study, two green wall structures have been set up side by side on the rooftop
of a building at the National University of Singapore. Singapore has a tropical
climate with a relatively uniform temperature all year round, in the range of 23–32 °
C, while the average relative humidity ranges between 73 and 79% [55]. The two
walls are of the plant carrier system type. One is the Suntory Midorie system (Green
Wall A, 2.27 m 1.90 m), which uses a sponge-like material supplemented with
nutrients, while water slowly drips from an irrigation pipe at the top down to the
lower part of the wall. The other wall is the Shimizu Parabienta system (Green
Wall B, 3.18 m 2.40 m), where irrigation pipes are connected directly on the
planting panels. The objective of this study is to quantify the effects of vertical
greenery on mean radiant temperature (tmrt) in the immediate area, which is one of
the most important factors in determining indoor and outdoor thermal comfort. The
mean radiant temperature is measured over time in front of the two green walls and
the bare concrete wall between them (Period A). Then, Green Wall B is removed
and further measurements of tmrt indicate the impact (Period B). The full data set
consists of measurements of air temperature (ta) in front of the green walls, surface
temperature (ts) of the concrete wall behind the green walls and mean radiant
temperature at different distances in front of the green walls. Surface temperatures,
in particular, are taken via thermocouples in three distinct locations (X, Y, Z) that
are on the concrete wall behind Green Wall A, on the exposed concrete between the
green walls and on the concrete wall behind Green Wall B, respectively. In each of
these locations there is a thermocouple on the exposed, outdoor side (X1, Y1, Z1)
of the concrete wall and one on the other side, which is indoors (X2, Y2, Z2). The
indoor space is not air-conditioned. Air and mean radiant temperatures are mea-
sured in front of the green walls at intervals of 0.5 m up to 2 m away, at a height of
1.7 m, as seen in Fig. 9. For this study, only data from cloudless days are analyzed.
Furthermore, daily data is grouped into five categories depending on time of day,
because the experimental setup is subject to self-shading and overshadowing from
trees at different periods. Specifically, from 7 am to 2 pm the setup is self-shaded
Fig. 9 Experimental setup and measurement points (adapted from [55])
from 2 pm to 5 pm it is exposed to direct sunlight, while from 5 pm to 7 pm there

is overshadowing. The rest of the time the sun is set.
Five days from Period A and nine days from Period B are selected for analysis,
and in each period a single profile is generated for each measurement point by
averaging the daily data.
During Period A, point Z1 has a relatively flat temperature profile, not going
above 27.6 °C, but during Period B the temperature increases steadily until it
reaches a peak of 34.3 °C at 17:00, a difference of 6.7 °C. Point Z2 in the interior
has a diurnal fluctuation of 0.3 °C during Period A, but this fluctuation increases to
3.8 °C after the removal of Green Wall B. A similar increase is observed in all
surface temperatures with the exception of those behind Green Wall A. Point Y1 in
the bare concrete wall exhibits the highest temperature values for both periods,
namely 35.7 °C at 15:00 for period A and 44.6 °C at 17:00 for period B, which is
an increase of 8.9 °C with an introduced delay of 2 h. Interior point Y2 had a
relatively stable surface temperature of about 27.9 °C throughout Period A but
shows a significant increase to 34.6 °C and peaks at 19:00 in Period B. Finally, the
surface temperature at X2 was similar to the temperature at X1 during Period A, but
consistently higher during Period B, due to the heat transfer from the more exposed
adjoining surfaces. No other effect is observed, however, since fluctuation remains
minimal.
With regards to the air temperatures in the 28 measurement points in front of the
walls, a slight increase in the temperature fluctuation was observed between the two
periods, increasing from a range of 1.1 °C during Period A to a range of 1.5 °C
during Period B.
The average profile of mean radiant temperatures for measurement points 1–7 is
very distinctive, in that there is a marked increase of tmrt as the solar irradiance
increases during the day, especially when direct sunlight reaches the walls between
14:00 and 17:00. During Period A the highest value is recorded in point 4 (51 °C on
average), which is directly in front of the bare concrete surface, at 15:00 during
peak solar irradiance. Similarly, in points 2 and 6 there is an increase in tmrt as solar
irradiance increases, however, the temperature is generally lower compared to point
4, and that difference is most significant near peak solar irradiance, showing the
green wall effect. During Period B the tmrt fluctuations follow the same pattern but
with two important differences: the peak temperatures are significantly higher (59 °
C on average at point 4), and they are observed at about 17:00, which shows a time
lag between them and peak solar irradiance. This is explained by the increase in
exposed concrete surface, which stores more longwave radiation and subsequently
emits it (Fig. 10).
Finally, the effect of distance from the wall on tmrt can be illustrated by a set of
selected, non-averaged measurements from the 28 points, as shown in Table 4. The
highest tmrt value recorded for Period A is at 13:20, while the highest recorded tmrt
value for Period B is at 16:20.
The data shows that the removal of Green Wall B has increased the peak values
across space in front of the installation, especially at the points that are closest to the
wall. Specifically, there is a 12.7 °C increase for point 2, 12.9 °C for point 4 and
10.9 °C for point 6. At all other points further from the wall the increase ranges
from 1.9 to 6.4 °C.
In conclusion, this study has shown that vertical greenery has a measurable effect
on the surrounding environment. Peak surface temperatures and temperature fluc-
tuations of the building envelope can be reduced both directly behind a green wall,
and in close proximity to it. Air temperature is also affected near the green wall,
although to a small degree. Finally, mean radiant temperature is significantly
affected, especially within one meter from the wall. The effect however is most
significant during direct solar exposure. Self-shaded or overshadowed surfaces do
not benefit as much.
4.3 Case Study 3: Energy Saving Potential of a Vertical

Greenery System in a Hong Kong Flat
In this example, the electricity saving from the application of a vertical greenery
system (VGS) is assessed for a flat in Hong Kong [56]. Hong Kong has a
monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate with two main seasons. The wet
season lasts from April to September and the dry season lasts from October to
March. Summers are hot and humid, with afternoon temperatures often exceeding
31 °C between June and August, while relative humidity averages at 78%. The
experimental site is located in a 33-storey block of flats in Sheung Shui, New
Territories, Hong Kong. Two identical flats have been selected (see Fig. 11), both
in layout and materials, one on the fourth and one on the fifth floor.
The flats are vacant throughout the experimental period, which extends from
August to April. This has been done to minimize any disturbance from the human
Fig. 10 Mean radiant temperature profile for points 2, 4 and 6 [55]
factor. Each flat has two external walls, one looking to the southeast and one to the
southwest. There are no adjacent buildings that may affect the experiment, and the
elevation difference between the two flats is not enough to cause a difference in
Table 4 Comparison of peak recorded mean radiant temperature at different measurement points
Point Peak Peak Point Peak Peak Point Peak Peak
(A) (°C) (B) (°C) (A) (°C) (B) (°C) (A) (°C) (B) (°C)
2 51.0 63.7 4 53.0 65.9 6 53.1 64.0
9 62.2 65.0 11 55.9 62.3 13 55.7 59.1
16 53.0 58.8 18 58.9 63.8 20 59.9 63.3
23 58.6 60.5 25 61.5 63.6 27 59.5 63.1
Fig. 11 Plan of the experimental flats [56]
solar irradiance. The fourth floor flat has an 8.22 m2 vertical greenery system,
complete with steel support frame and planter boxes with potting mix, installed on
the southwest wall. Half-hourly local weather data is recorded from an onsite
weather station. In addition, temperature sensors have been placed on the exterior
wall and at the centre of the bedroom in both flats. Each flat also has a window-type
air-conditioner installed, with a cooling capacity of 2.05 kW and an efficiency of
2.74 W/W. The air-conditioners are linked to a thermostat control that turns them
on when the indoor temperature exceeds 24 °C. Energy consumption of the A/C
units is recorded.
Fig. 12 Half-hourly temperature change over a day in the two flats [56]
The results show that the temperature of the VGS-clad wall can be as much as
8 °C lower than the bare wall during sunny days, while a maximum of 5 °C during
cloudy days. This leads to an increased indoor temperature in the control flat and
forces the A/C unit to consume more energy in order to cope. In both August and
September, the daily electricity consumption is higher in the control flat. The daily
energy saving achieved due to the VGS installation is 1.30 kWh during sunny days,
0.84 kWh during cloudy days and 0.71 kWh during rainy days. Furthermore, there
is a significant correlation (P < 0.001) between the daily average ambient tem-
perature and the electricity savings achieved (Figs. 12 and 13).
Fig. 13 Regression between daily average ambient temperature and electricity saving achieved
through VGS [56]
Table 5 Energy consumption at the two flats during recorded summer period and extrapolation to
entire summer (adapted from [4])
Weather No. of Daily energy Daily Daily Total no. of Total
during recorded consumption energy energy days from estimated
summer days (kWh) saving saving June to energy
day Control VGS (kWh) (%) September saving
(kWh)
Sunny 17 7.12 5.82 1.30 18.3 62 80.6
Cloudy 11 5.97 5.13 0.84 14.0 28 23.4
Rainy 7 5.24 4.52 0.71 13.6 42 30.0
Total 35 132 134
Since the ambient temperature between October and April did not rise above
25.5 °C, the air-conditioner did not need to be turned on during that period. For the
purpose of estimating the annual energy saving, this period can be assumed to have
no difference in energy consumption between the two flats. Although no data exists
for May to July, based on average climate data it is assumed that May is similar to
April and does not require cooling, while June and July temperatures are similar to
temperatures in August and September. Thus, the annual energy saving due to the
VGS effect is assumed to be entirely achieved during the June to September period.
The full impact of the VGS installation than can be seen in Table 5. Based on the
recorded savings during the different types of weather conditions, it is estimated
that the total annual energy saving is around 134 kWh.
Overall, the study of the two flats shows that the installation of VGS has the
potential to reduce energy consumption for cooling, especially on days with higher
ambient temperature and incident radiation.
5 Conclusions
In the present chapter, the energy technologies for the design and performance of
buildings in hot and humid regions are analyzed. The role of green roofs and green
walls for the building envelope is discussed. The cool materials for the reduction of
the cooling load are also analyzed. Moreover, active and passive cooling tech-
nologies for air-conditioning are presented. Desiccant cooling, ceiling cooling
panels, and advanced air compressor systems can provide a significant improve-
ment of indoor comfort for the tropical regions.
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Tectonics in the Gulf Architecture:
‘Modernity of Tradition’ in Buildings
Mamun Rashid and Dilshad Ara
Abstract Materials, building technology and innovative details in design played an

important role in the traditional architecture of the Gulf. Yet due to unprecedented
urbanization, vernacular know-how is now being lost or eroded. Besides once
ecologically sustainable and energy thrift architectural strategies are now thought to
be inappropriate, unsuitable to high-tech buildings and urban settings. Assuming an
antithesis to the view that modernity is an antonym for tradition, in this chapter we
examine materials, innovative details, and techniques in the Gulf architecture.
Underscoring ‘tectonics’, in the context where technology is not self-referential but
rather incidental and integrated with design precedents, we examine prudent
environmentally informed architectural details and creative decisions used in a
region where soaring heat, high humidity and need for security and privacy are
major concerns for a living. Across broader geography of the inland and the coasts
in the Gulf, Chapter discussion centres on evocative Gulf construction praxis, for
example: construction in thermally conducive materials like palm frond, coral, mud
and gypsum, the structural ingenuity of tensile velum type structure such as Bait Al
Shaar (Bedouin black tent), the dynamic wind-charged passive cooling component
badgir (wind-tower) and complex geometrical functionality in glare moderator skin
such as mashrabiya. By utilizing examples we conclude that the materials, building
details and technology in traditional architecture of the Gulf are not merely meta-
phors or ‘aesthetic-visual’ remnants from the past, although in the Gulf they are
commonly re-introduced in modern buildings as such. On the contrary, their uti-
lization refers to smart functionality, durability and novelty, which have only started
to be re-envisioned and refurbished in pioneering best-practice contemporary
buildings.
M. Rashid
Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
e-mail: mrashid@sharjah.ac.ae
D. Ara (&)
University City, Sharjah, UAE
e-mail: dilshadrara@yahoo.com.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_6
138 M. Rashid and D. Ara

Keywords Modernity and tradition Building technology Sustainable archi-

tecture Gulf architecture Innovative construction details Environmental design
1 Introduction
In architecture, tectonics is elucidated as the science or art of construction or pre-

cisely as an activity with provision for creative and artistic expression and use [1]. It
is not an alternative building science, rather it involves interrelated art of structure
and construction, what Kenneth Frampton describes as ‘poetics of construction’ [2].
Anne Beim has stressed that tectonic thinking is principally concerned with the
making and the application of materials and in turn, this concern becomes a creative
force when a building is constructed [3]. Adding, tectonic thinking can identify and
refine strategies for developing contemporary building industry. One of the core
elements of tectonic thinking and practice is material and its process of incorporation
into the building. In architectural practice, there is currently a shift toward grounding
design intention in tectonics. A number of protagonists are vocal against signs of
style or pastiches and formal preconceptions in design. Swiss architect Peter
Zumthor is contemplative and mindful of the use of natural materials, and specifi-
cally of construction details [4]. He approaches architecture as nexus of multiple
parts, a whole form from ensembles. Jørn Utzon perhaps derives at the same point as
he stresses that the character of the building is in the summation of the components,
and not in the composition, nor it is a façade design [5]. In the context of the Arab
towns, eminent architect Hassan Fathy’s early attempt to safeguard local building
tradition and to revive local materials like handmade sun-dried mud-brick or ven-
tilation devices such as the malkaf or wind-trap and crafted lattice screen as glare
moderator was strongly suggestive of tectonics [6, 7].
By materials, details, and practices—that relate to tectonics in the Gulf archi-
tecture—a route is rendered in this Chapter to redress a balance between emerging
industrialized construction options and solutions and craft-based know-how and
construction skills. This detour from status quo in Gulf architecture is timely, as few
are arguing: ‘it is not sufficient to simply bolt traditional ideas on to new designs or
use them for superficial aesthetic effect. What is required is a re-envisioning of the
old with the benefit of new technologies, materials, know-how and social capa-
bilities to produce more sustainable ways…’ [8]. In line with this anti-aesthetic call,
pioneering Gulf construction enterprises are starting to appreciate traditional
know-how and techniques in a new light. Arup is currently pursuing to adopt
strategies combining newer technological innovation with locally adapted and
climatically appropriate solutions to mitigate effects of climate change and provide
positive long-term social, environmental and economic benefits in Arid urban areas
[9]. Some of the emerging topics are also equally placed within sustainable
Tectonics in the Gulf Architecture: ‘Modernity of Tradition’ … 139
architectural agenda such as energy efficiency of buildings in relation to high

thermal performance, prudent material choice, and use of renewable sources of
energy such as sun and wind [10, 11].
2 An Extreme Environment for Tectonics: Arabian Gulf
Partially enclosed by Iran and the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabian Gulf is a shallow
sea, stretching outward towards the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean through the
Strait of Hormuz. It has borders with several countries: Iran on the east and northern
coastline, adjoining Iraq and Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates (UAE) and Oman along the western side. Noted infamously for its
unfavourable climate, summer temperatures can reach very high in the Gulf regions,
though along the north-western boundaries winters may remain rather cool. During
summer, shamal wind that blows from north–northwesterly direction hardly catches
a gale speed. Dust or sand storms with haze are common in the summer with only
occasional thunderstorms. Extreme heating of the adjacent coastal land generates
mild offshore morning winds and strong onshore winds in the afternoons and
evenings [12].
An array of traditional building types had evolved and adapted to the coast and
inland—two distinct yet quite variable topographies of the Gulf. Its challenging
climatic conditions also played a critical role in the vernacular construction
strategies. Before the 50s, just before modernization geared up in oil-rich Gulf
towns, vernacular builders in the Gulf were highly skilled craftspeople conscious of
working with their natural environments, of noticing and knowing what was pos-
sible. Croll and Parkin (2011; 16) as cited in Lancaster and Lancaster pointed in
reference to the Trucial Coast settlements, that the people were not passive users of
the environment, on the contrary, they were very active participants. Materials and
available possibilities in the surroundings were prudently explored and used in
shaping and making their environment [13]. Given materials, building technical
details, principles of assembly in solving construction challenges are addressed in
disparate sources in Gulf literature, but not yet rigorously positioned as a single
topic under tectonics study, in the following sections we focus on two aspects of
Gulf building tectonics: (A) materials and methods/details. In the second part
(B) drawing on contemporary good building precedents which harness traditional
know-how with newer technology in the Gulf we leave suggestions for present and
future practice of architecture in the region.
Section A
A.1 Tectonics of Materials: Variation and Principles of Assembly
A broad spectrum of materials played an important role in Gulf architectural tra-
dition. Vernacular building material repository was rich; in masonry houses on the
coast, in combination with other materials, fossilized coral, cut in blocks, Sarooj
(a mixture of red clay and manure), Salafa (marine sediment ideal for construction
of fine masonry), Tabuk (sand-lime), Jus (gypsum), Nurah (lime plastering) were
used extensively [14, 15]. These materials were perfectly suited to the local climate
in consideration of the thermal environment. Besides local materials, an array of
building materials was also made available by coastal routes, as Gulf has always
been a key international trade route connecting the Middle East to East Africa, India
and Southeast Asia [16]. Wood for doors and windows was mostly imported from
Iran, Zanziber and India [14, 17, 18]. Structural members such as roof beams and
joists commonly used imported mangrove poles. These poles came in an available
length of only 3.5 m. Consequently this length-limit restricted the traditionally
arranged room width, allowing only rooms, which were long and narrow, yet
surprisingly suitable for quicker air changes and cross-ventilation. On the coast
chunks of coral, were cut and left to season in order to reduce the salt content. Fan
and brain corals can still be seen in the old walls of coastal Gulf towns and cities
(e.g. Al Jazirah Al Hamra, UAE). The coral was set in gypsum mortar and bonded
well together, producing strong walls with good insulating qualities [18].
The seemingly simple yet well-documented typologies of vernacular domestic
forms in the Gulf varied between the Bait Al Shaar (Bedouin tent), Arish
(date-palm fenced houses), and the Adobe/Adobe-Stone houses (this type varied in
complexity). Tent for the inland wandering Bedouins was a tensile structure, easy
and fast to erect, a sophisticated light and portable dwelling prototype. The tent
awnings (roof) were woven from goats’ hair; in some cases camel hair, cotton or
wool were used. Fewer supports were preferred in tent as this enabled reduced
weight for portability and speedier erection and dismantling time. Corresponding to
each row of poles a stake with guy line was used to provide tensile strength against
the desert wind [19, 20]. In contrast to the framed tents, like the yurts of central
Asia, the ‘black tent of Arabia’ is a structural ‘velum’ or ‘tensile type’ which is
more intricately cohesive in structural logic. Its working principle is made clear by
Andrews who convincingly illustrates velum’s interdependent (in contrast to in-
dependent) structural relation between the cover and the supports and its interesting
stabilizing function through tensile strength gained by the use of guy ropes [20].
Depending upon nature of economic pursuits, and climate local people also lived
in houses built of date-palm products. Date-palm houses were called barasti, arish
or khaimah according to particular coastal and desert locality in which these were
built [21, 22]. Frames of split-palm trunks, mangrove poles or other available
thermally responsive organic materials were utilized in the construction of these
vernacular huts. Recent studies attest that arish dwellings score high on natural
cooling as they are surprisingly capable of reducing the indoor temperature quite
substantially once erected. Close observation elucidates that not only the arish form
or its siting principle, but also the traditional assemblages and crafting of materials
in palm-frond houses are very much climate-responsive. Arish is particularly suited
for the hot–humid climate (e.g. in coastal places like Dubai and Sharjah) following
the panels can be densely woven to insulate the interior in the winter, or alterna-
tively crafted with an open screen like effect to allow breeze inside throughout
humid summer [15]. In mountain areas of UAE and Oman, dwellings are
occasionally built half into the ground to take advantage of contour on a par with
modern ecological construction practice. The material crafting was honed to adapt
to seasonal changes. Simple summer mountain houses were strategically placed on
top of a mountain spur with walls of irregular/uncut stones; these walls opened up
to allow cool air to ventilate inside. In contrast, winter houses were constructed of
tightly layered dressed stone plastered with mud to seal the enclosure from cold
wind outside [14]. Elsewhere in Qatar, though mud buildings are presumably very
early structures, it is also not unlikely that arish structures may have been built
around the same period, or possibly even predated the mud constructions [23].
Saudi Central Region is known for its Adobe architecture. Rammed earth con-
struction is widely used in the Najd [10, 24]. Construction of a Najdi traditional
house starts with the collection and arrangement of basic building materials such as
mud (libin), straw (tibin), palm tree trunks for roofing, and stones for foundations.
Although courtyard is a noticeable spatial feature of the house, and much discussed
as a passive climate moderator, there are other climate-responsive finer details in the
construction assemblies. Treatment with triangular ventilation slots, lancets and the
crenellated parapets not only render an aesthetic tone to the Najdi façade, these are
indeed practical details which slyly function to protect the mud wall against erosion
from any occasional rain. Najdi home interior is kept cool in the harsh summer by
careful utilization of thick mud walls. Although without almost any insulation
value, mud walls with thermal mass slow down day time heat transfer from exterior
to interior spaces, and reversely from inside to outside throughout night. Limited
numbers of small-sized openings, which punctuate the mud walls, also act as cli-
mate modifiers in the extreme heat and glare.
While Najd houses are rarely more than one storey, an Asir house, built sus-
tainably on a small footprint, is a massive walk-up dwelling in adobe (wall thickness
varies from minimum 50–100 cm) and stone in Saudi Arabia that can go up to four
floors [11]. Finer details are also utilized here. Structurally stable tapered walls and
typical slate fitted cast mud exterior are evocative of Asir mud-stone houses. The
patterned horizontal bands with slatted protrusions create not only an aesthetic
statement but more precisely these are functional details; stone bands provide
structural stability to the high mud walls and protect the façade from rainwater [25].
Intricate attention is also given to finishes in addition to main structural
assemblages. In Bahrain and comparable Gulf towns plastering was done by the
masons. Details of plaster can be found in John Yarwood’s close observation in
Muharraq in Bahrain [26]. Here aesthetics was integral to function and techniques.
Three layers of plaster were rather common. The first layer (al tetrees) was used to
even out the roughness of the base masonry. Mud with gypsum was used in the
second coat (al misaih) to create a smooth facade; the third decorative coat (al
tabidh) was of lime and gypsum. The type of base (on which plaster was applied)
directed the depth of plaster layers. For example, only a very thin coat of gypsum,
about 2 or 3 mm thick, was applied to farsh panels. A decorative scheme like a
rebate moulding was also possible by setting back (about 3 cm) the top coat from
all sides of windows and niches. Occasionally top coat was skipped to create a
decorative inset panel.
A.2 Fabrication and Structural Tectonics: Variation and Principles of

Assembly
Faster construction method in pre-urban houses involved optimized use of
resources thus eco-sustainability. Speed was ensured through techniques such as
modular methods and prefabrication techniques. In Al Muharraq it was noted: The
architecture is so modular that one can gain some dimensions approximately by
measuring one structural bay and then counting bays [26]. This modularity is also
evidenced across notable coastal houses in the Trucial Coast. In Doha, in line with
sustainable construction traditional houses reused and recycled valuable compo-
nents such as wooden beams, windows, doorframes and doors from earlier build-
ings. Retrieved roofing beams were invariably taken for reuse from structures which
were abandoned or intended for rebuilding, a resource-saving practice noted in the
mid-nineteenth century [27]. Prefabrication, often wrongly presumed to be a con-
temporary construction technique, was a standard technique in older traditional
architecture in the Gulf. Doors in Saudi Arabia were imported from India or from
central Iran through Bushehr [14]. In Sharjah (UAE), set of ready-curved ionic
columns of whole teak trunks that originated in India was found [28].
Prefabrication was also a speedier and logical solution for trabeated construction.
Frame structure (with structural frame of solid piers and beams) enabled non-bearing
infill panels. Thus by utilizing lighter, thinner walls, the masons could incorporate
overall decorative schemes of gypsum panels and other types of decorative grilles
into the main structure [14, 15]. The wind-tower houses of the trabeated framework
in Bastakiya (Dubai) which are suggestive of later development of earlier heavier
Arab masonry style (load-bearing system) in the Gulf [26] were heavily reliant on
prefabrication technology. Impressive advances thus occurred in passive cooling
(through large decorative panels and grilles) and the structural economy as
Fig. 1 Left: Wind towers of precast elements and structural walls form the modular design pattern
(main academic building of Qatar University by architect Kamal el Kafrawi with Ove Arup
Partners; redrawn from https://archnet.org). Tower details provide natural light over meeting place
as well as cool air, however with some modification. Right: Towers with built-in mashrabiya to
control harsh sunlight in the library block of Qatar University. Photo source http://www.
oosterhuis.nl
load-bearing structure evolved to frame system through cross- and intercultural

exchange and negotiation of tectonics in the Gulf [Fig. 1].
A.3 Tectonics of Openings: Thermal Challenges of Heat, Glare and Humidity
Besides selective materials and structural consideration, design details and strate-
gies are also devised to optimize thermal performance and comfort in the Gulf.
Sophisticated design and construction for ventilation and lighting strategies evolved
out of a requirement of an extreme climate where temperature reaches 50C in
summer, and the light comes with extreme glare. Gulf coastal areas are also
exposed to the highest level of humidity that can reach up to 90% during some
periods in summer. There is indeed a critical challenge for architectural components
and details to deal with extreme heat, air and light, particular to hot-arid areas.
While ordinary windows are efficient solutions for air-light-external view at the
same time in temperate zones, their multiple use is far less feasible in the same
direction in hot and dry zones. Here the requirement of any design for air conflicts
directly with that of light, a point Fathy brought to attention far back in the 1970s.
Fathy further showed how glare and strong light require small openings above eye
level while in contrast only larger windows at lower level succeed as efficient
solutions to provide optimum airflow for thermal comfort [6].
In well built traditional houses in coastal Gulf towns, design components from
wind-scoops, utilized by means of split or double-walled construction, in roof
parapets and wall sections, to grander wind-towers were devised to tackle venti-
lation and thermal comfort. The efficiency of wind-towers as natural air conditioner,
which harnesses renewable energy of wind is addressed in numerous publications.
There is also a suggestion that incorporation of this technology offers possibility of
substantial reduction in CO2 emissions in this region. Ben Hughes of building
physics at Leeds University stresses that the traditional Gulf wind-tower could
provide twenty-first century sustainable design solution [29]. Principally the tower
placed at corners of traditional coastal buildings, works like a funnel that increases
the air velocity passing the air down to the room below. Exchange of wind dis-
places the hotter air by comparatively cooler air. This passive method offered
comfortable indoor conditions at almost zero cost to the environment and the user
[15, 24, 30]. Seemingly decorative yet quite efficient complementary solutions to
moderate air movement and light are also integrated features of the traditional wall,
like perforated panels and screens customarily placed high up on the walls. Besides,
window panel design was selectively maneuvered for thermal comfort.
Energy-saving effect, sun-control and privacy protection were possible by adding
variable options to window shutters, which incorporated not only solid panels, but
also wooden louvers, operable and fixed [18].
Sometimes to gain light and to reduce its glare without cutting down on the air
movement in the rooms, windows were fitted with a lattice screen called a
mashrabiya, traditionally made of small wooden bars. Fathy explains the logic of
the geometry of circular wooden bar sections that can break up the harsh light. The
bars—without sharp edges—soften the glare and reduce any contrast between the
darkness of the lattice and the bright light. In this way, the eye is not dazzled [6].
Projected bay windows with decorative wooden screens as enclosures are indeed
examples of innovative components of the Gulf house. Plentiful in hot–humid
coastal climate of the Gulf rowshans aided two critical requirements of the resi-
dents: thermal comfort and privacy [19]. Often constructed entirely of cantilevered
timber framework, prefabrication technique was utilized to cover openings with
intricate decorations and finish.
Section B
B.1 Re-emergence of Tradition Outside Pastiche: The Contemporary
Paradigms
Loss of tectonics is a serious threat to sustainable architecture in the Gulf. Many
lessons in tectonics are now being eroded due to fast technological changes and
hyperreal urbanity in the Gulf. On an optimistic note, there are few current prece-
dents where tradition is reconciled with modernity and emerging countering pas-
tiches. The mashrabiya has not disappeared in the contemporary Gulf; on the
contrary, it has resurfaced on a grander scale, in energy-efficient hybrid, sometimes,
mechanized forms in modern buildings. Contemporary designers have transformed
the vernacular lattice structure into high-tech responsive daylight systems in a
number of building projects. In Al Bahar Towers in Abu Dhabi, solar-responsive
dynamic screens form a double protective skin to cut down on solar gain. The screen
functions as a curtain wall placed on a separate frame 2 m exterior to the buildings
[31, 32]. The triangle panels of semi-transparent PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) are
automated. These panels respond to the sun’s path to reduce heat gain and glare.
Louvre Abu Dhabi also reinvents the classically vertical screen into an intricate
overhead geometric dome [Fig. 2]. The interesting rhythm of speckled light gen-
erated by the multilayered lattice over the interior spaces might seem like a spec-
tacular play of light-aesthetics, but its design logic is far closer to the authenticity of
Arabic mashrabiya. The light here is consciously worked out, as explained by the
design collaborative team [33]. Ateliers Jean Nouvel mapped high and low of level
light requirements to generate luminance maps at plaza level. Subsequently, this
functional need determined the percentage of transparency required through the
mesh-like cladding of the dome structure.
In Riyadh, despite the initial intention to reinterpret Le Corbusier’s brise-soleil,
Perkins + Will in ‘Garden Tower’ detoured to reinvent mashrabiya the old lattice
screen as a new high-tech ‘green’ skin that successfully works in the challenging
climate of Riyadh. The intricate skin of the tower is made of lightweight glass
impregnated photocatalytic fly ash added precast concrete. The reinvented screen
while providing views to the city also acts as a solar heat gain controller and is itself
a light diffusing system. The climate-sensitive louvres are adaptive (in principles,
not that much different from the traditional tectonics) and can change, based on the
sun angles, to allow view and a cooling breeze on the north and to transit to opacity
onto the southern elevation [34].
In retrospect to the vernacular dwelling types in the Gulf, the humble tent—the
ancient membrane solution to portable dwelling in the desert—has not yet perished.
Fig. 2 Left: Sketch of double facade of dynamic mashrabiya shading system in Abu Dhabi
(UAE). The façade responds to solar and light conditions in AL Bahar towers (AHR Architects;
adapted from a photograph by Christian Richters). Right: The vertical mashrabiya is transformed
into a horizontal roof structure of metal screens layers creating a thermally controlled environment
and kinetic lighting effects in the interior space of the Louvre Abu Dhabi (Architect Jean Nouvel).
Photo credit Lina M. M. Zaqout
On the contrary, it has reinvented itself in pioneering eco-sustainable and

high-performance constructions, given its potential to reduce solar gain, cooling
loads, and peak electricity demands. The traditional tent tectonics of ‘lightweight,
light-touch architecture’, which is in contrast to the strident monumentality of
architectural paradigms, converges with the technological pursuit of German
architect and structural engineer Frei Otto. In the 60s, he was opting for new
structural methods to use the least amount of material and energy and to cre-
ate lighter space—embracing principles of sustainability [35]. Indeed it was Otto
who elevated the humble velum ‘tent’ into large-scale, lightweight, and elegant
membrane structures. His collaboration with Rolf Gutrod resulted in the tensile
structure of the Intercontinental Hotel and Conference Centre in Mecca. Otto also
collaborated to design Tuwaiq Palace in Riyadh [Fig. 3]. Both projects received Aga
Khan Award for Architecture in 1980 and 1998 [36]. Interestingly in retrospect to its
genealogy, there is a resurgence of tensile architecture in today’s fast-paced world
requiring mobility and small footprint. Lightweight and flexible tensile structures are
now sought after in constructions to cater to urban-nomad culture, as well as to other
ephemeral design needs [37].
Neither is mud an energy thrift material of the past. Since Fathy’s reinvention of
the mud brick architecture at New Gourna (1945–1949) in line with ‘no-cost’
user-centric sustainability, the potential for mud architecture is still evolving in the
Gulf and Mediterranean [38]. Far from being material and method of the past,
adobe and mud-brick construction remains a source to sheltering people in
resource-limited localities. Besides, its potential is equally harnessed in contem-
porary large-scale urban setting with a historic past. In this context, it emerges in its
Fig. 3 Left: A formal interaction between the mass ‘the wall’ and the textile ‘the tent’, resulting in
the final scheme of Tuwaiq Palace in Riyadh by Omrania and Associates in conjunction with Frei
Otto and Buro Happold. The fiberglass fabric coated with Teflon-white tent is supported by radial
cables attached to the spine of the building by fan-shaped steel masts. Photo credit:
WikiArquitectura. Right: Aluminium cladded conference centre structurally consisting of
tent-like roofs suspended from steel masts by Rolf Gutbrod & Frei Otto in Makkah. Photo
credit IAA1733 © Aga Khan Trust for Culture/Al-Hariri Mokhless (photographer)
core materiality or in enhanced hybridity with concrete and industrial materials, like
in the examples by Rasem Badran (projects in Iraq and Riyadh) and Rifat-Chadirji
[39, 40]. Architects are now reinventing the humble earth resource (that lies
beneath us) not only for contemporary time but also for Space bound extraterrestrial
future. It is instructive to mention Architect Nader Khalili’s two systems
(Superadobe and Ceramic Houses) that utilize thermal mass and earth as a sus-
tainable building material. The two systems suggest a process of building that can
be tuned to local climate and resources and even extraterrestrial settings of Lunar
and Space habitation [41]. As a way forward, Khalili inspired earthen eco-resort is
now successfully built as a prototype in southern Oman [42].
While Adobe and mud brick’s thermal mass and its energy-efficient property are
well addressed in vernacular precedents, as well as insinuated in pioneering future
constructions (as in Nadir’s works), earth’s potential materiality is yet to be
innovatively pursued in Gulf construction enterprises. Despite having its own
ecologic, a material with high thermal mass like mud brick and its utilization tend to
remain complementary to core constructions—restrained to only restoration pro-
jects. Samar Damluji’s ‘Daw’an Mud Brick Architecture Foundation’ underscores
that mud’s engagement with construction should crossover from conservation effort
to have its rightful place in the practice of suave design and construction tech-
niques. In line with this concern, Damluji per suavely argues, ‘Gulf needs to look
back to see the future’ [43].
3 Concluding Comments
Tectonic premises offer us options to avert attention from pastiches or aesthetics

and shift to details which are not merely subordinate elements in architecture, as
Italian architect Marco Frascari highlights ‘In the details are the possibilities of
innovation and invention…’ [44]. Buildings in the gulf were once constructed on
sound principles and by a sly combination of building materials and design details,
as much as by much discussed spatial planning and schemes. Extreme arid climate
and scarcity of resources were a springboard for innovations that helped reduce the
thermal gain from solar radiation, building temperature and enhanced air circulation
(when needed) across the quite varied vernacular architecture. This brief review
Chapter brings attention to underlying principles of sophisticated and prudent
tectonics in the Gulf which developed outside reverie of mere metaphors and
visuals—a regrettable trend in Gulf architecture that continues despite warning
from creative enterprises. Understanding methods and principles are important as
sustainable design drives grounded in energy-conscious measures are now opting
for novel ways of design thinking and practice in the Gulf. This need for rethinking
comes with the realization that many technological innovations that have spurred
volatile growth and stagy urban changes in the Gulf are unsustainable and have
created new eco-environmental challenges. Indeed due to hermetically sealing of
building with excessive glazing, and for air-conditioning, energy need has increased
alarmingly in the Gulf. Currently air-conditioning, cooling load accounts for
approximately 70% of energy use in buildings in UAE, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.
Needless to say, this huge energy load is neither ‘green’ nor ‘sustainable’ for
‘best-practice’ building precedents or for any claim for ‘liveable-city’ tag. Given
this recent awareness for a critical shift in architectural discourse and practice,
tectonics study can leave a few suggestions for appropriate energy thrift architecture
in the Gulf. However, first and foremost there is surely a need to shift away from
preconceptions—cognitive constraints—about materials and techniques in
the top-down planning and policies and in the users; this limitation restrains
innovation in the Gulf architecture. ‘However, the truth is, perhaps, that in Bahrain
the past is regretted, and the old stones are a cause of shame’, Yarwood muses
about the case of the Al Muharraq. This may also be the sentiment in other oil-rich
Gulf countries that thwarts use of sustainable materials such as earth and stone.
Yet future for tectonics is not bleak, as many built and conceptualized innovative
projects in the Gulf corroborate. The best-practice examples in the Gulf (past and
present) clearly suggest that it is difficult to reduce any discussion on Gulf archi-
tectural tectonics to an easy opposition between notions such as ‘tradition’ and
‘modern’. The very essence of ‘modernity of tradition’ as a principle, which is
quintessentially a historic, as demonstrated in the works of Frei Otto, Rasem
Badran, Rifat-Chadirji, Nader Khalili, Kamal el Kafrawi or Jean Nouvel, should
inform architectural discourse and practice to enable fruitful exchanges between
contemporary technology and traditional techniques across small–medium-to-large
building projects. This likely direction will allow fundamentals of local energy
savvy tectonics (that is all too quickly forsaken in the Gulf) to manifest in con-
temporary forms, recharged, repurposed, re-proposed for a forthcoming green
architectural paradigm.
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Advances in Wind Tunnel and CFD
Analysis for Building Design
in Hot–Humid Climates
Priyadarsini Rajagopalan
Abstract High humidity and high level of ambient temperature in hot–humid

climates cause thermal discomfort. Further to that, the absence of temperature
fluctuations between day and night reduces the efficiency of passive cooling
techniques. Ventilation and increased air movement has the potential to offset
thermal discomfort at high indoor temperatures without compromising the overall
acceptability of the environment. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis
and wind tunnel experiments have been applied recently for investigating the
ventilation performance in buildings and their effect in improving thermal comfort.
This chapter discusses passive ventilation studies in hot and humid climates with
focus on various approaches and advances in wind tunnel and CFD techniques. The
studies show that in addition to providing appropriate size and orientation for
windows and incorporation of design elements such as shades, voids and stacks, it
is important to control absorption of heat from the surrounding environment.

Keywords Natural ventilation Wind tunnel Computational fluid dynamics

Wind speed Thermal comfort
1 Introduction
Increasing use of air conditioning is putting enormous pressure on the infrastructure

in many countries. As incomes rise and populations grow, the use of air condi-
tioners is rising, especially in the world’s hotter regions. In many Southeast Asian
countries, due to high economic growth and rapid urbanization, there has been
significant increase in energy consumption in recent years [1] and majority of this
energy is consumed in cooling. The energy consumed by air conditioners and fans
constitute one-fifth of the total electricity consumption globally [2]. In tropical
P. Rajagopalan (&)
Sustainable Building Innovation Lab (SBi Lab), School of Property, Construction and Project
Management, RMIT University, Swanston Street City Campus, Melbourne, Australia
e-mail: priyadarsini.rajagopalan@rmit.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_7
152 P. Rajagopalan
climates, where high temperatures and high humidity intensify the usage of air
conditioners, this percentage is expected to be much higher. Very high indoor
temperatures cause excessive thermal discomfort and health problems in addition to
reducing the productivity and the well-being of the residents living inside [3]. Also,
cooling by mechanical means contribute to greenhouse gas emission which is very
problematic in hot climates.
Through supplying and removing air to and from an indoor space using natural
forces of wind and buoyancy, natural ventilation is a cost-effective strategy to
improve thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Natural techniques have very
substantial cooling potential that can contribute to decreasing the cooling demand
of buildings. However, the effectiveness passive cooling techniques depend on
climatic conditions; therefore, it may not be possible to achieve required indoor
comfort conditions through passive means under all climatic conditions. Also,
attention must be paid to ensure that the design of buildings minimizes heat
absorption from the surrounding environment.
This chapter discusses passive ventilation in hot and humid climates with focus
on various approaches and advances in wind tunnel and Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) technologies in the prediction of natural ventilation. Latest studies
on passive ventilation techniques for improving thermal comfort in hot and humid
climate are also discussed.
2 Natural Ventilation Potential in Hot–Humid Climates
Ventilation process is driven by air movement and can be mainly classified into
two: stack effect and wind-driven ventilation. Stack effect is caused by the differ-
ence in air density between indoor and outdoor, resulting from temperature dif-
ferences. When the temperature outside the building is lower than the temperature
inside, warm indoor air rises and exits the building openings; then the cooler and
denser air from below replaces the hot air. In hot and humid conditions, the dif-
ference between the indoor and outdoor temperature is low, therefore stack venti-
lation method is unable to create airflow to achieve satisfactory air changes rates.
Previous studies [4] reported that wind-driven ventilation provides 76% more
internal ventilation than stack driven ventilation. The absence of temperature
fluctuations between day and night, as well as, high levels of humidity reduce the
rate of heat transfer and restrain the use of natural ventilation as a prevalent strategy
for improving thermal comfort in tropical regions. Also, evaporative cooling
techniques will not work efficiently in the presence of high humidity.
As mentioned above, natural ventilation potential for buildings vary consider-
ably from one climate to other. In a study conducted using dynamic computer
simulations, Haase and Amato [5] analysed hourly weather data of various climates
with respect to thermal comfort in buildings. It was found that the improvement in
comfort vary between 9 and 41% in a tropical climate (Kuala Lumpur in April) and
between 3 and 14% for a subtropical climate. In a temperate climate, the
Advances in Wind Tunnel and CFD Analysis for Building Design … 153
improvements vary between 8 and 56%. From the results, it can be seen that natural
ventilation (NV) has a good potential in tropical and temperate climates but not in
subtropical climates, for example in Hong Kong. Chen et al. [6] estimated the NV
potentials of 1854 locations around the world by calculating the NV hour using
outdoor meteorological conditions and found that Southeast Asian regions (e.g.
Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) due to hot and humid weather throughout the year,
have the least natural ventilation potential. This analysis show that they do not
display any NV hours practically.
3 Methods for Assessing Natural Ventilation
There are four main approaches commonly employed for natural ventilation studies:
numerical methods, full scale or empirical method, wind tunnel experiment and
CFD simulations. Wind tunnels are often used to investigate wind-driven ventila-
tion due to its ability to produce wind at various speeds replicating external con-
ditions [7]. Wind tunnel experiments take relatively less time compared to field
measurements. The results respond to the building directly. As multiple variations
are concerned, it is easy to modify numerous factors to meet the required condi-
tions. Using scaled models in wind tunnel help to understand the impact of
neighbouring buildings on the airflow and optimize the positioning of the opening
with respect to wind. Such studies also facilitate the analyses of façade elements and
their behaviour with respect to wind. On the other hand, CFD simulations provide
information on the air flow related parameters without the need for closely con-
trolling experimental conditions as in full-scale experiments. The following sections
discuss the important considerations for wind tunnel and CFD studies.
3.1 Wind Tunnel Studies
The aim of the wind tunnel is to provide an upstream flow that is similar to the
full-scale condition. Wind tunnel can incorporate the effect of surrounding land-
scape into natural ventilation studies. This is particularly important in urban areas
where manmade topography tends to affect the flow parameters [8]. Wind tunnels
are large and expensive to construct and operate. There are two types of wind
tunnels namely open circuit and closed circuit that can be selected for study based
on the problems of blockage [9].
3.1.1 Geometry of Wind Tunnel
Various flow-conditioning devices such as vertical spires and roughness blocks

are used for simulating the atmospheric boundary layer in wind tunnels [9].
154 P. Rajagopalan
Velocity gradient and turbulence in the flow are generated by turbulators, which are
obstacles located along the entrance tunnel test section. Figure 1 shows the plan and
section of an open-circuit wind tunnel and various devices used to create the flow
similarities. As shown in Fig. 1, these devices include honeycomb layer flow dis-
persion (a), tall spire (b), floor mounted fences (c) and sufficient length of roughness
elements (d). Honeycomb screen serve as flow straightener elements and is installed
in front of the fans. Fence like trips and spires are used to increase the boundary
layer height before entering the main tunnel. Ground roughness and turbulence is
created by wooden blocks (see Fig. 2).
Ventilation studies using wind tunnel can be used for the determination of
pressure coefficient (Cp), ventilation rates, flow characteristics of openings and
internal air flow. The size of the model is less problematic for determining Cp, but
for evaluating ventilation rate, internal air flow is crucial, therefore model has to be
large enough. Some researchers have found that properties such as the discharge
coefficient of building openings can only be systematically investigated in a wind
tunnel [10, 11]. It is very important to have similar characteristics for both the
model and the real building, for accurate results. The design application of wind
tunnel test results relies on equality of Reynolds number (Reb) and similarity of
boundary conditions. It is almost impossible to achieve full-scale Reb in a wind
tunnel. However, the dependency of flow on Reynolds number relies on the tech-
niques used and the requirement could be less stringent in certain instances.
Wind tunnels are more suitable for investigating large buildings or ventilation
due to very large openings. Because of the high turbulence levels in the flow and
sharp edges on openings, the results should be independent of Reynolds number
a: flow dispersion using honeycomb layers

b: tall spires: floor mounted fences
d: roughness elements
Fig. 1 Open-circuit boundary layer wind tunnel
Fig. 2 A view of the wind tunnel
[9]. The size of the front area of the model should be less than 10 or 15% of the
cross-sectional area of the working section in order to minimize the effect of dis-
tortion of streamlines at the boundaries. This will require a scale factor of 100 or
more resulting in smaller dimension of the model [9].
3.1.2 Techniques for Wind Tunnel Measurement
Wind tunnel modelling is particularly useful in obtaining the pressure distribution

information needed to estimate ventilation due to wind effects. Pressure coefficient
Cp can be measured by connecting a differential pressure transducer to the pressure
tapping of a surface and a reference pressure with the use of tubing. Figure 3 shows
a setup of measuring pressure coefficients. The pressure at each pre-installed sensor
tap, corresponding to the ventilation opening on building envelope, is taken by the
Scanivalve and is converted to electrical signals by pressure transducer.
Fig. 3 Equipment setup for Cp measurement

156 P. Rajagopalan
Fig. 4 Anemometer setup for

air velocity measurement
Internal air motion is measured by point measurements and whole-field mea-

surements. Point measurement techniques make use of Constant Temperature
Anemometers (CTA) (see Fig. 4) and Laser Doppler Anemometers (LDA). Particle
Image Velocimetry (PIV) can provide flow mapping covering extended areas at the
same time. There are number of challenges for the application of the PIV technique
for building aerodynamics testing in large boundary layer wind tunnels [12].
Another technique is tracer gas technique which is quite complex when conducted
in wind tunnels and involve uncertainties related to tracer gas mixing. With tracer
gas technique, internal air motion is altered with the use of a mixing fan and this
could lead to inclusion of turbulent diffusion in the flow rate measured [13].
3.1.3 Setting the Wind Speed
The wind speed used for wind tunnel modelling is normally based on the data
obtained from field measurements and recordings from meteorological stations.
Normally, wind profile is represented as a power law to simulate the atmospheric
boundary layer. The wind profile power law is a relationship between the wind
speeds at one height, with respect to the speed at another height as expressed in the
equation below:
Power law:
a
U Z
¼
Uref Zref
where Uref is the wind speed at a reference height Zref and U is the wind speed (in
metres per second) at height z (in metres). The exponent a is a coefficient that
according to the stability of the atmosphere. a is approximately 1/7, or 0.143
For neutral stability conditions.
3.2 CFD Studies
Rapid increase in computer capacity and the development of user-friendly CFD

program interfaces have enabled widespread use of CFD models in predicting
ventilation performance. CFD models can quantitatively show very detailed
information about ventilation performance through solving the conservation
equations of mass, momentum and energy. The two commonly used approaches in
turbulence modelling are Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) and Large
Eddy Simulations (LES). Few studies also use Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS).
RANS modelling determines air velocity and temperature, time averaged, by using
turbulence. The most commonly used two equation models for most types of
engineering problems are the standard k − e model and standard k − x model. The
characteristics of cross-ventilation with open windows in buildings were analysed
through LES by many researchers. LES approach, through separating flow motions
into large eddies and small eddies, computes the large eddies in a three-dimensional
and time-dependent way and models the small eddies using a subgrid-scale model.
A number of studies investigating the suitability of various models for ventilations
studies were reported. As noted by Jiang and Chen [14], LES has been successfully
applied to several types of airflows in buildings. Some other studies noted that DNS
and LES models can predict turbulence better in comparison to RANS. Some other
studies showed that RANS can generally replicate the mean flows and predict the
ventilation rate quite well [15, 16]. However, in a study coupling urban wind flow
and indoor natural ventilation, van Hooff and Blocken [17] noted that steady RANS
model is unable to simulate the transient effects in urban airflow.
An additional advantage of the CFD approach is its ability to study contaminant
dispersion, which is sometimes difficult to capture with physical modelling because
of constraints regarding the measurement resolution and similarity [18]. In spite of
the ability of CFD methods to efficiently and accurately investigating indoor air
distribution in detail, practitioners who plan to use CFD for design purpose may
find it difficult and expensive to simulate the entire domain [7]. As the flow of wind
is highly complex due to the nature of turbulent flow fields experienced outdoor, it
is very important to have high quality experimental data that can be used for
validation of CFD techniques. It is to be stressed that all mathematical models
should be thoroughly validated against experimental data as the accuracy of their
predictions is very much dependent on the accuracy of the input data. Therefore,
decision makers should use modelling results cautiously, particularly in the absence
of relevant field measurements. Like wind tunnel studies, the mean effects of
various interactions are represented using power law that represents Atmospheric
Boundary Layer (see Sect. 3.1.3).
158 P. Rajagopalan
3.3 Choosing Appropriate Methods for Passive Ventilation

Studies
Even though full-scale measurements give the most realistic results, they are gen-
erally very expensive in terms of time and cost of equipment. The measuring
equipment needs frequent calibration. A review of methods for predicting venti-
lation performance conducted by Chen [19] noted that current trend seems to use
experimental models or field measurements to obtain data for validating CFD
models, and then predict ventilation performance or design ventilation systems with
the use of validated computer models.
One of the most serious problems is the need to obtain kinematic similarity as
equality of Reynolds number is difficult to satisfy. Atmospheric features such as
turbulence and wind speed must be correctly scaled to the dimension of the wind
tunnel. As the dimension of wind tunnel working section is limited (1.5 m high and
2.5 m wide), the scale factor needs to be high (generally greater than 100),
otherwise blockage effects will become significant [9]. For Cp determination, the
size of the model is not a big factor. Jiang and Chen [14] found that the pressure and
velocities data around a building collected from a wind tunnel experiment is sig-
nificantly different from the data acquired from corresponding full-scale onsite
measurement. Costola et al. [20] note that surface-averaged Cp (Cp−AV) is used in
approximately 8 out of 10 building energy simulations––Airflow network pro-
grams. These authors estimated the uncertainty in the calculated airflow rate due to
the use of surface-averaged Cp, for a wide range of building shapes and wind
angles. The results showed that the degree of the uncertainty is high, but the
usability of these data depends on the problem being analysed and the performance
indicator selected.
The advances in CFD modelling on high-speed digital computers have reduced
the demand for wind tunnel testing. Moreover, temperature prediction is difficult to
achieve in the wind tunnel. For examining cross-ventilation involving large
openings, it is important to simulate both indoor and outdoor domains. But for
small openings, only the indoor space needs to be simulated as pressure-driven
forces could be assumed [7]. The most appropriate method is to employ a hybrid
approach involving both CFD and wind tunnel methods. Lo and Novoslec [21] state
that facade pressures near an opening can be used as the interface between the wind
tunnel and CFD simulations. A hybrid approach introduced by Kato et al. [22] uses
wind tunnel to simulate the outdoor airflow and CFD to simulate indoor airflow in
the estimation of cross-ventilation, thereby eliminating the need for simulating
outdoor wind using CFD. However, for combining the wind tunnel results with the
CFD domain, it is crucial to ensure the interaction between the outdoor and indoor
space [7]. In view of that, van Hooff and Blocken [17] presented a coupled CFD
modelling approach for external wind flow and indoor natural ventilation on a
high-resolution grid eliminating the need for making any assumptions at the
interface between outdoor and indoor environment.
4 Ventilation Studies in Hot Humid Climates
There are limited studies published that use wind tunnel to investigate indoor
ventilation in hot and humid climates, some of them are reported in the tropical
Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and India; subtropical Hongkong and in Brazil. In
many developing and emerging countries, housing, particularly for low income
population do not allow for appropriate orientation and passive design strategies for
improving thermal comfort inside the rooms. in a study conducted in the city of
Campinas, Brazil, Labacki et al. [23] used wind tunnel to analyse the internal air
movement of self-built social houses and found that unplanned additions to the
house by owner occupants block recirculation, thus significantly impairing air
movement indoor.
The recent studies on passive ventilation in hot humid climates range from the
investigation of the potential of natural ventilation, particularly night ventilation
which is discussed in the next section. A few other studies developed novel
methodologies for evaluating comfort. For example, the Heat Balance Index
(HBI) developed by Castillo and Huelsz [24], gives the comfort air velocity range,
using which the well-ventilated percentage of an indoor space in hot climates can be
calculated for a specific climate condition. The proposed methodology can also be
used to evaluate the effect of a given strategy for natural ventilation. A correlation
between HBI and the Predicted Mean Value (PMV) was made for estimating the
comfort evaporation term. Stavrakakis et al. [25] proposed a novel computational
method to optimize window design for thermal comfort in naturally ventilated
buildings using the artificial neural network method. Few other studies investigated
the effect of various design features such as envelope materials and thermal mass,
voids, ventilation shaft and wind induced ventilation tower, and this will be dis-
cussed in Sect. 4.2. Some researchers adopted a macro level analysis and investi-
gated the influence of building forms and porosity on the airflow. As found in a
study conducted in Thailand [26], natural ventilation can be effective in the region
during the winter, from December to February in many hot humid regions.
4.1 Night Ventilation
Many studies have demonstrated that night ventilation is an appropriate strategy for
improving thermal comfort in hot humid climates. A study by Kubota et al. [1]
examined the performance of different ventilation strategies at Malaysian terraced
houses while another study by Jamaludin et al. [27] investigated night ventilation in
residential college building. Both studies indicate that when comparing with
full-day and daytime only ventilation, night ventilation is a more appropriate pas-
sive design strategy. Another study conducted in hot humid Auroville, India by
Landsman et al. [28] reported that night ventilation strategy has advantageous
impact on indoor comfort, but not enough to cool the space on its own. The comfort
160 P. Rajagopalan
limit was found to be above the upper limit of 80%, on the hottest days of the year,
but the operative temperature was within the comfort bounds for 88% of the year.
4.2 Design Features
4.2.1 Thermal Mass
Thermal mass of building envelope can be significant in maintaining a comfortable

indoor environment if an integrated design approach is adopted. Toe and Kubota
[29] investigated the indoor thermal environment in two vernacular dwellings with
different thermal mass in Malaysia. It was found that in the case of the Malay house
which has low thermal mass, the indoor air temperature closely follows the outdoor
air temperature without the presence of any time lag. On the other hand, in the
Chinese shop house, that has high thermal mass, peak indoor air temperatures
remain lower by up to 5 °C, compared to the respective outdoor temperature. Also,
a time lag was noted. Here, nocturnal ventilative and radiative cooling of high
thermal mass structures occurs through the introduction of small courtyards. In the
case of the traditional Malay houses, cool outdoor microclimate is maintained
thereby cooling the outdoor air that enter the lightweight house for
cross-ventilation.
4.2.2 Voids and Shafts
A number of CFD studies have investigated the effect of provision of voids and
shafts in multistorey buildings. Muhsin et al. [30] investigated the provision of the
void in the living units of affordable multistorey housing in Malaysia and recom-
mended appropriate configuration of void. This study showed that the indoor air
velocity in the living units of the studied building was not enough to achieve the
required rate for thermal comfort with the existing size of the void (7.5 m
(length) 2.7 m (width) 29.55 m (height)). Natural ventilation performance in
the living units is increased by up to 50.88% by enlarging its size to 50% of the
living units. In another study combining CFD with airflow network analysis using
standard climate data for Naha, Japan, Hirano et al. [31] explored the effects of
porous residential buildings with a void ratio of 50% on the natural ventilation
performance in hot and humid regions and found that voids enhance natural ven-
tilation performance as a result of which more than 20% reduction in cooling load is
achieved.
The use of solar chimney is not believed to be efficient in hot and humid
climates. In a recent study, Sudpraset et al. [32] investigated the effect of moist air
on the performance of a vertical solar chimney in comparison to a solar chimney
with dry air. It was found that for a solar chimney with moist air, the efficiency of
ventilated air flow was 15.4–26.2% less and the overall air temperature was higher.
To maximize ventilation and reduce backward flow at the opening, an aspect ratio
of 14:1 and a limited opening height are recommended for solar chimneys with
moist air. While voids and solar chimneys are passive systems, ventilation shafts
are considered as active system as they normally have an exhaust on the
top. Prajongsan and Sharples [33] investigated the performance of ventilation shaft
for a theoretical room in a 25-storey building in Bangkok using EnergyPlus and
CFD simulation and found that these shafts could potentially increase comfort
hours by 37.5–53.6%, saving 2700 kWh of electrical energy per residential unit.
Porosity is another physical feature explored to enhance natural ventilation.
Saadatjoo et al. [34] investigated the natural ventilation potential of a porous ter-
raced apartment in the hot and humid region in the south of Iran. The results
indicated that natural ventilation can be enhanced through the implementation of
permeability in the form of terraces. Also, the mean wind velocity inside the room,
near the window and on the openings can be significantly enhanced by increasing
terrace depth by 0.9–1.2 m.
Wind towers, also known as wind catchers are not very commonly found in hot
and humid regions therefore their studies in this climate are very limited. A study
conducted by Haw et al. [35] in Malaysia revealed that at external wind velocity of
0.1 m/s, the venturi shaped wind tower can produce high air changes per hour
(ACH) for indoor environment, resulting in an extraction flow rate of 10,000 m3/h
and average of 57 ACH.
4.2.3 Façade Design
Many studies have focused on the design of façade particularly effect of size,
orientation and positioning of windows and shading design. In a study conducted in
Singapore using coupled simulations between building simulation ESP-r and CFD,
Wang and Wong [36] reported that east- and west-facing facades are not able to
provide as comfortable indoor environment in comparison to north- and
south-facing facades. For further improvement of thermal comfort conditions, the
authors recommended optimum window-to-wall ratio of 0.24 and horizontal
shading devices of 600 mm for each orientation. Gao and Lee [37] in a study of
typical residential units in Hongkong evaluated the influence of windows positions,
doors positions, building orientations, and wind conditions on natural ventilation
performance. It was found that by locating bedroom windows and living room
windows in opposite directions or in perpendicular to each other, better natural
ventilation performance can be achieved. Natural ventilation performance was
found to be most sensitive to change of windows positions, followed by building
orientation and doors positions. Varying two parameters (windows positions and
building orientation) were more beneficial in comparison to varying three param-
eters, as changing door positions had a counter effect on the airflow. In a study on
Golconde dormitories in Pondicherry, warm–humid India, it was found that buffer
zones in the form of corridors helped to induce continuous air movement within the
162 P. Rajagopalan
corridor and helped in reducing the air temperature inside the rooms even during
peak summer [38].
Though cross-ventilation is highly desirable for optimizing airflow, it is to be
noted that a design that has a number of openings for maximizing cross-ventilation
is not appropriate for air conditioning in the warm–humid climate. Therefore, it is
highly desirable to develop design solutions that allow natural ventilation and air
conditioning in hybrid mode for the building envelope.
4.2.4 Roof Design
Passive ventilation through window and door openings is commonly observed in

most modern building designs in hot and humid regions. However, roof design is an
important consideration for improving thermal comfort in such climatic conditions
as roof is one of the most exposed features to wind. Hot air can be trapped in the
roof cavity causing heat to radiate through the ceiling and increase indoor tem-
peratures. In the study conducted in Golconde dormitories, Pondicherry, warm–
humid India, Pingel et al. [38] found that ventilated double roof consisting of a
reinforced cement concrete slab covered with precast concrete shell and a ventilated
air gap in between allows a reduction by 18 °C between the outside and inside
surface temperature.
5 Conclusion
Natural ventilation is dynamic due to change of wind speed and direction with time
and obstruction due to surrounding buildings. CFD studies have become more and
more popular in predicting ventilation performance because of rapid improvement
in computer performance and the development of user-friendly CFD program
interfaces. However, wind tunnel and CFD studies focusing on hot and humid
regions are limited when compared to similar studies in other climates. Due to high
humidity levels and low temperature difference between day and night, the use of
natural ventilation as a prevalent strategy in hot and humid regions is limited. To
produce effective natural ventilation, focus should be on wind induced ventilation
method through appropriate positioning and orientation of buildings, providing
optimum window-to-wall ratio and shading and also incorporating voids or stacks.
To achieve maximum efficiency, heat absorption from the surrounding environment
should be limited through building design and construction.
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Utilization of Natural Ventilation
for Hot and Humid Singapore
Nyuk Hien Wong, Erna Tan and Ayu Sukma Adelia
Abstract Natural ventilation plays a vital role in improving indoor thermal com-
fort and air quality as well as reducing the buildings’ cooling energy consumptions
in hot humid Singapore. In Singapore, most residential buildings and schools are
designed to be naturally ventilated in order to promote sustainable design and
development. This book chapter will discuss some of the key findings of research
studies done in Singapore to understand the performance of naturally ventilated
buildings in Singapore as well as the development of guidelines for the design and
performance evaluation of naturally ventilated buildings. The content will include
the importance of natural ventilation for hot humid Singapore, Singapore’s climate
condition, and design principles for naturally ventilation, the development of
guidelines or rating tool for the assessment of naturally ventilated spaces by our
construction authority, and the development of thermal comfort criteria for the
assessment of thermal comfort for naturally ventilated spaces. Cases will be utilized
to illustrate the successful implementation of natural ventilation in Singapore.

Keywords Natural ventilation Thermal comfort Hot and humid tropics

Sustainable design Guidelines
1 Climatic Condition in Singapore
Singapore is located on the 1.5° North latitude and 104° East Longitude. Based on
the latitude and longitude, Singapore is in the tropical zone. The diurnal temper-
ature ranges from the minimum of 23–25 °C during the night to the maximum of
N. H. Wong (&) E. Tan

Department of Building, School of Design and Environment,
National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: bdgwnh@nus.edu.sg
A. S. Adelia
Department of Architecture, School of Design and Environment,
National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_8
166 N. H. Wong et al.
Fig. 1 Wind rose (adopted

from [1])
31–33 °C during the day. The average monthly temperature is about 27.8 °C in
May and June and about 26 °C in December and January. Solar radiation is high,
but with diffused sky due to large cloud coverage. Relative humidity is fairly
uniform throughout the year with an average annual of around 84% and a range of
60–90%.
Singapore has two monsoon seasons, i.e., the Northeast Monsoon when wind
directions are mainly from northerly to northeasterly and occur from December to
early March, and the Southwest Monsoon when wind directions are from southerly
to southeasterly and occurs from June to September [1]. Figure 1 shows the
magnitude and the frequency of prevailing wind speed in Singapore.
2 Importance of Natural Ventilation
Singapore is an island city-state where 5.6 million of population live and work on a
landmass of 719.9 km2 [2], becoming the third densest country in the world [3]. In
the past, buildings were designed more according to tropical architecture style
which uses natural ventilation. Newer buildings are designed with a modern style
adopted from temperate climate which uses glazing as building skin and the air
conditioning system to regulate the indoor climate.
With the increase in population and the scarcity of land, modern development
becomes closer and denser. With the increase in living standards and wealth, the air
conditioning system is used longer and more frequently.
Utilization of Natural Ventilation for Hot and Humid Singapore 167
The issue is that the air conditioning system consumes high energy. Typically,
for a commercial building in the tropics, the air conditioning system alone con-
sumes more than 50% of the building’s total energy consumption. On the other
hand, the heat removed from buildings through the air conditioning system is
usually thrown back into the surrounding environment, and this further worsens the
urban air temperature in the dense urban canyon. The increasing urban air tem-
perature makes the air conditioning system works harder to remove heat from the
building and thus consumes even more energy. This cycle worsens climate change.
Study on buildings with air conditioning systems has concluded that sick
building syndrome (SBS) occurred more often in buildings with traditional
mechanical ventilation systems than in those with natural ventilation. Building
users also accepted natural ventilation well because it allowed for personal control
[4]. A comparison study in bedrooms with and without air conditioning systems
found that the carbon dioxide levels in air conditioned bedrooms are consistently
higher than those utilizing natural ventilation [5]. In addition, naturally ventilated
buildings have higher satisfaction rates than mechanically vented buildings [6].
Natural ventilation also increases ventilation rates which can improve productivity,
reduce salary costs, and sick leave [7].
For the above reasons, natural ventilation is deemed important. Natural venti-
lation is air movement through openings in the building fabric [8, 9]. Natural
ventilation removes heat as well as provides fresh air to ensure good indoor air
quality. On the other hand, air movement can improve thermal comfort perception
through evaporation, and tolerance for slightly higher air temperatures [10].
Naturally, ventilated buildings can also reduce cooling energy consumption
significantly. Depending on building type and climate, annual savings of total
cooling energy consumption from 10 to 30% are possible. Utilizing natural ven-
tilation is also cost-effective compared to the capital, maintenance, and operational
costs of mechanical systems [5].
3 Design Principles of Natural Ventilation
Utilizing the prevailing wind conditions around the building is critical to provide
natural ventilation in the building. The wind speed and direction inside the building
are affected by the natural driving forces and the resistance of the flow path [11]. In
the urban context, the roughness or smoothness affects the velocity and direction of
the wind. The resistance is affected by the building’s orientation, height, shape, and
indoor space layout as well as the pressure [10].
In the urban context, the overall permeability of the area with good airflow
connections is important. Open spaces should be linked by flow paths, and road
junctions can be linked with open plazas. Building blocks should be arranged
staggered to each other so that the prevailing wind can be channeled onto the
facades. To have good ventilation, the orientation of the building can be either
perpendicular or at an oblique angle to the prevailing wind direction. Landscaping
such as tree planting can also divert the wind direction. If there is a cluster of
building blocks together, the buildings should be arranged as ascending heights
Fig. 2 Building blocks’ configurations (adopted from [12])
toward the direction of the prevailing wind. The height of the blocks can be varied to
create downwash wind to reach the street level. Tall buildings should be as per-
meable as possible. Sky gardens in the middle height of the block and void deck at
the ground level can channel the airflow to the buildings at the back row. Step back
the building enclosure at the ground floor to create space for the covered walkway
and provide shade and shelter during rain. Figure 2 illustrates how the configurations
of buildings can affect and utilize the air movement for natural ventilation.
At the building scale, natural ventilation depends on the air movement through
the building to equalize pressure. Wind and buoyancy effect can cause pressure
difference that induces air movement. The amount of ventilation depends on the
size and placement of openings in the building. The pressure difference and
resistance determine the ventilation rate [10].
3.1 Wind-Driven Ventilation
Air flows from higher pressure to lower pressure. Building facades facing the wind
have positive pressures; leeward facades and those parallel to the wind direction
have negative pressures (suction) [11].
The difference in air pressures across the building facades causes wind-driven
ventilation. The flow path tends to be horizontal, so this type of air movement can
be improved with openings on both windward and leeward sides of the building.
The diagram in Fig. 3 shows the wind-driven ventilation principle.
Fig. 3 Diagram of
wind-driven ventilation
principle
Fig. 4 Diagram of
single-sided ventilation
principle
The pressure difference on a building façade is affected by the terrain sur-

rounding the building, the incoming wind speed and direction, as well as the
building shape. The inlet should be at an angle to the incoming wind direction so
that the air flows to different directions and covers more area. Unequal inlet and
outlet sizes can also induce higher air velocities.
There are two types of wind-driven ventilation, i.e., single-sided ventilation
which depends on opening(s) on one side of the space, and double ventilation
openings. In single ventilation, the ventilation is driven by wind turbulence. The
ventilation rates are lower, and the effective depth of air penetration is about 2 times
the floor-to-ceiling height. The ventilation rate can be enhanced by stack effect
through double ventilation openings at different heights within the same façade, and
further enhanced by considering wind pressures. This increases the depth to about
2.5 times the floor-to-ceiling height [11]. The diagram of how air flows in and out
from the same opening in the single-sided ventilation room is shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 5 illustrates the cross-ventilation principle. Cross-ventilation flows from
the opening on one side of the building to the other opening on the other side of the
building. In order to be effective, the building depth is up to 5 times the
floor-to-ceiling height. Buildings tend to have a narrow plan depth which can be
achieved with linear plan form or open courtyard. This setting also encourages the
use of natural lighting [11].
The key in designing good cross-ventilation is to ensure significant wind pres-
sure coefficient difference between the inlet and outlet openings. Resistance to
Fig. 5 Diagram of
cross-ventilation principle
airflow such as the closure of the opening or restriction by internal partition should
be avoided [11].
3.2 Density Difference Ventilation
Density difference ventilation is based on the buoyancy effect, where warm air rises.
Rising hot air leaves negative pressure and hence, induces cooler air to flow in to
replace the hot air.
When it is warmer inside the building, the warm air in the building rises upward
and flows out through outlet at a higher level. This induces cooler outdoor air to
flow into the building through the openings at the lower level. Hence, density
difference ventilation is also called stack ventilation. This principle is illustrated in
Fig. 6.
The performance of stack ventilation depends on the temperature difference and
the height between the opening and the neutral pressure levels (inlet and outlet).
Stack ventilation performance can be improved with wind-induced negative pres-
sure outlet or maximum width of 5 times the floor-to-ceiling height from the inlet to
the outlet [11].
When the stack effect goes through a vertical passage, it is called chimney
ventilation. This can be achieved by heating the chimney surface using solar
radiation. The heated surface releases the heat into the air in the chimney to promote
buoyancy [11].
Another type of chimney ventilation is an atrium. Air flows into the building
from various openings at the bottom toward the atrium and goes up to the outlet. To
be effective, the distance from the building perimeter follows the cross-ventilation
principles [11].
Fig. 6 Diagram of stack

ventilation principle
4 Designing Naturally Ventilated Buildings in Singapore
The indoor climate of naturally ventilated buildings relies on the outdoor envi-
ronment condition. Air temperature, wind speed, mean radiant temperature, and
relative humidity affect the thermal comfort. Noise from traffic and other sur-
rounding activities travels into the building and affects the acoustical comfort.
Types of gas and amount of particulates in the incoming air affect the indoor air
quality. This chapter discusses more on the thermal aspect.
The high relative humidity in tropical climate may cause thermal discomfort
because of the difficulty to sweat particularly when there is lack of air movement
[12], but studies in Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, and Japan found that the effect
of humidity on the thermal sensations was very small to negligible, suggesting that
the respondents are used to the humidity level in each of the countries where the
surveys were performed [13]. Other study found a strong relationship between wind
sensation and thermal comfort perception which suggests higher air movement is
preferred to improve the thermal comfort of the residents [14].
The natural challenge of utilizing natural ventilation in Singapore is that the
average surface wind speed is less than 2.5 m/s. This low wind speed condition
makes it important to arrange the layout of the building blocks so that the reduction
of wind speed due to blocking can be minimized and the increase of wind speed due
to channeling effect can be optimized.
In the building itself, the low prevailing wind speed condition translates to low
indoor wind speed. Fans are often used to improve the condition. The commonly
used types of fans are wall-mounted fans and ceiling-mounted fans. There is also a
trend of using Big Ass Fans in larger space such as food center, train platform,
multipurpose hall, etc. Figure 7 shows a Big Ass Fan installed in a food center.
Fig. 7 Fans are used to

improve air movement (photo
by E. Tan)
In Singapore, natural ventilation is utilized in residential buildings, schools,

hawker centers, sports halls, atriums, subsidized wards of healthcare facilities, and
industrial buildings. Natural ventilation is generally not utilized in high-rise com-
mercial buildings due to the higher wind speed at a further distance from the
ground.
In residential buildings, the ground level is designed as open (void deck) which
is usually used for communal activities. The void deck allows wind that is chan-
neled down the building block to penetrate through and at the same time, providing
the airflow into the lower levels of the building. Figure 8 shows the void deck of
residential buildings. Some taller buildings are designed with sky garden in the
middle of the height to channel the wind to the back of the building block. Some
buildings with balcony are designed with a movable and permeable screen as
shading and privacy, but at the same time, letting air flows through, as shown in
Fig. 9.
A study in naturally ventilated residential buildings in Singapore found that
bedrooms are the least ventilated portions as there is no cross-ventilation with
single-sided windows. Opening the bedroom doors improves the air circulation and
distribution within the room [5]. The ventilation can be improved by having louvers
on or above the bedrooms’ doors, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
Fig. 8 The opening at the

ground level (void deck) for
air to flow through (photo by
E. Tan)
Fig. 9 Balcony with screen (photos by E. Tan)
Fig. 10 Louvered doors and windows

Fig. 11 School’s courtyard

(photo by O. Gabriela)
School buildings are generally low rise. They are often designed as a single
corridor with courtyard, as shown in Fig. 11. This design allows cross-ventilation.
Inside the classrooms, ceiling-mounted fans are usually used to improve the air
movement, as shown in Fig. 12.
Hawker centers are naturally ventilated cooked food centers. Food stalls where
food is cooked can be grouped in the middle of the building, while the seating is
spread at the perimeter, or the food stalls can be spread surrounded by the seating.
The one- or two-storey buildings are designed as open to allow incoming airflow.
The ideal design would be to combine stack ventilation and cross-ventilation. High
ceiling with openings at the roof can help the heat out. This concept is illustrated in
Fig. 13.
Study of thermal comfort in a naturally ventilated hawker center found that poor
natural ventilation leads to poor thermal comfort condition. From the various
variations studied, the most effective variation to improve the cross-ventilation is
Fig. 12 Typical classroom

(photo by O. Gabriela)
Fig. 13 Configuration of
ideal openings for hawker
center
increasing the roof height, followed by increasing the width of the circulation area
in the middle of the building [15].
More recent thermal comfort study in several naturally ventilated retail food
establishments found that heat can be easily built up as shown in the high measured
indoor air temperature [16]. The wind speed required to achieve acceptable thermal
comfort level is not high because of the lower expectation of users and the function
of the eating place as transient space.
Figure 14 shows the high ceiling with openings that can help to channel out hot
air from the sitting area in the hawker center through stack ventilation principle.
The sides of the sitting area are designed as open to allow cooler air to flow in.
The solar chimney was installed in Singapore’s first Zero Energy Building in
Building and Construction Authority (BCA) Academy. The building was a retro-
fitted three-storey building. It is made of metal and installed on the east and west
facade to capture the solar heat. It was connected to classrooms on level one and
level two, and to a hall on level three. As shown in Fig. 15, the solar chimney used
a combination of solar-assisted stack and wind-driven ventilation. Air in the solar
chimney is heated by the solar irradiance and rises out from the chimney outlets.
Cooler air is drawn into the connected building through the windows. The study
finds that the prevailing wind improves the airspeed within the solar chimney, but
the significance of the prevailing wind drops when solar irradiance is high. It is
concluded that under high solar irradiance and low ambient airspeed,
cross-ventilation performs better compared to solar chimney ventilation [17].
Atrium stack ventilation can be adopted in a high-rise building with atrium
connected to open plaza at the ground level. Several other atriums in educational
institutions and commercial buildings adopt both cross- and stack ventilations.
Instead of closed and fully air conditioned, these atriums are designed such as big
canopy placed on top of the open space between the building blocks. The openness
at the ground level serves as the inlet, while the opening beneath the roof serves as
the outlet. Figure 16 shows the principle of atrium stack ventilation, while Fig. 17
shows the atrium designed to have both cross- and stack ventilations.
Fig. 14 Typical hawker center (photo by E. Tan)
Fig. 15 Solar chimney in ZEB

Fig. 16 Atrium stack ventilation (photo by E. Tan)
Fig. 17 Atrium ventilation (photo by Teo Y. B.)
Some recently built shopping malls use natural ventilation for the common
space. With strategized openings at each level as well as opening under the roof, air
can move freely to remove heat from the space. Figure 18 shows the naturally
ventilated atrium in one of the shopping malls in Singapore.
Study of thermal comfort in naturally ventilated atriums found that the required
wind speed to achieve the same thermal comfort level is higher than other types of
Fig. 18 Naturally ventilated

atrium of a shopping mall
(photo by A. S. Adelia)
building. This is to facilitate the usage of the atriums for event with high volume of
visitors [18].
In healthcare facilities, subsidized wards are naturally ventilated. Windows are
designed with glass louvers for safety, as shown in Fig. 19. In one of the hospitals,
vertical fins are designed to scoop wind to flow through the windows into the
wards.
The other challenge of utilizing natural ventilation is the wind-driven rain
penetration. Gust wind that accompanies light rain (smaller droplet size) will cause
rain penetration. The bigger the opening for natural ventilation, the higher the risk
of wind-driven rain penetration. One of the strategies to mitigate this issue is to use
monsoon windows. Monsoon windows are horizontal openings that let in the
breeze but not the rain. They allow unimpeded airflow into the building even if the
other windows are closed. Figure 20 shows the concept of monsoon windows. In
Moulmein Rise residential building, the monsoon windows take the form of sliding
aluminum panels incorporated into the bay windows [19].
Another strategy to improve ventilation is to use ventilation holes which can be
created by using precast ventilation bricks. The size of the ventilation holes can be
designed according to the needs of the space, i.e., big or small enough to keep
privacy or security and minimize wind-driven rain penetration. Some examples of
ventilation holes are shown in Fig. 21.
Fig. 19 Glass louvers (photo

by E. Tan)
Fig. 20 Monsoon windows
To summarize the design strategies in a building to promote cross-ventilation,

openings on opposing sides are required. The openings should be at a different
height so that airflow can cover a wider volume of the room and flow across
Fig. 21 Ventilation holes (photos by Teo Y. B. and E. Tan)
occupancy height. The interior air velocity can be increased if the outlet is larger
than the inlet. The orientation of windows should face or at an oblique angle from
the prevailing wind direction. The high ceiling can help the buoyancy effect.
Narrow slab-like building naturally has better cross-ventilation than compact cube
shape ones.
Additional strategies for tropical buildings include the use of shading on the
openings, lightweight material, and light color envelope for the wall to minimize
the solar heat gain as well as greenery to cool down the surrounding air
temperature.
5 Indoor Thermal Comfort Studies in Singapore
Thermal comfort is the satisfaction perception of mind about the thermal envi-
ronment [20]. Besides the environment factors such as temperature, wind speed,
relative humidity, and mean radiant temperature, individual thermal perception is
affected by the control level to adjust the thermal environment such as opening the
windows, turning on fans, changing clothes, resting, or even consuming hot or cold
food, the acclimatization or adaptation level of the body to the thermal condition, as
well as the expectation from the environment. Therefore, thermal comfort predic-
tion model varies for different places regardless of distinct different thermal
conditions.
Throughout the years, many studies in Singapore have been conducted to
understand the indoor thermal comfort in various types of naturally ventilated
buildings such as residential, schools, industrial buildings, atriums, healthcare
facilities, sport halls, and hawker centers. Thermal perceptions of occupants were
collected through a survey and analyzed statistically to develop the thermal comfort
prediction models. The perceptions of thermal sensation and thermal comfort are
also evaluated. It is found that most of the time, the acceptability level for thermal
comfort is higher than that for thermal sensation. This shows that although the
occupants feel warm, they still feel comfortable because they are adapted to this
thermal condition.
As shown in Eq. 1, from all the building types, the two key environmental
parameters affecting the thermal comfort found through the statistical analysis are
air temperature and wind speed. As discussed previously, relative humidity does not
affect the thermal comfort because the occupants are acclimatized to this condition.
Radiant heat seems not to affect the thermal comfort either because in most places,
occupants can avoid direct exposure to solar radiation by providing shading such as
closing the windows or putting down the blinds or moving away if means of
shading is not available.
Although the thermal comfort of all the building types is affected by air tem-
perature and wind speed, the influence level of each parameter is different for each
building type. This reflects the different thermal environment conditions as well as
the expectation of the occupants in each type of building.
Equation 1. The thermal comfort prediction model
PMV ¼ a þ b DBT þ c WIND
PMV is predicted mean vote, i.e., the thermal comfort level perceived by the
occupants. PMV with vote 1 is the condition which occupants feel warm but still
acceptable. DBT is an indoor air temperature (°C), and WIND is indoor wind speed
(m/s). The baseline of DBT is derived from the measured indoor environment’s
thermal condition during the survey. The coefficients of various building types for
the thermal comfort prediction model are shown in Table 1.
In residential buildings, studies found that more than 80% of the occupants are
thermally satisfied. This could be due to the level of freedom to adjust the thermal
environment at home for the occupants to feel thermally comfortable [14]. The
thermal comfort prediction model also found that residential buildings are generally
thermally acceptable when there is no air movement.
Table 1 Coefficients of various building types for the thermal comfort prediction model [25]
Building type Value Value Value Baseline of Wind speed requirement (m/
of a of b of c DBT (°C) s) for PMV 1
Residential −5.436 0.205 −0.297 32 0.4
buildings
Industrial −4.974 0.202 −0.181 30 0.6
buildings
Healthcare −8.405 0.322 −0.686 30 0.4
facilities
Atriums −9.252 0.343 −0.747 31 0.51
Hawker −13.075 0.443 −0.460 32 0.22
centers
Sport facilities −9.945 0.379 −1.658 30 0.26
Schools −6.805 0.267 −0.87 31 0.54
In industrial buildings, the required wind speed to achieve PMV 1 is higher than
other types of the building because of the indoor air quality consideration to remove
contaminants in the air and the metabolic rate of industrial workers [21].
In healthcare facilities, the study was conducted for healthcare workers. They
were moving around the wards while working with the patients. The required wind
speed is the middle range compared to other building types.
In atriums, the baseline of DBT and the required wind speed is high compared to
other buildings in order to facilitate the usage of the atrium for the event with high
volume of visitors [18].
More recent thermal comfort study in several naturally ventilated hawker centers
found that heat can be easily built up as shown in the high measured indoor air
temperature [16]. The required wind speed in hawker centers is not high because
hawker centers are transient space where people do not spend a long time in it.
Visitors also have a lower expectation of thermal comfort.
In sports facilities, the required wind speed is low due to the low expectation of
thermal comfort. Users expect to exercise which will warm up the body. High wind
speed may also disrupt certain types of sport carried out in the sports facilities.
In schools, classrooms are designed with windows on both sides. A study
showed that when the windows are facing east and west, the thermal comfort near
the windows is not acceptable due to the incoming radiant heat. Shading devices are
advised to be installed to minimize this radiant heat [22]. On the other hand, due to
long hour sitting in the classrooms and the less flexibility to move around, students
have higher expectation of the thermal comfort and therefore, the required wind
speed is the third highest from all building types.
In a comparison, the study of thermal comfort prediction model for residential
building developed recently and a decade ago, the occupants now seem to be able to
tolerate warmer condition. This shows that the human body is adaptable to the
environment. The use of natural ventilation coupled with fans in buildings should
be encouraged to build the resilience of people to climate change.
6 Guideline or Rating Tool to Assess Naturally Ventilated

Buildings in Singapore
Building and Construction Authority (BCA) Green Mark Scheme was launched in
2005 and updated periodically as an assessment tool for all buildings. Buildings are
given certain ratings based on the level of achievement. Prior to 2015, in order to
achieve the highest rating, non-air conditioned buildings are required to use ven-
tilation simulation modeling and analysis to show that the space has good natural
ventilation with weighted average wind velocity of minimum 0.6 m/s [23].
Since 2016, latest schemes for both residential and nonresidential buildings
assess the indoor air movement as well as thermal comfort and wind-driven rain
associated with natural ventilation. Technical guide to conduct ventilation
simulation is provided. Thermal comfort prediction models for industrial buildings

and healthcare facilities are listed. Air quality modeling can be assessed for
industrial buildings to make sure of good air change rate [24, 25].
BCA also encourages the use of energy-efficient mechanical ventilation system
as the preferred ventilation mode to reduce the use of air conditioning in existing
nonresidential buildings [26]. There is no guide for natural ventilation in office
buildings, restaurants, supermarkets, data centers, retail, and laboratories yet as
these types of the building require more stringent indoor environment.
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ENRB_2017_simplified_criteria.pdf. Accessed 21 June 2018
Energy-Efficient and Renewable
Energy-Supported Buildings in Hot
and Humid Regions
Napoleon Enteria and Hiroshi Yoshino
Abstract Appropriately designing buildings in hot and humid climates is chal-

lenging when environmental factors and the needs of the building’s occupants are
considered thoroughly. Because of the serious issue of climate change, coupled
with a scarcity of conventional energy sources and a high demand for better indoor
environments, advancements in the design of buildings so that they are environ-
mentally friendly and occupant-friendly houses are indispensable. The application
of new building technologies intended for tropical climates is especially needed.
Outdoor environmental considerations of available on-site and off-site renewable
energy sources must be taken into account when designing buildings. An evaluation
of comfortable and healthy indoor environments is also important factors. The
optimized utilization of available energy sources is necessary for hybrid building
operation. Increasing the energy efficiency of buildings makes operating the
building significantly cheaper by lowering the energy consumption which could be
sourced on-site. When a building is designed to take advantage of alternative
energy sources, the building is energy independent from grid-connected electricity
and, thus, is not prone to power failure. Such a building can rely on different energy
sources to make the building work as an energy generator. Having energy-efficient
and renewable energy-supported building in hot and humid climates reduces the
conventional energy consumption of the area in which these buildings are located.
It also lowers the energy required from the grid line, thus minimizing grid line
stress. From this, greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute significantly to cli-
mate change, can be minimized.
Keywords Building technologies Renewable energy Efficient building

Comfortable buildings
N. Enteria (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, College of Engineering
and Technology, Mindanao State University—Iligan Institute of Technology,
Tibanga, 9200 Iligan, Philippines
H. Yoshino
Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_9
186 N. Enteria and H. Yoshino
1 Introduction
The control of indoor thermal environments and air quality requires

energy-intensive operations [1, 2]. In hot and humid regions, it is crucial that both
air temperature and humidity are maintained at comfortable levels [3, 4]. The
provision of the air quality requirement of an indoor environment by introducing
outdoor air makes results in the widespread operation of energy-intensive air
conditioning and ventilation systems [5].
Designing an energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported building in hot
and humid climate is difficult [6]. Controlling the air moisture alone is an
energy-intensive operation [7]. Moreover, as the outdoor air temperature is almost
always above a comfortable level, reducing the air temperature inside a house
requires an almost constant use of an air conditioning system [7]. Figure 1 shows
the sample outdoor air temperature and humidity typical of the hot and humid
region of Southeast Asia. As solar radiation is very high, particularly on sunny
days, heat gained from solar energy is another problem that needs to be tackled [8,
9]. Moreover, the application of different alternative energy sources is a challenge
due to their scarcity both on-site and off-site [10].
Several works examined the development of passive, energy-efficient, and
renewable energy-supported buildings in different climates [11–14]. In temperate
climates, aggressive efforts have been made to develop and improve
energy-efficient buildings [15]. In hot and dry climates, efforts have also focused on
the development of energy-efficient buildings [16]. Additional research has
attempted to promote alternative energy-supported buildings [10, 17]. Hence, the
development of energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported buildings has the
potential to be very useful under various climatic conditions [10, 18, 19]. Research
has also dealt with the development of passive buildings [14, 20].
0.0250 40 1.00
h = 90 kJ/kg
0.0225
Humidity Ratio [kg/kg]
0.0200
Sensible Heat Ratio [-]
Specific Energy [kJ/kg]
h = 70 kJ/kg 30 0.75
0.0175
0.0150
h = 50 kJ/kg 20 0.50
0.0125
0.0100
h = 30 kJ/kg
0.0075 10 0.25
0.0050
0.0025 0 0.00
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0.0000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Local Time [Hour]
Air Temperature [°C] Air Latent Specfic Energy Air Total Specific Energy SHR
Fig. 1 Sample outdoor air conditions in the tropical Southeast Asian region
Energy-Efficient and Renewable Energy-Supported Buildings … 187
This chapter presents the concepts, designs, and technologies that could be used
in and adapted for energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported buildings to be
constructed in hot and humid regions. Designing energy-efficient and alternative
energy-supported buildings in tropical regions is particularly challenging due to this
region’s outdoor environmental conditions [6, 10, 21, 22]. Houses in this region
need to continue providing their occupants with comfortable interior temperatures
while consuming less energy than they are at present. This chapter presents the
results of several pieces of research that have investigated the development of
energy-efficient buildings in different climatic conditions.
2 Physical Designs
2.1 Design Considerations
The primary goal of designing an energy-efficient building is to ensure that the

intended occupants will use the building appropriately since they are the one using
the energy [23–25]. Therefore, occupants needs and lifestyles should be considered
when designing a building and considering measures of energy conservation [23,
26, 27]. Detailing the building according to its occupants makes the usage of the
building efficient, ergonomic, comfortable, productive, and safe [28–30].
Furthermore, designing a building based on input from its occupants while
considering its energy efficiency is also crucial in terms of capital and maintenance
costs [31]. Perks and support from government related to the construction of
energy-efficient buildings can encourage building owners to construct such build-
ings [32–34]. However, there are building design adjustments that can be made
prior to construction that could benefit the building’s occupants, owner, and reg-
ulators. Such adjustments also require consideration [35–37].
2.2 Exterior Considerations
The comfort of a building’s occupants is greatly affected by the outside environ-

ment (noise, wind, sunlight, the neighborhood, etc.) [38, 39]. The consideration of
the outside environment in the design of a building crucial when making decisions
about the details of the building (e.g., rooms, windows, doors, etc.) [16, 22].
Considering the external environment when determining the placement of different
parts of the building can make the building more efficient and effective once it has
been built [22].
Because the external environment is expected to change due to developments

and redevelopments and climate fluctuations, correctly forecasting ways in which a
building can handle future situations is an essential aspect of designing a building
[40]. With good forecasting and foresight, the design of a building will accurately
predict possible changes in the neighborhood that might affect the day-to-day
operation of the building, which, in turn, might affect the energy consumption and
comfortability of the occupants [1, 41].
2.3 Interior Considerations
Decisions about different parts of a building should be made derived from the
owner’s and occupants’ input along with information about the external environ-
ment [42, 43]. Once aspects of the key parts of a building have been decided,
decisions about other parts of the building can then be made to maximize com-
fortability, accessibility, safety, and efficiency of the building [44, 45].
After the essential parts of the building have been designed, aspects of the
building related to its day-to-day operation should be planned. Such an aspect may
be related to how the building should be operated to ensure a comfortable indoor
environment and how to minimize energy consumption, among other things [46,
47]. Natural ventilation [48] and other similar factors should be considered, and
natural lighting should be used [48–51]. It is realistic to expect well-designed
buildings to consume relatively little energy while offering their occupants with a
comfortable indoor environment [52, 53].
2.4 Material Considerations
The physical strength and structural stabilities of a building are important factors,
especially in regions that are prone to fires, tsunamis, earthquakes, typhoons, or
other natural disasters [54–56]. To this end, the materials needed to construct a
building (based on the location of the building) [57, 58], the physical design of the
building [59, 60], and the needs of its owner and occupants [61] among other
factors must be acknowledged before and during construction [62–64].
Additionally, secondary materials used in a building’s construction must be
chosen with care. The secondary materials used will affect the effectiveness of the
entire building to reduce infiltration, heat gain, noise, and other unwanted factors
[65–68]. Furthermore, the color of the building is important; colors that increase the
building’s solar heat gain should be avoided [69].
3 New Building Technologies
3.1 External Technologies
The building envelope is a vital component in terms of energy efficiency [67, 70].
The building envelope is a barrier between the outdoor and indoor environment of
the building. By utilizing this envelope, the heat gain from solar radiation and the
outdoor temperature are minimized [71], as are air infiltration and moisture transfer
[72].
Moreover, there are roofing technologies that minimize the effects of solar
radiation on the interior climate of a building [69, 73, 74]. There are also walling
materials that reduce solar heat gain [66, 75]. Window glazing prevents heat from
the building’s exterior from being transmitted into the building’s interior [76].
Particularly, glazing that uses electrochromic technology (Fig. 2) reduces the
transmittance of solar light and solar heat [77]. There is also flooring that enhances
the heat transfer between the ground and the indoor environment [10, 78].
Fig. 2 Electrochromic
technology in reducing solar
transmittance in glazed
windows [77]
3.2 Internal Technologies
There are several new technologies that are used in the indoor environment which
make the building energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported [79]. Some
interior walls can absorb and desorb moisture to control the indoor moisture level
[80]. Figure 3 shows a foamed concrete which can be used in walls to control
humidity [81]. There are also interior walls that minimize the transmission of sound
from the outside [82]. Each of these advancements is important to buildings located
in urban centers.
There are new technologies which involve the storage of heat to minimize
internal temperature increases during the summer hours through phase changes [83,
84]. There are other technologies which can prevent fires from spreading in interior
walls [85]. Furthermore, certain lighting systems are efficient in and adaptive to
various environmental conditions [86].
3.3 New Technologies
There are many new technologies which can be applied for the design of
energy-efficient buildings [87]. The latest technologies are related to both the energy
efficiency and comfort of buildings [88]. One of these technologies is an electronic
control system that senses the occupancy of the building and accordingly maximizes
the utilization of available passive and active energy [89]. Recent developments
have also been made to improve the control of lighting systems’ energy [90], air
conditioning systems, indoor air quality, thermal comfort, and ventilation (both
actively and passively) by sensing a building’s occupancy [5, 91, 92].
Fig. 3 Foamed concrete as walling material to control indoor air humidity [81]
Several new technologies have also been developed to store and recirculate
rainwater for household usage. New technologies minimize the sewer system’s
water usage with the possibility of using rainwater and recycled water [93, 94].
Figure 4 shows a sample design of a rainwater harvesting system that can be
utilized in buildings in hot and humid regions [95].
3.4 Other Technologies
Maintaining a comfortable indoor thermal environment and air quality are funda-
mental aspects of building design in hot and humid regions [3]. There are tech-
nologies which can help control air latent and sensible energy in an efficient manner
[96–98]. There is also a technology by which latent and sensible energies are
controlled separately [99–101]. One example of this separate handling of latent
energy and sensible energy is a vapor compression system with desiccant materials
embedded in the evaporator and condenser (Fig. 5) [101].
Air-handling systems which can control chemical [102–105] and particulate
matter [106] ensure that buildings meet stringent indoor air quality requirements
[107, 108]. The introduction of outdoor air for ventilation purposes can increase
Fig. 4 Sample design of the rainwater harvesting (RWH) system [95]

Fig. 5 Separate handling of air latent and sensible energy air conditioning system [101]
indoor air quality via the proper processing of outdoor air [38, 109]. There are
systems that monitor both the outdoor and indoor environment of a building and
determine which air-handling system combination is the most economical and
efficient [110].
4 Alternative Energy Sources
4.1 Alternative Energy Considerations
Normally, a building’s energy is either sourced from a grid line for electricity and a
gas line for gas. As such, both sources are important [111–113], especially as all the
gadgets and appliances used in a typical building are energized from one of those
two sources [114]. However, there are many alternative options for sourcing a
building with the energy it requires [115–117].
For example, the lighting requirement of a building can be alternatively sourced
from the sun (via a process called daylighting) when there is available sunshine
[118–120]. However, the use of daylighting should be done properly so that the
cooling load is not increased [121, 122]. Moreover, the energy needed to ventilate a
house can be sourced by outside air if the building’s layout and design are
PV PV Electricity Grid Line Electricity

Panel Inverter Ė PV Ė GL
b
Solar
Collector
Valve
a Thermal AH Pump
Storage d
c
BH Biomass
Pump Heate r Tap
SC Pump Water
Tap Water
e(1) Single Family
e(2) Detached House f
EC Fan
i h k j
EA Fan Air Cooler
g Valve
Exit 12 11 10 9 4 5 6 7 Supply Hot
Air Air Water
Air Heater Air Heater Evaporative

Cooler m l e(3)
AC Pump Tap
Outdoor Return Electricity Water
Air Air Supply
1 2 3 8 Ė HC
Heat
Desiccant SA Fan Exchanger
Wheel
U-Tube
Ground Heat
Exchanger
Fig. 6 Renewable energy-supported building [110]
optimized to harness the wind [7, 123, 124]. Furthermore, the electric energy
needed for the operation of a building could be sourced by on-site and off-site
alternative energy sources, such as those shown in Fig. 6 [10, 19, 125].
4.2 On-site Energy Sources
A building’s energy requirements could be sourced by on-site energy harvesters and

generators [126]. Additionally, installing photovoltaic panels on the rooftop in a
building can support a sizable percentage of a building’s electric energy require-
ment during the daytime [13], while installing solar thermal collectors could sup-
port the building’s hot water requirements [10, 17]. Storing unused electricity in a
battery could support the electric energy requirements of an off-grid building at
night [127]. For grid-connected buildings, unused energy could still be stored by a
battery but then used to feed the gridline [71, 128]. As a final example, ground
cooling could be utilized to increase the efficiency of a building’s air conditioning
system [129].
Using different energy-efficient gadgets and equipment while taking advantage
of on-site energy sources could support a large portion of a building’s energy
requirements [130, 131]. With the application of passive and active systems, the
energy requirements of a building will be lower and, thus, could be supported
exclusively by on-site energy sources [132]. Moreover, large-scale on-site energy

sources could be designed to support each of the building’s specific energy
requirements [133].
4.3 Off-site Energy Sources
Aside from gridline and gas line energy sources, off-site energy sources can be
utilized to support the energy requirements of a building [10, 19]. Using biomass
and biogas as alternative energy sources can also contribute to the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions and minimize stress imposed on the gridline during
periods of peak energy consumption [134].
Biogas and biomass combustion can assist with meeting a building’s thermal and
electric energy needs [134]. Moreover, fuel cells or Stirling engines can help meet a
building’s thermal and electrical energy requirements through micro-generation
using available gas [135–137]. When a building uses thermal storage and electric
storage systems, the excess thermal and electric energy generated can be used for
off-system operations [138].
4.4 Usage Considerations
Usually, the issue of alternative energy sources is not fully in-phase with energy
utilization [131]. Hence, a consideration of the energy demand on the available
energy sources is important [139]. With the aid of energy storage media,
out-of-phase alternative energy generation and utilization can be realized [140,
141].
However, with the consideration of energy generation and usage optimization,
the application of new technologies which evaluate the most economical sources of
energy for utilization and storage increases the energy efficiency and decreases the
cost of operating a building more [142–144]. Hence, it is possible for a building to
be 100% alternatively supported if designed properly based on its occupancy [130].
Therefore, the automation and proper monitoring of energy usage are important.
Figure 7 shows one of the frameworks that can be employed for the advanced
consumption characterization of a building [145]. However, economic factors are
important in the generation of both conventional and alternative energies [146].
Fig. 7 Energy demand monitoring for energy conservation and efficiency [145]
5 Conclusions
With rapid urbanization and an increasing standard of living in hot and humid
regions, the building sector in these regions is expected to increase their energy
consumption continually. It follows that the development and design of
energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported buildings are critical, especially
considering the prevalent issue of climate change and the scarcity of conventional
energy supplies.
The development of energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported buildings
for hot and humid regions aims to reduce solar heat gain and heat gain from the
external environment by using insulation. Energy-efficient and possibly alternative
energy-supported air conditioning and ventilating systems minimize the con-
sumption of energy without sacrificing indoor thermal comfort and air quality. The
application of different smart technologies to optimize the usage of active and
passive energy makes increases a building’s level of energy efficiency. Moreover,
the utilization of different energy sources, both on-site and off-site, promotes the
generation of energy within the building, making it less dependent on a gridline.
As most of the countries in hot and humid regions are still developing, the
large-scale implementation of energy-efficient and alternative energy-supported
buildings is projected to increase gradually. Applying basic retrofitting strategies to
existing buildings could be done relatively quickly make these buildings to operate
more efficiently using active and passive energy to provide lighting, air condi-
tioning, ventilation, etc. Moreover, the application of different energy-efficient
technologies can reduce the energy consumption of these buildings. Moreover, in
developed countries located in hot and humid regions, energy-efficient and alter-
native energy-supported buildings that fit the local tradition and culture could be
developed rather easily.
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Air Conditioning and Ventilation
Systems in Hot and Humid Regions
Napoleon Enteria and Takao Sawachi
Abstract In the world’s hot and humid regions, economic development has
recently resulted from both the utilization of these regions’ natural resources, from
oil to metallic minerals. This economic growth has resulted in a widespread demand
for better thermal comfort and indoor environmental quality in houses and build-
ings. There are several technologies available that can be applied to buildings in hot
and humid regions to maintain indoor thermal comfort and air quality. Such
technologies can be either passive or active. Common passive technologies include
natural ventilation, evaporative cooling, and ground cooling. Widely used active
technologies include the utilization of different heat pump technologies with dif-
ferent working materials. With rapid urbanization and increasing awareness of
energy conservation and the environment, some new technologies have combined
both active and passive technologies to promote the use of clean energy sources and
technologies in hot and humid regions.

Keywords Air conditioning Ventilation Buildings and houses Hot and humid
regions
1 Introduction
Hot and humid regions refer to the tropical region, the Middle Eastern region, the
Mediterranean region, and the Saharan region. These regions have sizable popu-
lations. Many parts of these regions are currently undergoing economic develop-
ment as the demand for their natural resources, such as oil, gas, and metallic
N. Enteria (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, College of Engineering and
Technology, Mindanao State University—Iligan Institute of Technology, Tibanga, 9200
Iligan, Philippines
T. Sawachi
Building Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_10
206 N. Enteria and T. Sawachi
minerals have increased [1–4]. This economic growth has led to urbanization and
infrastructure development in these regions [5–7].
Moreover, economic development has increased the standard of living in these
regions [8, 9]. With such improvements to people’s lives, though, there has been an
accompanying increase in energy demands, as much electricity is needed to support
meet the energy needs of booming urban areas and other new establishments [10–
14].
The increasing demand for electricity to power large, expanding urban areas, and
new establishment has led to an awareness of this higher demand [15, 16]. The
increased demand for energy is due to the need for a comfortable indoor envi-
ronment, which includes thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality [17].
The operation of equipment needed to ensure that buildings have comfortable
indoor environments has become a concern [18].
Thus, several alternatives are being sought to maintain comfortable indoor
environments while consuming less energy [19]. For developed countries in hot and
humid regions, active technologies are needed, though such technologies require
more energy than passive technologies [20]. For less-developed countries in these
regions, applying passive technologies is more appropriate, particularly in rural
areas [21].
Active air conditioning and ventilating technologies are typically based on heat
pump concepts, through which working fluid is used in the exchange of heat
between the indoor and outdoor environment to produce conditioned air [22].
Through this exchange of heat, the interior of the building is cooled while both
sensible and latent loads are controlled [23, 24].
Passive technologies normally utilize wind to cool the interior of a building by
means of forced convective heat transfer [25, 26]. Moreover, evaporative cooling by
means of the passing of dry and hot air over the surface of cold water makes the air
cooler [27]. In hot and humid climates, passive methods are possible when the
speed of air is increased to promote convective heat transfer from the human body
to the passing air [28].
Energy conservation and the environment have become sensitive issues due to
the depletion of conventional energy sources and the adverse effects of greenhouse
gas emissions. Therefore, the development and application of new air conditioning
and ventilation technologies are of immediate importance [29, 30].
The development of new passive and hybrid technologies is a highly relevant
topic in recent research, developments, and applications for the maintenance of
comfortable indoor environments. Hence, this subject is an important avenue for
researchers, engineers, and entrepreneurs to follow in the near future.
Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems in Hot and Humid Regions 207
2 Hot and Humid Regions
2.1 Tropical Regions
Tropical regions encompass the areas near the equator from Asia to America.
Because the temperature and humidity in tropical regions are almost always above a
comfortable level [12], the application of ventilation and air conditioning tech-
nologies are especially necessary in these regions. Hence, buildings in these regions
spend a large percentage of their total energy consumption on air conditioning and
ventilation [12, 17].
In developed tropical countries, chillers [31, 32], vapor compression systems
[33], and other air conditioning technologies are often used [34, 35]. However, in
less-developed tropical countries, such technologies are rarely used. These coun-
tries instead rely on natural cooling means, such as natural ventilation [36, 37].
2.2 The Middle East
Countries in the Middle East usually experience hot and dry air during the daytime
and in the summer [27]. Because these countries have a lot of desert area, the effect
of sunlight during the day is a threat to the comfortability of indoor environments.
Thus, both sun shading and air conditioning is crucial [38, 39].
Buildings in Middle Eastern countries consume extraordinary amounts of energy
to maintain comfortable interior temperatures via air conditioning and ventilation
systems [40]. However, in some countries of the region and in rural areas, many
houses rely on traditional cooling methods. This makes achieving and a comfort-
able indoor environment a great challenge in these areas [41].
2.3 The Mediterranean
The countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, which include countries in

Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, experience hot and humid outdoor air
during the summer [42]. Thus, several new air conditioning and ventilation tech-
nologies have been applied in this region, particularly on the European side of the
sea [43, 44].
One the non-European side of the Mediterranean Sea, the use of air conditioning
and ventilating technologies in large buildings is very common and is necessary for
indoor thermal conditions and air quality to be kept at comfortable levels [45].
However, in less-developed Mediterranean countries, traditional cooling concepts
and technologies are still ubiquitous. This is particularly true of rural areas [27].
2.4 Other Regions
In some regions, such as in Gobi desert in Central Asia [46] and the Sahara of North
Africa [45, 47], the application of air conditioning and ventilating technologies in
large buildings and modern houses is extremely important. However, in rural areas
and in less-developed countries, natural materials and methods are commonly used
to keep buildings cool [48].
Using certain traditional materials in a building’s construction minimizes the
heating effects of the sun during the day. These materials are normally used in
countries that are not economically developed [36]. The application of natural
ventilation systems using traditional methods is standard in these areas [49]. Often,
the effects of hot and or humid outdoor air are mitigated by a combination of several
traditional techniques [27].
3 Air Conditioning and Ventilation Technologies
3.1 Active Technologies
Active air conditioning and ventilation technologies are common in countries that
lie within hot and humid regions, as passive methods cannot meet humans’ comfort
needs all day long or all year round [30]. In large urban areas, small houses and
large buildings alike overwhelmingly use active technologies [45].
There are various air conditioning and ventilation technologies that are applied.
Which technologies are used depends on the needs of the indoor environment and
the physical structure of the building [31]. Moreover, which air conditioning and
ventilation technologies are used may depend on what energy sources are available
locally [50, 51]. Figure 1 displays an air conditioning and ventilation system in
which a chiller is used to cool the circulating air [52].
Heat pumps based on that use a vapor compression system are often installed in
houses and small buildings [53, 54], while chillers and other absorption-based air
conditioning systems are common in large buildings [31, 32]. New technologies of
the so-called variable refrigerant flow air conditioning system are becoming
increasingly common in large buildings, though the operation of these systems in
the building are not always full scale [24, 55].
Concerns about air quality [34] have recently influenced the application of air
conditioning and ventilation in buildings and houses [56, 57]. For example, such
concerns are considered when installing an air handling system and in the treatment
of the air’s chemical [58, 59] and biological [60, 61] contents, in addition to
particulate matters [62].
Fig. 1 Typical air conditioning and ventilation system with a water chiller to cool return air [52]
3.2 Passive Technologies
In addition to active technologies, passive cooling concepts can prove people with
the indoor environments needed for us to live comfortably [63]. Various techniques
have been developed to be effective in different regions; some techniques are better
suited for areas where the air is hot and dry, while others are more effective where
the air is hot and humid and others work best in dynamic climates [21, 63–66].
Passive ventilation and air conditioning concepts and techniques have been in
place for generations to provide thermal comfort to humans [48]. In the Middle
East, which has hot and dry outdoor air, some concepts utilize evaporative cooling
to create cooler air indoors [27, 67]. In addition, the development of the wind
catcher has provided much-needed ventilation [68, 69]. In hot and humid regions,
off ventilation utilizes wind to cool the interior of buildings [70, 71]. Ground
cooling is also used to lower indoor temperatures [72–74]. Moreover, the proper use
of certain organic materials can minimize the heating effect of the sun [75, 76].
Presently, the application of passive concepts and techniques are integrated into
building design standards to maximize the use of natural cooling agents, such the
wind, and to minimize the effects of the sun on hot days [77]. With these regula-
tions in place, it is expected that buildings will consume less energy than they have
in the past [47].
The future of passive energy-saving concepts and technologies is auspicious, as
the buildings are expected to require less energy while still offering comfortable
indoor environments [49]. Several countries are now creating standards regarding
the utilization of passive energy-saving methods that are to be followed when
designing houses and buildings [63, 78]. Figure 2 shows a simple concept of the
development of a passive cooling system designed for a hot and humid region [66].
Fig. 2 Sample of a passive cooling technique used in Malay houses (daytime and nighttime) [66]
3.3 Hybrid Technologies
The energy-efficient and economical operation of different air conditioning and

ventilation systems can be achieved using a combination of the active and passive
methods [39]. Most hybrid systems are based on the external climatic conditions
with consideration given to the indoor environmental factors present at any given
time. Such systems are called smart air conditioning and ventilation systems [79].
In hot and humid climates, such as tropical climates, the application of hybrid
systems is terribly challenging because of the extremely high outdoor humidity [71,
80]. During the daytime, the outdoor temperature is always above the thermal
comfort level [80]. Thus, alternative methods that combined passive and active
systems need to be developed and utilized to achieve adequate indoor thermal
comfort and air quality conditions [18, 81].
In areas where they can be used, hybrid smart air conditioning and ventilation
systems operate efficiently [82]. When these systems are installed in a building, the
optimum operation of the system can be achieved [83]. Many methods of adaptive
air conditioning and ventilation can be used to power these systems [84, 85]. For
instance, Fig. 3 shows a hybrid air conditioning system powered by solar energy,
an absorption chiller, and desiccant dehumidification to make its operation efficient
[86].
The most important part of any hybrid system is its incorporation into other
systems within the building. One of the primary objectives of these so-called
integrated systems is to optimize the system’s performance [87]. There are some
integrated systems that are designed to minimize the thermal loading [88, 89]. With
the advancement of such technologies, energy-efficient building operation has
become possible [90].
Fig. 3 Sample of a hybrid cooling technique using solar energy with radiant cooling by absorbing
refrigeration and desiccant dehumidification [86]
3.4 Future Technologies
Research, developments, field testing, and evaluations of novel air conditioning and
ventilating systems are ongoing. Such systems can be operated in hot and humid
regions [32, 91, 92]. These concepts and technologies are expected to be refined
with further field testing and evaluation.
Most current developments deal with the application of new materials [80, 92],
new working fluids [93, 94], new control strategies [95, 96], new concepts [97, 98],
and the integration of new systems with systems already present in buildings [99,
100]. Systems are also being developed for the optimum operation to ensure they
operate as efficiently as possible [101, 102].
The most important consideration in the development of air conditioning and
ventilation systems is the effective handling of the air sensible and latent loads
regarding the amount of outdoor air needed to achieve the desired indoor air quality
[103, 104].
The separate handling of air latent and sensible loads is a technology that has
only recently become available in the market; it still needs to be refined into a
combined system that effectively reduces both air latent and sensible loads [50, 105,
106] while taking advantage of energy sources that are locally available to the
buildings in which the system is installed [41, 107, 108]. Figure 4 illustrates the
application of an air conditioning and ventilating system in which several energy
sources of energy are utilized using different technologies to control the thermal and
air quality of a building [50].
PV PV Electricity Grid Line Electricity

Panel Inverter Ė PV Ė GL
b
Solar
Collector
Valve
a Thermal AH Pump
Storage d
c
BH Biomass
Pump Heate r Tap
SC Pump Water
Tap Water
e(1) Single Family
e(2) Detached House f
EC Fan
i h k j
EA Fan Air Cooler
g Valve
Exit 12 11 10 9 4 5 6 7 Supply Hot
Air Air Water
Air Heater Air Heater Evaporative

Cooler m l e(3)
AC Pump Tap
Outdoor Return Electricity Water
Air Air Supply
1 2 3 8 Ė HC
Heat
Desiccant SA Fan Exchanger
Wheel
U-Tube
Ground Heat
Exchanger
Fig. 4 Air conditioning and ventilation system using different energy sources and technologies to
provide the desired indoor environment [50]
Moreover, the research, developments, and applications of air conditioning and

ventilation systems consider the purpose of the building, the operation of the
building’s other components and devices, the behavior of the occupants, the local
climatic conditions, and the available local energy sources. Such developments
create a bright future for the integration of smart air conditioning and ventilation
systems in smart buildings or houses [96, 109–114].
4 Conclusions
Extensive energy is consumed to cool buildings in hot and humid regions in order
to maintain indoor thermal comfort and air quality. The extensive energy required
to support comfortable indoor conditions had contributed to the high demand for
energy in these regions.
Because of urbanization in these regions and an accompanying increase in the
standard of living, there is a great demand for better indoor conditions in buildings.
New ideas and concepts need to be developed so that comfortable indoor envi-
ronment can be achieved in these regions.
The development and application of different ventilation and air conditioning
systems for different hot and humid regions depends much on the economic situ-
ation of the country and its traditions. Hence, the application of the technologies
that support the comfortable conditions of the country depends significantly on the
situation discussed above.
Thus, the application of a technology intended for different countries in different
hot and humid regions is quite complicated and needs to be studied further to make
the implementation of cooling technologies more effective and economical.
Therefore, the development of new ventilation and air conditioning technologies
for hot and humid regions should be based primarily on the different countries’
situations using fundamental concepts and designs on to reduce air latent energy
content while meeting a building’s ventilation requirements.
Appropriate ventilation and air conditioning technologies intended for hot and
humid climate are expected to become applicable to the different countries’
requirements and to become much more practical with compact designs so that they
suit urban buildings, the space of which is costly.
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Building in Hot and Humid Regions Historical Perspective and Technological Advances

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Napoleon Enteria · Hazim Awbi ·

Building in Hot and Humid

ISBN 978-981-13-7518-7 ISBN 978-981-13-7519-4 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019936288

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

The rapid development and advancement of the economies of many countries

Iligan, Philippines Napoleon Enteria

Perspective and Advances of Houses and Buildings in Hot

Utilization of Natural Ventilation for Hot and Humid Singapore . . . . . . 165

Napoleon Enteria is a Professor of Mechanical

Hazim Awbi is a Professor Emeritus of the University

Mat Santamouris is a Scientia Professor and the Anita

14 international books on topics related to heat island,

Napoleon Enteria, Hazim Awbi and Mat Santamouris

Abstract Globally, the building sector is a major consumer of primary energy

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

Maintaining a comfortable and clean indoor environment that is responsive to its

2 Hot and Humid Regions

2.1 Tropical Region

As most of the region’s countries are struggling economically, building standards

2.2 Middle Eastern Region

2.3 Central Asian Region

2.4 North African Region

3 Houses and Buildings

3.1 Old Houses and Buildings

3.2 Modern Houses and Buildings

3.3 Synergized Old and Modern Building Technologies

3.4 Urban Environment Consideration

application of building sciences, technologies, and architecture. Also, different

12. Kompatscher K, Kramer RP, Ankersmit B, Schellen HL (2019) Intermittent conditioning of

118. Karimi M, Nazari R, Dutova D, Khanbilvardi R, Ghandehari M (2018) A conceptual

Kazuki Yamaguchi and Tomohiko Ihara

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 15

Fig. 1 Forecast of urban and rural populations [6]

countries is expected to remain almost unchanged, it is the proportion of worldwide

2 Heat Island Effect

2.1 Characteristics of the Heat Island Effect

Global Temperature Anomaly [°C]

to be due to global warming and 2 °C is estimated to represent the heat island

2.2 Causes of the Heat Island Effect

2.2.1 Artiﬁcial Ground Surface Coatings

2.2.2 Urban Morphology (Buildings)

2.2.3 Anthropogenic Heat

Anthropogenic heat discharged by various industrial and social activities in an

Heat Amount [W/m2]

2.3 Impact of the Heat Island Effect

2.3.1 Human Health

Outdoor ðwith solar loadÞ : WBGT ¼ 0:7Tw þ 0:2Tg þ 0:1Td

Indoor ðwithout solar loadÞ : WBGT ¼ 0:7Tw þ 0:3Tg

where Tw = natural wet-bulb temperature, Tg = globe temperature, and Td = dry

2.3.2 Air Conditioning Energy Consumption

between outdoor temperature 45

Fig. 15 Breakdown of the 140

Heat Load [W/floor-m2]

humidity contribute to the increase in air conditioning load, so the contribution of

2.4 Measures Combatting the Heat Island Effect

2.4.1 Ground Surface Coating Measures (Cool Roofs)

(a) Intensive Green Roof (b) Extensive Green Roof

(a) Unit-type Green Wall (b) Green Curtain

Intensive Green Roof: A system requiring frequent maintenance such as irri-

when employing high-reflectivity measures, it is necessary to carefully consider the

2.4.2 Urban Morphology Measures

2.4.3 Anthropogenic Heat Measures

Measures Against Air Conditioning Exhaust Heat